CHAPTER 1 DEVELOPMENT OF ATOMIC THEORY

CHAPTER 1

DEVELOPMENT OF ATOMIC THEORY

1.1 atomism

The development of the atomic theory is the contribution of many scientists thought.

The concept of an atom is not new. Experts in Greek philosophy

500 BC have raised the possibility that a substance consisting of small particles

which can not be divided. In fact, the word atom comes from the Greek " atomos "

which means "can not be divided". At the end of the 18th century and beginning of the 19th century has been

found some quantitative chemical reaction known as the laws

chemical compounds or basic laws of chemical reactions, namely: the law of conservation

mass, Lavoisier, 1774; Comparative Law Still, Proust, 1797 and the Law

Multiple comparisons, Dalton, 1803. To explain these laws,

Dalton put forward the hypothesis that the substance is not continuous but consists of

tiny particles called atoms.

1.1.1 Dalton's Atomic Model (1803)

In 1803, an English teacher and a scientist named John Dalton

put his theory called Dalton's atomic theory which has changed the way science

chemistry. Dalton's atomic theory is based on two laws of nature, namely:

• Law of Conservation of Mass

Antonie Lavoiser chemist (1743-1794) which states that "The total mass zat-

substance before the reaction will always be equal to the total mass of substances the reaction products ". Law

This is based on a series of experiments to determine the mechanism of combustion

and all related processes. The reaction liquid mercury with oxygen

forming mercury oxide red. When mercury oxide is heated

Again, this compound decomposes it produces a number of liquid mercury and oxygen gases

that as much as it takes time formation of mercury oxide.

• Joseph Proust (1754-1828) did a lot of analysis to show that

the composition of a chemical compound remain. In 1799, he analyzed samples

copper carbonate nature of several different places including sample

made in the laboratory. He obtained that the composition of all samples was the same

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so Proust declared that "mass comparison of the elements in a

compound always remain. "This statement was later called" Legal Structure

Fixed "or" fixed Comparative Law ".

The second law of Dalton put forward the theory of atoms in the postulate

as follows:

• Atom is the smallest part of the material that has not be subdivided.

• Atom is described as a solid ball (Figure 1.1) is very small, an element

have identical atoms and is different for different elements.

• The atoms combine to form compounds with a ratio of integers and

simple. For example, water consisting of hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms.

• The chemical reaction is the splitting or merging or rearrangement of

atoms, so that the atoms can not be created or destroyed.

Figure 1.1 Dalton's atomic model as solid ball

Excess Dalton's Atomic Theory

1. Can explain the Law of Conservation of Mass

If the atoms of the elements can not be destroyed, the atoms of the same

there must be after the reaction is complete. Just as before the reaction to occur,

the overall mass of the reactants from the reaction should be the same.

2. Can explain Comparative Law Permanent

If all the atoms of an element have the same mass, and if the units.

Atom has a fixed ratio, the percentage composition of a compound should have a value of

particular, by ignoring the size of the sample being analyzed or the original state.

Dalton's Atomic Theory Weaknesses:

1. The assumption that all atoms of an element's mass and properties

same proven to be untrue.

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After the discovery of isotopes by Mc. Coy and Ross in 1907, an isotope which is almost

can not be separated from each other chemically, have tabled two electrons

the same but have different masses.

2. The assumption that during a chemical reaction, atoms can not be created and

destroyed (no change), this theory is not quite right.

How can atoms held mutually good bond with other atoms

similar or dissimilar, if at all does not change?

Now it is found that there is little change in the electrical energy to the outside

so that atoms can hold atoms bond with each other.

3. Dalton's atomic theory can not explain a solution can be

electric current.

How could solid ball can conduct electricity? whereas electricity

is electrons moving. This means that there are other particles that can

causing electrical conductivity.

The interesting thing about Dalton's atomic theory was the discovery of the law of combination

Another chemical called Multiple Comparative Law which can be expressed as

follows: for example, we have two samples formed by the two elements of the same

if the mass of one of the elements in the two samples together, then the mass of the element

others are in the ratio of simple integers. As an example:

Carbon can form two kinds of compounds with oxygen, the carbon monoxide

and carbon dioxide. 2.33 g in carbon monoxide was found 1.33 g oxygen

join in 1.00 g of carbon. 3.66 g in carbon dioxide, found 2.66 g oxygen

joining of 1.00 g of carbon. Note that the same carbon mass

(1.00 g) are in a ratio of 2: 1 (ratio by a simple integer).

2 g 1 33 2
g
1

These results are consistent with the theory of atoms, a molecule of carbon monoxide (CO)

containing 1 atom C and 1 O atom and a molecule of carbon dioxide (CO 2)

containing 1 atom of C and O atoms are two oxygen atoms in carbon dioxide two

times more than carbon monoxide so that the ratio of the mass of oxygen

is 2: 1.

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1.1.2 Atomic model of Thomson (1897)

Based on the discovery of a cathode tube better by William Crookers,

then JJ Thomson ( 1856-1940) conducted a series of studies to determine

nature of cathode rays (Figure 1.2). In initial studies it is known that the speed of light

the cathode is much lower than the speed of light, so the light is not

an electromagnetic radiation. From the results of these studies found that:

• Cathode rays are subatomic particles (subatomic particles) charged

Negative and hereinafter electron.

• Atoms are neutral particles, because negatively charged electrons,

then there must be another positively charged particles to neutralize the negative charge

these electrons.

Figure 1.2 Hardware Thomson to distinguish the charge to mass ratio

(E / m cathode ray)

Thomson also find a comparison / ratio of electric charge (e) with a mass

(M), which is e / m. File 1: only in the presence of an electric field, the cathode rays

deflected upward, touching the layer at the point 1. File 2: only with the terrain

magnets, cathode-ray beam is deflected downward, touching the layer at point 2. Files 3:

cathode ray beam would have to (not deflected), and the touch layer in point 3, if

the force of electric field and magnetic field at large.

Measurement of electrical charges e conducted by Robert Millikan (1868-1953) in

University of Chicago during the period 1906-1914. Millikan experiment known as

trial "drops" (Figure 1.3). Millikan found that the electric charge on

all the drops of oil by NXE where n is a positive or negative integer, and e

declare the smallest electric charge can be observed. By combining the results

Millikan and Thomson, acquired sebuat electron mass of 9.110 x 10- 28 g.

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Figure 1.3 Trial "drops" Millikan

From these findings, Thomson rectify the shortcomings of the atomic theory

Dalton and forward the theory of atomic known as Thomson's Atomic Theory.

According to Thomson, the atom is a positively charged material and dispersed therein

electrons (negative charge) like raisins in raisin bread (Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4 Thomson atomic model

Pros and Cons Atomic Model Thomson

Advantages : Proving the existence of other negatively charged particles in an atom.

Means the atom is not the smallest part of an element.

Weaknesses: The Thomson models can not explain the arrangement of positive charge and

negative in the atomic sphere.

1.1.3 Rutherford model (1911)

Based on the experimental results α ray scattering Rutherford proposed

atomic model known as the Rutherford model (Figure 1.5), which states

that:

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• Most of the mass and all the positive charge of an atom concentrated in regions

Very little is called the nucleus. Most of the rest is

empty space.

• Different nuclear charge on each type of atom, the magnitude of approximately half of the value of

atomic weights of elements.

• Atoms consist of a nucleus is very small and positively charged, surrounded by

electrons that are at the core charge. Rutherford guessed that

in atomic nuclei are neutral particles that serve the particles bind positive

so do not repel each other.

Figure 1.5 Interpretation Rutherford assimilation α particles by a metal plate

each arrow α particle states symbol (+) describes the atomic nucleus

Rutherford model (Figure 1.6) has its advantages and disadvantages.

Excess Rutherford model is hypothesized that the atom is composed of

nuclei and electrons surrounding the nucleus and Rutherford had introduced

track / notch electrons later called the skin. Weakness Atom Model

Rutherford was unable to explain why the electrons do not fall into the nucleus

atom. Based on the theory of physics, the motion of electrons around the nucleus is accompanied by the broadcasting

energy so that in time they will be reduced electron energy and trajectory more

long will approach the core and falling into the nucleus.

Figure 1.6 Rutherford model

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1.1.4 Niels Bohr Atom Model (1914)

Niels Bohr argued that atoms consist of charged atomic nucleus

Positive and surrounded by electrons circulating in the atom shells without

emission or absorption of energy. The downside of Rutherford improved by Niels

Bohr by the experiment analyzes the color spectrum of the hydrogen atom

shaped line. Bohr hypothesis is:

1. Atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons

negatively charged within a track.

2. Electrons can move from one track to another by absorbing or

emit energy so that the atomic electron energy will not be reduced. If

move the track to a higher trajectory the electrons will absorb energy.

If switching to a lower trajectory it will radiate energy.

Figure 1.7 Bohr Atom Model

Excess Niels Bohr atomic theory can explain that the atom consists of

some skin to place the electron migration. Weakness Niels Bohr Atomic Theory

based on results of subsequent research proved that the electron motion resemble

wave. Therefore, the position of the electron can not be determined with certainty. so orbit

a circle with a certain radius expressed Niels Bohr unacceptable and

can not explain the color spectrum of many electron atoms, so that

required a more complete atomic model of Bohr atomic model.

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Modern Atomic Model 1.1.5 (Wave Mechanics / Quantum Mechanics)

Wave Mechanics Atomic Model (Figure 1.8) explains that in

atoms and electrons circulating in the orbitals, ie the area around the atomic nucleus with

the probability of finding the electron. Atomic Theory of Wave Mechanics has

equation with Niels Bohr atomic theory in which the energy levels or shells

different atoms in the form of the electron trajectory. In the Theory of Wave Mechanics

position of the electron is uncertain. Things can be determined about the existence of

electrons in atoms is the area with the greatest chance of finding the electron,

The area is called Orbital.

Figure 1.8 Model Atomic Wave Mechanics

1.2 Isotope

In 1912, Thomson tried to determine the charge to mass ratio

(E / m) of positive ions generated by the canal ray tube. The results obtained with

using neon gas altogether unexpected. Clearly said that

Common neon gas (approximately 91%) have a mass of "normal" and 9% of the number of atoms

22/20 remaining heavier than "normal". This finding implies that a number of

atoms of the same element are slightly different in mass. Atoms of different

in this case called Isotope.

An isotope is characterized by its atomic number and atomic mass. the emblem

used for atom is the symbol of the chemical element (X), can be written as

following:

(1.1)

Z is the atomic mass; X is a chemical element symbol; A is the atomic number; AZ

is a lot of neutrons (N).

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1.3 Proton and Neutron

Rutherford was the first (1919) who developed the basic unit

called the positively charged proton. Another concept of the nucleus by Rutherford and

Other physicists are among the core containing the same number of protons with

atomic number, in addition to a number of neutral particles called neutrons to

suffice atomic mass.

There are some particles that are known to date, but the chemical behavior of the elements

mainly determined by three basic particles that protons, neutrons, and electrons. In the atom

neutral, the number of electrons must equal the number of protons. But when atoms lose or

got an extra electron, then there will be an electrical charge of particles and atoms change

into ions. Type and ions. The first ion has 10 protons,

10 9 neutrons and electrons, while the second ion has 10 protons, 10 neutrons and

8 electrons.

Example

-
Indicate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in and !

answer

l
1 3 has Z = 17; A = 35 (the neutral atom); many protons = 17; many
electrons = 17; the number of neutrons = 35-17 = 18

-
has Z = 35; A = 80, is charged ions +1;

The number of protons = 35; electrons = 36 (gain electrons so that an additional 1

charge = -1); the number of neutrons = 80-35 = 45

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