HEAT TRANSFER

Heat transfer is thermal energy in transition due to a

spatial temperature difference.
 Whenever there exists a temperature difference in a
medium or between media
 Heat always moves from a warmer place to a
cooler place.
 Hot objects in a cooler room will cool to room
temperature.
 Cold objects in a warmer room will heat up to
room temperature.
EXAMPLE:
A cup of coffee and ice cube placed in a table at room
temperature.

Heat Transfer Modes

• Heat transfers in three ways:
– Conduction
– Convection
– Radiation

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Conduction:
When a temperature gradient exists in a stationary
medium, which may be a solid or a fluid, we use the
term conduction to refer to the heat transfer that will
occur across the medium.
 The transfer of energy from the more energetic to
the less energetic particles of a substance due to
interactions between the particles.
 When the metal is heated, this ‘sea of electrons’
gain kinetic energy and transfer it throughout the
metal.
 Insulators, such as wood and plastic, do not have
this ‘sea of electrons’ which is why they do not
conduct heat as well as metals.

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It is possible to quantify heat transfer processes in terms
of appropriate rate equations.
For heat conduction, the rate equation is known as
Fourier’s law.

The rate equation is expressed as

The heat flux (W/m2) is the heat transfer rate in the

x direction per unit area perpendicular to the direction
of transfer, and it is proportional to the temperature
gradient, dT/dx, in this direction.
The parameter k is a transport property known as
the thermal conductivity (W/m K)
Thermal conductivity is the property of a material
to conduct heat.

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The temperature gradient may be expressed as

The heat flux is then

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Convection:
The term convection refers to heat transfer that will
occur between a surface and a moving fluid when they
are at different temperatures.
Convection

What happens to the particles in a

liquid or a gas when you heat
them? The particles spread out and
become less dense.

Why is it windy at the seaside?

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Boundary layer in covection

Two types of convection

I. Forced convection - the flow is caused by external
means, such as by a fan, a pump, or atmospheric
winds
II. Free convection - flow due to density differences
caused by temperature variations in the fluid.

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Regardless of the particular nature of the convection
heat transfer process, the appropriate rate equation is of
the form

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Radiation:
All surfaces of finite temperature emit energy in the
form of electromagnetic waves. Hence,in the absence of
an intervening medium, there is net heat transfer by
radiation between two surfaces at different
temperatures.
 Radiation that is emitted by the surface originates
from the thermal energy of matter bounded by the
surface, and the rate at which energy is released per
unit area (W/m2) is termed the surface emissive
power E.
Stefan–Boltzmann law:

Ts is the absolute temperature (K) of the surface

is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant(5.67*10-
8W/m2K4)
Above equation is for perfect black body

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The heat flux emitted by a real surface is less than that
of a blackbody at the same temperature and is given by

Where is radiative property of the surface termed the

emissivity.
General Differential equation of Heat Conduction
Consider the one-dimensional steady state system
shown in Figure
Considering the subvolume with dimensions dx,
dy and dz in the cartesian coordinate system and taking
a time interval dτ, and noting that temperature is a
function of all the four, the following steps lead to the
general differential equation

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Cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems
Here it has to be noted that the area value changes in the
coordinate directions.

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Steady conduction in one direction (one dimensional)

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A furnace wall is of three layers, first layer of insulation
brick of 12 cm thickness of conductivity 0.6 W/mK. The face
is exposed to gases at 870°C with a convection coefficient of
110 W/m2K. This layer is backed by a 10 cm layer of
firebrick of conductivity 0.8 W/mK. There is a contact
resistance between the layers of 2.6 × 10–4 m2 °C/W. The
third layer is the plate backing of 10 mm thickness of
conductivity 49 W/mK. The contact resistance between the
second and third layers is 1.5 × 10–4 m2 °C/W. The plate is
exposed to air at 30°C with a convection coefficient of 15
W/m2K. Determine the heat flow, the surface temperatures
and the overall heat transfer coefficient?

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Steady radial heat flow through hollow cylinder

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A pipe carrying steam at 230°C has an internal diameter of
12 cm and the pipe thickness is 7.5 mm. The conductivity of
the pipe material is 49 W/mK the convective heat transfer
coefficient on the inside is 85 W/m2K. The pipe is insulated
by two layers of insulation one of 5 cm thickness of
conductivity 0.15 W/mK and over it another 5 cm thickness
of conductivity 0.48 W/mK. The outside is exposed to air at
35°C with a convection coefficient of 18 W/m2K. Determine
the heat loss for 5 m length. Also determine the interface
temperatures and the overall heat transfer coefficient based
on inside and outside areas.

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A composite cylinder is made of 6 mm thick layers each of
two materials of thermal conductivities of 30 W/m°C and 45
W/m°C. The inside is exposed to a fluid at 500°C with a
convection coefficient of 40 W/m2 °C and the outside is
exposed to air at 35°C with a convection coefficient of 25
W/m2K. There is a contact resistance of 1 × 10–3 m2 °C/W
between the layers. Determine the heat loss for a length of 2
m and the surface temperatures. Inside dia = 20 mm

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Steady state radial heat conduction in cylinder with
uniform heat generation.

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Exercise: A cylinder of 12 cm diameter has a heat generation
rate 106 W/m3. The conductivity of the material is 200
W/mK. The surface is exposed to air at 30°C. The convection
coefficient is 500 W/m2K. Determine the temperatures at the
center and also at mid radius. Also determine the heat flow at
the surface on unit area basis. Calculate the temperature
gradients at the mid radius and surface.

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Extended Surfaces
There are numerous situations where heat is to be transferred
between a fluid and a surface. In such cases the heat flow
depends on three factors namely (i) area of the surface (ii)
Temperature difference and (iii) the convective heat transfer
coefficient.

heat conducted in at the base – heat convected over the fin

surface upto the section x. = heat conducted out at the section
x into the remaining fin material.

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A long rod 12 mm square section made of low carbon steel
protrudes into air at 35°C from a furnace wall at 200°C. The
convective heat transfer coefficient is estimated at
22W/m2K. The conductivity of the material is 51.9 W/mK.
Determine the location from the wall at which the
temperature will be 60°C. Also calculate the temperature at
80 mm from base.

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Lumped Analysis
A solar concentrator provides a heat flux of 8000 W/m2 to
heat a 10 mm plate on one side. The other side of the plate is
exposed to convection at 40 W/m2k at 20°C. The plate
material has a density of 800 kg/m3 and specific heat of 500
J/kg K. The initial temperature of the plate is 20°C. Thermal
conductivity of the material is 80 W/m°C.
(i) Determine the time for the plate to reach 100°C.
(ii) Determine the plate temperature after 6 minutes

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