UNIT-I

1. BASIC ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR UNITS

Definition of voltage, current, power and energy, circuit parameters, ohms law, kirchoff’s law
and its applications - Simple problems - Division of currents in series and parallel circuits- Star
delta conversion - Node and mesh methods of analysis of dc circuits.

1.1 Potential Difference:

The difference in potential of two charged bodies is called Potential difference.

For eg:
Body A Body B A B

5V 2V
5V 2V

Fig 1.1 Potential Difference

Body ‘A’ is at higher potential than body ‘B’ and the potential difference is 3V.

1.2 Charge: (Q )

A body is said to be charged if it has either excess (or) shortage of electrons.

Unit is “Coulomb”

1.3 Power: (P)

The rate at which work is done in an electric circuit

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑊
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇
Consider

Fig 1.2Power

When voltage is applied to the circuit, it causes current to flow through it.

In the figure stated,

V = Potential difference across A and B in volts (V).
R = Resistance between A and B in ohms (Ω)
I = Current in amps
T = time in seconds
𝑄 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
We know that 𝐼 = 𝑇 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
from the definition of current
 Therefore total charge that flows in “t’ seconds is 𝑄 = 𝐼 × 𝑇

By definition
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑉 =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑉 × 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 𝑉 × 𝑄

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝑊) = 𝑉 × 𝐼 × 𝑡
𝑊
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑃) =
𝑇
𝑉 ×𝐼 ×𝑡
=
𝑡
𝑃 = 𝑉 𝐼 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑉2
Also 𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅, 𝑃 = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑅

𝑊 =𝑉 ×𝐼 ×𝑇

= 𝐼 × 𝑅 × 𝐼 × 𝑇 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑇

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑇
𝑃= = = 𝐼 2 𝑅 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇
1.4 Ohm’s Law: (2marks)

The relationship between the potential difference (V), the current (I) and the resistance
(R) in a DC circuit.

First discovered by George Simon ohms.

1.4.1 Statement:

At constant temperature, the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional

to the potential difference across the ends of the conductor.

𝑉 ∝𝐼

Also can be expressed as,

𝑉 = 𝐼. 𝑅
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
1.4.2 Applications:

Applicable for both DC and AC circuits

1.4.3 Limitations:

 Not applicable to all non metallic conductors. Eg. Silicon carbide

 Not applicable to non linear devices such as zener diode, voltage regulator, arc lamps,
etc.
 It is true for metal conductors at constant temperature

1.4.4PROBLEMS:

1. The resistance of a 230V lamp is 270Ω. Calculate the current taken by the lamp.
Solution:
Resistance of lamp, R = 270Ω
Voltage of lamp, V = 230V
To find current, we know that V = IR from ohms law
𝑉 230
∴𝐼= = = 0.85 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠
𝑅 270
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑝 = 0.85 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒

2. An electric lamp consumes 100W of power. The supply voltage is 230 V. Determine (a)
the current flowing through the filament (b) its resistance (c) the energy consumed in 45
minutes.
Solution:
Given:
P=100watts, V=230volts, T=45 mins
𝑃
(a) Current flowing, 𝐼 = from 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑉
100
∴𝐼= = 0.44 𝐴
230
(b) Resistance of the Filament
𝑉 230
𝑅= = = 522.7 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝐼 0.44
(c) Energy consumed in 45 min
𝐸 =𝑃 ×𝑇
45
= 100 ×
60

= 75𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 = 0.075𝐾𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

1.5Review of Kirchoff’s Laws: Statement and Illustration

Gustav Kirchoff, a German scientist gave his findings with electrical circuit in a set of two laws:-

(i) Kirchoff’s current Law

(ii) Kirchoff’s voltage law

1.5.1 Kirchoff’s current law

Statement: The algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction in an electrical circuit is zero.
 Fig 1.3 Kirchoff’s current law
Explanation:
Consider five conductors carrying current.
Let [i1, i2, i3, i4, i5] acting at point ‘0’.
If we assume current flowing towards the junction is (+ve) and current flowing away from
the junction is (-ve), then applying KCL, we get,
𝐼1 − 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 − 𝐼4 + 𝐼5 = 0
∴ 𝑖. 𝑒 𝐼1 + 𝐼3 + 𝐼5 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼4
From the above equation it is clear that, the
Sum of incoming currents = Sum of outgoing currents

1.5.2 Kirchoff’s voltage law:

Statement: In any closed circuit (or) Mesh (or) loop, the algebraic sum of all the voltages taken
around is zero.
∑ 𝐼𝑅 + ∑ 𝐸𝑀𝐹 = 0
∴ 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3

Illustration:

While applying KVL. Algebraic sum are involved, so it is necessary to assign proper sign to emf
and voltage drop. The following sign conversion may be used:

a) A rise in potential can be assumed positive (+ve).

b) A fall in potential voltage can be assumed negative (-ve).

Fig 1.4 Kirchoff’s voltage law

1.6Series and Parallel circuits:

The resistance may be connected in two different ways:

1) Series – Resistors connected in Series

2) Parallel – Resistors connected in Parallel
3)
1.6.1 Resistors connected in series:

Fig 1.5 Resistors connected in series

 Consider three resistors [R1, R2, R3] in ohms connected in series.

 Let V1, V2, V3 be the voltage drop across [R1, R2, R3].
 Since it is a series combination the current ‘I’ flowing across the circuit is equal.

Therefore, the total effective resistance for the series combination is given by, R = R1+R2+R3
𝑉
So current, = 𝑅 +𝑅
, from ohms law = V = IR
1 2 +𝑅3

V1 = Voltage drop across “R1” = I.R1

V2 = Voltage drop across “R2” = I.R2

V3 = Voltage drop across “R3” = I.R3

Therefore total voltage drop across the circuit = V = V1+ V2 + V3

where V1 = I.R1, V2 = I.R2, V3 = I.R3

V = V1+ V2 + V3

= I.R1 + I.R2 + I.R3

IR = I [R1 + R2 + R3]

RS = R1 + R2 + R3

The above equation shows the resistance connected in series.

1.6.2 Resistors connected in Parallel:

Fig 1.6 Resistors connected in Parallel

 Consider two resistors R1 and R2 in ohms connected in parallel across a voltage

of ‘V’ volts.
 Since it is a parallel combination the current divides.
 Let the current flowing through the resistors [R1, R2] be (I1, I2).
 The voltage across all the resistors is ‘V’.
 Let Rp be the total resistance of the parallel combination.
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐼1 = , 𝐼2 = , 𝐼3 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼𝑡 ) = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑛

𝑉
𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑉 = 𝐼. 𝑅 ⟹ 𝐼 =
𝑅
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
∴ = + + ⋯+
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛

If there are two resistors, then we have,

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2

1 1 1
∴ = +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2
 𝑅1 𝑅2
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

1.6.3CONCEPTS OF SERIES CIRCUITS

 The current flowing in all part of the circuit is same.

 Voltage across the different elements will depend upon the resistance of that
element.
 Voltage drop are addictive.
 Resistance and power are addictive.
 Applied voltage is equal to the sum of the voltage drop across each element.

Disadvantages:

 If a break occurs at any point, no current will flow and the entire network will
become useless.
 Since electrical devices have different current ratings they cannot be connected in
series.

1.6.4CONCEPTS OF PARALLEL CIRCUITS

 Same voltage across each elements connected in the circuit.

 All elements have individual currents, depending upon the resistance of element.
 Powers are addictive.
 If a break occurs in any one of the branch circuits, it will have no effect on the other
branch circuits.

1.6.5PROBLEM

3. Two resistors of 4Ω and 6Ω are connected in parallel. If the total current is 30A. find the
current through each resistor

Solution:

Fig 1.7

From the current divider rule

𝑅2 6
𝐼1 = 𝐼 × = 30 × = 18𝐴
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 6+4
 𝐼2 = 𝐼 − 𝐼1 = 30 − 18 = 12𝐴

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐼1 = 18𝐴 &𝐼2 = 12𝐴.

4. A battery connected across AB in figure shown, delivers 28 watts into the network of
resistor. Calculate the voltage across AB. If the emf of the battery is 22V. find the internal
resistance of the battery.

Solution:

20Ω

30Ω

20Ω

Fig 1.8

Total resistance between AB,

20 × (30 + 20)
𝑅𝑇 = = 14.28Ω
20 + (30 + 20)
If ‘V’ is the voltage across AB, then power delivered to the network of resistors is
𝑉2
𝑃= = 28 ⟹ 𝑉 2 = 28 × 𝑅𝑇 = 28 × 14.28 = 400𝑉 ⟹ 𝑉 = 20𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑅𝑇
20
Current in branch𝐶𝐵 = 𝐼1 = = 1𝐴
20
20
Current in branch 𝐶𝐷𝐵 = 𝐼2 = 50 = 0.4𝐴
Total current, 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 1 + 0.4 = 1.4Amps
Now, E = V + IR
𝐸−𝑉 22−20
Internal resistance, 𝑟 = 𝐼 = 1.4 = 1.42Ω
5.In the circuit shown, find the voltage and current in each elements.

Fig 1.9

Reducing the circuit to find current,

R1=8Ω
R2=12Ω

Fig 1.10
𝑉 24
𝐼1 = = = 3𝐴
𝑅1 8
𝑉 24
𝐼2 = = = 2𝐴
𝑅2 12

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 2Ω, 𝑉1 = 3 × 2 = 6𝑉

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 6Ω, 𝑉2 = 3 × 6 = 18𝑉

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 9Ω, 𝑉3 = 2 × 9 = 18𝑉

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 3Ω, 𝑉4 = 2 × 3 = 6𝑉

6. Solve the currents in various branches using Kirchoff’s law.

Solution:
 5Ω 2Ω

6Ω

4Ω

8Ω

Fig 1.11

Totally there are 3 loops,

Apply KVL to Loop1,

50 − 5𝐼1 + 3𝐼2 − 3𝐼1 − 4𝐼1 + 4𝐼3 = 0
−12𝐼1 + 3𝐼2 + 4𝐼3 = −50 … … … … … … … … (1)
Apply KVL to loop 2,
−20 − 3𝐼2 + 3𝐼1 − 2𝐼2 − 6𝐼2 = 0
3𝐼1 − 11𝐼2 = 20 … … … … . . … … … … … . (2)
Apply KVL to loop 3,
20 − 8𝐼3 + 4𝐼1 − 4𝐼3 = 0
4𝐼1 − 12𝐼3 = −20 … … … … … … … … . . (3)
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (1), (2), (3)𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡, 𝐼1 = 5.2𝐴, 𝐼2 = −0.4𝐴, 𝐼3 = 3.4𝐴

Since I2 is negative, the actual current direction is opposite to that of the assumed
current direction.

Assume branch currents are all positive such that,

𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼1 = 5.2𝐴

𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 5.2 + 0.4 = 5.6𝐴

`𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼2 = 0.4 𝐴

𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = 0.4 + 3.4 = 3.8𝐴

𝐼𝑒 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼3 = 5.2 − 3.4 = 1.8𝐴

𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼3 = 3.4𝐴
7. A wheat stone bridge ABCD has the following details. AB = 1000 ohm, BC = 100 ohm, CD
= 450 ohm, DA = 5000 ohm. A galvanometer of resistance is 500 ohm is connected
between B & D. a 415V battery of negligible resistance is connected between A & C with A
positive. Find the current flow in arm B & D and direction of current
Solution:

1000 Ω 100 Ω

5000 Ω
450 Ω

Fig 1.12

Apply KVL to loop 1,

−1000𝐼1 − 500𝐼1 + 500𝐼2 − 5000𝐼1 + 5000𝐼3 = 0

−6500𝐼1 + 500𝐼2 + 5000𝐼3 = 0 … … … … … … … (1)

Apply KVL to loop 2,

−500𝐼2 + 500𝐼1 − 100𝐼2 − 450𝐼2 + 450𝐼3 = 0

500𝐼1 − 1050𝐼2 + 450𝐼3 = 0 … … … … … … … (2)

Apply KVL to loop 3,

415 − 5000𝐼3 + 5000𝐼1 − 450𝐼3 − 450𝐼2 = 0

5000𝐼1 + 450𝐼2 − 5450𝐼3 = −415 … … … … … (3)

𝐵𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 (1), (2), (3)𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡, 𝐼1 = 4.0943 × 103 𝐴 , 𝐼2 = 4.0569 × 103 𝐴 , 𝐼3 = 4.9169 × 103 𝐴

Therefore current flow in the branch B &D,

𝐼𝑔 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 4.0943 × 10−3 − 4.0569 × 10−3 = 3.74 × 10−6 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠 = 3.74𝜇𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠

Energy: It is the total workdone

𝐸 =𝑃 ×𝑡
 𝑑𝑤 𝑤
= ∙ 𝑑𝑡 (𝑜𝑟) ∙ 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑡
𝐸 = 𝑊 (𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒)

Unit is joules

We can also write the energy equation has

𝐸 = 𝑉. 𝐼. 𝑇

= 𝐼. 𝑅. 𝐼. 𝑇 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑇

Resistance:

It is the substance used to oppose the flow of current in the conductor

𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
Where, L is length of the conductor, A is area of cross section, 𝜌 is Permeability.

1.7Voltage and current divider rule:-

Voltage divider rule is applicable for the series connection.

Fig 1.13

The current flowing through the resistance in the above circuit it same.When they are
connected in series.

By ohm’s law

𝑉1 = 𝐼. 𝑅1 … … … … … … … … (1)

𝑉2 = 𝐼. 𝑅2 … … … … … … … … (2)

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2
 𝑉 = 𝐼 [𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ]
𝑉
∴𝐼= … … … … … … … … . . (3)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Substitute equation (3) in equation (1) and (2)

𝑉 𝑉
𝑉1 = 𝑅1 , 𝑉2 = 𝑅
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 2

∴ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦

𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟
=
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠

Current divider rule is applicable for the resistor connected in parallel

Fig 1.14

In the above circuit R1 and R2 are connected in parallel

Here the supply voltage = voltage across R1 = voltage across R2

𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 … … … … … … … … . (1)

From above equation

𝐼1 . 𝑅1
𝐼2 = … … . … … … … … … … … … (2)
𝑅2

We know that since it is a parallel connection current gets divided.

∴ 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 … … … … … … … … … … … (3)

Substitute (2) in (3) we get

 𝐼1 . 𝑅1
𝐼 = 𝐼1 +
𝑅2
𝐼1 𝑅2 + 𝐼1 𝑅1 𝐼1 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )
= = … (4)
𝑅2 𝑅2
𝐼.𝑅2 𝐼.𝑅1
From equation (4), 𝐼1 = 𝑅1 +𝑅2
&𝐼2 = 𝑅1 +𝑅2

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟

∴ 𝐼1 =
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟

1.7.1Problems:

1. What will be the current drawn by a lamp at 250V, 40W connected to a 230V supply?
Solution:
Given data: Rated power = 40W, Rated voltage = 250V
R be the resistance of the filament. Then,
𝑉2 𝑉 2 2502
𝑃= ⟹𝑅= = = 1562.2Ω
𝑅 𝑃 40
𝑉 230
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 230𝑉 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦, 𝐼 = = = 0.1472𝐴
𝑅 1562.2

2. Three resistors 10ohm, 20ohm and 30ohm are connected in series across 100V supply.
Find the voltage across each resistor.

Fig 1.15

Given data: 𝑅1 = 10Ω, 𝑅2 = 20Ω, 𝑅3 = 30Ω, 𝑉 = 100𝑉

The 3 resistors are connected in series as shown in the above figure.

To find the value of V1, V2, V3, we know that V = I.R. Where, I = V/R

To find equivalent resistance, Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 [since it is a series connection]

∴ 𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = 10 + 20 + 30 = 60Ω
𝑉 100
∴𝐼= = = 1.66𝐴
𝑅 60
𝑉1 = 𝐼 × 𝑅1 = 1.66 × 10 = 16.66𝑉
 𝑉2 = 𝐼 × 𝑅2 = 1.66 × 20 = 33.33𝑉

𝑉3 = 𝐼 × 𝑅3 = 1.66 × 30 = 50𝑉

To solve the problems based on Kirchoff’slawwe have to know the important points to proceed.

 if the direction of current through an impedance (or) the resistance and direction of loop
are in same direction, the drop is taken as negative.
 If the direction of current through an impedance (R) and the direction of loop taken is
different, the voltage is taken as positive.

3. Write the loop equation for the circuit and solve the current in 10ohm resistor.
10 Ω

8 Ω
4Ω
4Ω
10 Ω

Fig 1.16

Solution:
No of nodes: 8 [A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H]
Loop name: ABGHA, BCFGB, CDEFC
Loop equation:
Loop 1: ABGHA
-8I – 4I1 + 100 = 0 ………………………. (1)
Loop 2: BCFGB
-10(I-I1) -10I2 + 4I1 = 0 ……………..…………(2)
Loop 3: CDEFC
-4(I – I1 –I2) – 40 + 10I2 = 0 …………………………(3)
By rearranging the equations (1), (2), (3)
Equation 1: -8I1 -4I1 + 0I2 = -100
Divide by (-)
8I1 + 4I1 + 0I2 = 100 ……………………….(4)
Equation 2: -10I + 10I1 – 10I2 + 4I1 = 0
10I + 14I1 – 10I2 = 0 ………………………..(5)
Equation 3: -4I + 4I1 + 4I2 – 40 + 10I2 = 0
-4I + 4I1 + 14I2 = 40 ………………………..(6)
By solving equations (4), (5), (6), we get
I = 8.4356A, I1 = 8.1283A, I2 = 2.9448A
 Branch current:
 Current through 8 ohm resistor, I = 8.435A
 Current through 10ohm resistor, I – I1 = 8.435 – 8.1283 = 0.307A
 Current through 4 ohm resistor, I1 = 8.1288A

4. Find the equivalent resistance across the terminals A and B and the total current drawn from
the supply for the circuit shown below.

4Ω 6 Ω 3Ω

12 Ω 9Ω 15Ω

Fig 1.17

To find equivalent resistance RAB

Step 1: 3ohm and 15 ohm resistors are connected in series
∴ 𝑅𝑠1 = 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 = 3 + 15 = 18Ω

Fig 1.18

Step 2: 9ohm and 18ohm are connected in parallel, we know that

𝑅𝑠1 . 𝑅5 9 × 18
𝑅𝑝1 = = = 6Ω
𝑅𝑠1 + 𝑅5 9 + 18

Fig 1.19

Step 3: 6ohm and 6ohm are connected in series

 𝑅𝑠2 = 𝑅𝑝1 + 𝑅2 = 6 + 6 = 12Ω

Fig 1.20

Step 4: 12ohm and 12ohm are in parallel

𝑅𝑠2 . 𝑅6 12 × 12
𝑅𝑝2 = = = 6Ω
𝑅𝑠2 + 𝑅6 12 + 12

Fig 1.21

Step 5: 4ohm and 6ohm are in series

∴ 𝑅𝑠3 = 𝑅𝑝2 + 𝑅1 = 6 + 4 = 10Ω
∴ 𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 10Ω

Fig 1.22
𝑉 120
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼 = = = 12𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑅𝐴𝐵 10

5. A 60W, 240V lamp is connected in series with a 40W, 200V lamp across 250V supply.
Calculate i) Current taken ii) Voltage across each lamp iii) Power given by each lamp.
Assume the resistance remains constant.
𝑉 2 2402
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 60𝑊 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 = 𝑅1 = = = 960Ω
𝑃 60
2 2
𝑉 240
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 40𝑊 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 = 𝑅2 = = = 1000Ω
𝑃 40

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠, 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 960 + 1000
= 1960 Ω
𝑉 250
i) 𝑉 = 𝐼. 𝑅 ⟹ 𝐼 = 𝑅 = 1960 = 0.1275𝐴
𝑇
 ii) Voltage across each lamp, L1 = 0.1275 * 960 = 122.45V
iii) Power delivered by the lamps,
L1 = 0.1275 * 122.45 = 15.622W
L2 = 0.12755 * 127.60 = 16.27W

6. Determine the effective resistance between the terminals A and B in the circuit shown in
figure. If the current drawn at point A is 9A. find the current in and the voltage drop across
each resistor.
24 Ω

Fig 1.23

Step 1: Taking resistors 3ohm and 6ohm, which are connected in parallel. We know that
if the resistors are connected in parallel,
𝑅1 . 𝑅2 3 × 6
𝑅𝑝 = = = 2Ω
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 3+6
Figure(1) is reduced to

24 Ω

10 Ω

2Ω 2Ω
Fig 1.24

Step 2: 2 ohm and 10 ohm are connected in series

𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 2 + 10 = 12Ω
Figure (2) is again reduced to

24 Ω
 2Ω 12Ω
Fig 1.25

Step 3: 12ohm and 24ohm are connected in parallel

𝑅1 . 𝑅2 12 × 24
𝑅𝑝1 = = = 8Ω
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 12 + 24
Figure (3) is again reduced to
2Ω 8Ω

Fig 1.26

Step 4: 2ohm and 8ohm are connected in series

𝑅𝑠1 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 2 + 8 = 10Ω
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑅𝑇 = 10Ω
10 Ω

Fig 1.27

From figure 3:

Fig 1.28

The total current ‘I’ is divided into two branch current

Therefore, the current flowing in 24ohm and 12ohm resistors are given by,
 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ′𝐼′ × 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 9 × 12
𝐼1 = = = 3𝐴
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 24 + 12
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ′𝐼′ × 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 9 × 24
𝐼2 = = = 6𝐴
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 12 + 24

From figure (i)

The 6A is again divided into two branches,

Fig 1.29

The current in 3ohm and 6ohm resistors are I3& I4.

Since they are connected in parallel,
𝐼 × 𝑅4 6 ×6
𝐼3 = = = 4𝐴
𝑅3 + 𝑅4 6+6
𝐼 × 𝑅3 6 ×3
𝐼4 = = = 2𝐴
𝑅3 + 𝑅4 6+3
Therefore the current rating across each resistors are shown in the diagram below.

Fig 1.30

Voltage drop across each resistance is given by V = I * R

Voltage drop across 2 ohm resistor = 9 * 2 = 18V
Voltage drop across 3 ohm resistor = 4 * 3 = 12V
 Voltage drop across 6 ohm resistor = 2 * 6 = 12V
Voltage drop across 10 ohm resistor = 6 * 10 = 60V
Voltage drop across 24 ohm resistor = 3 * 24 = 72V

7. A circuit consists of three resistors 3ohm, 4ohm and 6ohm in parallel and a fourth resistor 4
ohm in series. A battery of emf 12V and an internal resistance of 6 ohm is connected in the
circuit. Find the total current in the circuit and terminal voltage across the battery.

Solution:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = + + = + +
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 3 4 1

9
∴ 𝑅𝑝 = = 1.33Ω
12

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅4 − 𝑟 = 1.33 + 4 + 6 = 11.33Ω

𝐸 12
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼 = = = 1.059𝐴
𝑅𝑇 11.33

∴ 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦, 𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑅 = 12 − 1.059 × 6 = 5.647𝑉

R1=3Ω

R4=4 Ω R2=4Ω

R3=6Ω

R =6Ω

Fig 1.31

1.8Star and Delta transformation (or) π transformation

a) Star connection

Fig. 1.32

One end of each resistance is connected at a point called starpoint and the other end of (A,
B, C) are free ends.

b) Delta connection

Fig. 1.33

The three resistance are connected end to end, so as to form delta shape

Conversion of Delta to Star:-

 Fig. 1.34

(a) Equating the resistance between the terminals A & B we get

Fig. 1.35

RAB parallel with (RBC + RCA)

𝑅𝐴𝐵 [𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 ]

𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 = … … … … … … … … . (1)
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴

∑ 𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴

𝑅𝐴𝐵 (𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 )
∴ 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 =
∑ 𝑅𝐴𝐵

(b) Equating the resistance between the terminals B & C we get

 Fig. 1.36

RB+RC = RBC parallel with (RCA + RAB)

𝑅𝐵𝐶 (𝑅𝐶𝐴 + 𝑅𝐴𝐵 )

∴ 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶 = … … … … … … … … (2)
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴

𝑅𝐵𝐶 (𝑅𝐶𝐴 + 𝑅𝐴𝐵 )

𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶 =
∑ 𝑅𝐴𝐵

(c) Equating the resistance between the terminal (C & A)

Fig. 1.37

RCA parallel with (RAB + RAC)

𝑅𝐶𝐴 (𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 )

𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐴 = … … … … … … … . (3)
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴

𝑅𝐶𝐴 (𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 )

𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐴 =
∑ 𝑅𝐶𝐴

Subtracting equation (3) & (2) we get

𝑅𝐴 − 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅𝐴𝐵 [𝑅𝐶𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 ] … … … … … … … … (4)

Adding (1) & (4) we get

𝑅𝐵𝐴 . 𝑅𝐶𝐴
𝑅𝐴 =
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴

Similarly

𝑅𝐵𝐶 . 𝑅𝐴𝐵
𝑅𝐵 =
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴

𝑅𝐵𝐶 . 𝑅𝐶𝐴
𝑅𝐶 =
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴

Star to Delta transformation

Given the values of star connections to find the values of Delta,

Multiplying equations (5) & (6) we get,

(𝑅𝐴𝐵 )2 . 𝑅𝐵𝐶 . 𝑅𝐶𝐴

𝑅𝐴 . 𝑅𝐵 = … … … … … … … … … (8)
(𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 )2

Multiplying equations (7) & (6) we get,

(𝑅𝐵𝐶 )2 . 𝑅𝐴𝐵 . 𝑅𝐶𝐴

𝑅𝐶 . 𝑅𝐵 = … … … … … … … … … (9)
(𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 )2

Multiplying equations (5) & (7) we get,

(𝑅𝐶𝐴 )2 . 𝑅𝐵𝐶 . 𝑅𝐴𝐵

𝑅𝐶 . 𝑅𝐴 = … … … … … … … … … (10)
(𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 )2

Adding equations (8),(9) and (10) we get,

(𝑅𝐴𝐵 )2 . 𝑅𝐵𝐶 . 𝑅𝐶𝐴 (𝑅𝐵𝐶 )2 . 𝑅𝐴𝐵 . 𝑅𝐶𝐴 (𝑅𝐶𝐴 )2 . 𝑅𝐵𝐶 . 𝑅𝐴𝐵

𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐴 = + +
(𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 )2 (𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 )2 (𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 )2

𝑅𝐴𝐵 . 𝑅𝐴𝐵 . 𝑅𝐵𝐶 . 𝑅𝐶𝐴 𝑅𝐵𝐶 . 𝑅𝐵𝐶 . 𝑅𝐴𝐵 . 𝑅𝐶𝐴 𝑅𝐶𝐴 . 𝑅𝐶𝐴 . 𝑅𝐴𝐵 . 𝑅𝐵𝐶
= + +
(∑ 𝑅𝐴𝐵 )2 (∑ 𝑅𝐴𝐵 )2 (∑ 𝑅𝐴𝐵 )2

𝑅𝐴𝐵 (𝑅𝐴𝐵 . 𝑅𝐵𝐶 . 𝑅𝐶𝐴 ) + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 (𝑅𝐵𝐶 . 𝑅𝐴𝐵 . 𝑅𝐶𝐴 ) + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 (𝑅𝐶𝐴 . 𝑅𝐴𝐵 . 𝑅𝐵𝐶 )
=
(∑ 𝑅𝐴𝐵 )2

𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 (𝑅𝐴𝐵 . 𝑅𝐵𝐶 . 𝑅𝐶𝐴 )

=
(𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 )2

(𝑅𝐴𝐵 . 𝑅𝐵𝐶 . 𝑅𝐶𝐴 )

=
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴
 𝑅𝐵𝐶 . 𝑅𝐶𝐴
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐴 = R AB . R C we know that 𝑅𝐶 =
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴

𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐴
∴ 𝑅𝐴𝐵 =
𝑅𝐶
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵
(𝑜𝑟)𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 +
𝑅𝐶
Similarly
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐴
∴ 𝑅𝐵𝐶 =
𝑅𝐴
𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶
(𝑜𝑟)𝑅𝐵𝐶 = 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶 +
𝑅𝐴
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐴
∴ 𝑅𝐶𝐴 =
𝑅𝐵
𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐴
(𝑜𝑟)𝑅𝐶𝐴 = 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐴 +
𝑅𝐵
𝑁𝑂𝑇𝐸:
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐴 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 ∑ 𝑅𝐴 . 𝑅𝐵

𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 ∑ 𝑅𝐴𝐵

1.8.1Problems:

1. Obtain the star connected equivalent for the delta connection system
13Ω

12 Ω
14 Ω

Fig. 1.38

𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 13Ω. 𝑅𝐵𝐶 = 14Ω, 𝑅𝐶𝐴 = 12Ω

𝑅𝐴𝐵 . 𝑅𝐶𝐴 13 × 12
𝑅𝑎 = = = 4Ω
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 13 + 12 + 14
 𝑅𝐴𝐵 . 𝑅𝐵𝐶 13 × 14
𝑅𝑏 = = = 4.66Ω
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 13 + 12 + 14
𝑅𝐵𝐶 . 𝑅𝐶𝐴 14 × 12
𝑅𝑐 = = = 4.31Ω
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 13 + 12 + 14

Fig. 1.39

4) A network of 9 conductors connected at 6 points A,B,C,D,E& F as shown in figure.

Determine the delta converted resistance Rac?

Fig. 1.40

 Delta DEF is converted to its equivalent star.

 Fig. 1.41
3 ×3 3 ×3 3 ×3
𝑅𝐷𝑁 = = 1Ω, 𝑅𝐸𝑁 = = 1Ω, 𝑅𝐹𝑁 = = 1Ω
3+3+3 3+3+3 3+3+3
 The series branches of inner star is added

Fig. 1.42

𝑅𝐴𝑁 = 𝑅𝐴𝐷 + 𝑅𝐷𝑁 = 3Ω, 𝑅𝐵𝑁 = 𝑅𝐵𝐸 + 𝑅𝐸𝑁 = 3Ω, 𝑅𝐴𝑁 = 𝑅𝐶𝐹 + 𝑅𝐹𝑁 = 3Ω,
 Star ABCN is converted to its equivalent delta

Fig. 1.43
3 ×3+3 ×3+3×3
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = = 9Ω
3
3 ×3+3 ×3+3×3
𝑅𝐵𝐶 = = 9Ω
3
 3 ×3+3 ×3+3×3
𝑅𝐶𝐴 = = 9Ω
3
1 ×9
 Parallel resistances in each branch are combined, 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 1+9 = 0.9Ω

Fig. 1.44

 As viewed across terminal A & C branches AB & AC act in series, thus effective
resistance = 0.9+0.9 = 1.8ohm

Fig. 1.45

1.8 ×0.9
 1.8ohm and 0.9ohm are in parallel and given by = 0.6Ω ⟹ R𝐴𝐶 = 0.6Ω
1.8+0.9

2. Calculate the current in 20ohm resistor.

 Fig. 1.46

Solution

Assume current direction and polarity of resistors as shown below:

Fig. 1.47

Apply KVL to loop AFEDA,

8 – 200I1 – 20I1 + 20I2 = 0

-220I1 + 20I2 = -8 …………………….(1)

Apply KVL to loop BADCB

4 – 20I2 + 20I1 – 50I2 = 0

20I1 – 70I2 = -4 …………………….(2)

Solving equation (1) & (2), we get

I1 = 0.0426A, I2 = 0.0693A

Therefore, the current in 20ohm resistor is, I20 = I2 – I1 = 0.0693 – 0.0426

= 0.02667A = 26.67mA

3. Obtain the delta connected equivalent for star connected circuits.

 Fig. 1.48

𝑅𝑎 . 𝑅𝑏 + 𝑅𝑏 . 𝑅𝑐 + 𝑅𝑐 . 𝑅𝐴 (10 × 5) + (5 × 20) + (20 × 10)

𝑅𝐴𝐵 = = = 17.5Ω
𝑅𝑐 20

𝑅𝑎 . 𝑅𝑏 + 𝑅𝑏 . 𝑅𝑐 + 𝑅𝑐 . 𝑅𝐴 (10 × 5) + (5 × 20) + (20 × 10)

𝑅𝐵𝐶 = = = 35Ω
𝑅𝑎 10

𝑅𝑎 . 𝑅𝑏 + 𝑅𝑏 . 𝑅𝑐 + 𝑅𝑐 . 𝑅𝐴 (10 × 5) + (5 × 20) + (20 × 10)

𝑅𝐶𝐴 = = = 70Ω
𝑅𝑏 5

Fig. 1.49

4. A wheatstone bridge ABCD has the following details. AB = 20ohm, BC = 24ohm, CD =

5ohm, DA = 50ohm & BD = 30ohm. A dc source of 220V is connected between A & C with
A is positive. Determine the current delivered by the source using star/delta transformation.
 Fig. 1.50

The network ABDA forms a delta with corners at A, B & D. there delta connected can be
replaced by equivalent star connected resistances (Ra, Rb, Rc).

𝑅𝐴𝐵 . 𝑅𝐷𝐴 20 × 50
∴ 𝑅𝑎 = = = 10Ω
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐷 + 𝑅𝐷𝐴 20 + 30 + 50

20 × 30 50 × 30
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆, 𝑆𝑆 = = 6Ω, 𝑆𝑆 = = 15Ω
100 100

The above circuit becomes,

Fig. 1.51

Now when we go along with the supply current, we can notice that,

i) 6 ohm and 24ohm are in series and also

ii) 15ohm and 5 ohm are in series.
 Reducing the circuit,

Fig. 1.52

Now 30ohm and 20 ohm are in parallel

30 × 20
∴ = 30Ω
30 + 20

Fig. 1.53

𝑆𝑆ℎ = 30 + 10 = 40Ω

𝑆 220
∴𝑆= = = 5.5𝑆 𝑆𝑆 = 5.5𝑆
𝑆𝑆ℎ 40

1.9General description of Network Analysis:-

1.9.1 Introduction:

An arrangement of various electrical energy sources along with different circuit elements
is called as electrical network.

Mesh (or) Loop:It is defined as a closed path which originates from a particular node,
terminating (or) ending at the same point.
 Fig. 1.54

[A-B-C-D]-Loop (1)
[C-D-E-F]-Loop (2)
 Node:
A point at which two (or) more elements are joined together is called Node.

Fig. 1.55

1.9.2 Classification of Networks:

1. Linear Network:
A circuit whose parameters like (resistance, inductance, and capacitance) are
always constant irrespective of change in time, voltage and temperature.

2. Non Linear Network:

A circuit (or) network whose parameters change their values with change in time,
temperature, voltage etc
3. Active Network:
A circuit which contains at least one source of energy is called Active network.
 Fig. 1.56

4. Passive Network:
A circuit which contains no energy source is called Passive network.

Circuit: The closed path followed by an electric current is called an electric circuit.
Some essential parts of circuit:
a) Source of power
b) Load [lamp, motor, heater,..etc]
c) The conductor carrying current

1.10Equivalence of Sources:

In order to convert a given voltage source to current source,

Use the formula, V=IR, where I=V/R, then redraw the circuit by bringing the resistance
connected in series to parallel.

Fig. 1.57

[V] [I]

[I] [V]

To convert the given current source to voltage just bring the resistor which connected in parallel
to series
Example: 01

Fig. 1.58

Step 1: we know that I=V/R=9/3 = 3A.

Now bringing the resistor to parallel

Fig. 1.59

I = V/R= 12/6 = 2A

I = 2A

Step 2: Redrawing the circuit

 Fig. 1.60

I = V/R = 4/2 = 2A

I = 2A

Step 3:

Fig. 1.61

If the resistors R1 and R2 are connected in parallel, we have that Req = R1R2/(R1 + R2)

Req = 3*6/(3+6) = 18/9 =2Ω

Again reduce the circuit,

 Fig. 1.62

Adding the current source such that, 3A + 2A = 5A

Step 4:

Fig. 1.63

Apply V = IR

V = 5 * 2 =10V

Now bring the resistors to series,

 Fig. 1.64

Redraw by adding the resistors which is in series

Fig. 1.65

Therefore the circuit is reduced to a single source.

1.11MESH METHOD ANALYSIS FOR DC CIRCUITS (or) LOOP METHOD (or) MESH
CURRENT METHOD (or) LOOP CURRENT METHOD

 It is defined as the closed path

 For each mesh independent current is assigned called as mesh current

Procedure to be followed for solving problems in mesh analysis:

a) Identify the circuit [whether it is AC or DC]

AC circuit

DC circuit

Fig. 1.66

b) Identify how many loops are present in the given circuit [Loop refers to a closed path]
c) Use Inspection methods [identify the matrix]
If two loops are given apply 2 * 2 matrix
If three loops are given apply 3 * 3 matrix

[Note: there wont be any other matrix form]

 d) Write the matrix equation
For mesh analysis, we have
[R] . [I] = [V] from ohm’s law where V=IR
e) Frame the determinant, if the circuit is a (3 * 3) matrix, then the matrix will be
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 𝑆1 𝑆1
𝑆
[ 21 𝑆 22 𝑆 23 ] [ 2 ] = [𝑆2 ]
𝑆
𝑆31 𝑆32 𝑆33 𝑆3 𝑆3

Rule : Other than the diagonal elements [R11, R22, R33], the remaining elements will carry
–ve sign
f) Identify the current direction. If not given, assume all the loops have same current
direction.

1.11.1Problems:

1. Find the current ‘I’ for the given network:

Fig. 1.67

 Identify the source, the given circuit is a DC circuit

 There are 2 loops, so we go for 2 * 2 matrix
 Mesh equation for DC circuit is [𝑆]. [𝑆] = [𝑆]
𝑆 𝑆12 𝑆1 𝑆
 [ 11 = [ 1]
𝑆21 𝑆22 ] [𝑆2 ] 𝑆2
 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆. [If same other than the diagonal element,
the remaining elements will take negative sign]
Substitute the values,
 6.25 −1.25 𝑆1 10
[ ][ ] = [ ]
−1.25 16.25 𝑆2 −120
6.25 −1.25
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ∆: ∆= [ ] = 100
−1.25 16.25
∆𝑆1 ∆𝑆2
𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆1 &𝑆2, 𝑆𝑆 ℎ𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆1 = &𝑆2 =
∆ ∆
𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ∆𝑆1 , 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆ℎ𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
10 −1.25
∆𝑆1 = [ ] = 12.5𝑆
−120 16.25
∆𝑆1 12.5
∴ 𝑆1 = = = 0.125𝑆
∆ 100
𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ∆𝑆2 , 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆ℎ𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑠𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
6.25 10
∆𝑆2 = [ ] = −737.5 𝑆
−1.25 −120
∆𝑆2 −737.5
∴ 𝑆2 = = = −7.375𝑆
∆ 100
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆2 ℎ𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆, 𝑆ℎ𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆ℎ𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
∴ 𝑆2 = 7.373𝑆
2. Determine the power dissipation in the 4 ohm resistor of the following circuit.

Fig. 1.68

 It is a DC circuit
 Since we have 3 loops we go for 3*3 matrix
 Matrix equation is [R].[I] = [V]
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 𝑆1 𝑆1
 [𝑆21 𝑆22 𝑆23 ] [𝑆2 ] = [𝑆2 ]
𝑆31 𝑆32 𝑆33 𝑆3 𝑆3
Substitute the values,
8 −3 0 𝑆1 50
[−3 9 −4] [𝑆2 ] = [ 0 ]
0 −4 10 𝑆3 −10
 8 −3 0
∴ ∆ = [−3 9 −4]
0 −4 10
∆ = 8[(9 × 10) − (−4)] − (−3)[(−3 × 10) − 0] − 0 = 502
Since, they have asked to find the power dissipated in 4 ohm resistor, we can see
that 4ohm resistor is present between loop 2 and loop 3 and it is enough to find the
currents I1& I2.

∆𝑆2 ∆𝑆3
𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆2 = &𝑆3 =
∆ ∆
𝑆𝑆𝑆 ∆𝑆2, 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆ℎ𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆.
8 50 0
∴ ∆𝑆2 = [−3 0 −4] = 1180
0 −10 10
∆𝑆2 1180
∴ 𝑆2 = = = 2.35 𝑆
∆ 502

𝑆𝑆𝑆 ∆𝑆3 , 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆ℎ𝑆 𝑆ℎ𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆.

8 −3 50
∴ ∆𝑆3 = [−3 9 0 ] = −30
0 −4 −10
∆𝑆3 −30
∴ 𝑆3 = = = −0.059 𝑆
∆ 502
Always current should be in positive, if it is negative, this shows that the given current
direction is not the actual current direction for Loop 3.
∴ 𝑆3 = 0.059
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 , 𝑆 = 𝑆2 𝑆
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆, 𝑆 = 𝑆𝑆
∴ 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆 4Ω, 𝑆 = 𝑆2 𝑆 = [𝑆2 . 𝑆3 ]2 × 𝑆 = (2.35 − 0.059)2 × 4
= 20.994𝑆

3. Write the mesh equation for the circuit and solve for the current in 12 ohm resistor.
 Fig. 1.69

[𝑆][𝑆] = [𝑆]

11 −7 −4 𝑆1 𝑆1 480
[−7 11 −4] [𝑆2 ] = [𝑆2 ] = [−600]
−4 −4 20 𝑆3 𝑆3 0
𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆, 𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆 ∆ = 864, ∆𝑆1 = 4320𝑆, ∆𝑆2 = −4750𝑆
∴ 𝑆1 = 5𝑆, 𝑆2 = −55𝑆, 𝑆3 = −10𝑆
∴ 𝑆12Ω = 𝑆3 = −10𝑆
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙, ∴ 𝐼3 = 10𝐴.
4. For the Maxwell mesh matrix find the ‘I’ across 4 ohm resistor

Fig. 1.70
 9.6 −4 −4 𝑆1 0
[−4 9 −2] [𝑆2 ] = [ 0 ]
−4 −2 6.5 𝑆3 12
𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆, 𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆 ∆ = 211.2, ∆𝑆1 = 528𝑆, ∆𝑆2 = 422.4𝑆, ∆𝑆3
= 844.8𝑆
∴ 𝑆1 = 2.5𝑆, 𝑆2 = 2𝑆, 𝑆3 = 4𝑆
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆 = 𝑆1 − 𝑆2 = 2.5 − 2 = 0.5𝑆
𝑆4Ω = 0.5𝑆

5. In the circuit obtain the Load current ‘I’ and power delivered to the load

Fig. 1.71

∆ = 6480, ∆𝑆3 = 12960 ⟹ 𝑆3 = 2𝑆

∴ 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆 𝑆ℎ𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆, 𝑆 = 𝑆2 . 𝑆 = 22 × 15 = 60𝑆

6. Write and solve the equations for the Mesh currents.

Fig. 1.72

Convert current to voltage sources. This is the rule for mesh analysis
 Fig. 1.73

Redrawing the circuit again

Fig. 1.74

6 −1 𝑆1 15
[ ][ ] = [ ]
−1 5 𝑆2 41
∆𝑆1 ∆𝑆2
𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆, ∆ = 29 ⟹ 𝑆1 = , 𝑆2 =
∆ ∆

∴ 𝑆1 = 4𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆2 = 9𝑆

1.12NODE ANALYSIS FOR DC CIRCUIT

It is also called junction

 It is a point where two (or) more than two elements come and meet.
 It is a point where two (or) more than two elements come and meet.
  Only current source should be used.
 It is used to find the unknown voltage.
 Matrix equation for node is, [1/R].[V] = [I] from ohms law, I =V/R
 It can also be written as [G] [V] = [I], where G = 1/R
 Also to find the actual node

Note: Total node – 1 = actual node

1.12.1 Problems:

1. Compute the voltage at nodes A & B in the circuit.

Fig. 1.75

Redraw the circuit

Fig. 1.76

[𝑆][𝑆] = [𝑆]
 1 1
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆1 𝑆
[ ] = [ 1]
1 1 𝑆2 𝑆2
[𝑆21 𝑆22 ]

1 1 1
+ −
[10 5 5 ] [𝑆1 ] = [ 20 ]
1 1 1 𝑆2 −1
− +
5 5 2
∆𝑆1
𝑆1 = = 81.1𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
∆
∆𝑆2
𝑆2 = = 21.7 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
∆
2. Compute the Nodal voltage and power dissipated in 10 ohm resistor.

Fig. 1.77

Convert voltage source to current source

 Fig. 1.78

Fig. 1.79
8 ×4 32
Redraw the circuit: 8+4
= 12
= 2.667Ω
 Fig. 1.80

1 1 1
+ − 0
2.667 5 5 𝑆1
1 1 1 1 1 0
− + + − [𝑆2 ] = [ 0 ]
5 5 10 5 5 𝑆3 25
1 1 1
[ 0 − +
5 5 2.667]

0.575 −0.2 0 𝑆1 0
[ −0.2 0.5 −0.2 ] [𝑆2 ] = [ 0 ]
0 −0.2 0.575 𝑆3 25

0.575 −0.2 0 0.575 0 0

Δ = [ −0.2 0.5 −0.2 ] = 0.119 and Δ𝑆2 = [ −0.2 0 −0.2 ] = 2.875
0 −0.2 0.575 0 25 0.575
∆𝑆2
∴ 𝑆2 = = 24.16𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
∆

𝑆2 24.162
𝑆= = = 58.4𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑆 10

3. Find the nodal voltage for the following circuit

 Fig. 1.81

1 1
+ −1 0
2.5 1 𝑆1
1 1 1 1 1
−1 + + − [𝑆 2 ] = [ −1]
4 2 1 2 𝑆3 0
1 1 1
[ 0 − + ]
2 2 5

∆𝑆1
𝑆1 = = 0.413𝑆
∆
∆𝑆2
𝑆2 = = −0.421𝑆
∆
∆𝑆3
𝑆1 = = −0.3𝑆
∆

The assumed current direction for I2 and I3 are wrong

∴ 𝑆2 = 0.421, 𝑆3 = 0.3𝑆

BASIC CONCEPTS OF DC CIRCUITS

The introduction of elements is called as circuits

I-DC circuits:
 If the electric circuit is operated by the DC sources are called as DC circuits.

II-Classification of electric circuit elements:

The electrical elements are classified into

 Active elements
 Passive elements

Active elements: (2marks)

Active elements supply voltage (or) current to the circuit to operate it. Voltage and
current source are active elements.

Passive elements: (2marks)

It either dissipates energy in the form of heat (or) stores energy from the external source.

Eg: Resistor (R), Inductor (I), Capacitor (C)

Resistor – dissipates energy in the form of heat. Unit of resistance is ohm.

Inductor – stores energy in the Magnetic field. Unit of inductance is Henry.

Capacitor – Stores energy in the electrostatic field. Unit of capacitance is Farad.

Voltage: (2marks)

In electrical terminology, potential difference is called voltage.

On the other hand, voltage is the energy required for movement of charge from one
point to another.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑤
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒(𝑉) = = [𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏]
𝐶𝑆𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑞

Current: (2marks)

It is defined as the rate of flow of charge with respect to time.

𝐶𝑆𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑞
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡(𝐼) = = [𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏/𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑]
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑡

Energy: (2marks)

 It is the capacity for doing work

 Energy may be existed in the form of mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝑊) = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑃) × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑇)

Power: (2marks)

It is defined as the rate of change of energy.

 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑊 𝑑𝑤
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑃) = = =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇 𝑑𝑡
Unit of power is joules/sec (or) watts

We know that,
𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑞
𝑉= &𝐼 =
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑞
𝑃 = 𝑉×𝐼 = ×
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑤
𝑃=
𝑑𝑡