CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Since the very genesis of man, communication has been one of the main aspects
in human life .Previously various methods like sign languages were implemented for this
purpose. As various civilizations started coming into existence, many innovative ideas
came to the minds of the people – special birds and human messengers were employed to
meet these challenges. As ages rolled by, post system developed and transportation
vehicles like trains and ships were used to maintain link between people miles apart. But
by the turn of the nineteenth century, a great leap in communication system was observed
when wireless communication was introduced. After the advent of wireless
communication huge change has been observed in the lifestyle of people.

Wireless communication which was initially implemented analog domain for

transfer has is now-a-days mostly done in digital domain. Instead of a single carrier in
the system multiple sub-carriers are implemented to make the process easier.

1.2 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Electronics communication system has revolutionized the face of the world.

Communication with someone a mere century back was only possible by physical mode.
But now that can be done just by clicking a switch on the telephone pad or by just a click
of the mouse. Even live television report, live games telecast could not be possible
without wireless communication.

A simple communication system consists of a transmitter end which send the data and a
receiver end at which the data is received. Usually there received data is not the same as
the data sent. Because of the noise present in the medium the signal gets affected and
distortion is observed in the signal. Various modulation techniques are under taken in
order to ensure that the signal sent is safely available at the receiver end.
 Source

Input Transmitter
Transducer

Channel
With
Noise &
Distortion

Output Receiver
Transducer

Destination

Fig 1.1 A block diagram representation of electronic communication system

2.4 MULTIPATH CHANNELS

The transmitted signal faces various obstacles and surfaces of reflection, as a

result of which the received signals from the same source reach at different times. This
gives rise to the formation of „echoes‟ which affect the other incoming signals.
Dielectric constants, permeability, conductivity and thickness are the main factors
affecting the system. Multipath channel propagation is devised in such a manner that
there will be a minimized effect of the echoes in the system in an indoor environment.
Measures are needed to be taken in order to minimize echo in order to avoid ISI.

Fig 2.1 Multipath Channel Propagation

 CHAPTER – 3
ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

3.1 INTRODUCTION

With the ever growing demand of this generation, need for high speed
communication has become an utmost priority. Various multicarrier modulation
techniques have evolved in order to meet these demands, few notable among them being
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) and Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM). Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is a frequency –
division multiplexing (FDM) scheme utilized as a digital multi – carrier modulation
method. A large number of closely spaced orthogonal sub – carriers is used to carry data.
The data is divided into several parallel streams of channels, one for each sub – carriers.
Each sub – carrier is modulated with a conventional modulation scheme (such as QPSK)
at a low symbol rate, maintaining total data rates similar to the conventional single carrier
modulation schemes in the same bandwidth.

3.2 DEVELOPMENT OF OFDM SYSTEMS

The development of OFDM systems can be divided into three parts. This comprises of
Frequency Division Multiplexing, Multicarrier Communication and Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing.
3.2.1 Frequency Division Multiplexing

Frequency Division Multiplexing is a form of signal multiplexing which involves

assigning non – overlapping frequency ranges or channels to different signals or to each
user‟ of a medium. A gap or guard band is left between each of these channels to ensure
that the signal of one channel does not overlap with the signal from an adjacent one. Due
to lack of digital filters it was difficult to filter closely packed adjacent channels.

3.2.2 Multicarrier Communication

As it is ineffective to transfer a high rate data stream through a channel, the signal is split
to give a number of signals over that frequency range. Each of these signals are
individually modulated and transmitted over the channel. At the receiver end, these
signals are fed to a de – multiplexer where it is demodulated and re – combined to obtain
the original signal.

3.3 OFDM THEORY

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is a special form of multicarrier modulation

which is particularly suited for transmission over a dispersive channel. Here the different
carriers are orthogonal to each other, that is, they are totally independent of one another.
This is achieved by placing the carrier exactly at the nulls in the modulation spectra of
each other.

Fig 3.1 OFDM Spectrum

3.3.1 Orthogonality

Two periodic signals are orthogonal when the integral of their product over one period is
equal to zero.

For the case of continuous time:

For the case of discrete time:

where m≠n in both cases.

3.3.2 Sub – Carriers

Each sub – carrier in an OFDM system is a sinusoid with a frequency that is an

integer multiple of a fundamental frequency. Each sub – carrier is like a Fourier series
component of the composite signal, an OFDM symbol.

The sub – carriers waveform can be expressed as –

Where

The sum of the sub – carriers is then the baseband OFDM signal:
3.3.3 Inter – Symbol Interference

Inter – symbol interference (ISI) is a form of distortion of a signal in which one

symbol interferes with subsequent symbols. This is an unwanted phenomenon as the
previous symbols have similar effect as noise, thus making the communication less
reliable. ISI is usually caused by multipath propagation or the inherent non – linear
frequency response of a channel causing successive symbols to „blur‟ together. The
presence of ISI in the system introduces error in the decision device at the receiver
output. Therefore, in the design of the transmitting and receiving filters, the objective is
to minimize the effects of ISI and thereby deliver the digital data to its destination with
the smallest error rate possible.

3.3.4 Inter – Carrier Interference

Presence of Doppler shifts and frequency and phase offsets in an OFDM system causes
loss in orthogonality of the sub – carriers. As a result, interference is observed between
subs – carriers. This phenomenon is known as inter – carrier interference (ICI) .

Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform

By working with OFDM in frequency domain the modulated QPSK data symbols are fed
onto the orthogonal sub-carriers. But transfer of signal over a channel is only possible in its time-
domain. For which we implement IDFT which converts the OFDM signal in from frequency
domain to time domain. IDFT being a linear transformation can be easily applied to the system
and DFT can be applied at the receiver end to regain the original data in frequency domain at the
receiver end. Since the basis of Fourier transform is orthogonal in nature we can implement to
get the time domain equivalent of the OFDM signal from its frequency components. Usually, in
practice instead of DFT and IDFT we implement Fast Fourier Transformation for an N-input
signal system because of the lower hardware complexity of the system.
MODULATION & DEMODULATION IN OFDM SYSTEMS

Fig. 3.3 OFDM Block Diagram

Modulation

Modulation is the technique by which the signal wave is transformed in order to send it
over the communication channel in order to minimize the effect of noise. This is done in order to
ensure that the received data can be demodulated to give back the original data. In an OFDM
system, the high data rate information is divided into small packets of data which are placed
orthogonal to each other. This is achieved by modulating the data by a desirable modulation
technique (QPSK). After this, IFFT is performed on the modulated signal which is further
processed by passing through a parallel – to – serial converter. In order to avoid ISI we provide a
cyclic prefix to the signal.

Communication Channel

This is the channel through which the data is transferred. Presence of noise in this
medium affects the signal and causes distortion in its data content.
Demodulation

Demodulation is the technique by which the original data (or a part of it) is recovered
from the modulated signal which is received at the receiver end. In this case, the received data is
first made to pass through a low pass filter and the cyclic prefix is removed. FFT of the signal is
done after it is made to pass through a serial – to – parallel converter. A demodulator is used, to
get back the original signal. The bit error rate and the signal – to – noise ratio is calculated by
taking into consideration the un – modulated signal data and the data at the receiving end.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF AN OFDM SYSTEM

Advantages

Due to increase in symbol duration, there is a reduction in delay spread. Addition of

guard band almost removes the ISI and ICI in the system.

Conversion of the channel into many narrowly spaced orthogonal sub – carriers
render it immune to frequency selective fading.

As it is evident from the spectral pattern of an OFDM system, orthogonally placing

the sub – carriers lead to high spectral efficiency.

Can be efficiently implemented using IFFT.

Disadvantages

These systems are highly sensitive to Doppler shifts which affect the carrier
frequency offsets, resulting in ICI.

Presence of a large number of sub – carriers with varying amplitude results in a high
Peak – to – Average Power Ratio (PAPR) of the system, which in turn hampers the
efficiency of the RF amplifier.
 CHAPTER – 4

PEAK – TO – AVERAGE POWER RATIO: AN OVERVIEW

INTRODUCTION

OFDM is one of the many multicarrier modulation techniques, which provides high spectral
efficiency, low implementation complexity, less vulnerability to echoes and non– linear
distortion. Due to these advantages of the OFDM system, it is vastly used in various
communication systems. But the major problem one faces while implementing this system is the
high peak – to – average power ratio of this system. A large PAPR increases the complexity of
the analog – to – digital and digital – to – analog converter and reduces the efficiency of the
radio – frequency (RF) power amplifier [3,6]. Regulatory and application constraints can be
implemented to reduce the peak transmitted power which in turn reduces the range of multi
carrier transmission. This leads to the prevention of spectral growth and the transmitter power
amplifier is no longer confined to linear region in which it should operate. This has a harmful
effect on the battery lifetime. Thus in communication system, it is observed that all the potential
benefits of multi carrier transmission can be out - weighed by a high PAPR value.

There are a number of techniques to deal with the problem of PAPR. Some of them are
„amplitude clipping‟, „clipping and filtering‟, „coding‟, „partial transmit sequence (PTS)‟,
„selected mapping (SLM)‟ and „interleaving‟. These techniques achieve PAPR reduction at the
expense of transmit signal power increase, bit error rate (BER) increase, data rate loss,
computational complexity increase, and so on.
4.2 PEAK – TO – AVERAGE POWER RATIO

Presence of large number of independently modulated sub-carriers in an OFDM system the peak
value of the system can be very high as compared to the average of the whole system. This ratio
of the peak to average power value is termed as Peak-to-Average Power Ratio. Coherent
addition of N signals of same phase produces a peak which is N times the average signal.

The major disadvantages of a high PAPR are-

1. Increased complexity in the analog to digital and digital to analog converter.

2. Reduction is efficiency of RF amplifiers.

4.3 PAPR OF A MULTICARRIER SIGNAL

Let the data block of length N be represented by a vector .

Duration of any symbol in the set X is T and represents one of the sub – carriers
set. As the N sub – carriers chosen to transmit the signal are

orthogonal to each other, so we can have where and NT is the

duration of the OFDM data block X. The complex data block for the OFDM signal to be
transmitted is given by

The PAPR of the transmitted signal is defined as

Reducing the max|x(t)| is the principle goal of PARP reduction techniques. Since,
discrete- time signals are dealt with in most systems, many PAPR techniques are implemented to
deal with amplitudes of various samples of x(t). Due to symbol spaced output in the first
equation we find some of the peaks missing which can be compensated by oversampling the
equation by some factor to give the true PAPR value.
4.4 CUMULATIVE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

The Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) is one of the most regularly used
parameters, which is used to measure the efficiency of any PAPR technique. Normally, the
Complementary CDF (CCDF) is used instead of CDF, which helps us to measure the probability
that the PAPR of a certain data block exceeds the given threshold.
By implementing the Central Limit Theorem for a multi – carrier signal with a large
number of sub-carriers, the real and imaginary part of the time – domain signals have a mean of
zero and a variance of 0.5 and follow a Gaussian distribution. So Rayleigh distribution is
followed for the amplitude of the multi – carrier signal, where as a central chi-square distribution
with two degrees of freedom is followed for the power distribution of the system.

The CDF of the amplitude of a signal sample is given by

The CCDF of the PAPR of the data block is desired is our case to compare outputs of
various reduction techniques. This is given by
 CHAPTER – 5
PAPR REDUCTION TECHNIQUES

5.1 INTRODUCTION

PAPR reduction techniques vary according to the needs of the system and are dependent
on various factors. PAPR reduction capacity, increase in power in transmit signal, loss in data
rate, complexity of computation and increase in the bit-error rate at the receiver end are various
factors which are taken into account before adopting a PAPR reduction technique of the
system.The PAPR reduction techniques on which we would work upon and compare in our later
stages are as follows:

AMPLITUDE CLIPPING AND FILTERING

A threshold value of the amplitude is set in this process and any sub-carrier having
amplitude more than that value is clipped or that sub-carrier is filtered to bring out a lower PAPR
value.

SELECTED MAPPING
In this a set of sufficiently different data blocks representing the information same as the
original data blocks are selected. Selection of data blocks with low PAPR value makes it suitable
for transmission.
PARTIAL TRANSMIT SEQUENCE
Transmitting only part of data of varying sub-carrier which covers all the information to
be sent in the signal as a whole is called Partial Transmit Sequence Technique.
5.2 AMPLITUDE CLIPPING AND FILTERING

Amplitude clipping is considered as the simplest technique which may be under taken for
PAPR reduction in an OFDM system. A threshold value of the amplitude is set in this
case to limit the peak envelope of the input signal. Signal having values higher than this
pre-determined value are clipped and the rest are allowed to pass through un-disturbed.

where,
B(x) = the amplitude value after clipping.
x =the initial signal value.
A =the threshold set by the user for clipping the signal.

The problem in this case is that due to amplitude clipping distortion is

observed in the system which can be viewed as another source of noise. This distortion
falls in both in – band and out – of – band. Filtering cannot be implemented to reduce the
in – band distortion and an error performance degradation is observed here. On the other
hand spectral efficiency is hampered by out – of – band radiation. Out – of – band
radiation can be reduced by filtering after clipping but this may result in some peak re –
growth. A repeated filtering and clipping operation can be implemented to solve this
problem. The desired amplitude level is only achieved after several iteration of this
process.
5.2 SELECTED MAPPING

The main objective of this technique is to generate a set of data blocks at the transmitter end
which represent the original information and then to choose the most favorable block among
them for transmission. Let us consider an OFDM system with N orthogonal sub –

carriers. A data block is a vector composed of N complex symbols , each of

them representing modulation symbol transmitted over a sub – carrier. X is multiplied

element by element with U vector composed of N complex numbers ,

Each resulting vector , defined so that , where , where |.| denotes the modulus operator.
, produces after IDFT, a

corresponding OFDM signal given by

where T is the OFDM signal duration and is the sub – carrier spacing.

Among the modified data blocks, the one with the lowest PAPR is selected for
transmission. The amount of PAPR reduction for SLM depends on the number of phase
sequences U and the design of the phase sequences.
5.3 PARTIAL TRANSMIT SEQUENCE

In the PTS technique, input data block X is partitioned in M disjoint sub – blocks
, such that and the sub –

blocks are combined to minimize the PAPR in the time domain. The L times
oversampled time domain signal of , , is obtained by taking the IDFT
of length NL on concatenated with (L – 1)N zeros. These are called the partial
transmit sequences. Complex phase factors, , are introduced
to combine the PTSs. The set of phase factors is denoted a vector .
The time domain signal after combining is given by

where . The objective is to

find the set of phase factors that minimizes the PAPR. Minimization of PAPR is

related to the minimization of

MIMO SYSTEM
 1. Introduction of MIMO System

Before the explaining of “Why MIMO System”, it is necessary to briefly talking about the
definition of MIMO.As the communication system included transmitter and receiver with
different antenna allocation, there are a simple category of multi-antenna types:
Multi-antenna types

Single-input-single-output means that

SISO the transmitter and receiver of the
radio system have only one antenna.
Single-input-multiple-output means
SIMO that the receiver has multiple antennas
while the transmitter has one antenna.
Multiple-input-single-output means
MISO that the transmitter has multiple
antennas while the receiver has one
antenna.
Multiple-input-multiple-output means
MIMO that the both the transmitter and
receiver have multiple antennas.

MIMO is the use of multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to improve
communication performance. So why need MIMO system? The wireless system before MIMO is
been constrained by network capacity which is related with channel quality and coverage. To see
how problem occurred, we need to talk about the transmission on a multipath channel. In
wireless communication the propagation channel is characterized by multipath propagation due
to scattering on different obstacle. The multipath problem is a typical issue in communication
system with time variations and time spread. For time variations the channel is fading and caused
SNR variations. For time spread, it becomes important for suitable frequency selectivity.

In an urban environment, these signals will bounce off trees, buildings, etc. and continue on
their way to their destination (the receiver) but in different directions. With MIMO, the receiving
end uses an algorithm or special signal processing to sort out the multiple signals to produce one
signal that has the originally transmitted data.
OVERVIEW OF MIMO:

 Multiple data streams transmitted in a single channel at the same time

 Multiple radios collect multipath signals
 Delivers simultaneous speed, coverage, and reliability improvements

MIMO exploits thespacedimension to improve wireless systems capacity, range and

reliability. It offers significant increases in data throughput and link range without additional
bandwidth or increased transmit power. MIMO achieves this goal by spreading the same total
transmit power over the antennas to achieve an array gain that improves the spectral efficiency
(more bits per second per hertz of bandwidth) or to achieve a diversity gain that improves the
link reliability (reduced fading).

As the number of antenna element increasing, the channel capacity is increased too. Instead
of logarithmic-increasing of channel capacity in SIMO and MISO system, the MIMO system
owned linear-increasing of channel capacity as antenna increased. The improving of MIMO from
SIMO and MISO is shown below:

2. Types of MIMO System

There are two majorclassifications to determine types of MIMO:
(1) Single User MIMO (SU-MIMO) vs. Multi User MIMO (MU-MIMO)
(2) Open loop MIMO vs. Close loop MIMO

3.1 Single User MIMO (SU-MIMO) vs. Multi User MIMO (MU-MIMO)

Single User MIMO (SU-MIMO):

When the data rate is to be increased for a single UE, this is called Single User MIMO(SU-
MIMO).

Multi User MIMO (MU-MIMO):

When the individual streams are assigned to various users, this is called Multi
UserMIMO (MU-MIMO). This mode is particularly useful in the uplink because the complexity
on the UE side can be kept at a minimum by using only one transmitantenna. This is also called
'collaborative MIMO'.

3.2 Open loop MIMO vs. Close loop MIMO

 Textbook MIMO configurations are represented as either "Open Loop" or "Closed Loop". In
application, the commonly used MIMO terminology has most often been in reference to Open Loop
MIMO techniques.Closed Loop MIMO techniques, also known as Transmitter Adaptive Antenna (TX-
AA) techniques, are simply referred to by the industry as "beamforming".

Open loop MIMO:

With Open Loop MIMO, the communications channel does not utilize explicit information
regarding the propagation channel. Common Open Loop MIMO techniques include Space Time
Transmit Diversity (STTD), Spatial Multiplexing (SM) and Collaborative Uplink MIMO.

Space Time Transmit Diversity (STTD) MIMO

Space-time block coding based transmit diversity (STTD) is a method of transmit

diversity used in UMTSS third-generation cellular systems. STTD is optional in
the UTRANN air interface but mandatory for user equipment. STTD utilizes space-time block
code (STBC) in order to exploit redundancy in multiply transmitted versions of a signal.The
same data is coded and transmitted through different antennas, which effectively doubles the
power in the channel. This improves Signal Noise Ratio (SNR) for cell edge performance.
Spatial Multiplexing (SM) MIMO

Spatial multiplexing is transmission techniques in MIMO wireless communication to

transmit independent and separately encoded data signals, so-called streams, from each of the
multiple transmit antennas. Therefore, the space dimension is reused, or multiplexed, more than
one time. SMdelivers parallel streams of data to CPE by exploiting multi-path. It can double
(2x2 MIMO) or quadruple (4x4) capacity and throughput.SM gives higher capacity when RF
conditions are favorable andusers are closer to the BTS.

Short Summary: STTDvs. SM

STTD outperforms SM when SNR is weak whereas when SNR is higher SM is well
suited. STTD improves the SNR for cell edge users while SM provided higher capacity when
user are in good RF condition and are closer to the radio tower. An ideal wireless system
employing MIMO techniques will support both STTD and SM. The system will calculate an
optimal switching point and dynamically shift between the two approaches to offer the necessary
coverage or capacity gain demanded from the network at any given time or location.
Uplink Collaborative MIMO

Collaborative Spatial Multiplexing (Collaborative MIMO) is comparable to regular spatial

multiplexing, where multiple data streams are transmitted from multiple antennas on the same
device. It is an additional open-loop MIMO technique consider by WiMAX vendors to increase
the spectral efficiency and capacity of the uplink communications path. A practical realization of
this technique would allow for two separate end-users 'WiMAX' devices, each having a single
transmit lineup, to utilize the same frequency allocation to communicate with the dual-antenna
WiMAX base station. With this technique two devices (having only transmitted antenna each)
can collaboratively transmit on the same sub-channel which can increase the uplink capacity.

Spatial Multiplexing MIMO:Uplink Collaborative MIMO:

Close loop MIMO:

Antenna technologies are the key in increasing network capacity. It started with
sectorized antennas. These antennas illuminate 60 or 120 degrees and operate as onecell. In
GSM, the capacity can be tripled, by 120 degree antennas. Adaptive antennaarrays intensify
spatial multiplexing using narrow beams. Smart antennas belong toadaptive antenna arrays but
differ in their smart direction of arrival (DoA) estimation.Smart antennas can form a user-
specific beam. Optional feedback can reducecomplexity of the array system.
Beamforming is the method used to create the radiation pattern of an antenna array. Itcan be
applied in all antenna array systems as well as MIMO systems.
Smart antennas are divided into two groups:
 Phased array systems (switched beamforming) with a finite number offixed predefined patterns
 Adaptive array systems (AAS) (adaptive beamforming) with an infinitenumber of patterns
adjusted to the scenario in realtime
Switched Beamformer Adaptive Beamformer

Switched beamformers electrically calculate the DoA and switch on the fixed beam.The
user only has the optimum signal strength along the center of the beam. Theadaptive beamformer
deals with that problem and adjusts the beam in realtime to themoving UE. The complexity and
the cost of such a system is higher than the first type.

3. Function of MIMO System

MIMO can be sub-divided into three main categories:

(1) Precoding
(2) Spatial multiplexing
(3) Diversity coding

Precoding:

Precoding is a generalization of beamforming to support multi-layer transmission in multi-

antenna wireless communications. In conventional single-layer beamforming, the same signal is
emitted from each of the transmit antennas with appropriate weighting such that the signal power
is maximized at the receiver output. When the receiver has multiple antennas, single-layer
beamforming cannot simultaneously maximize the signal level at all of the receive antennas.
Thus, in order to maximize the throughput in multiple receive antenna systems, multi-layer
beamforming is required. The benefits of beamforming are to increase the received signal gain,
by making signals emitted from different antennas add up constructively, and to reduce the
multipath fading effect. The Precoding can be separated by two classifications:

 Precoding for Single User MIMO

 Precoding for Multi User MIMO

Precoding for Single User MIMO

In single user multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) systems, a transmitter equipped with

multiple antennas communicates with a receiver that has multiple antennas. Most classic
precoding results assume narrowband, slowly fading channels, meaning that the channel for a
certain period of time can be described by a single channel matrix which does not change faster.
In practice, such channels can be achieved, for example, through OFDM. The precoding strategy
that maximizes the throughput, called channel capacity, depends on the channel state
information available in the system.

Precoding for Multi User MIMO

In multi-user MIMO, a multi-antenna transmitter communicates simultaneously with

multiple receivers (each having one or multiple antennas). This is known as space-division
multiple access (SDMA). From an implementation perspective, precoding algorithms for SDMA
systems can be sub-divided into linear and nonlinear precoding types. The capacity achieving
algorithms are nonlinear, but linear precoding approaches usually achieve reasonable
performance with much lower complexity. Linear precoding strategies include MMSE precoding
and the simplified zero-forcing (ZF) precoding. There are also precoding strategies tailored for
low-rate feedback of channel state information, for example random beamforming. Nonlinear
precoding is designed based on the concept of dirty paper coding (DPC), which shows that any
known interference at the transmitter can be subtracted without the penalty of radio resources if
the optimal precoding scheme can be applied on the transmit signal.

Spatial multiplexing:
 Spatial multiplexing requires MIMO antenna configuration. In spatial multiplexing, a high
rate signal is split into multiple lower rate streams and each stream is transmitted from a different
transmit antenna in the same frequency channel. If these signals arrive at the receiver antenna
array with sufficiently different spatial signatures, the receiver can separate these streams into
(almost) parallel channels. Spatial multiplexing is a very powerful technique for increasing
channel capacity at higher signal-to-noise ratios (SNR). The maximum number of spatial streams
is limited by the lesser of the number of antennas at the transmitter or receiver. Spatial
multiplexing can be used with or without transmit channel knowledge. Spatial multiplexing can
also be used for simultaneous transmission to multiple receivers, known as space-division
multiple accessing. The scheduling of receivers with different spatial signatures allows good
separability.

Diversity coding:

Diversity Coding techniques are used when there is no channel knowledge at the
transmitter. In diversity methods, a single stream (unlike multiple streams in spatial
multiplexing) is transmitted, but the signal is coded using techniques called space-time coding.
The signal is emitted from each of the transmit antennas with full or near orthogonal coding.
Diversity coding exploits the independent fading in the multiple antenna links to enhance signal
diversity. Because there is no channel knowledge, there is no beamforming or array gain from
diversity coding.

4. MIMO Channel Model

Diagram of a MIMO wireless transmission system is shown below:

The transmitter and receiver are equipped with multiple antenna elements. The transmit stream
go through a matrix channel which consists of multiple receive antennas at the receiver. Then the
receiver gets the received signal vectors by the multiple receive antennas and decodes the
received signal vectors into the original information. Here is a MIMO system model:

There are detail explains for denoted symbols:

 r is the Mx1 received signal vector as there are M antennas in receiver.

 H represented channel matrix
 s is the Nx1 transmitted signal vector as there are N antennas in transmitter
 n is an Mx1 vector of additive noise term

Let Q denote the covariance matrix of x, then the capacity of the system described
by information theory as below:

This is optimal when is unknown at the transmitter and the input distribution maximizing the
mutual information is the Gaussian distribution. With channel feedback may be known at the
transmitter and the optimal is not proportional to the identity matrix but is constructed from a
waterfilling argument as discussed later.The form of equation gives rise to two practical
questions of key importance. First, what is the effect ofQ? If we compare the capacity achieved
by Q = (ρ/N)Inand the optimal Q based on perfect channel estimation and feedback, then we
can evaluate a maximum capacity gain due to feedback. The second question concerns the effect
of theHmatrix. For the i.i.d. Rayleigh fading case we have the impressive linear capacity growth
discussed above. For a wider range of channel models including, for example, correlated fading
and specular components, we must ask whether this behavior still holds. Below we report a
variety of work on the effects of feedback and different channel models.
 It is important to note that can be rewritten as:

Where λ1 , λ2 , … , λmare the nonzero eigenvalues of W, m=min(M,N), and

This formulation can be easily obtained from the direct use of eigenvalue properties.
Alternatively, we can decompose the MIMO channel into m equivalent parallel SISO channels
by performing singular value decomposition (SVD) of H. Let the SVD be given by

Then U and V are unitary and D=diag(√λ1 , √λ1 , … , √λm , 0 , … , 0). Hence the MIMO signal
model can be rewritten as:

The above equation represents the system as m equivalent parallel SISO eigen-channels with
signal powers given by the eigenvaluesλ1 , λ2 , … , λm.Hence, the capacity can be rewritten in
terms of the eigenvalues of the sample covariance matrix W. For general W matrices a wide
range of limiting results are known as or both tend to infinity. In the particular case of Wishart
matrices, many exact results are also available.

We now give a brief overview of exact capacity results, broken down into the two main
scenarios, where the channel is either known or unknown at the transmitter. We focus on the two
key questions posed above; what is the effect of feedback and what is the impact of the channel?

When the channel is known at the transmitter (and at the receiver), then H is known in
above equation and we optimize the capacity over Q subject to the power constraint

tr(Q)≦ρ.Fortunately, the optimal Qin this case is well known and is called a water filling

solution. There is a simple algorithm to find the solution and the resulting capacity is given by

Where μ is chosen to satisfy

“ +” denotes taking only those terms which are positive. Since μis a complicated nonlinear
function ofλ1 , λ2 , … , λm,the distribution of WCF appears intractable, even in theWishart case
when the joint distribution ofλ1 , λ2 , … , λmis known.

If the transmitter has only statistical channel state information, then the ergodic channel
capacity will decrease as the signal covariance Q can only be optimized in terms of the
average mutual information as

The spatial correlation of the channel has a strong impact on the ergodic channel capacity with
statistical information.

If the transmitter has no channel state information it can select the signal covariance Q to
maximize channel capacity under worst-case statistics, which means Q=(1/Nt)*I and accordingly

Additional information: Fundamental Capacity theorem

For a SISO system the capacity is given by

Where h is the normalized complex gain of a fixed wireless channel or that of a particular
realization of a random channel. ρ is the SNR at any RX antenna. As we deploy more RX
antennas the statistics of capacity improve and with M RX antennas, we have a SIMO system
with capacity given by

Where hi is the gain for RX antenna i. Note the crucial feature of above equation in that
increasing the value of M only results in a logarithmic increase in average capacity. Similarly, if
we opt for transmit diversity, in the common case, where the transmitter does not have channel
knowledge, we have a MIMO system with N TX antennas and the capacity is given by

Where the normalization by N ensures a fix total transmitter power and shows the absence of
array gain in that case. Again, note that capacity has a logarithmic relationship with N. Now, we
consider the use of diversity at both transmitter and receiver giving rise to a MIMO system. For
N TX and M RX antennas, we have the now famous capacity equation:

where (*) means transpose-conjugate and is the channel matrix.

MIMO:
In radio, multiple-input and multiple-output, or MIMO (commonly pronounced my-moh
or me-moh), is the use of multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to improve
communication performance. It is one of several forms of smart antenna technology. MIMO
technology has attracted attention in wireless communications, because it offers significant
increases in data throughput and link range without additional bandwidth or transmit power. It
achieves this by higher spectral efficiency (more bits per second per hertz of bandwidth) and link
reliability or diversity (reduced fading). Because of these properties, MIMO is a current theme of
international wireless research.
MIMO can be sub-divided into three main categories, precoding, spatial multiplexing or
SM, and diversity coding. Precoding is multi-layer beamforming in a narrow sense or all spatial
processing at the transmitter in a wide-sense. In (single-layer) beamforming, the same signal is
emitted from each of the transmit antennas with appropriate phase (and sometimes gain)
weighting such that the signal power is maximized at the receiver input. The benefits of
beamforming are to increase the signal gain from constructive combining and to reduce the
multipath fading effect. In the absence of scattering, beamforming results in a well defined
directional pattern, but in typical cellular conventional beams are not a good analogy. When the
receiver has multiple antennas, the transmit beamforming cannot simultaneously maximize the
signal level at all of the receive antennas, and precoding is used. Note that precoding requires
knowledge of the channel state information (CSI) at the transmitter.
MIMO IN OFDM:
 Multiple Input, Multiple Output Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is a
technology developed by Iospan Wireless that uses multiple antennas to transmit and receive
radio signals. MIMO-OFDM will allow service providers to deploy a Broadband Wireless
Access (BWA) system that has Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS) functionality. Specifically, MIMO-
OFDM takes advantage of the multipath properties of environments using base station antennas
that do not have LOS. According to Iospan, "In this environment, radio signals bounce off
buildings, trees and other objects as they travel between the two antennas. This bouncing effect
produces multiple "echoes" or "images" of the signal. As a result, the original signal and the
individual echoes each arrive at the receiver antenna at slightly different times causing the
echoes to interfere with one another thus degrading signal quality. The MIMO system uses
multiple antennas to simultaneously transmit data, in small pieces to the receiver, which can
process the data flows and put them back together. This process, called spatial multiplexing,
proportionally boosts the data-transmission speed by a factor equal to the number of transmitting
antennas. In addition, since all data is transmitted both in the same frequency band and with
separate spatial signatures, this technique utilizes spectrum very efficiently. VOFDM (Vector
OFDM) uses the concept of MIMO technology and is also being developed by Cisco Systems.

MIMO testing

1. MIMO signal testing focuses first on the transmitter/receiver system. The random phases
of the sub-carrier signals can produce instantaneous power levels that cause the amplifier
to compress, momentarily causing distortion and ultimately symbol errors. Signals with a
high PAR (peak to average ratio) ratio can cause amplifiers to compress unpredictably
during transmission. OFDM signals are very dynamic and compression problems can be
hard to detect because of their noise-like nature.
2. Knowing the quality of the signal channel is also critical. A channel emulator can
simulate how a device performs at the cell edge, can add noise or can simulate what the
channel looks like at speed. To fully qualify the performance of a receiver, a calibrated
transmitter, such as a vector signal generator (VSG), and channel emulator can be used to
test the receiver under a variety of different conditions. Conversely, the transmitter's
performance under a number of different conditions can be verified using a channel
emulator and a calibrated receiver, such as a vector signal analyzer (VSA).
3. Understanding the channel allows for manipulation of the phase and amplitude of each
transmitter in order to form a beam. To correctly form a beam, the transmitter needs to
understand the characteristics of the channel. This process is called channel sounding or
 channel estimation. A known signal is sent to the mobile device that enables it to build a
picture of the channel environment. The phone then sends back the channel
characteristics to the transmitter. The transmitter then can apply the correct phase and
amplitude adjustments to form a beam directed at the mobile device. This is called a
closed-loop MIMO system. For beamforming, it is required to adjust the phases and
amplitude of each transmitter.

OFDM:
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), essentially identical to coded
OFDM (COFDM) and discrete multi-tone modulation (DMT), is a frequency-division
multiplexing (FDM) scheme utilized as a digital multi-carrier modulation method. A large
number of closely-spaced orthogonal sub-carriers are used to carry data. The data is divided into
several parallel data streams or channels, one for each sub-carrier. Each sub-carrier is modulated
with a conventional modulation scheme (such as quadrature amplitude modulation or phase-shift
keying) at a low symbol rate, maintaining total data rates similar to conventional single-carrier
modulation schemes in the same bandwidth.

The primary advantage of OFDM over single-carrier schemes is its ability to cope with
severe channel conditions (for example, attenuation of high frequencies in a long copper wire,
narrowband interference and frequency-selective fading due to multipath) without complex
equalization filters. Channel equalization is simplified because OFDM may be viewed as using
many slowly-modulated narrowband signals rather than one rapidly-modulated wideband signal.
The low symbol rate makes the use of a guard interval between symbols affordable, making it
possible to handle time-spreading and eliminate intersymbol interference (ISI). This mechanism
also facilitates the design of single frequency networks (SFNs), where several adjacent
transmitters send the same signal simultaneously at the same frequency, as the signals from
multiple distant transmitters may be combined constructively, rather than interfering as would
typically occur in a traditional single-carrier system.

Each sub-carrier in an OFDM system is modulated in amplitude and phase by the data
bits. Depending on the kind of modulation technique that is being used, one or more bits are used
to modulate each sub-carrier. Modulation techniques typically used are BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM,
64QAM etc. The process of combining different sub-carriers to form a composite time-domain
signal is achieved using Fast Fourier transform. Different coding schemes like block coding,
convolutional coding or both are used to achieve better performance in low SNR conditions.
Interleaving is done which involves assigning adjacent data bits to non-adjacent bits to avoid
burst errors under highly selective fading.

Frequency (subcarrier) interleaving increases resistance to frequency-selective channel

conditions such as fading. For example, when a part of the channel bandwidth fades, frequency
interleaving ensures that the bit errors that would result from those subcarriers in the faded part
of the bandwidth are spread out in the bit-stream rather than being concentrated. Similarly, time
interleaving ensures that bits that are originally close together in the bit-stream are transmitted
far apart in time, thus mitigating against severe fading as would happen when travelling at high
speed.
OFDM is a multicarrier modulation technique that divides the available spectrum among
various low data rate subcarriers. Orthogonality is a must for OFDM otherwise it will lead to
spectral overlapping. The subcarriers are so spaced as to satisfy the orthogonality condition. A
guard band is also provided in OFDM by using cyclic extension to avoid ICI. Frequency
selective fading can also be decreased in OFDM by increasing the number of sub carriers.
OFDM can provide an adaptive and scalable technology for wireless communication.
Due to the advent of 3G and 4G services the demand for high data rates in wireless
communication is constantly increasing. One of the main focuses of the 4G systems is to
significantly improve the spectral efficiency which makes OFDM as a potential candidate for the
physical layer of 4G systems. OFDM makes efficient usage of the bandwidth. Apart from
spectral efficiency OFDM has many other advantages like being robust to multipath fading, inter
channel interference and co-channel interference. Due to these inherent advantages OFDM is
used in many wireless standards like IEEE 802.11a and IEEE802.16a.
OFDM is a multi carrier transmission scheme which divides the allocated spectrum into
many parallel orthogonal sub-channels. High rate data stream is split into many lower rate data
streams which are transmitted at the same time over these equally spaced frequency bands. A
subcarrier carrying a portion of the user information is transmitted in each band. The subcarriers
are overlapping but they are recoverable since they are orthogonal

OFDM SYSTEM MODEL

In OFDM each sub-carrier to be produced is assigned some data to transmit. The required
amplitude and phase is calculated based on the modulation scheme. The digital data stream in
serial form is converted to parallel form using a serial to parallel convertor. In most applications,
an Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) is used. The IFFT block performs the time domain
transformation very efficiently and provides a simple way of ensuring the carrier signals
produced are orthogonal to each other. The output of the IFFT is provided as an input to the
compander.
The companded data is converted to analog form and transmitted after amplification
through a high power amplifier (HPA).At the receiver side the data is converted back to digital
form and allied to a decompander. Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM)
modulated signals are widely used in wireless communications systems for their advantage of
high spectrum efficiency.
However, OFDM signals have a nature of high peak to average power ration (PAPR),
since they consist of lots of independent input subcarriers. This high PAPR nature makes OFDM
transmitter systems very sensitive to the nonlinearity of RF power amplifiers (PAs) integrated
within transmitters, and significant nonlinear distortion generated in the amplification process is
a major weakness of OFDM signal systems.
The nonlinear distortion can be evaluated by the modulation fidelity over wanted
subcarriers and the out-of-band spectral regrowth, and they can be quantitatively expressed by
error vector magnitude (EVM) and adjacent channel power ration (ACPR), respectively. For the
designers of OFDM transmitter systems, the influence of PA envelope character on system
modulation fidelity is a fundamental concern, and it attracts lots of studies. However, most
relevant studies are based on a specific example PA, and the influence of PA envelope variation
on system performance is not well explored yet.
The PA envelopes are characterized by percentage linearization (PL) determined by PA
saturation point (SP), and the influence of PL on system modulation fidelity is investigated.
Meanwhile, the influence of PA envelope is not investigated yet as both SP and nonlinear onset
point (NOP) variations are considered. A 16QAM-modulated IEEE 802.11a OFDM signal is
driven through these designed PAs. The inter modulation distortion (IMD) of output signal of
example PAs is measured by EVM and ACPR, and the obtained EVM and ACPR results are
displayed over input back off (IBO) and output back off (OBO) domains, respectively.
This allows us to see how the variations of PA envelopes are represented through their
associated EVM/ACPR results. An interesting outcome is that when these example PAs are
driven close to their saturation ranges, PAs having relatively higher nonlinearity show relatively
lower distortion level over IBO domain. On the contrary, PAs having relatively higher
nonlinearity show relatively higher distortion level over the whole OBO domain. Another
interesting outcome observed from the comparative experiment is that NOP is not much
concerned in the characterization of PA envelope in current studies, but the system performance
actually is more sensitive to the variation of NOP than to that of SP. These simulation
observations are analytically discussed by using a recent mixed time-domain and statistical
analysis approach of IMD. It can be seen that when input power increases, the weights of high-
order terms in PA Bessel-Fourier model become comparable with those of dominated low-order
terms.

Fig. 1 Simplified block diagram of OFDM system.

OFDM BER
OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) is a modulation scheme that is
capable of overcoming intersymbol interference (ISI) on frequency selective channels in a very
efficient way. A digital information stream is divided into multiple information streams. This
lowers the bit rate on each of these streams. The data streams are modulated and mapped on
orthogonal carriers (called \subcarriers"). Thus, many low-bit rate signals are transmitted, instead
of one high bit rate signal. The low bit rate signals hardly super from ISI, and because of the
orthogonality of the subcarriers, it is possible to demodulate the received signal without crosstalk
between the information on the subcarriers. The performance of OFDM can approach the
theoretical maximum for a given radio channel.
A disadvantage of OFDM is its sensitivity to non linear distortion, which causes crosstalk
between subcarriers. In a matched receiver, the crosstalk can dramatically increase the BER. As
any real communication system will contain nonlinearities, it is important to determine the
resulting signal deterioration.

Especially the antenna output amplifier of a transmitter can cause significant non-linear
distortion. So far, the distortion problem for matched filter receivers has been treated in two
ways: either by simulation, or by mathematical analysis. The simulation results do not yield
much insight into the problem. The reported analytical results in literature apply to specifically
clipping non-linearities only and cannot be used for design purposes. The effect of smooth non-
linear distortion on matched filter reception of an OFDM signal is more relevant, as it is the most
common type of distortion.

Nonlinear RF Power Amplifier Behavioural Analysis of Wireless OFDM Systems

Four signal representation approaches are combined with a Bessel-Fourier PA envelope
behavioral model of a GaN memory less nonlinear power amplifier (PA) to reveal insights into
the nonlinear amplification of multicarrier OFDM signals. Isolating and analyzing different
orders of inter modulation product (IMP) impairment, the impact of higher order IMPs on ACPR
degradation in the second and higher adjacent channel bands and how that is the determining
factor for the PA’s upper limit operating point and power conversion efficiency, rather than the
ACPR in the first adjacent band or the in band EVM degradation, NONLINEAR distortion is a
source of major degradation of modulation fidelity in multicarrier systems, such as orthogonal
frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) systems.
Compared with conventional single carrier Communication systems, OFDM signals
significantly improve spectrum efficiency and reduce frequency selective fading problems.
However their consisting of large numbers of independent QAM subcarriers, means the
composite signal’s peak to average power ratio (PAPR) can be significant. This is what makes
them so sensitive to nonlinear distortion.
The primary source of this nonlinear distortion is the RF transmitter power amplifier
(PA) .Accurate and efficient behavioral modeling of these multi-carrier signals through nonlinear
amplification processes is not a trivial problem. The PA modeling and signal representation
techniques require careful selection.

Here the memory less form of the Bessel-Fourier (BF) model is used for the nonlinear PA
modeling because of its particular suitability for handling multicarrier signals, its adaptability for
different signal-representation approaches, and of course its large dynamic range modeling
accuracy potential.
The fundamental band of the RF nonlinear PA transmitter system output for an OFDM
signal input is composed of large numbers of inter-modulation products (IMPs) superimposed on
the in band amplified ‘wanted’ OFDM subcarriers and appearing in adjacent channels as
spurious out-of-band emissions. The same is the case for the harmonic bands which, however,
with well tuned and well matched PA output circuitry, should be thoroughly attenuated.
Nonetheless if for some reason there are exceptions here, such as the use of selected low power,
high harmonic band, PA output signals for generating adaptive PA linearisers control signals, the
BF model is fortunately powerful enough to handle this with very little adjustment, it can re-
create the un-attenuated behavioral responses at any or all harmonics.
The IMP impairment of the in band signals modulation fidelity is typically measured by
error vector magnitude (EVM) figures of merit (FOMs). The out-of-band IMP interference in
adjacent channels may be measured by the output spectrum behaviour set against spectrum
masks, by adjacent channel power ratio (ACPR) measures or other such like FOMs. Particular
air-interface standards normally set the FOM criteria to be satisfied.
The behavioral performance of an L-band GaN PA amplifying an IEEE 802.11a OFDM
WLAN signal, with its 48 data subcarriers here with16 QAM and 4 BPSK pilot sub-carriers is
examined and analyzed as an example. Particular emphasis is given to extracting and assessing
the impairment contributions of different IMP components and the factors determining the upper
limits to the PA operating point and power efficiency.

ADVANTAGES
1. Due to increase in symbol duration, there is a reduction in delay spread. Addition of
guard band almost removes the ISI and ICI in the system.
2. Conversion of the channel into many narrowly spaced orthogonal sub-carriers render I
immune to frequency selective fading.
3. As it evident from the spectral pattern of an OFDM system, orthogonally placing the sub-
carriers lead to high spectral efficiency.
4. Can be efficiently implemented using IFFT.

DISADVANTAGES
 These systems are highly sensitive to Doppler shifts which affect the carrier
frequency offsets, reducing in ICI.
 Presence of a large number of sub-carriers with varying amplitude results in a
high Peak-to-Average Ratio of the system, which in turn hampers the efficiency
of the RF amplifier.
 CHAPTER 5
SYSTEM REQUIRMENTS
Operating System : Windows XP/ 7 / 8
Software Tool : MATLAB 7.9 R2009b
Processor : Any Intel or AMD x86/x64 processor
RAM : 1024MB (At least 2048 MB recommended)
Disk Space : 3–4 GB for a MATLAB typical installation
Graphics : No specific graphics card is required.

5.1 Introduction to MATLAB

MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates

computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and
solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include:

 Math and computation

 Algorithm development

 Modeling, simulation, and prototyping

 Data analysis, exploration, and visualization

 Scientific and engineering graphics

 Application development, including Graphical User Interface building

MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not
require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems, especially
those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a
program in a scalar no interactive language such as C or FORTRAN.

The name MATLAB stands for matrix laboratory. MATLAB was originally written to
provide easy access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK and EISPACK projects,
which together represent the state-of-the-art in software for matrix computation.

MATLAB has evolved over a period of years with input from many users. In university
environments, it is the standard instructional tool for introductory and advanced courses in
mathematics, engineering, and science. In industry, MATLAB is the tool of choice for high-
productivity research, development, and analysis.

MATLAB features a family of application-specific solutions called toolboxes. Very

important to most users of MATLAB, toolboxes allow you to learn and apply specialized
technology. Toolboxes are comprehensive collections of MATLAB functions (M-files) that
extend the MATLAB environment to solve particular classes of problems. Areas in which
toolboxes are available include signal processing, control systems, neural networks, fuzzy logic,
wavelets, simulation, and many others.

Fig 5.1: Features of MATLAB

The MATLAB system consists of five main parts:

5.1.1 The MATLAB language

This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions, data
structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features. It allows both "programming
in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away programs, and "programming in the
large" to create complete large and complex application programs.

5.1.2 The MATLAB working environment

This is the set of tools and facilities that you work with as the MATLAB user or
programmer. It includes facilities for managing the variables in your workspace and importing
and exporting data. It also includes tools for developing, managing, debugging, and profiling M-
files, MATLAB's applications.
 5.1.3 Handle Graphics

This is the MATLAB graphics system. It includes high-level commands for two-
dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and
presentation graphics. It also includes low-level commands that allow you to fully customize the
appearance of graphics as well as to build complete Graphical User Interfaces on your MATLAB
applications.

5.1.4 MATLAB mathematical function library

This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions

like sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix
inverse, matrix eignevalues, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

5.1.5 The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API)

This is a library that allows you to write C and FORTRAN programs that interact with
MATLAB. It include facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling
MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.

5.2 Choosing a Computer to Run MATLAB and Simulink Products

Predicting how MATLAB will perform while running an application on a particular

computer is difficult. MathWorks offers this general guidance on platform selection criteria and
emphasizes that it is not a substitute for testing your application on a particular computer.

Operating Systems

MATLAB performance is similar on Windows®, Mac OS® X, and Linux®, although

differences can occur among platforms for the following reasons:

 MathWorks builds its products with a different compiler on each platform, and each has its own
performance characteristics.

 MathWorks incorporates third-party libraries into its products that may perform differently on
each platform.
 The operating systems perform differently, especially in the case of disk- or graphics-intensive
operations.

In general, performance differences in operating system releases (for example, between

Windows 7 and Windows 8) are negligible.

32-bit or 64-bit?

On Windows computers, using 64-bit Windows and the 64-bit version of MATLAB is
the right choice for most situations, because it can access the larger amounts of memory in
modern computers, and support for 32-bit Windows will end in the next couple of years. Refer to
the Platform Road Map for more information. Also refer to Adopting 64-bit Windows for a more
detailed discussion of migrating to 64-bit Windows.

On Mac and Linux computers, the 64-bit version of MATLAB is the only version
available.

Hardware Considerations

Each component of a typical computer configuration has an impact on MATLAB

performance.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Computers with more CPU cores can outperform those with a lower core count, but
results will vary with the MATLAB application. MATLAB automatically uses multithreading to
exploit the natural parallelism found in many MATLAB applications. But not all MATLAB
functions are multithreaded, and the speed-up varies with the algorithm. For additional
capability, Parallel Computing Toolbox offers parallel programming constructs that more
directly leverage multiple computer cores.

MATLAB performance is dependent on the presence of floating-point hardware. On

many CPUs, the number of Floating-Point Units (FPUs) equals the number of CPU cores.
However, on some processors, a single FPU may be shared between multiple CPU cores,
potentially creating a performance bottleneck.
 Virtual cores may modestly improve overall system performance, but they are likely to
have little effect on the performance of MATLAB applications. Intel CPUs with hyper-
threading give the appearance that a computer has twice as many cores than it actually has.
When using a tool such as Windows Task Manager, MATLAB may appear to use only half of
the CPU cores available on the computer, when in fact the "unused" half is actually the virtual
cores created by hyper-threading.

Memory

Your computer can suffer performance degradation due to thrashing when MATLAB and
the programs you run concurrently with it use more than the available physical memory and your
computer must resort to virtual memory. If, while running a MATLAB application, you find
your computer is using little of the CPU, you may be experiencing thrashing. To detect thrashing
on a Windows platform, use Windows Performance Monitor. On a Mac, use Activity Monitor.
MATLAB applications that use more than 3 GB of memory (2 GB on some platforms) require
the 64-bit version of MATLAB.

Hard disk

The hard disk speed is a significant factor in MATLAB start-up time. Once MATLAB is
running, disk speed is only a factor if a MATLAB application's performance profile is dominated
by file I/O, or if your system is using virtual memory. For disk-intensive MATLAB applications
or to improve the start-up time of MATLAB, you can take advantage of technologies such
as solid-state drives or RAID.

Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) for display

MATLAB Graphics are rendered using OpenGL technology, so a graphics card with
superior OpenGL support can outperform a lesser card. Up-to-date drivers are recommended for
the best visual appearance and robustness.

Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) for computation

To speed up computation, Parallel Computing Toolbox leverages NVIDIA GPUs with compute
capability 2.0 or higher. See the compute capabilities of all NVIDIA GPUs. MATLAB does not
support computation acceleration using AMD or Intel GPUs at this time
 CHAPTER – 6
SIMULATIONS & RESULTS
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig. 6.1 Simulation Model of an OFDM System

RESULT:

Fig. 6.2 BER vs. SNR Plot of an OFDM System

33
6.3 SIMULATION 3

AIM: To plot the CCDF for Amplitude Clipping and Filtering.

RESULT:

Unmodified OFDM signal

OFDM Signal after Amplitude Clipping

Fig. 6.3 CCDF of an OFDM Signal with and without Amplitude Clipping & Filtering
RESULT:

Table 6.2 Comparison of PAPR of an OFDM Signal before and after Selected Mapping
6.5 SIMULATION 5

AIM: To compare the performances of Selected Mapping and Partial Transmit Sequence
Techniques.

RESULT:

SLM, U = 16

PTS, V = 16

Fig. 6.4 Performance Curves of SLM and PTS Techniques

 CHAPTER – 7
CONCLUSION

OFDM is a very attractive technique for multicarrier transmission and has become one of
the standard choices for high – speed data transmission over a communication channel. It has
various advantages; but also has one major drawback: it has a very high PAPR. In this project,
the different properties of an OFDM System are analyzed and the advantages and disadvantages
of this system are understood. The bit – error – rate is also plotted against the signal – to – noise
ratio to understand the performance of the OFDM system.
We have also aimed at investigating some of the techniques which are in common use to
reduce the high PAPR of the system. Among the three techniques that we took up for study, we
found out that Amplitude Clipping and Filtering results in Data Loss, whereas, Selected
Mapping (SLM) and Partial Transmit Sequence (PTS) do not affect the data. From the
comparison curve of the SLM and PTS techniques, we could infer that PTS is more effective in
PAPR reduction.
However, no specific PAPR reduction technique is the best solution for the OFDM
system. Various parameters like loss in data rate, transmit signal power increase, BER increase,
computational complexity increase should be taken into consideration before choosing the
appropriate PAPR technique.
REFERENCES

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