Lecture 7 – Energy and Heat

Conservation of Linear Momentum and

Conservation of Mechanical Energy
Linear momentum – product of the particle’s mass and its velocity.
Conserved quantity – a quantity that does not change before and after an
interaction.
Sir Isaac Newton showed that the total 𝑁
momentum of an isolated system is ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝒗𝒊
conserved. 𝑖=1
Gottfried Leibniz (and Christian Huygens) 𝑁
2
recognized that in certain collisions, the ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖
total vis viva is conserved 𝑖=1

Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716)

Émilie du Châtelet proved the conservation

of energy and that it is independent to the
conservation of linear momentum.
1
Kinetic energy: 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
Émilie du Châtelet (1706-1749) 2
Conservation of Linear Momentum and
Conservation of Mechanical Energy
To change the kinetic energy of an Work – is the product of the force
object, work must be done on the acting on the object and the
object. object’s displacement.
Kinetic energy may not change even if a non zero work acts on it.
Example: Raising a book
Potential energy – energy associated with the configuration of a
system (example object and Earth)

If the interaction force E1. Describe what will

involved in the system happen if 3 balls were
keeps the sum of the raised?
kinetic energy and
potential energy constant,
then that force is a
conservative force.
Newton’s Cradle
Heat (Early theories)
• The only force that do work on a swinging pendulum is the gravitational force.
• Gravitational force is a conservative force (the total energy must be
conserved)
• Why does the pendulum eventually stop swinging?
The conservation of energy can be rescued by introducing
the concept of heat.
Early theories of heat:
• Phlogiston theory (16th century) – heat is a fluid (called
phlogiston) having a mass and could be absorbed and driven out
by an object when burning.
• Caloric theory (late 18th century) – heat is a fluid (called caloric
fluid) with he following properties:
– Massless
– Repulsive
– Always stick to actual object
– Cannot be created nor destroyed, can only be transferred.
Heat (Early theories)
Caloric theory is wrong but is useful in
describing phenomena related to heat.

Theoretical operation of Newcomen steam

engine:
1. Caloric fluid flowed from the fire to the
water in the boiler.
2. The water absorbs the caloric fluid and
become steam.
3. The steam expand because caloric fluid are
repulsive.
4. The expansion leads to the motion of the Newcomen steam engine (1712)
piston. Invented by Thomas Newcomen
5. The sprayed cold water absorbs the caloric
fluid from the steam which condenses the
steam.
Steam Engine
Improved by
James Watt.

Watt’s steam engine (1769)

James Watt thought that the more

Newcomen steam engine (1712) steam you can put inside the
Invented by Thomas Newcomen chamber to move the piston, the
better is the engine’s efficiency.
Steam Engine
Sadi Carnot realized that it is the heat (caloric fluid)
and not the steam that truly determines the
efficiency of the engine.

Sadi Carnot (1796-1832)

https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/reso/006/11/0042-0048
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/carnot.html
Caloric Theory
Heat – amount of caloric fluid in the object. (unit used is calorie)
Temperature – concentration of caloric fluid in the object.
calorie – is the amount of heat needed to
raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by
1 Celsius degree.
Observation: At boiling
point, heat is continuously
added to water but the
temperature remains
100°C.
Caloric theory explanation:
The heat added is stored
(hidden) in steam which
are liberated when the
steam condenses.
(Latent heat of
vaporization)
Experiments Against the Caloric Theory
If caloric fluid cannot be
created nor destroyed,
then why does friction
produces heat?
Physicists are starting to infer
that maybe heat is just Boring of cannon produces heat
another form of energy. due to friction.

Benjamin Thomson/
Gas Count Rumford
Vacuum
(1753-1814)

E2. Using the caloric

theory of heat, how is
Gas Gas
the initial temperature
Thermometer Thermometer
different from the final
temperature?
Gay-Lussac’s experiment
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
(1778-1850)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Thompson#/media/File:Benjamin_Thompson.jpg
http://www.eoht.info/page/Cannon+boring+experiment
The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
Can heat produce mechanical work? Caloric theorist: Yes, just like how
water does work on a waterwheel.
Can mechanical work produce heat? Caloric theorist: No, heat cannot be
created nor destroyed..
• The gravitational potential
energy of the weight is
converted into the
rotational energy of the
paddle.
• The paddle will eventually
stop moving.
• The temperature of the
James Prescott Joule Joule’s churn water increased.
(1818-1889)
The amount of potential energy lost
Consequences of Joule’s experiment:
by the weight is proportional to the
1. Established that mechanical work
amount of heat gained by the water.
can produce heat.
2. Provides a hint of how to construct 1 calorie = 4.186 joule
a new theory of heat.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule
The First Law of Thermodynamics
The total amount of energy in an isolated system is
conserved.
Δ𝑈 = 𝑄 − Δ𝑊
Δ𝑈 is the internal energy
Δ𝑊 is the amount of work done by the system
𝑄 is the amount of heat added to the system

• Heat is a form of energy.

The Joule set-up is an
• It is the energy that is transferred due to
isolated system.
temperature difference.
• Internal energy is the energy we associate
with the random motion of the molecules in a
substance.
1 2
For an ideal gas: Δ𝑈 = 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 ∝ 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
2
• The paddle does work on the water molecules.
• The water molecules gained additional randomly distributed kinetic energy.
• Faster moving molecules in the water results into higher temperature.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Clausius recognized the incompleteness of the 1st Law of
Thermodynamics, i.e. not all heat can be converted into work.
He introduced the concept of entropy which is a
measure of the amount of energy that can be
converted into useful mechanical work.
Entropy of a system can never decrease.
Rudolf Clausius
Boltzmann and Gibbs used the statistical (1822-1888)
interpretation and described entropy as the
measure of the probability at which energy
can be distributed.
The system will always assume
a configuration with the
maximum possible entropy.

Josiah
Willard Gibbs Ludwig Boltzmann
(1839-1903) (1844-1906)