SYNOPSIS

1
 CHAPTER 1
LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction This thesis is a proof-of-concept study that aims to reduce the high
incidences of rear end crashes that contribute to increasing high numbers of
overall crash rates in the today. The concept is a flashing rear strobe light,
which serves as a warning signal to drivers too close to the vehicle in front in
car-following situations. Strobe lights have been used to successfully raise
conspicuity of vehicles, and objects in many other transportation applications.
This study was designed with the intention that if this signal was effective at
positively affecting subjects’ response times to an unexpected stopped vehicle
in the roadway, the results of this study would provide the basis for seriously
considering such a light in future development of rear signaling applications.
This literature review provides background information investigating rear end
crash causation. Current countermeasures are reviewed, together with their
effectiveness and associated research. In order to develop a new concept it is
important that the principles of warning design be reviewed. These are
presented together with associated research concerning the effectiveness of
certain lighting configurations.

Literature concerning the effectiveness of strobes at enhancing conspicuity in

other transportation research areas is documented. Other considerations in
developing a warning signal such as timing and impact of varied reaction times
on activation criteria are also presented. Approaches to investigation of
unexpected emergency braking are also reviewed concerning issues of testing

2
 environment, obstruction presentation, and measures of effectiveness. Crash
Causation Reducing crashes has been a focus of human factors for many years

Knipling et al. (1992) found that the most common pre-crash vehicle maneuver for
the striking vehicle was simply "going straight" (84 % of cases). The pattern of
causal factors identified in the Tri-Level study (Treat et al., 1979) is true for
both LVS and LVM crash subtypes - especially LVS. As mentioned previously,
out of three 3 categories identified by Treat et al. (1979), human error was
identified as the major factor in crash causation. The other two categories
included vehicle and highway design. However, Dingus, Jahns, Horowitz, and

Knipling (1998) point out that these categories of causation all interact and
enforce one another. As a result, preventative measures should seek to enhance
the safety of vehicles (e.g., collision warning systems) and/or the environment
(e.g., intelligent signaling) to compensate for driver error. Enhancing these
factors would effectively reduce driver error through more positive interaction.
However, the types of driver error need to be fully understood before design
recommendations can be made to alleviate these crash causes. Driver Error The
most common category of driver error associated with rear end collisions is
inattention to the driving task. A second overlapping factor is following too
closely. One or both of these factors are present in approximately 90% of rear
end crashes

(Knipling et al., 1993). What follows is a breakdown of the apparent causes of

driver error as identified in the literature. These include perceptual factors,
short headways, and inattentive behavior. Perceptual factors. There is
considerable literature supporting the theory that complex perceptual factors
contribute to a driver’s failure to see the vehicle ahead prior to a rear end crash
event (Mortimer, 1988). Lee (1976) analyzed rear end crashes in terms of

3
 perception and ascertained that drivers are predictive in their behavior when
driving. They plan what to do next based on the dynamics of the optic array.

PROJECT PLANNING

Before starting every project its planning is to be done. Planning is very

important task and should be taken with great care, as the efficiency of the whole
project largely depends upon its planning while planning a project each and every
details should be worked out in anticipation and should carefully is considered
with all the relating provisions in advance. Project planning consists of the
following steps.

PROJECT CAPACITY
The capacity of the project must be decided considering the amount of
money which can be invested and availability of material and machines.

DRAWINGS
Drawing been decided for the project to be manufacture. Its detailed drawing
specification for raw material and finished products should be decided carefully
along with the specification of the machines required for their manufacture.

MATERIAL EQUIPMENT
The list of materials required for manufacture is prepared from the drawings.
The list of is known as “BILL OF MATERIALS”. This passes to the store keeper

4
and the required materials taken from the store under permission of store keeper
operation, the necessity of operation, the person to do the job, machine to be used
to do the job are considered while planning the operation. After considering tea
above questions a best method is developed and the best method is applied to the
operation.

MACHINE LOADING
While planning proper care should be taken to find the machining time for
each operation as correct as possible. So that the arrangement for full utilization of
machine can be made machine loading programmed is also known.

PURCHASE CONSIDERATION
It is different to manufacture all the component needed for the equipment in
the workshop it self. The decision about a particular item whether to purchase or to
manufacture is taken by planning after making through study of relative merits
demerits.

EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATION
Result obtained from “PROCESS PLANNING” and “MACHINE LODING”
helps in calculating the equipment requirement specification of the equipment
should be laid down by considering the drawing. Drawing will also help in
deciding and necessary requirement of tools, accessories.

COST CALCULATION

The cost of the project can be calculated by adding following.

Material Cost
Machining Cost
Overhead Expenses.

5
CHAPTER 2

6
 1. INTRODUCTION

The power developed inside the engine cylinder is ultimately aimed to turn the wheels
so that the motor vehicle can move on the road. The reciprocating motion of the piston
turns a crankshaft rotating the flywheel through the connecting rod. The circular motion
of the crank shaft is now to be transmitted to the rear wheels. It is transmitted through
the clutch, gear box, universal joints, propeller shaft or drive shaft, differential and axles
extending to the wheels. The application of engine power to the driving wheels through
all these parts is called Power transmission. The power transmission system is usually
the same on all modern passenger cars and trucks, but its arrangement may vary
according to the method of drive and type of the transmission units.

The motion of the crank shaft is transmitted through the clutch to the gear box or
transmission, which consists of a set of gears to change the speed. From gear box, the
motion is transmitted to the propeller shaft through another universal joint. Universal
joint is used where the two rotating shafts are connected at an angle for power
transmission. Finally the power is transmitted to the rear wheels through the rear

7
axles. The differential provides the relative motion to the two rear wheels while the
vehicle is taking a turn.

2. HISTORY OF BRAKE SYSTEM

FIG :1 physical system

In physical terms we can state that energy is the capacity of a physical system to do
work. When a car comes down a straight line at 300 km/h or more, it possesses lots
of kinetic (movement) energy. Due to the fact that energy does not get lost, but can
instead only be converted one form into another, the only way to slow down the car
is to convert the kinetic energy into another form. Brakes as we know them both in
race cars and road cars convert this movement energy to heat.

Formula One cars must sometimes decelerate in a matter of seconds from 350
km/h to about 70 km/h. During such heavy braking, the temperature of the brake
rotor and pads can warm up from 400°C to more than 1000°C. These 1000°C
occurs at the very end of the braking, and is approximately the highest temperature
a carbon brake disc (as they are used in F1, and limited to 28mm thickness and
278mm diameter by the FIA) can take.

2.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE

8
Of all the systems that make up your car, the brake system might just be the most
important. In the olden days it was also one of the simplest. Over the years as
improvements have been made, the system that has evolved isn't so simple
anymore... (It's also about a zillion times more reliable and safer.)
Your brakes work as hard or harder than any other part of the car, however much
energy it takes to get your car up a hill, it takes at least as much energy to stop it at
the bottom. Think about that for a second. Here, I'll say it again, it takes at least as
much energy to get your car safely down a hill and stop it at the bottom, as it
took to get your car up the hill in the first place. Your brakes do this by
converting the kinetic energy to heat energy. All of this heat is generated between
the friction surfaces of your brake pads and your rotors. (I am going to disregard
the rear brakes for now, since the front brakes do the lion's share of the work.)
Rather than try to give you a step-by-step procedure for repairing your brakes, I'm
going to try to show you how to diagnose a few of the many simple brake
problems. Unfortunately, before I can do that, I have to talk about how the brake
system works. If you already know how it works, then you probably already know
what your problem is, but you might find something useful here anyway or at least
I hope so. Brakes operate on a simple hydraulic principle. (See diagram below) If a
force is exerted on the piston putting pressure on the fluid confined in the left hand
container, the fluid is forced out through the narrow tube at the bottom and into the
right hand container, exerting a force on the second piston, forcing it to move
upward.

9
 fig :2simple hydraulic principle
Now this is how the force from your foot gets to the four corners of the car. If we
add a lever to magnify the force applied to the first (master) cylinder, and maybe
even a power booster unit to increase that force even more, all we have to do next
is figure a way to use that force to slow down the wheels. Since the wheels
attached to the car, slowing them down will slow the car.
If we change the shape of the right hand container, (see below) to make something
for the piston to push against, we can make it pinch something. Let's bolt a
disc(Brake rotor) to the wheel, so that it rotates whenever the wheel does. We'll
mount it in such a way that the edge of it is between the caliper piston and the
caliper that we have bolted to the axle of the car.so that when the piston moves out,
the disc is pinched between it and the other side of the caliper. Actually we're not
quite done. As we have the system now, the disc and the caliper would wear out
rather quickly (not to mention making horrible grinding/scraping noises). We need
to put something between them to protect the surfaces. Let's call this part "Brake
Pads" But wait, as we have drawn it, the piston only pushes on one side of the disc.
We have to allow the caliper to slide back and forth if we want it to actually pinch
the disc efficiently. Let's make an anchor post and allow the caliper to slide along
it. Let's make a nice, strong mount to hold the brake pads, and secure it to the axle.
Now all we have to do is mount the caliper assembly to some sturdy part of the car.

10
fig:3 caliper assembly

CHAPTER 3

11
 3. INTRODUCTION OF PNEUMATIC BRAKE

AIR BRAKE (ROAD VEHICLE)

12
 Fig: 4Truck air actuated disc brake.

Air brakes are used in trucks, buses, trailers, and semi-trailers. George
Westinghouse first developed air brakes for use in railway service. He patented a
safer air brake on March 5, 1872. Originally designed and built for use on railroad
train application, air brakes remain the exclusive systems in widespread use.
Westinghouse made numerous alterations to improve his air pressured brake
invention, which led to various forms of the automatic brake and the subsequent
use on heavier road vehicles.

Compressed air brake system

Compressed air brake systems are typically used on heavy trucks and buses (Note
the difference between pneumatic brakes and pneumatic/hydraulic). The system
consists of service brakes, parking brakes, a control pedal, an engine-driven air
compressor and a compressed air storage tank. For the parking brake, there is a
disc or drum brake arrangement which is designed to be held in the 'applied'

13
position by spring pressure. Air pressure must be produced to release these "spring
brake" parking brakes. For the service brakes (the ones used while driving for
slowing or stopping) to be applied, the brake pedal is pushed, routing the air under
pressure (approx 100-125psi) to the brake chamber, causing the brake to reduce
wheel rotation speed. Most types of truck air brakes are drum units, though there is
an increasing trend towards the use of disc brakes in this application. The air
compressor air draws filtered air from the atmosphere and forces it into high-
pressure reservoirs at around 120 PSI. Most heavy vehicles have a gauge within
the driver's view, indicating the availability of air pressure for safe vehicle
operation, often including warning tones or lights. Setting of the
parking/emergency brake releases the pressurized air pressure in the lines between
the compressed air storage tank and the brakes, thus actuating the (spring brake)
parking braking hardware. An air pressure failure at any point would apply full
spring brake pressure immediately.In the Florida CDL Handbook [1], this process is
described. Here is the section describing the service brake.

5.1.7 - The Brake Pedal

Brakes are applied by pushing down the brake pedal. (It is also called the foot
valve or treadle valve.) Pushing the pedal down harder applies more air pressure.
Letting up on the brake pedal reduces the air pressure and releases the brakes.
Releasing the brakes lets some compressed air go out of the system, so the air
pressure in the tanks is reduced. It must be made up by the air compressor. Pressing
and releasing the pedal unnecessarily can let air out faster than the compressor can
replace it. If the pressure gets too low, the brakes won't work.

14
These large vehicles also have an emergency brake system, in which the
compressed air holds back a mechanical force (usually a spring) which will
otherwise engage the brakes.[2] Hence, if air pressure is lost for any reason, the
brakes will engage and bring the vehicle to a stop.

Design and function

A compressed air brake system is divided into a supply system and a control
system. The supply system compresses, stores and supplies high-pressure air to the
control system as well as to additional air operated auxiliary truck systems
(gearbox shift control, clutch pedal air assistance servo, etc.).

3.1 INTRODUCTION OF PNEUMATICS

PNEUMATICS

● Pneumatic systems means which produces the power by using

pressurized gases. Pneumatic systems typically use air as the fluid
medium because air is safe, low cost and readily available.

PNEUMATIC SYSTEM

● Mechanization is broadly defined as the replacement of manual effort

by mechanical power. Pneumatic is an attractive medium for low cost
mechanization particularly for sequential (or) repetitive operations.
Many factories and plants already have a compressed air system, which
is capable of providing the power (or) energy requirements and the
control system (although equally pneumatic control systems may be
economic and can be advantageously applied to other forms of power).

15
 ● The main advantage of an all pneumatic system are usually economic
and simplicity the latter reducing maintenance to a low level. It can also
have outstanding advantages in terms of safety.

WORKING MEDIUM

● Pneumatic systems operate on a supply of compressed air, which must

be made available.

● In sufficient quantity and at a pressure to suit the capacity of the system

When pneumatic system is being adopted for the first time, however it
wills indeed the necessary to deal with the question of compressed air
supply.

● The key part of any facility for supply of compressed air is by means
using reciprocating compressor. A compressor is a machine that takes in
air, gas at a certain pressure and delivered the air at a high pressure.
Compressor capacity is the actual quantity of air compressed and
delivered and the volume expressed is that of the air at intake
conditions namely at atmosphere pressure and normal ambient
temperature.

SOURCE OF THE SYSTEM

16
 ● The main function of the air compressor is to compress the air up to the
required pressure. The maximum capacity of the compressor is 10x105
to 12 x105 N/m².
● This is a two stages or two-cylinder reciprocating air compressor. The
two cylinders are for low and high compression.
● The air pressure is measured at various places by the use of pressure
gauges. V-belt and pulley are used to drive the compressor.
● Clean condition of the suction air is one of the factors, which decides
the life of a compressor.
● Warm and moist suction air will result in increased precipitation of
condense from the compressed air. Compressor may be classified in two
general types.
● The compressor is driven by the seperate electric motor. And this type
of compressor having the “V” SHAPED CYLINDER arrangement.
● The main components of the compressor are
Storage tank.
Piston and cylinder arrangements.
SELECTION OF PNEUMATICS:
Mechanization is broadly defined as the replacement of manual effort by
mechanical power. Pneumatic is an attractive medium for low cost mechanization
particular for sequential or repetitive operations. Many factories and plants already
have a compressed air system, which is capable of providing the power or energy
requirements and the control system .
The main advantage of an all-pneumatic system are usually economic and
simplicity and reducing maintenance to a low level. It can also have standing
advantages in terms of safety.
PRODUCTION OF COMPRESSED AIR:

17
 A pneumatic system operates on a supply of compressed air, which must be
made available in sufficient quantity and at pressure to suit the capacity of the
systems. When pneumatic system is being adopted for the first time, however it
will indeed the necessary to deal with the question of compressed air supply.

3.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES&INTRODUCTION OF HYDRAULICS AND

PNEUMATICS
Pneumatic cylinders are the devices for converting the air pressure into linear
mechanical force and motion. They are basically used for single purpose
applications such as clamping, tilting, bending, turning and many other
applications.

The Pneumatic power is converted to straight line reciprocating motion by

pneumatic cylinders. The various industrial applications for which air cylinders are
used can be divided duty wise into the groups. They are light duty, medium duty
and heavy duty but according to the operating principle air cylinders can be sub
divided as 1.single-acting, 2.Double- acting cylinders. Since our project is based on
single acting cylinder we shall see deep about it.

In a single-acting cylinder, compressed air is fed only in one side hence, this
cylinder can produce work only in one direction the return movement of the piston
is affected by a built–in spring or by application of an external force the spring is
designed to return the piston to its initial position with a sufficiently high speed.

 Most industrial processes require substances to be transformed from one

place to another. Also the final products should be shaped (or) compressed

18
 (or) held by applying a great force. Such activities are performed by using
prime movers.
 The prime movers are operated by (i) electrical system (ii) Hydraulic system
(iii) Pneumatic system.
 In electrical system, the rotary motion is provided by simple motors. The
linear motions can be obtained by converting rotary motions with the aid of
screw jack (or) Rack and pinion.
 In ‘Hydraulic system, enclosed water (or) oil can be used to convey energy
from one location to another. In Greek, hydra means water.
 In Pneumatic system, enclosed gas (normally compressed air) is used to
transfer energy from one location to another). In Greek, Pneumatic means
wind.

19
CHAPTER 4

20
 4. MAJOR COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION

1. Continuity sensor
2. Control unit
3. Pneumatic assembly
4. Break assembly
5. Power supply

1. CONTINUITY SENSOR WITH RELAY:-

The continuity sensor sense the entire brake line during vehicle running.If
suddenly brake wire brokened or disconnected sensor send the signal to
microcontroller.The microcontroller on the relay circuit at once 5/2 solinoid valve
will actuate the supplementary cylinder applying the brake machnism.

Basic relay operation:

Fig: 5 Electromagnetic relay

The electromagnetic relay consists of a multi-turn coil, wound on an iron
core, to form an electromagnet. When the coil is energized, by passing current
through it, the core becomes temporarily magnetized. The magnetized core attracts

21
the iron armature. The armature is pivoted which causes it to operate one or more
sets of contacts. When the coil is de-energized the armature and contacts are
released.
The coil can be energized from a low power source such as a transistor while
the contacts can switch high powers such as the mains supply. The relay can also
be situated remotely from the control source. Relays can generate a very high
voltage across the coil when switched off.
This can damage other components in the circuit. To prevent this diode is
connected across the coil. The cathode of the diode is connected to the most
positive end of the coil.

Fig: 6 spring sets

The spring sets (contacts) can be a mixture of N.O, N.C and c.o. look at the
page on switches to see how they can be used in circuits. Various coil-operating
voltages (ac and dc) are available. The actual contact points on the spring sets are
available for high current and low current operation. The REED RELAY has a
much faster operation than the relays described above.

2. CONTROL UNIT

22
Microcontroller

Microelectronics engineering deals with the design and micro fabrication

of very small electronic circuit components for use in an integrated circuit or
sometimes for use on their own as a general electronic component. The most
common microelectronic components are semiconductor transistors, although all
main electronic components (resistors, capacitors, inductors) can be created at a
microscopic level. Nanoelectronics is the further scaling of devices down to
nanometer levels.

Microelectronic components are created by chemically fabricating wafers

of semiconductors such as silicon (at higher frequencies, compound
semiconductors like gallium arsenide and indium phosphide) to obtain the desired
transport of electronic charge and control of current. The field of microelectronics
involves a significant amount of chemistry and material science and requires the
electronic engineer working in the field to have a very good working knowledge of
the effects of quantum mechanics.

BASIC ELECTRONICS COMPONENTS

Resistors, capacitors, and inductors are basic electrical components used in
electronic circuits. Some of the electrical components and their symbols are given
in Figure 3.

RESISTORS
Resistors are components which resist the flow of electronic current. The resistors
are mainly used to reduce the voltage applied to other components and to limit the
current flowing through other components. The higher the value of the resistance,
the lower the current will be. Resistance of a resistor is measured in terms of Ohms

23
(Ω) since the relationship between voltage (V, volts), current (I, Ampere), and
resistance (R) is explained by Ohm's law given in equation-1
V=IR (Eq-1)
The most common resistors are made using a carbon rod core with end caps and
wire leads. We can categorize resistors into two basic types: fixed and variable
resistors (or potentiometers). A fixed resistor is the one which has a fixed
resistance value. Variable resistors have variable resistance values. The value of the
resistor is often changed by a user by turning a knob or a dial. There are some
special resistors designed to change in resistance when heated. They are called
Thermistors and are used in temperature measuring circuits. The same idea is also
used to design pressure sensors where a membrane is designed to be a resistor. The
membrane resistance changes when it is deformed by the pressure in a chamber.

Figure: 7 Common Electrical Components and their Symbols

24
Resistors generate heat and have a wattage rating relating the power level they can
handle. The higher the wattage rating the more heat they can dissipate. There are
standard wattage ratings such as 1/8, 1/4, 1/2, 1, more watts. In addition to the
value and wattage, each resistor has a tolerance regarding their resistance. Standard
resistors have 10-20% tolerance but special resistors can have tolerances around
1%. Depending on the application, the proper tolerance rate is chosen. These
properties are often marked on the resistors using a color code. Sometimes, they
are written on the resistor.

Resistor Color Code and Standard Resistor Values

Fixed value resistors are color coded to indicate their value and tolerance. Some
have their value written on them. There are three color coding systems: a 4 Band
code, a 5 Band code, and 6 Band code.
The standard color coding method for resistors has 10 colors to represent numbers
from 0 to 9: black, brown, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, grey, and white.
The first two bands always represent the significant digits on a 4 band resistor. On
a 5 and 6 band, the significant digits are the first three bands. The third band is the
multiplier or decade which is multiplied by the resulting value of the significant
digit color bands. For example, if the first two bands are brown (1) and orange (3)
and the third band is red (2), this means 102 or 100. Then, this gives a value of 13
× 100, or 1300 Ohms.
For the decade band, the gold and silver colors are used to divide by a power of 10
and 100 respectively, allowing for values below 10 Ohms. The tolerance of the
resistor is represented by the next band. Four colors are used for the tolerance
band: brown (+/-1%), red (+/-2%), gold (+/-5%), and silver (+/-10%). For
example, if the tolerance band is silver, the true value of the resistor can be 10%
more or less than 1300 Ohms. Thus, the actual value of the resistor can be from
1170 to 1430 Ohms. The sixth band on a 6 band resistor reveals the temperature

25
coefficient of the resistor, measured parts per million per degree Centigrade
(PPM/C). Seven colors are used for
the temperature coefficient: white (1), purple (5), blue (10), orange (15), yellow
(25), red (50), and brown (100). The most popular color is brown (100 PPM/C) and
will work for normal temperature conditions. The other colors are used for
temperature critical applications. Figure-4 represents all the colors and their
meaning depending on their location on resistors.

Since the sizes of the electronic components are shrinking or changing in shape, it
becomes very difficult to put color bands on a resistor. Instead, a simpler
alphanumeric coding system is used. This coding system uses three numbers,
sometimes followed by a single letter. The numbers play the same role as the first
three bands on a 4 band resistor. First two numbers is the significant digits. The
third number is the decade. There are five possible letters: M=20%, K=10%, J=5%,
G=2%, F=1%. For example, if 473K is written on a resistor array, the 4 and 7 are
the significant digits and the 3 is the decade, giving 47 x 1000 or 47000 Ohms.
Since the letter is K, the resistor has 10%. The same coding system is also used on
the surface mount resistors with SMD package.

Since it could be difficult to see text on some components, the letters K, M and R
are used in place of the decimal point. The letter K represents 1000, the letter M
represents 1000000, and the letter R represents 0. For example, a 3900 Ohm
resistor will have 3K9 on the package and a 7.2 Ohm resistor is represented as
7R2. There are seven standards for resistor values: E3, E6, E12, E24, E48, E96,
and E192 based on their tolerance levels 50%, 20%, 10%, 5%, 2%, 1%, and less
than 0.5% respectively. E3 standard is no longer used. E6 standard is used very
seldom. The most used standards are E12 and E24. In the E12 standard, the
resistors take all decades of the following values: 1.0, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8, 2.2, 2.7, 3.3,

26
3.9, 4.7, 5.6, 6.8 and 8.2 In the E24 standard, the resistors take all decades of the
following values: 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.7, 3.0, 3.3, 3.6, 3.9,
4.3, 4.7, 5.1, 5.6, 6.2, 6.8, 7.5 and 8.2.

Figure:8 Resistance color codes

INDUCTORS
An inductor is an electronic component composed of a coil of wire. The magnetic
properties of a coil come into effect. When a voltage is applied, a current starts
flowing in the coil and a magnetic field is created as shown in Figure 5. While the
field is building, the coil resists the flow of the current. Once the field is built,

27
current flows normally. When the voltage is removed, the magnetic field around
the coil keeps the current flowing until the field collapses. Thus, the inductor can
store energy in its magnetic field, and resist any change in the amount of current
flowing through it. The unit of inductance is the Henry (H). In order to increase the
inductance, we can
use core materials like Soft iron, Silicon iron, etc. The most common type of
inductor is the Bar Coil type. The others are surface mount inductors, Toroids
(ring-shaped core), thin film inductors, and transformers. The choice of inductor
depends on the space availability, frequency range of operation, and certainly
power requirements.

Figure :9 An Inductor and its magnetic field

CAPACITOR
A capacitor is an energy storing device, made up of two parallel conductive plates
separated by an insulating material. This insulating material is called a dielectric. It
stores a charge because electrons crowd onto the negative plate and repel electrons
on the positive plate, thereby inducing an equal and opposite charge. The unit of
the capacitance is Farad (F). However, practical values of a capacitor are in micro
and nano Farad ranges. Figure 6 presents an electrolytic capacitor and its symbols.

28
 Figure : 10 An Electrolytic capacitor and its symbol
There are two different types of capacitors: Electrolytic and Non-electrolytic. Non-
electrolytic capacitors use mica or polyester as dielectric. Electrolytic capacitors
use aluminum metal plates on either side of a sheet of paper soaked in aluminum
borate. Ceramic capacitors are used in high frequency applications. These are
stable at high frequencies. Tantalum bead capacitors are very small in size, thus
commonly used as surface mount components.
Large capacitors have the value printed plainly on them but smaller ones often
have just 2 or three numbers on them. It is similar to the resistor codes. The first
two are the 1st and 2nd significant digits and the third is a multiplier code.
Sometimes, one or two letters are added for tolerance and temperature coefficient.
The values calculated using the digits on a capacitor is in pF (pico Farad).
For example, if a capacitor has 105F on it, the capacitor has 10× 100,000 =
1000000 pF = 1000 nF (nano Farad) = 1 μ F (micro Farad) value and 1% tolerance.
There are two letters used for temperature co efficient: P (+100) and Z (+80). There
are other standards such as EIA (Electronic Industrial Association) where there are
more letters for a detailed tolerance and temperature coefficients.
DIODES
Diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction
with far greater ease than in the other direction. The most common type of diode in
modern circuit design is the semiconductor diode. Diodes are polarized, which

29
means that they must be inserted in the correct way. Diodes have two connections:
an anode (positive) and a cathode (negative). The cathode is always identified by a
dot, ring, or some other mark, shown in Figure 7.

Figure :11 Diodes

Diodes are said to be biased, based on the voltages applied to it. To forward bias a
diode, the anode must be more positive than the cathode. To reverse bias a diode,
the anode must be less positive than the cathode. When forward biased, the device
conducts current, but when reverse biased, it prevents the flow of current.

Note that diode starts to conduct when the voltage on the diode reaches a certain
level (in practice this is about 0.7 Volt). Voltages above this value increase the
current going through the diode linearly. On the other hand, if the voltage on the
diode is reversed, the diode does not let any current pass through itself. However, if
the reverse voltage is increased up to a certain level, the diode can be broken and
lets a high current pass through itself. This voltage is called breakdown voltage.

TRANSISTOR
A transistor shown in figure-9, can be initially thought of as an "electronically-
controlled resistor." Two of the pins act like a normal resistor. The other "control"

30
pin controls the resistance "seen" between the other 2 pins. The "control" pin is
called the gate in a Field Effect Transistor (FET) (the other 2 pins are the source
and drain). The "control" pin is called the base in a Bipolar Junction Transistor
(BJT) (the other 2 pins are the emitter and the collector).

Two electrical quantities can be used to control the resistance between the two
terminals - current and voltage. In a FET, the voltage at the gate controls the
resistance between source and drain, while in the BJT, the current flowing into the
base controls the resistance between the emitter and collector. While often referred
to as an amplifier, a transistor does not create a higher voltage or current of its own
accord. Like any other device, it obeys the Kirchoff's laws. The resistance of a
transistor dynamically changes, hence the term transistor.

Figure: 12 Transistors

One of its popular uses is in building a signal amplifier, but it can also be used as a
switch. Today's transistors are mostly found inside ICs. Stand- alone transistors are
used mostly only in high power applications or for power- regulation.

Both the BJT and the FET are popular today (among the FETs, the MOSFET being
the most popular form of transistor), each one having certain advantages over the
other. BJTs are much faster and high current devices, while FETs are small-sized

31
low-power devices. Understanding the function of a transistor is a key to
understanding electronics.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
One can clearly generalize and say that the field of electronics largely depends
upon manipulating with the input signals such as voltage or current to produce
desired output. These manipulations include (not limited to) mathematical
operations, such as addition, subtraction, integration, and differentiation. In the
analog domain, the most common device that is used to perform the above listed
operations is the operational amplifiers or op amps. Current applications of
operational amplifiers go far beyond simple mathematical operations. Op-amps are
used in many control and instrumentation systems to perform various tasks such as
voltage regulators, oscillators, logarithmic amplifiers, peak detectors, and voltage
comparators.
Operational amplifiers have special characteristics due to which they are widely
used as predictable building blocks in many circuit designs. Some of these
characteristics are as follows: very high gain (10,000 to million), high input
resistance (103 to 1015 ohms), small size, low power consumption, good reliability
and stability, and last but not the least, low cost of manufacturing. Figure 10
illustrates the standard symbol of an operational amplifier. It consists of two input
terminals and one output terminal. The input terminal indicated with minus sign is
called the inverting terminal and the other input terminal is called the non-inverting
terminal. A signal applied at the inverting terminal and ground appears at the
output with a 180o phase shift. Likewise a signal applied at the non-inverting
terminal and ground appears at the output
with a 0º phase shift.

32
 Figure: 13 Operational Amplifier
In the analysis and design of circuits employing op-amps, a simplified circuit
model known as ideal op-amp is often used that has the following characteristics.

 Infinite open loop voltage

 Infinite input resistance
 The amplifier draws zero current
 Output resistance is negligible
 The gain is constant and independent of frequency

3. PNEUMATIC ASSEMBLY
The major components of these systems are,
 Compressor
 Pneumatic Cylinder
 Solenoid Valve
 Hose and fitting
 Control Timer Circuit
 Flow control valve
 IR sensor

33
COMPRESSOR:

The air under high pressure is given by a compressor. It is driven by an

electric motor. The compressor delivers air to inlet of the cylinder. An air
compressor as the same indicates is a machine to compress the air and to raise its
pressure. The air compressor sucks air from the atmosphere, compresses it and then
delivers the same under a high pressure to a storage vessel from the storage vessel
it may be conveyed by a pipeline to a place where the supply of compressed air is
required.

Double Acting Cylinder

In this the force exerted by the compressed air moves the piston in two
directions. They are used partially when the piston is required to perform work not
only on the advance movement but also on the return stroke. This principle, the
stroke length is unlimited, although bucking and bending must be considered
before selecting the particular size of piston diameter, rod length and stroke length.

The different parts of double acting cylinder are:

1. Barrel
2. Piston rod
3. Top Cover
4. Bottom Cover
5. Wiper Cover
6. Retaining ring
7. Piston
8. Piston guide
9. Bearing Cap

34
 10.‘O’ ring for piston guide
11.Hexagonal socket head screw
12.Check nut

The double acting cylinder is made up of cast aluminium. The inner and
outer surface of the cylinder should be machined accurately. The internal diameter
of the cylinder should be accurate in order to provide a smooth surface for the
packing. The appearance of the outer diameter should be good.

The outer most part of the bottom and top cover contains internal threads for
inserting bolts to clamp the cylinder.

In case of double acting cylinder a force is developed in both the directions.

The moving member inside the cylinder is nothing but a piston which is found to
be moving forward and backward due to high-pressure air. The cylinder top and
lower plate are flanged together by means of bolts and nuts. The bottom of the
cylinder is also flanged with end covers for the movement of the piston in
reciprocating manner.

Solenoid Valve
The directional valve is one of the important parts of a pneumatic system.
Commonly known as DCV, this valve is used to control the direction of air flow in
the pneumatic system. The directional valve does this by changing the position of
its internal movable parts.
This valve was selected for speedy operation and to reduce the manual
effort and also for the modification of the machine into automatic machine by
means of using a solenoid valve. A solenoid is an electrical device that converts
electrical energy into straight line motion and force. These are also used to operate

35
a mechanical operation which in turn operates the valve mechanism. Solenoids
may be push type or pull type. The push type solenoid is one in which the plunger
is pushed when the solenoid is energized electrically. The pull type solenoid is one
is which the plunger is pulled when the solenoid is energized.

The name of the parts of the solenoid should be learned so that they can be
recognized when called upon to make repairs, to do service work or to install them.

36
Working of Solenoid Valve

The solenoid valve has 5 openings. This ensure easy exhausting of

5/2 valve. The spool of the 5/2 valve slide inside the main bore according to
spool position; the ports get connected and disconnected. The working
principle is as follows.

Position-1

When the spool is actuated towards outer direction port ‘P’ gets
connected to ‘B’ and ‘S’ remains closed while ‘A’ gets connected to ‘R’

Poisition-2

When the spool is pushed in the inner direction port ‘P’ and ‘A’ gets
connected to each other and ‘B’ to ‘S’ while port ‘R’ remains closed.

HOUSE AND FITINGS:

It is provided for the passage of compressed air from the compressor

outlet to the operating valve.

Two separate pipes also connect the operating valve with the working
cylinder pressure drop through and air line depends on the flow rate, pipe
diameter, pipe length and pipe geometry. It can be determined directly for
straight pipes of any given length. A small chaining bore size can have

37
marked effect on pressure drop, where as even doubling the pipe length, will
only result in doubling the pressure drop.

FLOW CONTROL VALVE:

Flow Control Valves are fitted to all the distribution tubes. This valve
is made of brass. Both the ends have stepped surface to insert hoses. A
handle is provided to control the flow of oil in every valve.

(a) Technical Data:

Size : ¼”
Pressure : 0 to 10 kg / cm2
Media : Air

PISTON ROD

● The piston rod is circular in cross section. It connects piston with

piston of other cylinder. The piston rod is made of mild steel
ground and polished. A high finish is essential on the outer rod
surface to minimize wear on the rod seals. The piston rod is
connected to the piston by mechanical fastening. The piston and
the piston rod can be separated if necessary.
● One end of the piston rod is connected to the bottom of the piston.
The other end of the piston rod is connected to the other piston

38
 rod by means of coupling. The piston transmits the working force
to the oil cylinder through the piston rod.
● The piston rod is designed to withstand the high compressive
force. It should avoid bending and withstand shock loads caused
by the cutting force. The piston moves inside the rod seal fixed in
the bottom cover plate of the cylinder.

● The sealing arrangements prevent the leakage of air from the

bottom of the cylinder while the rod reciprocates through it.

COVER PLATES

● The cylinder should be enclosed to get the applied pressure from

the compressor and act on the pinion. The cylinder is thus closed
by the cover plates on both the ends such that there is no leakage
of air. An inlet port is provided on the top cover plate and an
outlet ports on the bottom cover plate. There is also a hole drilled
for the movement of the piston.
● The cylinder cover plate protects the cylinder from dust and other
particle and maintains the same pressure that is taken from the
compressor. The flange has to hold the piston in both of its
extreme positions. The piston hits the top plat during the return
stroke and hits the bottom plate during end of forward stroke. So
the cover plates must be strong enough to withstand the load.

39
CHECK NUT

● A check nut is used to ensure that a nut, once installed, will stay
in place. Check nuts, also called lock nuts, are usually thin and
used in instances where there is a high probability of the
first nut shaking or vibrating loose. Check nuts are designed and
used to prevent the first nut from becoming loose and potentially
causing damage or injury when using a device.
● Lock nuts, or check nuts, were designed to replace lock washers,
which did not work as well at preventing loosening over time
from movement and vibration.
● Chect nut is used for make the strong seal between the hose and
cylinder connection
● Check nut is also defined as the secondary nut screwing down
upon the primary nut to secure it.

BASE AND SUPPORTING COLUMN

● The base of the equipment is made up of the rigid mild steel

plates. This will resists the shocks and vibrations produced during
the removal operations.
● The construction is made up of the joined plates by welding
process.
● The column is a vertical construction rests on the base. The
column holds the cylinder arrangements.
40
 BEARING SEAT

● This is the work (bearing) rest place.

● This arrangement is constructed in the shape of holding the
bearing and shaft arrangements. This is fitted on the base.

4.1SPECIFICATIONS OF PNEUMATIC ELEMENTS:

The various pneumatic elements are specified according to different

standards. The standard varies depending upon the manufacturers.

1. Double acting Cylinder:

Stroke length
= 170 mm
Piston Diameter
= 55 mm
Maximum Operating Pressure
= 10 bar
Temperature range
= 120C to +80C
Material
= Aluminium alloy
Seals
= Polyurethane

41
 O’ ring
= Nitrile

2. Solenoid Directional Control valve

We have used 5/2 solenoid valve as the directional control valve.

Voltage
= 230 volts
Frequency
= 50 Hz
Maximum Operation Pressure = 10 bar
Port size = 7

Connectors
Technical data
Max working pressure : 10 x 10 ⁵ N/m²

Temperature : 0-100 º C

Fluid media : Air

Material : Brass

5. Hoses
Technical date
Max pressure
:

10 x 10 ⁵ N/m²

42
 Outer diameter
:
6 mm = 6 x 10 ˉ ³m
Inner diameter
:
3.5 mm = 3.5 x 10 ˉ ³m

4. Brake assembly

A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. Its opposite

component is a clutch. The rest of this article is dedicated to various types of
vehicular brakes.

Most commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat,
though other methods of energy conversion may be employed. For example
regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, which
may be stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy into
potential energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil.
Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic energy into
electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which is converted into heat.
Still other braking methods even transform kinetic energy into different
forms, for example by transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.

Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take
other forms such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water
or air). Some vehicles use a combination of braking mechanisms, such as
drag racing cars with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes with
both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing.

43
Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity (K = mv2 / 2), an
object moving at 10 m/s has 100 times as much energy as one of the same
mass moving at 1m/s , and consequently the theoretical braking distance,
when braking at the traction limit, is 100 times as long. In practice, fast
vehicles usually have significant air drag, and energy lost to air drag rises
quickly with speed.

Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts
and shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp. Most fixed-
wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on the undercarriage. Some
aircraft also feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight.
Notable examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft,
primarily some fighter aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These
allow the aircraft to maintain a safe speed in a steep descent. The Saab B 17
dive bomber used the deployed undercarriage as an air brake.

Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc
brake while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling
downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake.

When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed,
ultimately a piston pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows
the wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the
brake shoes against the drum which also slows the wheel down

44
4. Brake assembly

A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. Its opposite

component is a clutch. The rest of this article is dedicated to various types of
vehicular brakes.

Most commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat,
though other methods of energy conversion may be employed. For example
regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, which
may be stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy into
potential energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil.
Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic energy into
electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which is converted into heat.
Still other braking methods even transform kinetic energy into different
forms, for example by transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.

Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take
other forms such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water
or air). Some vehicles use a combination of braking mechanisms, such as
drag racing cars with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes with
both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing.

Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity (K = mv2 / 2), an

object moving at 10 m/s has 100 times as much energy as one of the same
mass moving at 1m/s , and consequently the theoretical braking distance,
when braking at the traction limit, is 100 times as long. In practice, fast
vehicles usually have significant air drag, and energy lost to air drag rises
quickly with speed.

45
Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts
and shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp. Most fixed-
wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on the undercarriage. Some
aircraft also feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight.
Notable examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft,
primarily some fighter aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These
allow the aircraft to maintain a safe speed in a steep descent. The Saab B 17
dive bomber used the deployed undercarriage as an air brake.

Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc
brake while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling
downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake.

When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed,
ultimately a piston pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows
the wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the
brake shoes against the drum which also slows the wheel down.

5.Power Supply:
There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert
high voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for
electronics circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken down
into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function.

46
Circuit Diagram:

Fig:14 5V regulated supply Functional Diagram:

Transformer only:
The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special
AC motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a
rectifier and a smoothing capacitor.

Bridge rectifier:
A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is
also available in special packages containing the four diodes required. It is
called a full-wave rectifier because it uses all the AC wave (both positive
and negative sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier because each
diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always two diodes

47
conducting, as shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the
maximum current they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage they can
withstand (this must be at least three times the supply RMS voltage so the
rectifier can withstand the peak voltages).

Rectifier Unit:
A rectifier is a device which offers a low resistance in one direction
and high resistance in the opposite direction. Such a device is capable of
converting AC voltage in to pulsating DC voltage the rectifier employs one
or more diodes.
Filter:

The function of the filter circuit is to remove the ripples or to reduce

it. The resistors, inductors and capacitors are used in the filter circuit. The
filter circuit is placed in between rectifier and voltage regulator.

Smoothing:
The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most
electronic circuits.

Voltage regulator:
Voltage regulator is a device, connected in the output circuit of a
power supply. To keep the output voltage constant regardless of variations in
load currents are the supply voltage with in the specified limit. Voltage
regulator are connected in between the filter and the load.
Figure shows the circuit diagram of a bridge rectifier. This includes a
power transformer and filter circuit. This employs four diodes, D1, D2, D3

48
and D4. During the positive half cycle of the applied AC voltage diodes D1
and D3 conducts. While during the negative half cycle D2, D4 conducts. The
current through the load flows in the same direction in the both half cycle
the output of the rectifier contains ripples. Filters are used reduces the
ripples components in the output.

49
CHAPTER 5

5. BLOCK DIAGRAM

50
 VEHICLE BREAK WIRE
&TEMP SENSOR

CONTINUITY BREAK FAILURE

SENSOR ALARM&OVER
HEAT ALARM

5/2 D.C VALVE

BRAKE
MECHANISM

Fig :17 BLOCK DIAGRAM

51
 CHAPTER 6

6. WORKING PRINCIPLE

52
WORKING PRINCIPLE
 .The microcontroller on the relay circuit at once 5/2 solinoid valve
will actuate the supplementary cylinder applying the brake machnism
The continuity sensor sense the entire brake line during vehicle
running If suddenly brake wire damaged or disconnected sensor send
the signal to microcontroller alarm will be executed.
 Within the prescribed limit temperature goes beyond the limit the
alaram will be
 At that time break system will operate.
Thus our project works satisfactory.

53
 CHAPTER 7

7. ADVANTAGES& DIS ADVANTAGES

54
ADVANTGES
 Electronics system does not need any special care.
 Rapid break can be applied.
 Unexpected accident is easily controlled.
 It works with maximum efficiently.

APPLICATION
 It is very useful to all car and Trucks.

It performs high efficiency than the other method

DISADVANTAGES
1. Links will failure during the operation due to
over load.

2. Electronic component has less durability.

BRAKE FAILURE CALCULATION

55
Isaac Newton tells us that a body moving in a straight line will continue in a
straight line unless acted on by an external force. A body moving on a
circular path with constant speed will have a changing velocity (directional
speed) due to the body's changing direction. This velocity change with time,
called centripedal acceleration, has a radial direction toward the center of the
circular movement and is given by the following equation:

Since Newton's second law tells us that a force has to act on the body to
produce an acceleration, the following is true:

56
substituting Equation 1 into Equation 2, the following can be written:

Percentiles Of Vehicle Path Versus Roadway Curve Path

57
If, for example, a ten–percentile driver (only 10% of all drivers use a sharper
path) is considered as the criterion, the critical vehicle path on a 8-degree
roadway curve can be calculated as 9.92 degrees or a 577–foot path radius
on this 716–foot roadway curve radius. Using the results of a study by Rice,
et.al 2, which shows that most drivers cannot handle steady-state lateral g
levels greater than about 0.30, the critical speed with this lateral acceleration
on an 8-degree roadway curve with say 6% superelevation can be calculated

58
This speed contrasts with the usual practice of using the roadway curve
radius of 573 foot, with, say, a tire–pavement coefficient of 0.70, which
would give the following calculations:

As the reader can see, the theoretical critical speed calculation is far greater
than the more realistic empirical calculation.
The following table shows a series of similar calculations, demonstrating the
dramatic difference between the theoretical critical speed and a more
realistic critical speed:

59
Comparison Of Critical Speed Calculation Methods

In summary, given that all drivers drive a path radius sharper than the
roadway curve and given than most drivers cannot tolerate lateral
accelerations much greater the 0.3 g's, a more realistic critical speed
calculation should take these expected characteristics into account to arrive
at an expected loss of control speed.

The Myth of Calculating Loss-of-Control Speeds from Yaw Mark Radii

Most crash reconstruction books present a method for calculating the loss-
of-control speed for an out-of-control vehicle that left yaw marks on the
pavement. Yaw marks are tire marks characterized by diagonal striations left
by a rotating tire sliding partially sideway on the roadway.

60
Let's be entirely clear that this reconstruction method is presented in several
well-used accident reconstruction texts. However, just because the method
first showed up in one prominent text and subsequently has been copied by
several "me to" texts doesn't make it right. This "critical speed" method must
withstand the rigors of scientific inquiry, which it does not.

This critical speed method is misused to estimate the initial speed of an out-
of-control vehicle. It is erroneously based on the assumption that the steady-
state centripedal acceleration equation can be applied using the radius of the
yaw marks as input to the equation. This equation can be stated as follow:

In reality, this equation explains the dynamics of a steady-state point mass

object and, therefore, should not be applied using tiremarks that are
associated with a rotating out-of-control vehicle. The only time yawmark
radius can ever be reasonably used to calculate vehicle speed is when a

61
vehicle is steered right at critical slip and deposits yawmarks with the
vehicle (marginally) under control.

The general procedure for this faulty method has the following steps:

1. Conduct a chord-offset measurement of the yawmark(s).

2. Calculate the radius of the yawmark(s) from the chord-offset

measurements.

3. Add or subtract half the wheel track to obtain the path radius for the
vehicle's center of mass.

4. Measure or estimate tire-pavement friction.

5. Measure the roadway cross-slope relative to the yaw mark.

6. Calculate the loss-of-control speed using the centripetal acceleration

equation.

8. COST OF ESTIMATION

COMPONENTS NAME QTY RATE AMOUNT

MECHANICAL 1 1500 2250
STRUCTURE with brake
CONTROLASSEMBLY 1 2500 3000
PNEUMATIC CYLINDER 1 900 500
D.C VALVE 1 700 700
POWER SUPPLY 1 300 300
TOTAL 6750

62
CONCLUSION

In our project we have successfully implemented the Automatic

brake failure indicator and engine over heating alarm four wheeler for
accident avoiding operation based automation process. It maintains high
accuracy and precision. The prototype model designed by us with an
application of is checked whether this system is suitable or not and analyzed
by us.

63
 BIBLOGRAPHY

1. KENNETH J. AYALA, 8051 Microcontroller Architecture,

Programming and Applications.
2. ROY CHOUDRY, Linear Integrated Circuits.
3. SAM SERIES, 555 and Its Applications.
4. BPB Publishers, CMOS Data Book.
5. ALBERT PAL MALVINO, Principle of Digital Electronics.
http://www.howstuffworks.com
http://www.google.com

64