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B. Eng. (Hon.)
ABSTRACT
The study of the response of tall buildings to wind has become more critical with the
increase of super tall buildings in major cities around the world. Outrigger-braced tall
building is considered as one of the most popular and efficient tall building design
because they are easier to build, save on costs and provide massive lateral stiffness. Most
importantly, outrigger-braced structures can strengthen a building without disturbing its
aesthetic appearance and this is a significant advantage over other lateral load resisting
systems. Therefore this thesis focuses on the optimum design of multi-outriggers in tall
buildings, based on the standards set out in the Australian wind code AS/NZS 1170.2.
As taller buildings are built, more outriggers are required. Most of the research to date
has included a limited number of outriggers in a building. Some tall buildings require
more outriggers especially for those more than 500m building height. Therefore there is a
need to develop a design that includes many outriggers (e.g. more than 5). In addition,
wind-induced acceleration is not covered in most of the research on outrigger-braced
buildings. The adoption of outrigger-braced systems in tall buildings is very common and
therefore a discussion of wind-induced acceleration will be included in this thesis.
Most of the current standards allow for the adoption of a triangular load distribution in
estimating the wind response of a structure. However, there are only few publications on
the utilization of a triangular load distribution to determine the optimum location of a
limited number of outriggers. This issue will be addressed in this thesis and will be
compared with a uniformly distributed wind load. Further to this, an investigation will be
carried out on the factors affecting the efficiency of an outrigger-braced system in terms
of the core base bending moment and the total drift reduction.
acceleration of a tall building. While many computer programs can provide accurate
results for the above, they are time-consuming to run. For designers working on the
preliminary design in the conceptual phase, a quick estimation drawn from a simpler
analysis is preferable. Therefore, as an alternative to computer-generated estimations, a
methodology for an approximate hand calculation of the wind-induced acceleration in an
outrigger-braced structure will be developed.
4
STATEMENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to give my special thanks to my supervisor Professor Priyan Mendis for his
patience, kindness, encouragement, advice and guidance throughout the course of this
study.
My appreciation is also extended to Dr. Tuan Ngo, Assoc. Professor Nick Haritos, Dr.
Cuong Ngu Yen and my other colleagues for their suggestions in light of this work.
Likewise, I would like to send my gratitude to the senior industrial engineers who
provided ideas and suggestions to improve this thesis — Mr Bao Truong, Mr. Peter
Delphin, Ms Jessey Lee, and others.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FIGURES ------------------------------------------- 11
Chapter 1 ------------------------------------------14
1.0 INTRODUCTION -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
1.1 Background --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
1.2 Motivation and research significance -------------------------------------------- 16
1.3 Objective of research---------------------------------------------------------------- 17
1.4 Scope of study ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 17
1.5 Thesis layout-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
Chapter 2 ------------------------------------------19
2.0 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF TALL BUILDINGS TO WIND ------------------------------- 19
2.1 Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
2.2 Dynamic wind response------------------------------------------------------------- 22
2.3 Introduction to dynamic wind response ------------------------------------------ 26
2.4 Random Vibration Theory---------------------------------------------------------- 28
2.1.1 Along-wind response---------------------------------------------------------- 30
2.1.1.1 Quasi-static assumption---------------------------------------------------- 31
2.1.1.2 Mechanical admittance ---------------------------------------------------- 33
2.1.1.3 Aerodynamic admittance -------------------------------------------------- 35
2.1.1.4 Background and resonant component ----------------------------------- 36
7
Chapter 3 ------------------------------------------63
3.0 PERFORMANCE OF AN OUTRIGGER-BRACED STRUCTURE --------------------------- 63
3.1 Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 63
3.1.1 Outrigger-braced structure --------------------------------------------------- 64
3.2 Method of Analysis ------------------------------------------------------------------ 66
3.2.1 Assumptions for analysis ----------------------------------------------------- 66
8
FIGURES
Figure 3.22 Drift reduction efficiency with column clear distance changed .................. 107
Figure 3.23 Moment reduction efficiency with column clear distance changed ............ 108
Figure 3.24 Deflected shape of an outrigger-braced structure........................................ 111
Figure 3.25 Mode shape comparison of an outrigger-braced structure .......................... 112
Figure 3.26 Comparison of mode shape factor between manual calculation and AS1170.2
..................................................................................................................... 123
Figure 4.1 General layout of floor plan for the outrigger-braced structure .................... 127
Figure 4.2 Total shear acting on the main core based on ETABS analysis .................... 128
Figure 4.3 Total moment acting on the main core based on ETABS analysis ............... 129
Figure 4.4 Wind-induced axial load acting on outrigger-braced columns...................... 130
Figure 4.5 Core bending moment of an outrigger-braced structure................................ 131
Figure 4.6 Core bending moment from both analyses.................................................... 133
Figure 4.7 Comparison of mode shape factors based on both analyses.......................... 135
Figure 4.8 (a) Deflection predicted in AS1170.2; (b) the realistic building deflection .. 145
14
Chapter 1
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background
Tall buildings are a common sight in contemporary cities, especially in those countries
where land is scarce, as they offer a high ratio of floor space per area of land. Tall
buildings are also, arguably, a sign of a city’s economic stature. With the aid of new
design concepts and construction technologies, many countries are constructing gigantic
structures in their major cities, such as Petronas Twin Towers in Malaysia, Taipei 101,
Shanghai’s World Finance Center, and the ultimate skyscraper, Burj Dubai, with a final
projected height of more than 800m including the antenna.
With the identified trend towards higher and more lightweight structures, the risk of
increased flexibility and potentially diminished damping can lead buildings to be more
susceptible to wind action. Even though a structure is designed to meet the requirements
of ultimate strength and serviceability drift, it may not escape from levels of motion that
can cause serious discomfort to its occupants. Therefore, it is very important to control
15
the wind-induced vibration of very tall building (Samali et al, 2004). Intensive study and
research has been carried out to quantify a building’s acceleration to ensure that the
building remains serviceable without causing disturbing motions to its occupants.
Additionally, innovative structural design methods are continuously being sought in the
design of super tall structures with the intention of reducing building response due to
wind action without increasing the construction and material costs. Therefore, outrigger-
braced system has been developed and used in some of the world’s tallest towers in the
past few decades. This design concept consists of a reinforced concrete or steel-braced
core that is connected to the exterior columns by a pair of flexurally stiff horizontal walls
at convenient plan locations. These outriggers are usually located at the plant rooms
along the height of the building. While the outrigger system is very effective in providing
lateral flexural resistance to the building, it does not increase the shear stiffness and the
core itself will carry all the lateral shear forces.
As buildings grow taller, more outriggers are required and they are preferred to be
located at plant rooms. However, most research has included a limited number of
outriggers on a building. This might not be sufficient for a very tall building, e.g.
exceeding 500m in height, and therefore design principles for more outriggers need to be
developed. In addition, the wind-induced acceleration becomes critical for a very tall
building and this has not been a substantial focus in most of the research on outrigger-
braced systems. To address this gap in the research, this thesis will discuss the
optimization of outrigger location in terms of core base bending moments, building
deflection and wind-induced accelerations.
This thesis aims to develop a methodology for estimating the best location for outriggers
in terms of the outriggers’ restraining moments, the total building deflection and the
along-wind and crosswind accelerations of an outrigger-braced structure. While a number
of computer programs can provide accurate results for the above, they are time-
consuming to run. For designers working on the preliminary design in the conceptual
phase, a quick estimation drawn from a simpler analysis is preferable.
17
Secondly, this thesis will introduce a method for analyzing an outrigger-braced structure
with the aim of finding the best-fit outrigger locations to obtain the least building
deflection, along-wind and crosswind accelerations, and to determine the outrigger
restraining moments. Further to this, an investigation will be carried out on the factors
affecting the “efficiency” of outrigger-braced systems in terms of the core moment
distribution and total drift reduction.
Finally, the methodology for an approximate method for acquiring the wind-induced
acceleration in an outrigger-braced structure will be developed based on the
aforementioned analysis. Then, a computer program is used to analyze a simple
outrigger-braced structure to verify the results based on the manual analysis that is
performed.
Chapter 1 presents an overview of the research, which includes the motivation for the
thesis and the research significance, main objectives and scope of the study.
Chapter 2
2.1 Introduction
Wind is air movement that is closely related to the earth. It is driven by several different
forces and pressure differences in the atmosphere, which are themselves produced by
differential solar heating or by different elements of the earth’s surface, and by forces
generated by the rotation of the earth. The differences in solar radiation between the poles
are the equator-produced temperatures and the differences in pressure. These, together
with the effects of the earth’s rotation, produce large-scale circulation systems in the
atmosphere, with both horizontal and vertical orientations. Owing to these circulations,
the prevailing wind directions in the tropics and near the poles tend to be easterly.
Westerly winds dominate in the temperate latitudes. Local severe winds may also
originate from local convective effects (Sachs, 1978).
20
Due to the fact that wind is a phenomenon of great complexity that relates to the
fluctuating atmospheric flow, it can induce a variety of wind actions on structures. As
shown in Figure 2.1, the wind consists of a multitude of eddies of different sizes and
rotational characteristics carried along in a general stream of air moving on the ground.
When wind approaches a building, its flow pattern will create large wind pressure
fluctuations. These fluctuations are mainly due to the distortion of the mean flow, the
flow separation, the vortex formation and the wake development. In summary, the wind
vector at a point may be considered as the sum of the mean static wind component and a
dynamic (turbulence) component. Super tall structures are likely to be sensitive to
dynamic response at both along-wind and crosswind directions, as a consequence of
turbulence buffeting, vortex shedding and galloping (Sachs, 1978).
Figure 2.1 Multitude of eddies formed when wind flows through an obstacle
For the convenience of structural design, the worldwide standards set out two ways of
analyzing wind action: static and dynamic analysis. Static analysis is regarded as a quasi-
steady approximation. It assumes that the building is a fixed rigid body under wind
conditions by using a 3 second gust wind speed to calculate the forces, pressures and
moment on the structure. The limitations of static analysis are that it is only appropriate
21
for buildings with a frequency of greater 1 Hz. For tall and slender buildings, dynamic
analysis has to be performed, and this method will be introduced in a later section.
A tall structure is subjected to aerodynamic forces, both the along-wind and crosswind
response, that may be estimated using the available results of aerodynamic theory or
through the code approach. However, if the environmental conditions or the properties of
the structure are unusual, it may be necessary to conduct special wind tunnel tests. Figure
2.2 illustrates both the along-wind and crosswind response in a given flow field. In
addition, if the distance between the shear center of the lateral-load-resisting structural
walls and the center of the wind flow is large, the structure may also be subjected to
torsional moments that can significantly affect the structural design.
Furthermore, because these aerodynamic forces are dependent on time, the theory of
random vibrations is applied to the current practice of wind analysis. However, in certain
cases, it may be necessary to perform an aeroelastic wind tunnel study to examine the
interaction between the aerodynamic and the inertial, damping, and elastic forces, with
22
In the case of tall buildings, serviceability criteria usually govern the structural design.
Even though the design can satisfy the maximum static lateral drift as specified in the
codes, excessive vibration of these buildings during windstorms can still produce a
disturbing motion for the building’s occupants. It is noted that humans are surprisingly
sensitive to vibration, to the extent that motions may feel uncomfortable even if they
correspond to relatively low levels of stress and strain. Hence, wind-induced acceleration
is one of the most important criteria to be satisfied in tall building design.
Although some aspects related to the response of a structure to wind loading is given in
this chapter, this study is limited to an investigation of structural behavior of outrigger-
braced structures.
Any structure that is exposed to a wind environment is likely to be affected by the time-
history-dependent resonance, in which the wind acting along the structure depends on the
instantaneous wind gust velocities and on the previous time history of the wind gusts.
Under a strong wind event, together with the building’s low natural frequencies and
23
damping, the fluctuating nature of wind pressures and forces may cause the excitation of
significant resonant vibration on the structures. Therefore, this dynamic response has
been distinguished from the background and the resonant response to which all structures
are subjected to.
Figure 2.3 Response spectral density for a tall building (Holmes, 2007)
Figure 2.3 shows the response spectral density of a tall building under a strong wind
event, where the mean response is not included in this plot. The area under the entire
curve represents the total mean-square fluctuating response. The parts that are hatched in
the diagram represent the resonant responses of the first two modes of vibration. The
background response, which is largely made up of low-frequency contributions, is below
the resonant response, and is the largest contributor. However, the resonant components
will become more significant as structures become taller or more flexible, as their size
and natural frequencies become lower.
Figure 2.4 (a) shows the characteristics of the time histories of an along-wind force.
Figure 2.4 (b) shows the structural response of a structure with a high fundamental
natural frequency and it is clearly shown that the response is insignificant, which
generally follows closely the time variation of the exciting forces. The resonant response,
24
shown in Figure 2.4 (c), with a relatively lower natural frequency, is important in the
fundamental mode of vibration.
(a) D(t)
time
(b) High n1
x(t)
time
Low n1
(c)
x(t)
time
Figure 2.4 Time histories of : (a) wind force; (b) response of a structure with high natural frequency;
and (c) response of a structure with a low natural frequency (Holmes, 2001)
25
A well-known rule of thumb is that the lowest natural frequency should be below 1 Hz
for the resonant response to be significant. However, the amount of resonant response
also depends on the damping that is present, whether aerodynamic or structural. For
example, high-voltage transmission lines usually have fundamental sway frequencies that
are well below 1 Hz. However, the aerodynamic damping is very high (typically around
25% of critical) so that the resonant response is largely damped out. Lattice towers,
because of their low mass, also have high aerodynamic damping ratios. Slip-jointed steel
lighting poles have high structural damping due to friction at the joints and this energy
absorbing mechanism limits their resonant response to the wind. (Holmes, 2007)
Figure 2.5 (a) Tacoma Bridge swaying and before collapse; and (b) Collapse of bridge after resonant
response reached the climax (Holmes, 2001)
As shown in Figure 2.7, the dynamic wind response can be categorized into three main
fluctuating loadings: along-wind, crosswind and torsional loadings. The along-wind
response leads to a sway of the building in the direction of the wind; it also consists of a
mean component due to the action of the mean wind speed and a fluctuating component
due to wind speed variation from the mean. Therefore, to predict the along-wind response
in a high-rise building, random vibration theory is adopted to calculate the turbulence
properties in the approaching flow, and it is thereby associated with the gust loading
factor and the gust response factor, defined as the ratio of the expected maximum
response of the structure in a limited time period. This will be discussed further later in
this chapter.
27
Figure 2.7 Description of the wind-induced effects on a structure (Kareem et al, 1999)
Finally, the torsional wind load, which is formed by the imbalance of wind pressure
distribution on the building surface, will affect human sensitivity to angular motion. If the
resultant wind forces do not coincide with the center of stiffness of the structure, an
eccentric wind loading will be responsible for the excitation of the torsional mode of
vibration. However, most of the current codes and standards do not provide any
28
information or equation to estimate the torsion as the fundamental mode of vibration, and
it can only be tested through a wind tunnel study.
X (t ) = X + x' (t ) (2.1)
x is a response variable and x' (t ) includes any resonant dynamic response resulting from
excitation of any natural modes of vibration of the structure. Figure 2.8 illustrates the
overall process of the spectral approach. It has gone through three main procedures:
velocity, force and the response. If the response spectrum of wind is provided, then the
main calculations can be completed as shown in the bottom row.
29
Figure 2.8 The random vibration (frequency domain) approach to resonant dynamic response
(Davenport, 1963)
The first graph is the gust spectra density, which is then transformed from the random
velocity function of wind loading into the frequency domain (t). The aerodynamic
admittance transfer function is then required and combined with the first graph to obtain
the third graph, the aerodynamic force spectral density. Mechanical admittance is again
introduced to combine with the third graph to produce the final response, the response
spectral density, which is categorized into the background and resonant component.
Aerodynamic and mechanical admittance are frequency-dependent functions and they act
like form links between these spectra. The amplification at the resonant frequency will
result in a higher mean square fluctuating and peak response. The random vibration
process is appropriate for windstorms, such as gales in temperate latitudes and tropical
cyclones. However, it may not be appropriate for windstorms that have a shorter duration,
such as downbursts or tornadoes associated with thunderstorms (Holmes, 2007).
30
Figure 2.9 Simple stick model with large mass on top (Cenek, 1990)
The displacement x(t) of the structure is opposed by a restoring force generated from the
member and a damping force due to the internal friction developed within the system
during the motion. It is then assumed that the restoring force is linear and proportional to
the displacement x(t), and that damping is viscous and proportional to the velocity x’(t).
So, the equation of motion of this system based on Newton’s second law under a given
wind force, P(t), is given by Equation 2.2,
P(t )
&x& + 2ς 1 (2πn 0 ) x& + (2πn 0 ) 2 x = (2.3)
m
1 k
• Natural frequency, n 0 = ; and
2π m
c
• Critical damping ratio, ς 1 =
2 km
The quantity 2 km is known as the critical damping coefficient and can be shown to be
the value of the damping coefficient beyond which the free motion of the system is non-
oscillatory. The damping ratio is expressed as a percentage of the critical damping.
2
p(t ) = C p0 ( 12 ) ρ a [U + u ' (t )]2 = C p0 ( 12 ) ρ a [U + 2U u ' (t ) + u ' (t ) 2 ] (2.5)
2
For small turbulence intensities, σ u2 is small in comparison with U . Then the quasi-
Subtracting the mean values from both sides of Equations 2.7, the following equation can
be derived as:
Neglecting the second term in the square brackets of Equation 2.8 (valid for low
turbulence intensities), squaring and taking mean values, the following equation is
obtained.
2 2 2 2 2 2
p ' 2 ≅ C p ( 1 ) ρ a2 [4U u ' ] = C p ρ a2 U u ' (2.9)
4
Equation 2.10 is analogous to Equation 2.9 for pressures. Writing Equation 2.10 in terms
of spectral density:
2
4D
S D ( n) = 2
S u ( n) (2.11)
U
33
1
Magnification factor, mmax = at n = n0 (2.13)
2ς
For lightly damped structures, this resonance occurs over a narrow band of frequencies
with a high resonance magnification factor. Note that, from Figure 2.10, the
magnification tends to infinity as the damping ratio tends to zero. The steady state
response takes some time to build up. A fraction, R, of the steady state response will be
achieved after N cycles of steady excitation where
− ln(1 − R)
N= (2.14)
2πς
Figure 2.10 Mechanical admittance with respect to natural frequency of structure (Cenek, 1990)
34
As the applied frequency increases beyond the building frequency, no, the response
amplitude decreases rapidly. The inertia of the system increases its apparent stiffness in
relation to the rapidly alternating forces. The variation of response with frequency, as
shown in Figure 2.10, is known as the mechanical admittance of system or dynamic
amplification factor, | H (n) | 2 , and it is mathematically expressed as:
1
| H i ( n) | 2 = (2.15)
n n
[1 − ( ) 2 ]2 + 4ς i2 ( ) 2
ni ni
X (t ) = P(t ) × | H ( n) | (2.16)
K
In conversion of Equation 2.16, the spectral density of the deflection in relation to the
spectral density of the applied force can be written as follows:
S D (n)
S x ( n) = 2
| H ( n) | 2 (2.17)
K
Equation 2.18 is best applied to those structures that have a relatively smaller frontal area
in relation to the length scales of atmospheric turbulence.
35
2
1 4D
S x ( n) = 2 | H ( n ) | 2 2
.χ 2 (n).S u (n) (2.19)
K U
For open structures, such as lattice frame towers, those do not disturb the flow greatly;
χ (n) can be determined from the correlation properties of the upwind velocity
fluctuations. However for solid structures, χ (n) has to be obtained experimentally.
Figure 2.11 shows that χ (n) tends towards 1.0 at low frequencies and for small bodies.
The low frequency gusts are nearly fully correlated and fully envelope the face of a
structure. For high frequencies or very large bodies, the gusts are ineffective in producing
total forces on the structure due to their lack of correlation, and the aerodynamic
admittance tends towards zero (Holmes, 2007).
1.0
χ (n )
0.1
0.01
∞ 2 ∞
1 4X
σ = ∫ S x (n).dn = 2 | H (n) | 2
2
x 2
.χ 2 (n) ∫ S u (n).dn (2.20)
0 K U 0
From Figure 2.12, the area underneath the integrand, shown in Equation 2.20, is
approximated by two components, B and R, representing background (broad band) and
resonant (or narrow band) responses respectively, with the effect of | H (n) | 2 significant
only at resonance.
∞ 2 2
1 4 X σ u2 1 4 X σ u2
2
S u ( n)
σ = 2
2
x 2 ∫0 | H (n) | χ (n) σ u .dn = K 2 U 2 [ B + R]
2 2
(2.21)
K U
∞
S u ( n)
• Background component, B = ∫ χ 2 (n) .dn
0
σu
S u ( n) ∞
• Resonant component, R = χ (n) 2
∫ | H ( n) |
2
.dn
σu 0
Equation 2.21 is a good approximation for any structure with low damping that can be
subjected to a highly resonant effect of dynamic wind response. This equation is used
widely in code methods for evaluating the along-wind response in designing structures.
The background factor, B, represents the quasi-static response caused by gusts below the
natural frequency of the structure and, most importantly, it is independent of frequency.
For many structures under wind loading, B is greater than R, where the background
response is dominant in comparison with the resonant response.
The expected maximum response of the simple system described can be written as:
Xˆ = X + gσ x (2.22)
• g is a peak factor which depends on the time interval for which the
maximum value and the frequency range of the response is calculated.
Xˆ σ σ
G= = 1 + g x = 1 + 2g u B+R (2.23)
X X U
Equation 2.23 is used in many codes and standards for wind loading and for the
prediction of the along wind dynamic loading of structures. The usual approach is to
calculate the gust factor, G (defined differently in most of the codes) for the first mode of
vibration and then to multiply it by the mean wind load on the structure.
38
σu
1 + 2g B+R
C dym = U (2.24)
σu
1 + 2g
U
Therefore, Davenport (1964) derived Equation 2.25 as an expression for the peak factor:
0.577
g = 2 log e (νT ) + (2.25)
2 log e (νT )
∞
1 πn S (n )
σ y2 ≈ 2 ∫ u
S (n)dn + 0 u 0 (2.26)
K 0 4ς s
If the excitation of the along-wind response is small and the structural damping is low,
usually less than 10%, the resonant band-width would dominate and therefore the first
term in Equation 2.26 can be neglected. Hence, the root-mean-square (r.m.s) resonant
generalized displacement is shown as follows:
πn0 S F ,ψ (n0 )
σy ≈ (2.27)
K 2 4ς s
The general stiffness, K, of a structure has a close relationship with the generalized mass
of the structure itself, and these are expressed as:
K= (2πn0 ) 2 M (2.28)
1 πn 0 S F ,ψ ( n 0 )
σ &y& = ( 2πn 0 ) 2 σ y = (2.29)
M 4ς s
k
z
• ψ i (z ) = mode shape, can be represented by a power function
h
40
C dyn × (1 + 2 g v I h ) (2.32)
G = C dyn × (1 + 2 g v I h ) = 1 + 2 I h g v Bs + (2.33)
ς
σv
• I h = turbulence intensity, I h =
V
• g v is the peak factor for upwind velocity fluctuation taken as 3.7
41
1
• Bs is the background factor, Bs =
[0.26(h − s ) 2 + 0.46bsh2 ]0.5
1+
Lh
• s = height of the level at which action effects are calculated for a structure
• h = average roof height of a structure above the ground
• bsh = the average breadth of the structure between heights s and h and Lh
is a measure of the integral turbulence length scale at height h,
h 0.25
bsh = 85( )
10
• H s = height factor for the resonant which equals 1 + (s / h )
2
πN
stream Et =
(1 + 70.8 N 2 )
However, the mean deflection, as defined in AS1170.2, ∆ , is the mean wind force
divided by general stiffness and, again, the mean wind force can be derived
conservatively by assuming the total mean base moment divided by the total height.
Hence:
P Mb
∆= = (2.34)
K Kh
Thus, combining and rearranging Equations 2.31, 2.32, 2.33 and 2.34 gives:
42
Mb 1 M
σ &x& = ( 2πn0 ) 2 × G × ∆ = ( 2πn0 ) 2 × G × = × C dyn × b (2.35)
Kh M h
From Equation 2.35, AS1170.2 has initially adopted k =1 by assuming pure cantilever
action of the structure and therefore:
1 Mb
σ &x& = 2
× C dyn × (2.36)
h z h
m∫ dz
0
h
In AS1170.2, the mean base bending moment, M b , can be expressed as the peak based
bending moment divided by peak factor:
ρ air C fig , windard ∑ [Vdes ,θ (z )]2 b z z∆z − C fig ,leeward [Vdes ,θ (h )]2 ∑ b z z∆z
1 h h
2
Mb = z =0 z =0 (2.37)
(1 + 2 g v I h )
For Cdyn , the resonant component is considered to be the dominant part of the gust
2I h g v Bs +
ς
C dyn = (2.38)
(1 + 2 g v I h )
As a result of Equation 2.36, 2.37 and 2.38, the peak along wind acceleration, as defined
in AS1170.2, is shown as (Standards Australia International., 2002):
H s SE t
ρ air g R 2 I h
ζ
[ ] [ ]
h h
σ &x& =
3
fig , windard ∑ des ,θ
C V ( z ) 2
b z ∆z − C V (h ) 2
∑ b z z∆z
mo h 2 (1 + 2 g V I h ) z =0
z fig , leeward des ,θ
z =0
(2.39)
43
Generally, slender structures are susceptible to a dynamic wind response in both along-
wind and crosswind directions. Tall chimneys, street lighting standards, and towers and
cables are the best examples, as they often exhibit crosswind oscillation that can be
significant when the structural damping is small. Cross wind excitation of modern tall
buildings and structures can be divided into three main mechanisms (AS/NZ1170.2 2002)
and their higher time derivatives will be described in the following.
represents a particular mode shape Ψi ( z ) , where z represents the vertical height of the
structure. A structure with a lightly-damped multi-degree of freedom linear system with
some arbitrary excitation x(z,t) per unit length over a time domain t, can be expressed as a
summation of the form (Holmes, 2007):
∞
y ( z , t ) = ∑ a i (t )Ψi ( z ) (2.40)
i =1
For most lightly damped structures, the mean square displacement y 2 ( z ) , or variance of
displacement , assuming for convenience that the mean response is zero, may be
expressed as:
44
∞
σ ( z ) = y ( z ) = ∑ ai2 (t )Ψi2 ( z )
2
y
2
(2.41)
i =1
The evaluation of ai2 (t ) requires the power spectral density function over the frequency
domain of the wind excitation forces, which can be obtained from:
∞
S Fi ( n ) = 2 ∫ R Fi (τ ) e − j 2 πnτ d τ (2.42)
−∞
However, a thin line structure excited by a distributed wind load x( z , t ) per unit height,
S Fi (n) , from Equation 2.42, can be expressed into two ways:
∞ h h
S Fi (n) = 2 ∫ ∫ ∫ w( z1 , t ) w( z 2 , t + τ ) ×ψ i ( z1 )ψ i ( z 2 )dz1 dz 2 e − j 2πnτ dτ (2.43)
−∞ 0 0
h h
S Fi (n) = ∫ ∫ C 0 ( z1 , z 2 , n)ψ i ( z1 )ψ i ( z 2 )dz1 dz 2 (2.44)
0 0
C 0 ( z1 , z 2 , n) is the co-spectral density function for the fluctuating loads per unit height at
positions z1 and z 2 . However, for the excitation/response relationship, where the phase
information is not required, it is adequate to consider the real part only. Hence, the
variance of the modal coefficient may be evaluated as:
∞
S Fi ( n ) | H i ( n ) | 2 dn ∞ S Fi ( n ) | H i ( n ) | 2 dn
a =∫
2
=∫ (2.45)
( 2πn i ) 4 M 2
i
0 k i2 0
1
• | H i ( n) | 2 =
n 2 2 n
[1 − ( ) ] + 4ς i2 ( ) 2
ni ni
45
Therefore, the power spectral density function of the total response y ( z , t ) is given by the
summation:
∞
S y ( z ) (n) = ∑ S ai (n)ψ i2 ( z ) (2.46)
i =1
S Fi (n) | H i (n) | 2
S ai ( n ) = (2.47)
(2πni ) 4 mi2
However, the force spectra of any building can be presented in a normalized form:
nS F (n)
2
(2.48)
[ 12 ρU (h)bh] 2
nb / U (h) where:
• ρ = air density
Figure 2.13 Mode generalized crosswind force spectra of tall buildings (Kwok, 1982)
The mode-generalized crosswind force spectra shown in Figure 2.13 apply to any
fundamental sway mode shape. However, for tall buildings in turbulent condition, the
mode shape of a building may be very complex, other than those of a liner mode shape.
Therefore, the crosswind force spectra S F (n) has to be adjusted as follows:
h
3
S F ,ψ (n) = ∫ψ 2 (n)dz.S F (n) (2.49)
h0
Hence, from Equation 2.49, the variance of the crosswind response for the r.m.s
deflection of a building can be described as follows:
∞ ∞
1
σ y2 = ∫ S y ,ψ (n)dn = ∫S F ,ψ (n) | H (n) |2 dn (2.50)
(2πn0 ) 4 M 2 0
47
However, from Equation 2.50, this can be further simplified by splitting it into
background and resonant components:
1 ∞ πn0 S F ,ψ (n0 )
σ y2 ≈ 2 ∫ F ,ψ
S (n)dn + (2.51)
(2πn0 ) M 0
4
4ς s
If the wind is subjected to an extreme dynamic response and the structural damping is
low, the background component in the equation can usually be neglected. So, the
variance of the crosswind response can be expressed as follows:
πn0 S F ,ψ (n0 )
σ y2 ≈ (2.52)
(2πn0 ) 4 M 2 4ς s
1 πn 0 S F ,ψ ( n 0 )
σ &y& = ( 2πn 0 ) 2 σ y = (2.53)
M 4ς s
1 πn 0 S F ,ψ ( n 0 )
σ &y& = (2.54)
h z
2k
4ς s
m∫ dz
0
h
1 πn 0 S F ,ψ ( n 0 ) 3 πn 0 S F ,ψ ( n 0 )
σ &y& = = (2.55)
h z
2
4ς s mh 4ς s
m∫ dz
0
h
As per Equation 2.48, the spectral force, S F ,ψ , is replaced by the crosswind force
n0 S F ,ψ (n0 )
C Fs = (2.56)
q 2b 2 h 2
2
• q = mean wind pressure = 1
2 ρV
Vdes ,θ
• V = mean wind speed =
1+ g v I h
2
3 πC Fs (q b h ) 3bρ V des ,θ πC Fs
2 2 2
σ &y& = = (2.57)
mh 4ς s 4m 1 + g v I h ςs
Based on AS1170.2, Equation 2.57 can be further improved by including the mode shape
correction factor to the equation:
2
3bρ V des ,θ πC Fs
σ &y& = Km (2.58)
4m 1 + g v I h ςs
In order to change the r.m.s crosswind acceleration to peak, the peak value ( g R ) of the
resonant response has to be included in Equation 2.58. Therefore, the peak crosswind
acceleration, as it is written in AS1170.2, is as follows:
2
3g bρ V des ,θ πC Fs
σ &y& = R Km (2.59)
4m 1 + g v I h ςs
1. Determine the return period for the serviceability wind design of the structure.
2. Basic wind speed will be based on the return period of 1, 5 or 10 years.
50
3. Determine the terrain category (Mz,cat), topographic multiplier (Mt), wind direction
multiplier (Md), shielding multiplier (Ms) and height multiplier (Mh) to obtain
design wind speed for acceleration calculation purposes.
4. Determine the aerodynamic shape factor (Cfig), which includes external and
internal pressures of the building, and the dynamic response factor (Cdyn), which
is based on the building characteristics and its environments. Design wind
pressure is obtained from the aerodynamic shape factor, dynamic response factor
and design wind speed.
5. Peak along wind accelerations can be obtained from Equation 2.40.
6. For cross wind acceleration, Equation 2.61 is adopted for calculation.
7. Finally, it is important to combine both accelerations into a resultant acceleration
and its direction.
Wind-governed parameters
These are the basic parameters in terms of where the building is located that affect the
design wind speed. These parameters are as follows:
a) Region and terrain category type
b) Multipliers (Height, Wind Direction, Shielding, Topography)
Building-governed parameters
These parameters are related to the building size and/or its shape, and can greatly affect
the building acceleration. These parameters are as follows:
a) Building dimensions (length, width, height)
b) Building properties (stiffness, mass)
c) Damping ratio and its mode shape k, depending on the type of structure
51
30m 46m
Along Wind
Response 183m
2.2.2.1 Region
Regional wind speeds are based on 3s gust wind data and classified into several regions
— Regions A, W, B, C and D — across Australia. The table below shows a comparison
of the building’s accelerations for the same building at different regional wind speeds of
5-year return period.
30
25
Acceleration (mg)
20
15
10
5
Region
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Along Wind Acceleration Across Wind Acceleration
Figure 2.15 Comparison of regional wind speed with along-wind and crosswind response
53
From Figure 2.15, Region W has the highest building acceleration although it has a
relatively lower base shear and moment compared to other regions. This is due to the 5
year average recurrence interval of the highest wind speed, while its lowest wind speed is
at a 1000 years return period. In comparison, Region B has a higher wind speed with a
1000 year return period and a lower wind speed of a 5 year return period, and therefore
has a lower building acceleration than the building located at Region W. Likewise, the
along-wind acceleration has increased/decreased linearly across the wind acceleration
25
Acceleration (mg)
20
15
10
5 TC
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 2.16 Comparison of terrain categories with along-wind and crosswind response
Clearly from Figure 2.16, the worst building acceleration may occur at terrain category 1,
which can be well explained by the unobstructed wind flow around the building.
However, the effect is minimal if along wind accelerations across the 4 terrains are
compared. Therefore, it may be concluded that terrain category has a large effect on
building crosswind acceleration.
20
Acceleration (mg)
15
10
Building Ratio
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 2.17 Comparison of building dimensions with along-wind and crosswind response
From Figure 2.17, it can be seen that the highest acceleration may be applied to a
building with a rectangular shape; the narrower the short section of the building where
the crosswind is applied would result in a larger acceleration at both the along- and cross
wind response. The ideal structure would be either a symmetrical or a square building,
providing the least acceleration regardless of the wind directionality.
56
25
Acceleration (mg)
20
15
10
Figure 2.18 Comparison of building mass with along-wind and crosswind response
57
From Figure 2.18, it is obvious that a building’s mass may have a direct relationship to
along-wind acceleration and an exponential relationship to across-wind acceleration.
Therefore, a lighter building, which is the trend in tall building nowadays, may have an
adverse effect on human comfort, as a result of an exponential increment in the crosswind
acceleration. This has to be specifically taken into consideration in the design of tall
buildings. As yet, however, no code/standard provides a uniform guideline for designers
in terms of reinforcing the acceleration criteria to ensure that the building remains
serviceable during a high windstorm event. This will be discussed later in Chapter 2.4.
20
Acceleration (mg)
15
10
5
Period (s)
0
1 3 5 7 9 11
Along Wind Acceleration Across Wind Acceleration
Resultant Acceleration
Figure 2.19 Comparison of building periods with along-wind and crosswind response
From Figure 2.19, different building periods may have a great effect on both along-wind
and across-wind acceleration. Along-wind acceleration tends to increase linearly, while
across-wind acceleration decreases slightly with an increasing period. However, the final
resultant acceleration from both along-wind and across-wind is approximately similar, for
periods less than 5s, while the resultant acceleration tends to increase for periods of more
than 5s.
59
The relationship between the peak values, peak-to-peak and r.m.s acceleration is shown
in Table 2.6. The r.m.s acceleration is always preferred because it expresses the severity
by averaging out the maximum and minimum responses. Nevertheless, all of these
acceleration types are generated from the same wind flow, but are shown in different
numerical values. Likewise, both the peak values of acceleration and the r.m.s can be
obtained from experiments using motion simulators, which are subjected to sinusoidal
motion with varying frequencies and amplitudes. Most of the time, peak and r.m.s
acceleration are equally important because of the acceleration criteria limit. However,
some researchers indicate that r.m.s acceleration offers a more accurate means of
combining the response in different directions (Kareem, 1992).
peak − to − peak
Peak Peak = Peak Peak = Peak = 2 r.m.s
2
Peak-to-peak = 2 2
Peak-to-peak Peak-to-peak = 2 Peak Peak-to-peak = Peak-to-peak
r.m.s
Table 2.6 Conversion between peak, peak-to-peak and r.m.s value (Griffin, 1990)
60
2.4.1 Background
Over the past few decades, there has been intensive research and experimentation carried
out in order to determine perception thresholds against building acceleration. A “moving
room” experiment has been most commonly used, where human subjects are placed
within a room that is subjected to simple harmonics of varying amplitude and the data on
the perception levels is recorded. Assessments of the perception limit have been
conventionally based on the response of individuals to tests using uni-axial motion
simulators (e.g. Chen & Robertson, 1973, Irwin 1981, Goto 1983), and more recently by
adopting bi-directional motion simulation tests (Denoon et al., 2000). Most of these cases
rely on sinusoidal excitations, which are simply quantified by either peak or r.m.s
acceleration limits. Nonetheless, there are obvious discrepancies between the testing
environment and the actual environment, as buildings may experience narrowband,
random motions, that induce biaxial and torsional responses. Likewise, the absence of
visual and audio cues in most of the test environments neglects the critical stimuli,
especially in terms of torsional motions, which are infamous for triggering visual
stimulus. Therefore, there is a need to improve on model testing in order to create more
accurate data or criteria that can be complied with universally.
Yamada and Goto carried out three major experiments. The first experiment was in
regard to the human response to vibration. They obtained the average threshold curves by
investigating eleven factors of perception and tolerance with the relationship between
61
period and acceleration. They found that the perception threshold is very sensitive in
respect to the period.
Melbourne and Palmer (1992) studied acceleration and comfort criteria in buildings
undergoing complex motions by dividing wind-induced motion into a variety of
categories, including: the sway motion of the first 2 bending modes — along- and
crosswind motions; a higher mode torsional motion about the vertical axis; and for
buildings with stiffness and mass asymmetries and complex bending and torsion in the
lower modes. The horizontal acceleration criteria for 10 consecutive minutes in a 5-year
return period for buildings is given by Irwin’s E2 curve as shown in Figure 2.20
(Melbourne & Palmer, 1992). Melbourne and Palmer in 1992 provided their own
perception curves, as shown in Figure 2.20, based on the work of Irwin (1986), Reed
(1971) and Robertson & Chen (1973).
62
1
Melbourne’s (1988) maximum peak horizontal acceleration criteria
based on Irwin (1986) and Chen and Robertson (1973), for T = 600
seconds, and return period R years
Horizontal acceleration m/s
RETURN
< PERIODS
0.1 10 YEARS
5 YEARS
1 YEAR
0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10
Frequency no (Hz)
Figure 2.20 Horizontal acceleration criteria for occupancy comfort in buildings (Melbourne &
Palmer, 1992)
In 1999, Kareem et al. summarized all the curves from Irwin (1981), Reed (1971),
Melbourne (1988) and the AIJ (1991) as shown in Figure 2.21. In this figure, the lines
labeled H1-H4 are taken from the Japanese AIJ standards and represent various levels of
peak acceleration perception, with H-2 typically used for residential applications and H-3
used for office dwellings (Kareem et al., 1999).
Figure 2.21 various perception criteria for occupant comfort (Kareem, 1999)
63
Chapter 3
3.1 Introduction
Structurally, the primary structural skeleton of a tall building can be visualized as a
vertical cantilever beam with its base fixed in the ground. The structural columns and
core walls have to carry all of the gravity load and the lateral wind and earthquake loads.
The building must therefore have adequate stiffness to resist the applied lateral shear and
bending, in combination with its vertical load-carrying capability. In fact, the increased
height of a building will result in an increase in its total structural material consumption.
Accordingly, column sizes have to increase down to the base of the building as a result of
the accumulated increase in the gravity loads transmitted from the floors above.
Furthermore, the core wall needs to be thickened and more heavily reinforced towards the
base to resist the lateral loads. The net result is that, as the building becomes taller, the
lateral action of the building, such as sway and wind-induced motion, becomes critical.
64
Hence, innovative structural schemes are continuously being sought in the design of
high-rise structures with the intention of improving the building performance and
reducing the wind drift to acceptable limits. Nowadays, the most commonly used lateral-
resisting structural systems for reinforced concrete tall buildings included moment
resisting frame, shear wall-frame system, shear wall-outrigger-braced system, framed-
tube system, tube-in-tube system with interior columns and modular tubes system.
Following this, the outrigger-braced columns are elongated at one side and compressed at
the other, based on the magnitude of the outrigger rotation. These tensile and
compressive forces produce a partial reversal of rotation of the braced core and the
deflection can result in a flat S-curve with a point of inflection. The net effect of the
coupling action is to reduce the bending moments of the core and thereby reduce
deflections. The amount of reduction in drift depends on the relative stiffness of the core,
outriggers and the size of columns, as will be discussed later in this chapter.
Placing a rigid outrigger at the top of the building eliminates the differential movement
between the interior and exterior columns by providing a compressive restraint for the
exterior columns in expansion and a tension restraint when the columns are in
compression (Taranath, 1988). The next sections present an approximate method for the
analysis of uniform outrigger structures with a uniform core, uniform columns, and
similar-sized outriggers at each level. This method of analysis is useful in providing an
estimate of the optimum levels of the outriggers in minimizing the total building drift and
deflections.
Outrigger
Outrigger-
braced
column
Core
wall
Figure 3.1 3-D view of an outrigger-braced core-to-column structure (left) and the elevation of the
structure (right) extracted from ETABS software
66
In a tall building, the inertia of the core and the sectional area of the columns are reduced
along its height. However, the base shear, moment and axial forces in the core wall and
columns are influenced by the properties of the structure at the lower levels of the
structure. So an analysis of uniform structural properties of the actual structure will
provide results of sufficient accuracy for a preliminary design.
Hence, the compatibility equations state, for each outrigger level, the equivalence of the
rotation of the core to the rotation of the outrigger. From Figure 3.2 (a) and (b), it is
clearly shown that the rotation of the core is expressed in terms of the bending
deformation for the outrigger, the axial deformations for the columns, and the bending for
the core wall (Stafford Smith, 1991).
θ1
Deflection of Moment of
outrigger- outrigger-
braced braced
structure structure
Leeward
column in
compression Deflection of
structure Moment of
without core without
θ2 outrigger outriggers
Windward
column in
tension
Figure 3.2 (a) Outrigger structure deformed shape; (b) the deflection of structure; (c) the total core
base bending moment diagram (Stafford Smith, 1991)
As shown in Figure 3.2 (c), the base bending moment diagram for the core consists of the
reduction from the external moment generated by the outrigger-braced system, which
extends uniformly down to the base. Initially, without any contribution from the
outrigger-braced system, the core base bending moment can be written as:
wx 2
MB = (3.1)
2
From Equation 3.1, the moment-area method can be adopted to obtain the core rotations
at levels 1 and 2, respectively:
1 x2 wx 2 1 H wx 2
θ1 = ∫ ( − M 1 )dx + ∫x2 ( 2 − M 1 − M 2 )dx (3.2)
EI x1 2 EI
68
1 H wx 2
θ2 = ∫ ( − M 1 − M 2 )dx (3.3)
EI x2 2
The rotations of the outriggers at the points where they are connected to the core consist
of two components: one is allowed by the differential axial deformations of the columns;
the other by the outriggers bending under the action of the column forces. The rotation of
the outrigger at level 1 can be expressed as:
2M 1 ( H − x1 ) 2M 2 ( H − x 2 ) M 1d
θ1 = 2
+ 2
+ (3.4)
d ( EA) c d ( EA) c 12( EI ) o
2( M 1 + M 2 )( H − x 2 ) M 2d
θ2 = 2
+ (3.5)
d ( EA) c 12( EI ) o
Another major factor that has to be considered is the proportion of the width of the core
wall and the distance between core wall and the exterior outrigger-braced column
measured from centre of core. This is known as wide-column effect and is illustrated and
shown in Figure 3.3 (a) and (b), outrigger flexural stiffness ( EI ) o therefore can be
expressed as:
69
a
( EI ) o = (1 + ) 3 ( EI ' ) o (3.6)
b
Figure 3.3 (a) Outrigger connected to edge of core; (b) equivalent outrigger beam attached to the
centroid of core (Stafford Smith, 1991)
By equating Equation 3.2 and 3.4, the rotation at level 1, θ1 , and both outriggers at x1
and x 2 , provide the compatibility equations as follow:
2M 1 ( H − x1 ) 2M 2 ( H − x 2 ) M 1d 1 x2 wx 2 H wx
2
2
+ 2
+ = ∫x1 ( − M 1 ) dx + ∫ ( − M 1 − M 2 )dx
d ( EA) c d ( EA) c 12( EI ) o EI 2 x2 2
(3.7)
And similarly equating Equation 3.3 and 3.5 for rotation at level 2, θ 2 :
2( M 1 + M 2 )( H − x 2 ) M 2d 1 H wx 2
2
d ( EA) c
+ =
12( EI ) o EI ∫x2
(
2
− M 1 − M 2 )dx (3.8)
1 x2 wx 2 H wx
2
∫x1 ( − M 1 ) dx + ∫ ( − M 1 − M 2 )dx
EI 2 x 2 2
1 wx 3
x2
wx 3
H
= − M 1 x + − M 1 x − M 2 x
EI 6 x1 6 x2
70
1 w( x 23 − x13 ) w( H 3 − x 23 )
= − M 1 ( x 2 − x1 +
) − M 1 ( H − x 2 ) − M 2 ( H − x 2 )
EI 6 6
1 w( H 3 − x13 )
= − M 1 ( H − x1 ) − M 2 ( H − x 2 )
EI 6
1 w( H 3 − x13 )
= − M 1 ( H − x1 ) − M 2 ( H − x 2 )
EI 6
2M 1 ( H − x1 ) M 1 ( H − x1 ) 2M 2 ( H − x 2 ) M 2 ( H − x 2 ) M 1d w( H 3 − x13 )
− + − + =
d 2 ( EA) c EI d 2 ( EA) c EI 12( EI ) o 6 EI
(3.9)
1 w( H 3 − x 23 )
= − M 1 ( H − x2 ) − M 2 ( H − x2 )
EI 6
1 w( H 3 − x 23 )
= − M 1 ( H − x2 ) − M 2 ( H − x2 )
EI 6
2M 1 ( H − x 2 ) M 1 ( H − x 2 ) 2 M 2 ( H − x 2 ) M 2 ( H − x 2 ) M 1d w( H 3 − x 23 )
− + − + =
d 2 ( EA) c EI d 2 ( EA) c EI 12( EI ) o 6 EI
(3.10)
71
1 2
S≡ + 2 (3.11)
EI d ( EA) c
d
S1 ≡ (3.12)
12( EI ) o
By rewriting Equations 3.9 and 3.10, combining Equation 3.11 and 3.12, the following
equations can be derived:
w
M 1[ S1 + S ( H − x1 )] + M 2 S{H − x 2 ) = ( H 3 − x13 ) (3.13)
6 EI
w
M 1 S ( H − x 2 ) + M 2 [ S1 + S{H − x 2 )] = ( H 3 − x 23 ) (3.14)
6 EI
x2
Restraining
moment
M1 + M2
w
( H 3 − x13 ) − M 2 S{H − x 2 )
M 1 = 6 EI (3.15)
[ S1 + S ( H − x1 )]
w
6 EI ( H − x1 ) − M 2 S{H − x 2 )
3 3
w
S ( H − x 2 ) + M 2 [ S1 + S{H − x 2 )] = ( H 3 − x 23 )
[ S 1 + S ( H − x1 )] 6 EI
=
w
6 EI
[
( H 3 − x23 )[ S1 + S ( H − x1 )] − S{H − x2 )( H 3 − x13 ) ]
w [ S1 ( H 3 − x 23 ) + S[( H − x1 )( H 3 − x 23 ) − {H − x 2 )( H 3 − x13 )]
M2 = (3.16)
6 EI S12 + S1 S (2 H − x1 − x 2 ) + S 2 {H − x 2 )( x 2 − x1 )
[ S{H − x 2 )] 2 w 3 S{H − x 2 )( H 3 − x 23 )
M 1 [ S1 + S{H − x1 )] − = ( H − x 3
) −
[ S1 + S ( H − x 2 )] 6 EI [ S1 + S ( H − x 2 )]
1
w S1 ( H 3 − x13 ) + S ( H − x 2 )( x 23 − x13 )
M1 = 2 (3.17)
S1 + S1 S (2 H − x1 − x 2 ) + S {H − x 2 )( x 2 − x1 )
2
6 EI
The solution of Equations 3.16 and 3.17 gives the restraining moment applied to the core
by the outriggers at x1 and x 2 as:
w S1 ( H 3 − x13 ) + S ( H − x 2 )( x 23 − x13 )
M1 = 2
S1 + S1 S (2 H − x1 − x 2 ) + S {H − x 2 )( x 2 − x1 )
2
6 EI
w [ S1 ( H 3 − x 23 ) + S[( H − x1 )( H 3 − x 23 ) − {H − x 2 )( H 3 − x13 )]
M2 =
6 EI S12 + S1 S (2 H − x1 − x 2 ) + S 2 {H − x 2 )( x 2 − x1 )
Having solved the outrigger restraining moments, M 1 and M 2 , the resulting moment in
the core can be expressed as:
wx 2
Mx = − M1 − M 2 (3.18)
2
The maximum moment in the outriggers is then M 1 .b / d for level 1 and M 2 .b / d for
level 2, where b is the net length of the outrigger.
∆0 =
w 4
EI
[
x − 4 H 3 x + 3H 4 ] (3.19)
However, for the purpose of optimizing the top drift only, the deflection at the top of
building without any restraining moment in Equation 3.19, can be expressed as:
wH 4
∆0 = (3.20)
8EI
While the deflection due to restraining moment at any location along the building is:
M i ( H 2 − xi2 )
∆R = (3.21)
EI
By combining Equations 3.20 and 3.21, the total deflection may be decreased due to both
restraining moments at x1 and x 2 :
∆T = ∆0 − ∆ R =
wH 4
−
1
8EI 2 EI
[
M 1 ( H 2 − x12 ) + M 2 ( H 2 − x 22 ) ] (3.22)
75
The first term on the right-hand side represents the top drift of the core acting as a free
vertical cantilever subjected to the full external loading; while the two parts of the second
term represent the reductions in the top drift due to the outrigger restraining moments M 1
and M 2 .
[
d∆ R d M 1 ( H 2 − x12 ) + M 2 ( H 2 − x 22 )
=
]
dx1 dx1
[ ] [
d∆ R d M 1 ( H 2 − x12 ) d M 2 ( H 2 − x 22 )
= +
]
dx1 dx1 dx1
d∆ R dM 1 dM 2
= ( H 2 − x12 ) + ( H 2 − x 22 ) − 2 x1 M 1 (3.23)
dx1 dx1 dx1
[
d∆ R d M 1 ( H 2 − x12 ) + M 2 ( H 2 − x 22 )
=
]
dx 2 dx 2
[ ] [
d∆ R d M 1 ( H 2 − x12 ) d M 2 ( H 2 − x 22 )
= +
]
dx1 dx 2 dx 2
d∆ R dM 1 dM 2
= ( H 2 − x12 ) + ( H 2 − x 22 ) − 2 x2 M 2 (3.24)
dx1 dx 2 dx 2
In the complete expressions for Equations 3.16 and 3.17, the structural properties were
expressed initially by the parameters S and S1 . Equations 3.23 and 3.24 can be rewritten
76
It is then possible to simplify Equations 3.23 and 3.24 further by combining α and β
into a single parameter ω , as defined by:
β S1
ω= =
12(1 + α ) HS
w S1 ( H 3 − x13 ) + S ( H − x 2 )( x 23 − x13 )
M1 = 2
S1 + S1 S (2 H − x1 − x 2 ) + S {H − x 2 )( x 2 − x1 )
2
6 EI
x 3 x 2 x 2 x1
3 3
ω 1 − + (1 − ) −
1
w H H H H H 4 S
M1 = ×
6 EI 2 x1 x 2 x 2 x 2 x1 H 2 S 2
ω + ω 2 − − + 1 − −
H H H H H
M1 =
w ( ) (
ω 1 − a 3 + (1 − b) b 3 − a 3 ) H2
2 × (3.25)
6 EI ω + ω (2 − a − b ) + (1 − b )(b − a ) S
77
w [ S1 ( H 3 − x 23 ) + S[( H − x1 )( H 3 − x 23 ) − {H − x 2 )( H 3 − x13 )]
M2 =
6 EI S12 + S1 S (2 H − x1 − x 2 ) + S 2 {H − x 2 )( x 2 − x1 )
x 3 x1 x 2 x 2 x1
3 3
ω 1 − + 1 − 1 − − 1 − 1 −
2
w H H H H H H 2
M2 = ×
6 EI x1 x 2 x 2 x 2 x1 S
ω + ω 2 − − + 1 − −
2
H H H H H
M2 =
w ( ) ( ) ( )
ω 1 − b 3 + (1 − a ) 1 − b 3 − (1 − b ) 1 − a 3 H 2
× (3.26)
6 EI ω 2
+ ω (2 − a − b ) + (1 − b )(b − a ) S
dM 1 dM 1 da x
• = × and a = 1
dx1 da dx1 H
dM 1 dM 1 1
• = ×
dx1 da H
d∆ R 1 x1 dM 1 x 2 dM 2
2 2
x
× = 1 − + 1 − − 2 1 M 1
dx1 H H da H da H
d∆ R
× 2 = (1 − a 2 ) + (1 − b 2 )
1 dM 1 dM 2
∴ − 2aM 1 (3.27)
db H da da
d∆ R dM 1 dM 2
= ( H 2 − x12 ) + ( H 2 − x 22 ) − 2 x 2 M 2 , where
dx1 dx 2 dx 2
dM 1 dM 1 da x
• = × and b = 2
dx 2 da dx 2 H
dM 1 dM 1 1
• = ×
dx 2 db H
78
d∆ R 1 x1 dM 1 x 2 dM 2
2 2
x
× = 1 − + 1 − − 2 2 M 1
dx 2 H H db H db H
d∆ R
× 2 = (1 − a 2 ) + (1 − b 2 )
1 dM 1 dM 2
∴ − 2bM 1 (3.28)
db H db db
The optimum location of the outriggers can be determined by minimizing the value of the
top drift, or by maximizing the restraining moment. The optimum solutions can be
obtained from the solutions of Equations 3.25 and 3.26 and Equations 3.27 and 3.28, and
they can be derived by setting the derivatives of ∆ R equal to zero:
d∆ R
× 2 = (1 − a 2 ) + (1 − b 2 )
1 dM 1 dM 2
− 2aM 1 = 0 ; and
db H da da
d∆ R
× 2 = (1 − a 2 ) + (1 − b 2 )
1 dM 1 dM 2
− 2bM 1 = 0 , where
db H db db
• M1 =
w ( ) (
ω 1 − a 3 + (1 − b) b 3 − a 3 ) H2
2 ×
6 EI ω + ω (2 − a − b ) + (1 − b )(b − a ) S
w ω (1 − b 3 ) + (1 − a )(1 − b 3 ) − (1 − b )(1 − a 3 ) H 2
• M2 = ×
6 EI ω 2 + ω (2 − a − b ) + (1 − b )(b − a ) S
It may be deduced that with all other properties remaining constant, there is a reduction in
ω as the outriggers flexural stiffness is increased, and that ω increases as the axial
stiffness of the columns increases. From the graph, it can be concluded that as ω tends to
increase, the position of both outriggers may have to shift upward in order to optimize the
building performance in terms of reducing deflection and acceleration at the top of
building.
79
2 Outriggers a=x1/H
b=x2/H
0.1
0.2
0.3
Location (x/H)
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 3.5 Optimum location for two-outrigger structure under uniform wind load
wx 2 x
MB = 1 − (3.29)
2 3H
From Equation 3.29, the moment-area method is adopted to obtain the core rotations at
levels 1 and 2, given in Equations 3.30 and 3.31 respectively:
80
1 x2 wx 2 x 1 H wx 2 x
θ1 = ∫ 1 − − M 1 dx + ∫x2 2 1 − 3H − M 1 − M 2 dx (3.30)
EI x1
2 3H EI
1 H wx 2 x
θ2 = ∫x2 2 1 − 3H − M 1 − M 2 dx (3.31)
EI
However, the rotation of the inner ends of the outrigger at levels 1 and 2 has the same
equations as in Section 3.2.2: Equations 3.4 and 3.5 respectively. To allow for the wide-
column effect of the core, the actual outrigger flexural stiffness ( EI ' ) o can be expressed
as per Equation 3.6.
By equating the rotation θ1 at level 1 and level 2, and θ 2 of the core and outrigger at x1
and x 2 , the compatibility equations are shown in Equations 3.32 and 3.33:
2 M 1 ( H − x1 ) 2M 2 ( H − x 2 ) M 1d
2
+ 2
+
d ( EA) c d ( EA) c 12( EI ) o
(3.32)
1 x2 wx 2 x 1 H wx 2 x
=
EI ∫x1 1 −
2 3H
− M 1 dx +
EI ∫x2 2 1 − 3H − M 1 − M 2 dx
2( M 1 + M 2 )( H − x 2 ) M 2d 1 H wx 2 x
2
d ( EA) c
+ =
12( EI ) o EI ∫x2 2 1 − 3H − M 1 − M 2 dx (3.33)
Elaborating the right-hand side of Equation 3.32, leads to the following equations.
81
1 x2 wx 2 x H wx
2
x
EI ∫x1 2 ∫x2 2
1 − − M 1 dx + 1 − − M 1 − M 2 dx
3H 3H
1 x2 wx 2 wx 3 H wx
2
wx 3
= ∫x − − M 1 dx + ∫ − − M 1 − M 2 dx
EI 1 2 6H x2
2 6H
1 wx 3 wx 4
x2
wx 3 wx 4
H
= − − M 1 x + − − M 1 x − M 2 x
EI 6 24 H x1 6 24 H x2
1 w( H 3 − x13 ) w( H 4 − x14 )
= − − M 1 ( H − x1 ) − M 2 ( H − x 2 )
EI 6 24 H
2M 1 ( H − x1 ) M 1 ( H − x1 ) 2 M 2 ( H − x 2 ) M 2 ( H − x 2 ) M 1d
2
− + 2
− +
d ( EA) c EI d ( EA) c EI 12( EI ) o
w( H 3 − x13 ) w( H − x1 ) w(3H 3 − 4 Hx13 + x14 )
4 4
= − = (3.34)
6 EI 24 EIH 24 EIH
1 H wx 2 x
EI ∫x2 2 1 −
3H
− M 1 − M 2 dx
H
1 H wx 2 wx 3 1 wx 3 wx 4
=
EI ∫x2 2 6H 1 2
− − M − M dx =
EI 6
−
24 H
− M 1 x − M 2 x
x2
82
1 w( H 3 − x 23 ) w( H 4 − x 24 )
= − − M 1 ( H − x 2 ) − M 2 ( H − x 2 )
EI 6 24 H
1 w( H 3 − x 23 ) w( H 4 − x 24 )
= − − M 1 ( H − x 2 ) − M 2 ( H − x 2 )
EI 6 24 H
2M 1 ( H − x 2 ) M 1 ( H − x 2 ) 2 M 2 ( H − x 2 ) M 2 ( H − x 2 ) M 1d
2
− + 2
− +
d ( EA) c EI d ( EA) c EI 12( EI ) o
w( H 3 − x 23 ) w( H − x 2 ) w(3H 4 − 4 Hx23 + x 24 )
4 4
= − = (3.35)
6 EI 24 EIH 24 EIH
Defining S and S1 as Equations 3.11 and 3.12, and rewriting Equations 3.34 and 3.35,
the final product can be expressed as follows:
w(3H 4 − 4 Hx23 + x 24 )
=
24 EIH
[ S ( H − x 2 )] 2
M 2 [ S1 + S{H − x 2 )] −
[ S1 + S ( H − x1 )]
=
w
24 EIH
[
(3H 4 − 4 Hx 23 + x 24 )[ S1 + S ( H − x1 )] − S{H − x 2 )(3H 4 − 4 Hx13 + x14 ) ]
And by rearranging the result, the restraining moment, M 2 , can be expressed as:
The solution of Equations 3.38 and 3.39 gives the restraining moment applied to the core
by the outriggers at x1 and x 2 respectively:
Having solved the outrigger restraining moments M 1 and M 2 , the resulting moment in
the core can be expressed as per Equation 3.18. The forces in the columns due to the
outrigger action are:
± M 1 / d for x1 < x < x 2 and ( M 1 + M 2 ) / d for x ≥ x 2
The maximum moment in the outriggers is then M 1 .b / d for level 1 and M 2 .b / d for
level 2, where b is the net length of the outrigger (Chang et al, 2004).
w x5
∆0 = 11H 4
− 15 H 3
x + 5 x 4
− (3.40)
120 EI H
For the purpose of optimizing the top drift only, the deflection at the top of a building
without any restraining moment, in Equation 3.40 can be further expressed as:
11 wH 4
∆0 = (3.41)
120 EI
The restraining moment at any location along the building can be derived as per Equation
3.20. In combination with Equation 3.41 and 3.20 for a two-outrigger-braced core, total
deflection may be decreased due to both restraining moments at x1 and x 2 :
∆T = ∆ 0 − ∆ R =
11 wH 4
120 EI
−
1
2 EI
[
M 1 ( H 2 − x12 ) + M 2 ( H 2 − x 22 ) ] (3.42)
The first term on the right-hand side represents the top drift of the core acting as a free
vertical cantilever subjected to the full external wind loading, while the two parts of the
86
second term represent the reductions in the top drift due to the outrigger restraining
moments M 1 and M 2 .
In addition, the parameters S and S1 , as shown in Equations 3.12 and 3.13, the non-
dimensional parameters, α and β , as shown in Equations 3.25 and 3.26, and the final
parameter ω , as defined in Equation 3.27, are used to simplify the differentiation. The
location at x1 and x 2 can then be simplified by introducing a and b :
x1 x
• a= and b = 2
H H
3ω + 2 − 1 + ω 1 + 4 2 − 1 + 1 − 5 2 + 4 1 2 − 4ω 1
w H H H H H H H H H H H H 5S
M1 = 2 × 2 2
24 EIH x x x x x x x H S
2ω + ω 2 − 1 − ω 1 + 2 − ω 2 + 1 2 − 2
H H H H H H H
M1 =
( ) ( ) (
w 3ω + b b 4 − a 4 + ωa 4 + 4 b 3 − a 3 + a 4 − 5b 4 + 4a 3 b − 4ωa 3 H 3 )
×
24 EIH 2ω + ω 2 − a − ωa + b − ωb + ab − b 2 S
(3.43)
87
From Equations 3.43 and 3.44, this can be changed in form of a and b :
d∆ R dM 1 dM 2
= ( H 2 − x12 ) + ( H 2 − x 22 ) − 2 x1 M 1
dx1 dx1 dx1
d∆ R 1 x1 dM 1 x 2 dM 2
2 2
x
× = 1 − + 1 − − 2 1 M 1
dx1 H H da H da H
d∆ R
× 2 = (1 − a 2 ) + (1 − b 2 )
1 dM 1 dM 2
∴ − 2aM 1 (3.45)
db H da da
d∆ R dM 1 dM 2
= ( H 2 − x12 ) + ( H 2 − x 22 ) − 2 x2 M 2
dx1 dx 2 dx 2
d∆ R 1 x1 dM 1 x 2 dM 2
2 2
x
× = 1 − + 1 − − 2 2 M 1
dx 2 H H db H db H
d∆ R
× 2 = (1 − a 2 ) + (1 − b 2 )
1 dM 1 dM 2
∴ − 2bM 1 (3.46)
db H db db
The optimum location of outriggers can be determined by minimizing the value of the top
drift or by maximizing the restraining moment. The optimum solutions can be obtained
from the solutions of the following simultaneous equations by setting the derivatives of
∆ R equal to zero:
d∆ R
× 2 = (1 − a 2 ) + (1 − b 2 )
1 dM 1 dM 2
− 2aM 1 = 0
db H da da
88
d∆ R
× 2 = (1 − a 2 ) + (1 − b 2 )
1 dM 1 dM 2
− 2bM 1 = 0
db H db db
M1 =
( ) ( ) (
w 3ω + b b 4 − a 4 + ωa 4 + 4 b 3 − a 3 + a 4 − 5b 4 + 4a 3 b − 4ωa 3 H 3 )
×
24 EIH 2ω + ω 2 − a − ωa + b − ωb + ab − b 2 S
M2 =
( ) ( ) (
w 3ω − ab b 3 − a 3 + ωb 4 + 3(b − a ) − 4 b 3 − a 3 + b 4 − a 4 − a 3 b + ab 3 − 4ωb 3 H 3 )
×
24 EIH 2ω + ω 2 − a − ωa + b − ωb + ab − b 2 S
And again, it is hard to obtain the closed-form solutions of the non-linear simultaneous
equations. For this purpose, a Mathematica-based computer program is developed to
obtain the numerical solutions. The graphical result is plotted in Figure 3.6.
a=x1/H
2 Outriggers
b=x2/H
0.1
0.2
0.3
Location (x/H)
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 3.6 Optimum location for two-outrigger structure under triangular form wind load
From Figure 3.6, the graph shows a consistent result in comparison with Figure 3.5. It
can be concluded that as ω tends to increase, the position of both outriggers, under a
triangular wind load, may have to shift in an upward location for the best performance in
terms of reducing top deflection and acceleration.
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Location
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 3.7 Optimum location for a two-outrigger-braced structure under both uniform and
triangular form loading
considering the triangular wind loading, but also in terms of the nature of the static
equivalent earthquake loading. It can be concluded that the optimum outrigger locations
for minimum top drift from the triangular loading were only slightly higher than those
deduced for uniformly distributed loading.
In reality, the wind loading distribution is usually in the form of a trapezoidal shape,
which consists of the superposition of uniform and triangular loading distributions. As
such, it can be concluded that the optimum outrigger location for minimum top deflection
can be taken as approximate to those from a uniformly distributed loading. Clearly, the
outrigger location tends to move up toward the building height with a triangular load
distribution, in comparison with uniform wind load distribution acting on an outrigger-
braced structure. This is due to the difference in the characteristics of the wind action on
the building, and the differences in the basic equations for the base bending moment and
the top deflection of the building.
Both equations can then be transformed into a matrix to form a solution for a multi-
outrigger-braced structure and can be expressed as follows:
91
S1 + S ( H − x1 ) S ( H − x2 ) S (H − x2 ) S (H − x2 ) M 1 H 3 − x13
S ( H − x ) M 3
2 S1 + S ( H − x 2 ) S ( H − x i ) S ( H − xi ) 2 H − x 23
• • • • • •
• • • • • = w •
S ( H − xi ) S ( H − xi ) S1 + S ( H − x i ) S ( H − x n ) M i 6 EI 3
H − xi3
• • • • • •
• •
• • • •
S ( H − x n ) S ( H − xn ) S (H − xn ) S1 + S ( H − x n ) M n H 3 3
− xn
(3.47)
• in which n is the number of the levels of the outriggers.
Equation 3.47 can then be transformed and expressed in terms of restraining moment:
−1
M 1 S1 + S ( H − x1 ) S ( H − x2 ) S (H − x2 ) S ( H − x2 ) H 3 − x13
M S ( H − x ) 3 3
2 2 S1 + S ( H − x 2 ) S ( H − x i ) S ( H − xi ) H − x2
• • • • • •
• = w • • • • •
M i 6 EI S ( H − xi ) S ( H − xi ) S1 + S ( H − x i ) S ( H − x n ) 3 3
H − xi
• • • • • •
• •
• • • •
M n S ( H − x n ) S ( H − xn ) S (H − xn ) S1 + S ( H − xn ) H 3 − x3
n
(3.48)
The base moment in the core is expressed as Equation 3.49, where, in the region between
the top of structure and the first outrigger from the top, the second term on the right-hand
side will be zero:
wx 2 n
MB = − ∑Mi (3.49)
2 i =1
Both equations can then be transformed into a matrix to form a solution for a multi-
outrigger-braced structure and can be expressed as follows:
• • • • • •
• • • • •
= w •
S(H − xi ) S ( H − xi ) S1 + S (H − xi ) S ( H − xn ) M i 24EIH 3H 4 − 4Hx3 + x4
i i
• • • • • •
• •
• • • •
S(H − xn ) S ( H − xn ) S ( H − xn ) S1 + S ( H − xn ) M n 3H 4 − 4Hx3 + x4
n n
(3.52)
Equation 3.52 can then be transformed and expressed in terms of restraining moment:
−1
M1 S1 + S(H − x1) S ( H − x2 ) S(H − x2 ) S ( H − x2 ) 3H4 −4Hx13 +x14
M S(H − x ) 4 4
2 2 S1 + S ( H − x2 ) S(H − xi ) S ( H − xi ) 3H −4Hx2 +x2
3
• • • • • •
• = w • • • • •
M i 24EIHS(H − xi ) S ( H − xi ) S1 + S(H − xi ) S ( H − xn ) 4 4
3H −4Hxi +xi
3
• • • • • •
• •
• • • •
M n S(H − xn ) S ( H − xn ) S(H − xn ) S1 + S (H − xn ) 3H4 −4Hx3 +x4
n n
(3.53)
The base moment in the core is expressed as Equation 3.54, where, in the region between
the top of structure and the first outrigger from the top, the second term on the right-hand
side will be zero:
93
wx 2 x n
MB = (1 − ) − ∑Mi . (3.54)
2 3H i =1
∆T = ∆0 − ∆ R =
wH 4
−
1
8EI 2 EI
[
M 1 ( H 2 − x12 ) + M 2 ( H 2 − x 22 ) ]
With a multi-outrigger-braced structure, Equation 3.55 shows the top deflection of the
building under uniform distributed wind loading:
∑ [M ]
wH 4 1 n
∆T = − i ( H 2 − xi2 ) (3.55)
8EI 2 EI i =1
On the other hand, generalization of the triangular load distribution acting on a multi-
outrigger-braced structure, is expressed as Equation 3.56:
∑ [M ]
11 wH 4 1 n
∆T = − i ( H 2 − xi2 ) (3.56)
120 EI 2 EI i =1
The Mathematica computer program is used to perform the numerical solutions for the
equations above and to obtain the best-fit location for optimizing the drift of a structure.
For multi-outrigger analysis, the results are extracted and plotted as follows: for one
outrigger, as shown in Figure 3.8; for two outriggers as per Figure 3.7; for three
outriggers as per Figure 3.9; for four outriggers as per Figure 3.10; and for five outriggers
as per Figure 3.11.
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Location
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Location
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Location
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Location
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
When comparing the series of graphs above, in a structure with outriggers that are
flexurally rigid, when ω equals to zero, the curves can lead to the following simple
guidelines to minimize the deflection at top of the building:
• The outrigger in a one-outrigger structure is approximately half-height;
• The outrigger in a two-outrigger structure is approximately one-third and two-
thirds along the height of structure;
• The outrigger in a three-outrigger structure should be at approximately one-
quarter, one-half and three-quarters along the height, and so on.
For a uniform structure, the lowest outrigger will induce the maximum restraining
moment, while the outriggers above carry less moment. If the outrigger locations are
optimized, the moment carried by the lowest outrigger can range from twice that carried
by the outrigger above. This could be worse with an additional outrigger at the top of
building, which will marginally carry a portion of restraining moment. This shows the
inefficiency of an outrigger-braced structure that includes an outrigger at the top of the
building (Stafford Smith, 1991).
The graphs are plotted for one- to five- outrigger structures in Figures 3.12 and 3.13
respectively, and they show that the percentage efficiencies for both drift and base
moment reductions can be expressed in terms of ω . Considering a one-outrigger structure
with a flexurally rigid outrigger (when ω = 0 ), the maximum efficiency in drift reduction
is 73.7%, and the corresponding efficiency in core base moment reduction is 46.5%. For
two, three, four and five outrigger structures, the respective efficiencies are 80.6%,
82.7%, 83.6%, and 84.1%. Evidently, for structures with very stiff outriggers (i.e. with
low values of ω ) there is little to be gained in drift control in exceeding five outriggers,
which is the reason the graphs are plotted for up to five outriggers only.
90.0
80.0
Deflection reduction efficiency %
1-Outrigger
70.0
2-Outrigger
60.0
50.0 3-Outrigger
40.0 4-Outrigger
30.0 5-Outrigger
20.0
10.0
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Value of ω
90.0
80.0
Moment reduction efficiency %
1-Outrigger
70.0
60.0 2-Outrigger
50.0 3-Outrigger
40.0 4-Outrigger
30.0
5-Outrigger
20.0
10.0
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Value of ω
For a structure with a relatively flexible outrigger, the efficiency in terms of drift and
moment reduction is lower. As such, there is no benefit gained from an outrigger-braced
system. Rather, it is suggested that increasing the outrigger wall thickness or increasing
the concrete strength further reduces the top drift and core moment. Alternatively, it is
necessary to adopt other lateral systems for the structure.
For two, three, four and five outriggers, the respective efficiencies for both optimum
location and for 10% closer to the base are 60.1% and 66.7%; 66.5% and 73.4%; 70.2%
and 77%; and finally, 72.6% and 79%, respectively. The lowering of outrigger locations
will decrease the base moment, and on the other hand, increases the top drift of the
structure. However, the increase in top drift for these two cases will not affect the result
significantly, as it is approximately between 0.5% to 2% of the total top deflection of the
structure, as shown in Figure 3.15.
90.0
80.0
1-Outrigger
Moment reduction efficiency %
70.0
2-Outrigger
60.0
3-Outrigger
50.0
4-Outrigger
40.0
30.0 5-Outrigger
20.0
10.0
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Value of ω
Figure 3.14 Moment reduction efficiency with outriggers 10% lower than the optimum location
In conclusion, when the total deflection of a structure is not critical, the design
philosophy could be changed to reduce the core moment by lowering the location of the
outriggers until the deflection limitations are satisfied. The flexibility of relocating the
outrigger is one of the advantages of selecting an outrigger-braced system over other
lateral systems. An outrigger-braced system enables the designer to choose the best
101
90.0
80.0
Deflection reduction efficiency %
70.0 1-Outrigger
60.0 2-Outrigger
50.0 3-Outrigger
40.0
4-Outrigger
30.0
5-Outrigger
20.0
10.0
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Value of ω
Figure 3.15 Deflection reduction efficiency with outriggers 10% lower than the optimum location
100.0
90.0
80.0
Deflection reduction efficiency %
1-Outrigger
70.0
2-Outrigger
60.0
50.0 3-Outrigger
40.0 4-Outrigger
30.0
5-Outrigger
20.0
10.0
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Value of ω
A comparison of Figures 3.12 and 3.16 for the deflection reduction efficiency, and of
Figures 3.13 and 3.17 for the moment reduction efficiency clearly shows that both graphs
give a similar result. There is no change in reduction efficiency in all the graphs and this
leads to the conclusion that height has no relationship to the efficiency of the outrigger
structures.
103
100.0
90.0
80.0
1-Outrigger
Moment reduction efficiency %
70.0
2-Outrigger
60.0
50.0
3-Outrigger
40.0 4-Outrigger
30.0 5-Outrigger
20.0
10.0
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Value of ω
100.0
90.0
80.0
Deflection reduction efficiency %
1-Outrigger
70.0
2-Outrigger
60.0
50.0 3-Outrigger
40.0 4-Outrigger
30.0 5-Outrigger
20.0
10.0
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Value of ω
A comparison of Figures 3.12 and 3.18 for the deflection reduction efficiency, and of
Figures 3.13 and 3.19 for the moment reduction efficiency clearly shows that Figures
3.18 and 3.19 yield lower efficiency in an outrigger-braced system. This may be due to
the fact that the stronger core attracts more forces and moments, causing the smaller
forces to be redistributed to the outrigger-braced core-to-column. Because of this, it can
be concluded that a stiffer core with an increase of core properties or an increase in
concrete strength will decrease the efficiency of the outrigger structures. It is important
for designers to assess the structural performance of a building, in terms of investigating
the core properties and column properties, before choosing an outrigger-braced system as
the lateral system for a structure.
105
100.0
90.0
80.0
Deflection reduction efficiency % 1-Outrigger
70.0
2-Outrigger
60.0
50.0 3-Outrigger
40.0 4-Outrigger
30.0 5-Outrigger
20.0
10.0
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Value of ω
100.0
90.0
80.0
Deflection reduction efficiency % 1-Outrigger
70.0
2-Outrigger
60.0
50.0 3-Outrigger
40.0 4-Outrigger
30.0
5-Outrigger
20.0
10.0
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Value of ω
100.0
90.0
80.0 1-Outrigger
Moment reduction efficiency %
70.0
2-Outrigger
60.0
3-Outrigger
50.0
4-Outrigger
40.0
30.0 5-Outrigger
20.0
10.0
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Value of ω
Clearly, Figures 3.20 and 3.21 show that the weaker outrigger-braced columns with lower
concrete strength and column size yield lower efficiency of the whole outrigger-braced
system in comparison with Figures 3.12 and 3.13. With a decrease of column size of 50%
and concrete strength of 25%, the drift reduction efficiency has dropped from 85% to
65%, and the moment reduction efficiency has reduced from 72% to 58% if the
outriggers are considered stiff. So, wherever possible, larger or stronger columns are
preferred in this lateral system in order to reduce the top drift and core moment
significantly.
100.0
90.0
80.0
Deflection reduction efficiency %
1-Outrigger
70.0
60.0 2-Outrigger
50.0 3-Outrigger
40.0
4-Outrigger
30.0
5-Outrigger
20.0
10.0
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Value of ω
Figure 3.22 Drift reduction efficiency with column clear distance changed
108
100.0
90.0
80.0
Moment reduction efficiency % 1-Outrigger
70.0
60.0 2-Outrigger
50.0 3-Outrigger
40.0 4-Outrigger
30.0
5-Outrigger
20.0
10.0
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Value of ω
Figure 3.23 Moment reduction efficiency with column clear distance changed
A comparison of Figures 3.12 and 3.22 for the deflection reduction efficiency, and
Figures 3.13 and 3.23 for the moment reduction efficiency, shows that an outrigger-
braced structure with a shorter clear distance between columns would yield lower
efficiency for the whole outrigger-braced system. With a decrease of clear distance
between columns of 30%, the drift reduction efficiency has dropped from 84% to 67%,
and moment reduction efficiency has reduced from 73% to 58% if the outriggers are
considered stiff: i.e. when ω = 0 . The clear distance between the outrigger-braced
columns plays an important role in increasing or decreasing the efficiency of an
outrigger-braced system in a structure. It is suggested that enlarging the clear distance
between columns can reduce the top drift and core moment significantly.
109
In fact, ψ i ( z ) can be determined from the deflection curve that is derived in Section
k
z
3.2.2 and can be further expressed in terms of the power function, . For a uniformly
h
110
distributed wind load, the deflection at any point of a building without any restraining
moment is expressed as per Equation 3.19:
∆0 =
w
24 EI
[
x 4 − 4 H 3 x + 3H 4 ]
The deflection due to restraining moment at any location along the building can be
derived as per Equation 3.21, which is as shown as follows:
M i ( H 2 − xi2 )
∆R =
EI
If outriggers are installed at particular levels of the building, the deflection along the
height of a structure should be reduced in accordance with the restraining moments below
it. The equation should be rewritten as:
[ ] M ( H 2 − xi2 )
n
w
∆T = x 4 − 4 H 3 x + 3H 4 − ∑ i (3.57)
24 EI i =1 EI
For a triangular distributed wind load, the deflection at any point of a building without
any restraining moment is expressed as per Equation 3.40:
w x5
∆0 = 11H 4
− 15 H 3
x + 5 x 4
−
120 EI H
Therefore, if outriggers are installed at particular levels of the building, the deflection
along the height of structure should be reduced at the outrigger locations. The equation
should be expressed as:
w x 5 n M i ( H 2 − xi2 )
∆T = 11H − 15H x + 5 x − − ∑
4 3 4
(3.58)
120 EI H i =1 EI
Figure 3.24 shows the deflection at any point of a two-outrigger-braced structure with a
triangular distributed wind load:
111
Triangular load
e
x1 1st outrigger location
d Deflection with
outrigger-
braced
c
x2 2nd outrigger location
b
Deflection without
outriggers
a
Two-outrigger-
braced structure
The formula for the deflection at location a, b, c, d and e, as shown in Fig 3.24, can be
derived accordingly, based on Equation 3.58:
w x5
∆a = 11H − 15H x + 5 x −
4 3 4
120 EI H
w x 5 M 2 ( H 2 − x22 )
∆ b ,c = 11H 4
− 15 H 3
x + 5 x 4
− −
120 EI H EI
w x 5 M 1 ( H 2 − x12 ) M 2 ( H 2 − x 22 )
∆ d ,e = 11H 4
− 15 H 3
x + 5 x 4
− − −
120 EI H EI EI
112
Further from this, the deflected shape of the structure can then be expressed in terms of a
k
z
mode shape equation, . This can be achieved by performing a curve-fitting method
h
in order to obtain the power of the equation, k . k , in an outrigger-braced structure, can
range from 1 to 2, which depends on the efficiency of the whole outrigger-braced system.
The stronger the outrigger-braced columns and the outriggers, the more the restraining
moments at each outrigger location will be, and therefore the greater the effect of
restrained deflection at those particular points.
Triangular load
Mode shape with very
strong outrigger-braced
e
system, k=1
x1
d
Two-outrigger-
braced structure
In general, m( z ) can be estimated by acquiring the total mass of the building divided by
the total height of the structure. However, the total mass of a structure can be predicted
by assuming the total dead load plus a certain percentage of the total live load. In
AS1170.4, the total mass of a structure can be expressed as G + 0.4Q .
Nevertheless, m( z ) can further be expressed in terms of mass per floor height, due to the
different masses allocated to each floor, such as in a multi-purpose superstructure with a
basement car-park, a retail podium on the next level, and with apartments and plant
rooms at certain levels on consecutive floors. In order to reduce the complexity of the
equation in this context, it is assumed that mass per unit height is:
m( z ) =
(G + 0.4Q ) (3.59)
H
After obtaining the k value from the estimated deflection mode shape and the
simplification of m as per Equation 3.59, the generalized mass can then be integrated as:
H
m z 2 k +1
2k 2k
H z H z mH
M =∫ m( z ) dz = m ∫ dz = = (3.60)
0
H 0
H 2k + 1 h 0
2 k
2k + 1
114
For an outrigger-braced structure, k would tend to be 1 if there are very strong outriggers
and the columns are located in the building. Therefore, the generalized mass can be
assumed as per Equation 3.61, where it is one-third of the actual mass of the building:
mH
M = (3.61)
3
On the other hand, for a structure with a very low efficiency outrigger-braced system or
that mainly relying on a core system, k would tend to be 2 and the generalized mass can
be further derived as per Equation 3.62, where it is one-fifth of the actual mass of the
building:
mH
M = (3.62)
5
Overall, when the power of the mode shape is sitting between 1 and 2, 1 ≤ k ≤ 2 , the
generalized mass for this purpose can be concluded as:
mH mH
≤M ≤ .
3 5
K=P
∆
115
For the wind force acting on the structure, P , this can be classified as follows:
For uniform load, P = wuniform H
w triangular H
For triangular load, P =
2
The estimated tip deflection of the structure, ∆ , can then be classified as per Equations
3.57 and 3.58 respectively:
[ ]
M ( H 2 − xi2 )
n
w
For uniform load, ∆ T = x 4 − 4 H 3 x + 3H 4 − ∑ i
24 EI c i =1 EI
w x 5 n M i ( H 2 − xi2 )
For triangular load, ∆ T = 11H − 15H x + 5 x − − ∑
4 3 4
120 EI c H i =1 EI
For verification purposes, the stiffness obtained from the method above should be
compared with the core stiffness. The core stiffness can be calculated manually for a
symmetrical core or, alternatively, a software program can be used if the calculation
becomes complicated. The total stiffness of the outrigger-braced structure calculated
from the method as shown should be no less than the core stiffness itself in all
However, the generalized stiffness can vary depending on the wind loading type adopted:
wuniform H
For uniform load, K uniform = P = (3.63)
∆ wuniform H 4 n
M i ( H 2 − xi2 )
−∑
8EI core EI
i =1
wtriangular H
2
For triangular load, K triangular =P = (3.64)
∆ 11w 4 2
− 2
triangular H
n
M ( H x )
−∑ i i
120 EI core EI
i =1
If the outrigger-braced structure has a very low efficiency and all the lateral forces are
mainly resisted by the core, the restraining moments from the outrigger-braced system
116
will be very small and, therefore, there is not much contribution in reducing the drift. In
this case, the structure would behave as a pure cantilever and the total deflection can be
expressed as per Equation 3.20 for a uniform load and per Equation 3.41 for a triangular
load:
wuniform H 4
For uniform load, ∆T ≈
8 EI core
11wtriangular H 4
For triangular load, ∆ T ≈
120 EI core
As a result of the pure cantilever action, the total stiffness can be estimated as per
Equation 3.65 and 3.66.
Firstly, the building period through the general equation can be estimated as follows:
M
T = 2π (3.67)
K
• T = Building period of structure
• M = Generalized mass of structure
• K = Generalized stiffness of structure
The generalized mass is derived from Equation 3.60 and the generalized stiffness is
derived from Equations 3.63 and 3.64; therefore, the building period T from Equation
3.67 can be further expressed by:
mH 11wtriangular H M i ( H 2 − xi2 )
4 n
× 2 −∑
2k + 1 120 EI core i =1 EI
For triangular load, T = 2π
wtriangular H
(3.69)
If the outrigger-braced system has a weak efficiency, the core of the building will have to
take most of the loading, producing more of the pure cantilever action. Therefore, in
Equations 3.68 and 3.69, the restraining moments can be neglected and k is assumed to be
1.5 for a pure cantilever structure:
mH 4 2π mH 4
For uniform load, T = 2π = (3.70)
32 EI core 5.66 EI core
11mH 4 2π mH 4
For triangular load, T = 2π = (3.71)
240 EI core 4.67 EI core
118
2π mH 4
T= (3.72)
3.555 EI core
In comparison with a pure cantilever structure with three expressions for fundamental
periods, as above, the period generated from uniform wind load method (Equation 3.70)
gives the smallest building period, while the equation derived by Li yields the highest
period. In fact, the building period is just a basic estimate for representing the stiffness of
a structure. Conservatively, it is advised that the equation derived from Li to be adopted
for wind design. Structures with an outrigger-braced system are expected to have a lesser
period due to an increased stiffness of the structure than that of a pure cantilever
structure.
πn 0 S F ,ψ ( n 0 )
r.m.s. acceleration, σ &y& = ( 2πn 0 ) 2 σ y = 1
M 4ς s
However, the r.m.s. deflection formula from Equation 2.27 is fundamentally a rough
estimate. For an outrigger-braced structure, the r.m.s. top deflection can be enhanced by
adopting the method as discussed in this section, with a uniform distributed wind load or
triangular wind load. In this case, the r.m.s. acceleration, Equation 2.30, can be
substituted from the mean deflection obtained from the analysis, as discussed in Chapter
2:
(
σ &y& = ( 2πn 0 ) 2 σ y = ( 2πn 0 ) 2 × G × ∆ )
119
The gust factor, G , is the ratio of the expected maximum response of the structure in a
defined time period to the mean or time averaged response in the same time period, as is
discussed in Section 2.1.1.6. The gust factor, in AS1170.2, is defined as per Equation
2.32:
G = Cdyn × (1 + 2 g v I h )
For C dyn , as shown in Equation 2.38, the resonant component is the main part in
From all of the above information, the r.m.s acceleration can be calculated for an
outrigger-braced structure as per Equation 3.73,. Peak factor can be included to acquire
the peak value of acceleration at the top of the building:
H s g R2 SE t
0 .5
σ &y& = ( 2πn 0 ) σ y = ( 2πn 0 ) × 2 I h × ∆T (3.73)
2 2
ς
H s SE t
ρ air g R I h
ζ
[ ] [ ]
h h
σ &x& =
3
fig , windard ∑ des ,θ
C V ( z ) 2
b z ∆z − C V (h ) 2
∑ b z z∆z
mo h 2 (1 + 2 g V I h ) z =0
z fig , leeward des ,θ
z =0
This equation is basically derived from Equations 3.26, 3.27 and 3.28:
120
Mb 1
σ &x& = (2πn0 ) 2 × C dyn × (1 + 2 g v I h ) × = × C dyn × (1 + 2 g v I h ) × M b (3.74)
Kh Mh
In comparison, Equation 3.74 is originally derived from the same equation. However, the
only difference between both equations is the estimation of mean deflection. Based on the
equation derived from AS1170.2, the top deflection is conservatively modified by
adopting the maximum point load acting on the tip of the cantilever and the point load is
converted from the total core base moment divided by the total height.
mH
In AS1170.2, M 1170.2 = and the generalized mass has not included any mode shape
3
factor. Therefore, the equation can be rewritten as:
3
σ &x& = × C dyn × (1 + 2 g v I h ) × M b (3.75)
mh 2
However, the problem with this method is that no mode shape correction factor is
included in the equation. The r.m.s. acceleration derived from Equation 3.75 is based on a
conservative approach by converting the base bending moment to a relatively huge point
load and predicting its deflection by treating the structure as a cantilever structure.
However, the mean deflection derived from Equations 3.57 and 3.58 is based on a more
accurate approach. Therefore, it is expected that the peak acceleration obtained from
AS1170.2 will be relatively more conservative than that of the ordinary method.
1 πn 0 S F ,ψ ( n 0 )
σ &y& =
M 4ς s
121
m0 H
• Generalized mass, M =
2k + 1
• k is the power of mode shape and it is derived by adopting the curve-
fitting method to the deflection curve of an outrigger-braced structure
• m0 is mass per unit height of the structure
Rearranging the equation, the r.m.s crosswind acceleration can be expressed as:
For peak crosswind acceleration, the peak factor must be included in Equation 3.76:
= 2 log e (600nc )
A comparison of Equations 2.61 and 3.77 shows that they are almost the same equations,
with the only difference being in the mode shape of the structure. By comparing both
equations, crosswind acceleration can be rewritten into proportional form in relation to
the mode shape of the structure:
For Equation 2.61, the mode shape factor is modified and replaced by a factor called the
mode shape correction factor:
K m = 0.76+0.24k
• k = mode shape power exponent for the fundamental mode and values of the
exponent k should be taken as:
= 1.5 for a uniform cantilever
= 0.5 for a slender framed structure (moment resisting)
= 1.0 for a building with a central core and moment resisting façade
= 2.3 for a tower decreasing in stiffness with height, or with a large mass
at the top
= the value obtained from curve-fitting φ1 ( z ) = ( z / h) k to the computed
modal shape of the structure where φ1 ( z ) is the first mode shape as a
function of height z, normalized to unity at z = h.
In comparison to Equations 3.78 and 3.79, when the mode shape power exponent is equal
to 1, both equations should yield the same outcome:
123
When the mode shape power exponent is equal to 1.5, the outcome is:
σ &y& ∝ (2k + 1) ∝ 4 for manually derived equation and;
When the mode shape power exponent is equal to 2, the outcome is:
σ &y& ∝ (2k + 1) ∝ 5 for the manually derived equation and;
5.5
5
Mode shape factor
4.5
3.5
k
3
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2
Figure 3.26 Comparison of mode shape factor between manual calculation and AS1170.2
Figure 3.26 is presented to summarize the difference between mode shape factors in both
equations, as discussed above. AS1170.2 has a lower mode shape factor in comparison
124
with the manually derived equation with the increment of power exponential of mode
shape, k. When k equals 2, the difference in crosswind acceleration between the manually
derived equation and AS1170.2 is almost 35%. It can be concluded that both equations
are applicable when the outrigger-braced structure has a strong outrigger-braced system,
when k =1. However, when the outrigger-braced system has very low efficiency, it is
advised that the manually derived equation for the prediction of crosswind acceleration is
adopted.
125
Chapter 4
For this model, the floors and walls can be modeled as membrane elements with in-plane
stiffness only. The columns are modeled as pin connections that do not take any moment
in any direction; although, in reality, columns contribute a negligible amount of lateral
stiffness. Only the core wall is modeled as a shell element to take all of the lateral load.
The manually calculated lateral wind effects and the requirements of AS1170.2 can then
be input into the program. The three-dimensional mode shapes and frequencies, modal
participation factors, direction factors and participating mass percentages are evaluated
using the eigenvector vector analysis.
The general layout of the floor plan is illustrated as per Figure 4.1.
Direction of
Wind
Outrigger-
braced 800mm thick
columns core wall
Outrigger
walls
Figure 4.1 General layout of floor plan for the outrigger-braced structure
128
350
Height (m)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Shear Forcet (kN)
Figure 4.2 Total shear acting on the main core based on ETABS analysis
129
350
Height (m)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
-200 0 200 400 600
Bending Moment (MNm)
Figure 4.3 Total moment acting on the main core based on ETABS analysis
From Figure 4.2, it can be seen that there is no change in shear that is due to the effect of
an outrigger system. This is because the outrigger-braced system would not reduce the
total shear of the structure. However, from Figure 4.3, the outrigger-braced system has
made two transitions in the bending moment of the core that are exactly where the two
outriggers are located.
• Core moment reduction of 223MNm at Level 58,
• Core moment reduction of 340MNm at Level 27; and
• Total core moment reduction at base of structure is 563MNm
outrigger-braced column has taken a total axial load of 7916kN. This is purely based on
the uniform wind load. For simplicity, this is illustrated as follows in Figure 4.4.
Wind
Load
N1=3193kN
N2 = 7916kN
Moment
reduction with
outriggers
d
Wind
Load
Bending
moment without
outriggers
The bending moment along the core without an outrigger-braced system can be expressed
as:
w( H − x) 2
• M0 = , applicable at any height of the structure
2
• M 1 = 108 MNm at Level 58; and
• M 2 = 479 MNm at Level 27
From Figure 4.5, the core moment where the two outriggers are located is as follows:
• Core moment reduction of 223MNm at Level 58; and
• Core moment reduction of 340MNm at Level 27
• M R = NR × d
d
• S1 = = 3.89 × 10 −10
12( EI ) o
S1
• ω= = 0.048 ≈ 0
HS
The optimum location for both outriggers, a and b , can then be estimated from Figure
3.5 by assuming ω ≈ 0 (a very stiff outrigger-braced system).
• a = 0.312 H ≈ 94m from the top of the building (Level 58); and
• b = 0.685 H ≈ 206m from the top of the building (Level 27)
w
• M a [ S1 + S ( H − x1 )] + M b S{H − x 2 ) = ( H 3 − x13 )
6 EI
M a [5.93 × 10 −9 ] + M b [2.53 × 10 −9 ] = 2.14 × 10 −3
w
• M a S ( H − x 2 ) + M b [ S1 + S{H − x 2 )] = ( H 3 − x 23 )
6 EI
M a [2.53 × 10 −9 ] + M b [2.92 × 10 −9 ] = 1.5 × 10 −3
350
300
250
200
Height (m)
150
100
50
0
-200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500
By using elimination method to solve the equations above, the restraining moment at
location a and b is calculated as:
• M a = 226 MNm; and
• M b = 316 MNm
134
Both restraining moments, M a and M b are then compared with the restraining moments
obtained from the ETABS analysis, M R1 = 223 MNm and M R2 = 340 MNm. The
difference between both results is less than 10%. The core bending moment based on
both the manual and ETABS analysis can be plotted and then compared. From Figure 4.6
it is obvious that there is not a large discrepancy between both analyses. Therefore, the
manual analysis is verified.
Figure 4.7 shows the comparison of deflection based on the ETABS analysis, the
outrigger-braced system and the pure cantilever action. The maximum deflection at the
top of the building in each case is summarized as follows:
• ETABS result – 123mm
• Outrigger-braced – 136mm
• Pure cantilever – 498mm
In relation to the three analyses, the power, k, of the exponential curve from the deflected
mode shape can be concluded as:
• k ETABS = 1.3 ;
• k Cantilever = 1.5
135
Comparison of deflection
350
Height (m)
300
k = 1.3
k = 1.35
250
200 k = 1.5
150
100
50
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Deflection (m)
Thus it can be concluded that the building with a pure cantilever action from the core will
have a relatively greater power in the exponential curve, which may significantly increase
the effect of the wind-induced acceleration. A comparison between the manual analysis
and the ETABS result shows that the power of the exponential curve of the deflected
mode shape has a difference of less than 5%. Therefore, it is verified.
h
• M = ∫ m ( z )ψ i2 k ( z ) dz
0
In general, m( z ) can be estimated by acquiring the total mass of the building and
dividing it by the total height of the structure. However, the total mass of the structure
may also be predicted based on its design. The total mass of a building usually can be
estimated by assuming the total dead load plus a certain percentage of the total live load.
In AS1170.4, total mass of a structure can be expressed as G + 0.4Q . In order to reduce
the complexity of the equation in this context, it is assumed that m represents the total
After obtaining the k value from the estimated deflection mode shape and simplifying m ,
the equation can be further expressed as:
2k 2 (1.3 )
H z H z mH
• M ETABS = ∫0
m ( z ) dz = m ∫
H 0
H
dz =
3.6
2k 2 (1.35 )
H z H z mH
• M Outrigger = ∫ 0
m( z ) dz = m ∫
H 0
H
dz =
3.7
2k 2 (1.5 )
H z H z mH
• M Cantilever = ∫ m( z ) dz = m ∫ dz =
0
H 0
H 4.0
2
1 H z mH 1 mH
• M AS 1170.2 =
Km ∫
0
m( z ) dz =
H
=
3 [0.76 + 0.24(1.35)] 3.252
Therefore, the equivalent general stiffness of the structure can be rearranged and
rewritten as:
In a comparison of the ETABS and the manual analysis, the equivalent general stiffness
can be estimated by applying Equation 2.34 and the results are shown as follows:
22.5 × 301
K ETABS = = 55,061 kN/m
0.123
22.5 × 301
K Outrigger = = 49,798 kN/m
0.136
22.5 × 301
K Cantilever = = 13,600 kN/m
0.498
From the general stiffness, the total I stiffness of the structure can be further modified by
rearranging Equation 4.1:
KH 3
I total = (4.2)
8 Ecore
From Equation 4.2, the equivalent total stiffness of a structure based on the three analyses
can be calculated as follows:
55,061 × 10 3 × 3013
I ETABS = = 3754m 4
8 × 50 × 10 9
138
49,798 × 10 3 × 3013
I Outigger = = 3395m 4
8 × 50 × 10 9
13,600 × 10 3 × 3013
I Cantilever = = 926m 4
8 × 50 × 10 9
Note that I Cantilever has the same core stiffness as defined originally. A comparison
between equivalent stiffness in the ETABS and manual analysis, the ETABS analysis
yields greater stiffness due to the low deflection and a strong outrigger system. However,
there is less than a 10% difference in the results of both analyses.
For verification purposes, the stiffness obtained from the method above should be
compared with the core stiffness itself. The total stiffness of an outrigger-braced structure
calculated from the method as shown should be no less than the core stiffness itself in all
circumstances, I core ≤ I Outrigger . Therefore, the result from both analyses is verified.
2π mH 4
T=
3.555 EI Equivalent
From Section 4.5.3, the generalized mass can then be expressed in a simpler form:
mH 521 × 10 3 kg / m × 301m
M = = = 42.38 × 10 6 kg
3.7 3.7
139
• TETABS =
2π (521 × 10 )(301 ) = 8.4s
3 4
• TOutrigger =
2π (521 × 10 )(301 ) = 8.9s
3 4
• TCantilever =
2π (521 × 10 )(301 ) = 17s
3 4
In comparison with the results and the given period from ETABS, which is 8.4s, the three
analyses show a consistency in building periods. The building period of a structure with a
pure cantilever action will result in almost double the period of a structure with an
outrigger-braced system and this might eventually increase the wind-induced acceleration
dramatically. According to AS1170.2, the building period can be estimated as follow:
H
• T AS1170.2 = = 6 .5 s
46
In comparison with the ETABS and the manual analysis, the building period obtained
from AS1170.2 seems to be lesser and more optimistic.
However, the building deflection from the analysis is based on the peak wind speed. In
AS 1170.2, the relationship between mean and peak deflection is shown as follows:
∆ peal = (1 + 2 gv I h ) × ∆ (4.3)
Therefore, by combining Equations 4.3 and 2.39 into Equation 3.73, the peak along-wind
acceleration substituted with peak building deflection is expressed as:
However, if excitation by low frequencies is small and the structural damping is low, so
that the excitation band-width is large compared with the resonant band-width, the first
term in the equation above can be neglected.
0.5
H g 2 SE
2I h s R t
ς
C dyn = = 0.496 ; where
(1 + 2 g v I h )
o I h = 0.121
o g v = 3.7
1
o Bs = = 0.562
[0.26(h − s ) 2 + 0.46bsh2 ]0.5
1+
Lh
o Hs = 1
o 1
S= = 0.153
3.5n a h(1 + g v I h ) 4n a b0h (1 + g v I h )
1 + 1 +
Vdes ,θ Vdes,θ
141
πN
o Et = 0.117
(1 + 70.8 N 2 )
o N = n a Lb [1 + ( g v I h )] / Vdes ,θ = 0.651
Peak along wind acceleration can be predicted with the periods and building deflection as
estimated from ETABS and the manual analysis.
1 2
σ &x& ETABS = (2π × ) × C dyn × 0.123 = 0.0328 m/s2 = 3.4mg
8.43
1 2
σ &x& Outrigger = (2π × ) × C dyn × 0.136 = 0.0341 m/s2 = 3.5mg
8.87
The along-wind acceleration between the ETABS and manual outrigger-braced analysis
shows a very close result and there is less than 5% difference between the two. However,
both results can be compared with the along-wind acceleration equation that is provided
in AS1170.2, as per Equation 2.38, and is shown as:
The peak along-wind acceleration calculated from the equation provided by AS1170.2 is
almost 50% more than the acceleration predicted in the analysis. A summary of results is
shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Comparison of building properties and along-wind acceleration based on ETABS analysis,
manual calculation and AS1170.2
142
= 2 log e (600nc )
o I h = 0.121
o ζ = 0.001 for serviceability wind acceleration
o m(z ) = 521000 kg/m
Normally, the crosswind force spectrum, C Fs , has a direct relationship with the period of
the structure. From the building period obtained from both ETABS and manual analyses,
C Fs can be estimated as follows:
C FsETABS = 0.0134
C FsOutrigger = 0.0173
C Fs AS 1170.2 = 0.0041
Peak crosswind acceleration can then be predicted with the periods and building mode
shape factor as estimated from the ETABS and manual analysis.
143
2
[2(1.3) + 1] × 36 ×1.2 × 2.92 41.29 π (0.01339)
σ &y& = = 0.57m/s2
ETABS
4 × 521000 1 + (3.7)(0.121) 0.01
2
[2(1.35) + 1] × 36×1.2 × 2.9 41.29 π (0.01729)
σ &y&Outrigger = = 0.66m/s2
4 × 521000 1 + (3.7)(0.121) 0.01
2
3 × (1.084) × 36 × 1.2 × 3 41.29 π (0.00409)
σ &y& = = 0.33m/s2
AS 1170.2
4 × 521000 1 + (3.7)(0.121) 0.01
A comparison of the peak crosswind accelerations between the three different approaches
shows that AS1170.2 has the lowest acceleration. This is due to the low period of the
structure, the small C Fs value, and also the lower value of the mode shape correction
factor. Peak crosswind acceleration from both the ETABS and manually calculated
outrigger-braced analysis has shown a relatively close result, with an approximately less
than 15% difference. A summary of result is shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Comparison of building properties and crosswind acceleration based on ETABS analysis,
manual calculation and AS1170.2
detailed design phase, ETABS might have to be adopted to increase the accuracy of the
results.
Section 4.5 presents a comparison of results, in terms of the building properties and
lateral deflection and acceleration of a structure, between ETABS analysis, manual
calculation and the equation provided by AS1170.2. The ETABS analysis and manual
calculation show close results in terms of the restraining moments at the outrigger
locations, the building frequencies, and the total deflection at the top of the building.
However, the results obtained from ETABS are more accurate as the program involves a
detailed 3D analysis, including secondary effects on the structure.
Mode shape
Generalized Period Deflection
Analysis correction factor,
Mass (T) (s) (mm)
k
ETABS 43,561 8.4 123 1.30
Manual
42,384 8.8 136 1.35
calculation
Difference 2.7% 5.2% 10.6% 3.8%
Table 4.3 Difference between ETABS analysis and manual calculation in terms of percentage
From Table 4.3, the ETABS analysis shows a stiffer structure than that in the manually
calculated analysis. From Table 4.1, AS1170.2 shows relatively higher peak along-wind
acceleration than that in the calculated one. This is largely due to the different approach
adopted in AS1170.2 in estimating the top deflection of the structure.
From Figure 4.8, showing both scenarios, the prediction of the mean deflection with the
point load approach is 260% higher than the one with uniform wind loading.
M bh2 M b h2
∆= ∆=
3EI 8 EI
(a) (b)
Figure 4.8 (a) Deflection predicted in AS1170.2; (b) the realistic building deflection
In addition, the equation provided by AS1170.2 does not include the mode shape
correction factor. Although the equation is transformed into the generalized mass with an
assumption of k = 1 , no additional correction factor, K m , is included to modify the
generalized mass.
SEt
ρ air g R I h
3 ζ
σ &x& = 2
× M b [× K m ]
mo h (1 + 2 gV I h )
146
The mode shape correction factor, K m , should be modified to correlate with the power of
mode shape, k . A comparison with the peak along-wind acceleration from the manually
calculated analysis and the equation provided in AS1170.2, shows that it is relatively
lower than the peak crosswind acceleration. In tall building design, peak crosswind
acceleration may be governed by the wake excitation produced from the crosswind.
Table 4.4 Crosswind force spectrum adopted in ETABS analysis and manual calculation
Therefore, the peak crosswind acceleration is almost half of that in the manually
calculated analysis in respect of the lower estimated period and mode shape correction
factor. However, both the ETABS and manual analysis show closer results.
In reality, the building period will be much higher than the manually calculated analysis
because of the stiffness that is not included in the calculation, such as the stiffness
contributed by columns and slabs, by the block partitions and by the retaining wall if
applicable. As such, the peak crosswind acceleration can be lowered.
148
Chapter 5
5.1 Conclusions
Based on the results and discussions presented in this thesis, several conclusions are
presented in this chapter.
For outrigger-braced structure, the outrigger location for the structure that gives the least
deflection is the optimum location for the least along-wind acceleration as the building’s
acceleration is directly proportional to the deflection. A series of graphs with one to five
outriggers is plotted to show the best location in reducing the building deflection.
Generally, for the optimum performance of a structure with n outriggers, the outriggers
1 2 n
should be placed at height locations of , , up to . The study shows
(n + 1) (n + 1) (n + 1)
that the best location of the outriggers is somewhere at equal distance of the height of the
structure from the base; again, this must be based on the building’s properties. On the
other hand, the outrigger location that gives the least core moment is located as near as
149
Two types of wind loading are introduced to act as the lateral load on the structure: a
uniformly distributed wind load and a triangular wind load. The results show that the
outrigger location tends to move up the building’s height with a triangular load
distribution in comparison with uniform wind load distribution acting on an outrigger-
braced structure. This is mainly due to the difference in characteristics of wind action on
a building, such as the base bending moment and the top deflection of the building itself.
Additionally, a parametric study has been carried out to investigate the factors that affect
the efficiency of an outrigger-braced structure in terms of top drift and moment reduction.
In the analysis, the height of a structure is investigated and shows no relationship to the
efficiency of the outrigger-braced structures. Similarly, the core properties of an
outrigger-braced structure are studied and it is concluded that the stronger the core, with
an increase in core properties or in concrete strength, there is a decrease in the efficiency
of the outrigger structures. This may be due to the fact that the stronger core attracts more
forces and moments, causing less forces and moments to be redistributed to the outrigger-
braced core-to-column.
For peak crosswind acceleration, both ETABS and manual analyses show relatively
higher acceleration, almost double that of the peak crosswind acceleration in AS 1170.2.
This is primarily due to two main factors: one is the higher value of the frequency-
dependent crosswind force spectrum, C Fs , adopted in both the ETABS and manual
However for tall building design, it is suggested that both approaches are adopted in two
different stages. For the preliminary stage, it is advised that an estimation of the
151
Unfortunately, no code or standard has specified the method of analysis to take into
account the torsional deflection and acceleration in a building. For an outrigger-braced
structure, it is likely to have the torsional mode as the fundamental mode of the structure
if the core size is relatively smaller than it should be, due to the fact that the core mainly
takes the torsion of a building. Therefore, it is necessary to include the methodology of
estimating the torsional behavior of an outrigger-braced structure.
In fundamental analysis, the compensation for not including the P-∆ effect directly in the
analysis is made by multiplying the results of the first-order analysis by the moment
magnifier. However, in reality the axial loads acting through the deflection of the
structure give rise to additional moment at the base, with a consequent increase in the
deflection. By invoking the basic principle that for equilibrium to exist, the change in the
external applied moments must be equal to the change in the internal resisting moment,
this change is considered to be brought about by additional story shears, called sway
forces or P-∆ forces. To account for more iteration and accurate results, it is suggested to
evaluate these with the assistance of computer programs.
In addition, the differential length changes of vertical members arising from elastic,
creep, and shrinkage shortenings are of primary concern, as the differential shortening of
the vertical members causes additional axial forces in the vertical members and additional
bending moments in the slabs. Therefore, the amount of the shortenings, which is based
on the material characteristics, and the design and loading parameters, should be
accurately predicted and properly compensated for, such as pre-cambering the slabs and
re-adjusting the length of the columns during the construction phase.
153
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Appendices
Author/s:
Chung, Yau Ken
Title:
Optimization of outrigger locations in tall buildings subjected to wind loads
Date:
2010
Citation:
Chung, Y. K. (2010). Optimization of outrigger locations in tall buildings subjected to wind
loads. Masters Research thesis, Engineering - Civil and Environmental Engineering, The
University of Melbourne.
Persistent Link:
http://hdl.handle.net/11343/35327
File Description:
Optimization of outrigger locations in tall buildings subjected to wind loads