SUBJECT: DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

TEAM MEMBERS:

Esquivel Sánchez Erick Edhel

Infante Montalvo Alexander

Rubio Gaspar Joseph Tomas

Orozco Hernández Iván

DEGREE AND GROUP: 8° “A” Industrial

maintenance engineering

TOPIC:

COMPRESSION TEST

pág. 1
INDEX
............................................................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 4
GLOSSARY ...................................................................................................................................... 5
APPLICATIONS OF COMPRESSION TESTING ....................................................................... 7
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .................................................................................................... 7
 Compression testing. ........................................................................................................... 7
 Materials under compression.............................................................................................. 8
 Common compression testing results are: ....................................................................... 8
 Typical graph showing compression test: ......................................................................... 9
 Typical graph showing compression test to rupture:....................................................... 9
 Purpose of Tests................................................................................................................. 10
 Benefits ................................................................................................................................ 10
 Why perform a compression test? ................................................................................... 11
 Modes of deformation in compression testing ............................................................... 12
 Typical materials ................................................................................................................. 13
COMPRESSION TESTING STANDARDS ................................................................................ 13
 ASTM E9 | METALS | COMPRESSION TESTING ....................................................... 14
 ISO 14126 In-Plane Compressive Properties of Fiber-Reinforced Plastic
Composites.................................................................................................................................. 15
EXAMPLE ....................................................................................................................................... 16
 Compression test on cast iron or mild steel ................................................................... 16
 Apparatus: ........................................................................................................................... 16
 Formulae: ............................................................................................................................. 16
 Compression test Report ................................................................................................... 16
....................................................................................................................................................... 17
PROCEDURE: ................................................................................................................................ 18
ACCEPTANCE OR REJECTION CRITERIA ............................................................................ 19
 Establishing statistically-based acceptance criteria ...................................................... 19
REQUIREMENTS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SAFETY CONDITIONS. ......................... 20
 Action required .................................................................................................................... 21
 Determining risks ................................................................................................................ 21
 Release of stored energy under pressure can cause: .................................................. 21

pág. 2
MATERIALS, TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR COMPRESSION TEST. ............................ 22
 All that we use for compression testing is: ..................................................................... 22
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................ 25

pág. 3
INTRODUCTION
Compression force occurs when a physical force presses inward on an object,
causing it to become compacted. In this process, the relative positions of atoms and
molecules of the object change. This change can be temporary or permanent
depending on the type of material receiving the compressive force. There can also
be different results depending on the direction or position on the object that the
compressive force is applied.

Compression tests are used to determine how a product or material reacts when it
is compressed, squashed, crushed or flattened by measuring fundamental
parameters that determine the specimen behavior under a compressive load. These
include the elastic limit, which for "Hookean" materials is approximately equal to the
proportional limit, and also known as yield point or yield strength, Young's Modulus
(these, although mostly associated with tensile testing, may have compressive
analogs) and compressive strength.

Compression tests can be undertaken as part of the design process, in the

production environment or in the quality control laboratory, and can be used to:

1. Assess the strength of components e.g. automotive and aeronautical control

switches, compression springs, bellows, keypads, package seals, PET
containers, PVC / ABS pipes, solenoids etc.
2. Characterise the compressive properties of materials e.g. foam, metal, PET
and other plastics and rubber.

pág. 4
GLOSSARY
Compression

The definition of compression is the action or state of being squished down or made
smaller or more pressed together.

"Hookean" materials

Is a hyperelastic material model, similar to Hooke's law, that can be used for
predicting the nonlinear stress-strain behavior of materials undergoing
large deformations.

Yield Point

Yield point is the point on a stress–strain curve that indicates the limit of elastic
behavior and the beginning of plastic behavior.

Young's Modulus

Is a mechanical property that measures the stiffness of a solid material. It defines

the relationship between stress (force per unit area) and strain (proportional
deformation) in a material in the linear elasticity regime of a uniaxial deformation.

Stress

Is used to express the loading in terms of force applied to a certain cross-sectional

area of an object. From the perspective of loading, stress is the applied force or
system of forces that tends to deform a body.

Strain

Strain is the response of a system to an applied stress. When a material is loaded

with a force, it produces a stress, which then causes a material to deform.

pág. 5
Elastic limit

maximum stress or force per unit area within a solidmaterial that can arise before
the onset of permanent deformation.

Elastic modulus

is a quantity that measures an object or substance's resistance to being deformed

elastically ( non-permanently) when a stress is applied to it.

pág. 6
APPLICATIONS OF COMPRESSION TESTING

Compression testing is used to guarantee the quality of components, materials and

finished products within a wide range industries. Typical applications of compression
testing are highlighted in the following sections on:

 Aerospace and Automotive Industry

 Construction Industry
 Electrical and Electronic Industry
 Medical Device Industry
 Packaging Industry
 Paper and Board Industry
 Plastics, Rubber and Elastomers Industry

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Compression testing.

Compression testing is a very common testing method that is used to establish the
compressive force or crush resistance of a material and the ability of the material to
recover after a specified compressive force is applied and even held over a defined
period of time. Compression tests are used to determine the material behaviour
under a load. The maximum stress a material can sustain over a period under a load
(constant or progressive) is determined.

Compression testing is often done to a break (rupture) or to a limit. When the test
is performed to a break, break detection can be defined depending on the type of
material being tested. When the test is performed to a limit, either a load limit or
deflection limit is used.

pág. 7
 Materials under compression

Certain materials subjected to a compressive force show initially a linear relationship

between stress and strain. This is the physical manifestation of Hooke's Law, which
states:

E = Stress (s) / Strain (e)

where E is known as Young's Modulus for compression. This value represents how
much the material will deform under applied compressive loading before plastic
deformation occurs. A material's ability to return to its original shape after
deformation has occurred is referred to as its elasticity. Vulcanized rubber, for
instance, is said to be very elastic, as it will revert back to its original shape after
considerable compressive force has been applied.

Once a certain force or stress threshold has been achieved, permanent or plastic
deformation will occur and is shown on graphs as the point where linear behavior
stops. This threshold is known as the proportional limit and the force at which the
material begins exhibiting this behavior is called the yield point or yield strength. A
specimen will then exhibit one of two types of behavior; it will either continue to
deform until it eventually breaks, or it will distort until flat. In either case a maximum
stress or force will be evident, providing its ultimate compressive strength value.

Each of these parameters offers useful information relating to the physical

characteristics of the material in question.

Some materials, such as a PET bottle, distort during a compression test and are
measured by the degree of distortion, whereas other materials such as ceramics
fracture, produce a definitive compressive strength value.

Common compression testing results are:

 Load at Rupture
 Deflection at Rupture
 Work at Rupture

pág. 8
 Maximum Load
 Deflection at Maximum Load
 Work at Maximum Load
 Stiffness
 Chord Slope
 Offset Yield
 Stress
 Strain

Typical graph showing compression test:

Typical graph showing compression test to rupture:

pág. 9
 Purpose of Tests

The goal of a compression test is to determine the behavior or response of a material

while it experiences a compressive load by measuring fundamental variables, such
as, strain, stress, and deformation. By testing a material in compression the
compressive strength, yield strength, ultimate strength, elastic limit, and the elastic
modulus among other parameters may all be determined. With the understanding of
these different parameters and the values associated with a specific material it may
be determined whether or not the material is suited for specific applications or if it
will fail under the specified stresses.

Benefits

Compression testing provides knowledge on the integrity and safety of materials,

elements and product, serving to makers makes sure that their finished product are
fit-for- purpose and made to the best quality... The data produced in a compression
test can be used in many ways including

 To determine batch quality

pág. 10
  To determine consistency in manufacture
 To aid in the design process
 To reduce material costs and achieve lean manufacturing goals
 To ensure compliance with international and industry standards

Compression test could be used to obtain the mechanical properties of metals

however it is not preferred as it is difficult to apply a truly axial load in compression
which leading to non uniform stresses

Why perform a compression test?

The ASM Handbook, Volume 8, Mechanical Testing and Evaluation states: "Axial
compression testing is a useful procedure for measuring the plastic flow behavior
and ductile fracture limits of a material. Measuring the plastic flow behavior
requires frictionless (homogenous compression) test conditions, while measuring
ductile fracture limits takes advantage of the barrel formation and controlled stress
and strain conditions at the equator of the barreled surface when compression is
carried out with friction. Variations of the strains during a compression testAxial
compression testing is also useful for measurement of elastic and compressive
fracture properties of brittle materials or low-ductility materials. In any case, the use
of specimens having large L/D ratios should be avoided to prevent buckling and
shearing modes of deformation."

pág. 11
 Modes of deformation in compression testing

The figure below illustrates the modes of deformation in compression testing. (a)
Buckling, when L/D > 5. (b) Shearing, when L/D > 2.5. (c) Double barreling, when
L/D > 2.0 and friction is present at the contact surfaces. (d) Barreling, when L/D <
2.0 and friction is present at the contact surfaces. (e) Homogenous compression,
when L/D < 2.0 and no friction is present at the contact surfaces. (f) Compressive
instability due to work-softening material.

pág. 12
 Typical materials

The following materials are typically subjected to a compression test.

 Concrete

 Metals

 Plastics

 Ceramics

 Composites

 Corrugated

 Cardboard

COMPRESSION TESTING STANDARDS

There are many standards for compression testing, developed by organisations

such as ASTM, BS, DIN, ISO and MIL.

They include:

pág. 13
  ASTM C864-05, ASTM D575-91, D905-98, D1710-02, D6147-97, D6713-01,
ASTM E9-89a, ASTM F628-06
 BS 7325:1990, BS EN 2591-612:2001, BS EN 12365-2:2003, BS EN 61300-
2-11:1997, BS EN 61212-2:1996, BS ISO 844:2001
 IEC 61300-2-11:199
 ISO 7743:2008, ISO 9895:1989, ISO 15527:2007
 ASTM D575 Compression Test of Rubber
 ASTM D6641 Compression Testing for Polymer Matrix Composite Laminates
 ASTM D695 Compression Testing for Rigid Plastics
 ASTM D7137 Compressive Residual Strength Test Equipment for Damaged
Polymer Matrix Composite Plates
 ASTM D905 Wood Adhesive Bonds in Shear by Compression Loading
 ASTM E9 Compression Testing of Metallic Materials at Room Temperature
 ISO 14126 Compression Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Composites Test Machine
 ISO 1856 Flexible Cellular Polymeric Materials Compression EN
 ISO 604 Compressive Plastics Testing Equipment
 ISO 844 Compressive Strength of Rigid Cellular Plastics

STANDARS

ASTM E9 describes the compression testing of metals such as steel or metal alloys.
This test method determines important mechanical properties such as the yield
strength, the yield point, Young’s Modulus, the stress-strain curve, and the
compressive strength. Such information is important in the analyses of structural
properties when materials are subject to compressive or bending loads and of metal
working and fabrication processes that involve large compressive deformation such
as forging and rolling.

ASTM E9 | METALS | COMPRESSION TESTING

1. Prepare the test samples as described in the standard. Measure and record
the width and thickness, or the diameter of the specimen. Calculate the
average cross-sectional area of the specimen gauge section.

pág. 14
 2. Place the specimen in the test fixture and center it in the middle. If required,
attach the deflectometer to the gauge section of the sample.

3. Prior to starting the test, set the load range of the testing machine so that the
maximum expected load is at least one third of the range selected. Select the
strain so that the elastic portion of the load versus strain is between 30˚ and
60˚ to the load axis.

4. Apply the load at a constant speed rate of 0.005 in/in/min or at a rate

equivalent to 0.005 in/in/min strain-rate in the elastic portion.

5. For ductile materials, continue the test until the yield strength or yield point,
and sometimes the strength at a strain greater than the yield strain, can be
determined. For brittle materials, continue test until failure.

6. Record the stress versus strain diagram.

ISO 14126 In-Plane Compressive Properties of Fiber-Reinforced Plastic

Composites

ISO 14126 describes the methodology for determining the in-plane compressive
properties of fiber-reinforced plastic composites. The standard describes two
different methods for evaluating the properties:

 Method 1: provides for shear loading of the specimen

 Method 2: provides for end loading or mixed loading of the specimen

Ultimately, these two methods require two different test fixtures. The more
common method of the two is Method 1, which uses a Celanese-type fixture.
Also, in both methods, the specimen gauge length is completely unsupported.

pág. 15
For the Method 1 test, the specimen is supported in the fixture and compressed,
using hardened-steel compression anvils, along its major axis at constant rate of
displacement until the specimen fractures. Because of the typically high forces that
are recorded during this test, we usually recommend a dual-column
electromechanical testing system.
Finally, accurate strain measurement is required for making measurements such as
compressive modulus or compressive failure strain. Therefore, either a
suitable extensometer or bonded resistance strain gauges are required for
measuring axial strain throughout the test.

EXAMPLE

Compression test on cast iron or mild steel

 Apparatus:

A UTM or A compression testing m/c, cylindrical or cube shaped specimen of cast

iron, Alumunium or mild steel, vernier caliper, liner scale, dial gauge (or

compressometer).

Formulae:

Young’s modulus=slope of stress vs strain graph

Ultimate compressive strength= force (N) just before rupture/ (original c/s area)

Percentage reduction in length= (initial length-finallength)*100/initial length

Compression test Report

pág. 16
Compression test is done to determine materials properties in front of a negative
axial load. This load pretends to compress the testing sample.

pág. 17
The objective of the test can be to determine materials properties or the behavior of
a complete system.

Determination of materials properties: example – EN 196-1 standard. Mechanical

strength on cements and mortars. The objective is to find absolute values of cement
strength, independently of sample shape, dimension or preparation procedure. With
this values a comparisson between cements can be done, independently on the lab
where they have been obtained.
EN 196-1 describes the whole process for sample preparation, curing, proportion of
constitutive elements, so that test results cannot be compromissed between different
samples prepared in different places, moments and by different operators.

PROCEDURE:
1. Dimension of test piece is measured at three different places along its

height/length to determine the average cross-section area.

2. Ends of the specimen should beplane. For that the ends are tested on a bearing
plate.

pág. 18
3. The specimen is placed centrally between the two compression plates, such that
the centre of moving head is vertically above the centre of specimen.

4. Load is applied on the specimen by moving the movable head.

5. The load and corresponding contraction are measured at different intervals. The
load interval may be as 500 kg.

6. Load is applied until the specimen fails.

ACCEPTANCE OR REJECTION CRITERIA

Establishing statistically-based acceptance criteria

Currently, there are no industry-recommended, statistically-based acceptance

criteria for the RCP test. Consequently, any test result above the specified value is
considered a “failure” and a cause for inquiry. A more reasonable approach would
be to calculate a required average RCP result using equations similar to those
defined in ACI 318-05 for calculating the required average compressive strength. An
even more reasonable approach would be to modify these equations to reflect the
precision associated with the RCP test.

If ƒ′c is greater than 5000 psi (35 MPa), ACI 318-05, Section 5.6.3.3, states that
strength shall be considered satisfactory if the strength test results, defined as the
average strength of at least two cylinders, meet both the following criteria:

The average of any three consecutive strength tests equals or exceeds ƒ′c; and

No individual strength test is less than 0.90ƒ′c.

A parallel construction is proposed for the RCP test result acceptance criteria. The
(up to six times) higher testing variability of the RCP test method relative to the
compression test method, however, provides strong justification for an increase in
the number of consecutive test results used to calculate an average. Also, the
relatively large range of single-operator results deemed acceptable in the precision
statement of the RCP test method provides justification for a higher allowable

pág. 19
difference between an individual test result and the specified permeability. In the
proposed criteria, the specified permeability based on RCP test results is denoted
as p′c, and a test result is defined as the average of at least two specimens.

To reflect the precision of the RCP test method, it’s proposed that RCP test results
be considered satisfactory if they meet both of the following criteria:

The average of any five consecutive test results is equal to or lower than p′c; and

No individual test result is greater than 1.30p′c.

Note that durability and resistance to fluid ingress are inversely related to RCP test
results, so the concrete producer must proportion mixtures to obtain a required
average RCP result p′cr lower than p′c (in contrast, the producer must proportion
mixtures to obtain a required average strength value ƒ′cr greater than ƒ′c).

REQUIREMENTS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SAFETY

CONDITIONS.
Pressure testing involves applying stored energy to an assembly of parts, in

order to verify its strength, its integrity and/or its functionality.

This guidance is aimed at all employers, supervisors and managers responsible

pág. 20
for pressure testing. It has been revised in response to two fatalities in the UK since

2005 resulting from failure to correctly provide and maintain test fittings. The test

engineers were struck by components ejected during the test.

This guidance addresses safe systems of work, safe guarding and maintenance.

Action required

Pressure testing is covered by the Provision and Use of Work Equipment

Regulations 1998 (PUWER).1

The action you need to take to comply with these regulations will depend

primarily on:

 the size of assembly under test;

 its test pressure;
 the test medium.

Key issues relevant to all pressure testing activities are:

 determining risks;
 preparing a written safe system of work;
 segregating the item under test;
 maintaining test connectors.

Determining risks

Pressure testing is a high-risk activity. When applying stored energy to an

assembly, especially for the first time, there is potential for an unintended or

premature pressure release while people are in the danger zone.

Release of stored energy under pressure can cause:

pág. 21
  test assembly rupture, creating flying fragments;
 component or connector failure, creating missiles projected under force;
 test hose failure including detachment, with consequential hose whip, striking
people;
 sudden release of the test medium (liquid, gas, vapour, dust or other
substance under pressure) causing injury, eg burns, eye damage or pressure
injection into bodily tissue.

MATERIALS, TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR

COMPRESSION TEST.

All that we use for compression testing is:

 Universal machine

A universal testing machine (UTM), also known as a universal tester, materials

testing machine or materials test frame, is used to test the tensile strength and
compressive strength of materials. An earlier name for a tensile testing machine is
a tensometer. The "universal" part of the name reflects that it can perform many

pág. 22
standard tensile and compression tests on materials, components, and structures
(in other words, that it is versatile).

Several variations are in use. Common components include:

Load frame - Usually consisting of two strong supports for the machine. Some
small machines have a single support.

Load cell - A force transducer or other means of measuring the load is required.
Periodic calibration is usually required by governing regulations or quality system.

Cross head - A movable cross head (crosshead) is controlled to move up or down.

Usually this is at a constant speed: sometimes called a constant rate of extension
(CRE) machine. Some machines can program the crosshead speed or conduct
cyclical testing, testing at constant force, testing at constant deformation, etc.
Electromechanical, servo-hydraulic, linear drive, and resonance drive are used.

Means of measuring extension or deformation - Many tests require a measure of

the response of the test specimen to the movement of the cross head.
Extensometers are sometimes used.

Output device - A means of providing the test result is needed. Some older
machines have dial or digital displays and chart recorders. Many newer machines
have a computer interface for analysis and printing.

Conditioning - Many tests require controlled conditioning (temperature, humidity,

pressure, etc.). The machine can be in a controlled room or a special
environmental chamber can be placed around the test specimen for the test.

Test fixtures, specimen holding jaws, and related sample making equipment are
called for in many test methods.

 Vernier
 Extensometer
 safety glasses

pág. 23
  Gloves
 Industrial boots
 Test tuve

Test tube drawing and measurements

Length: 37.9 mm

Diameter: 12.6 mm

pág. 24
BIBLIOGRAPHY

http://ocw.nthu.edu.tw/ocw/upload/8/249/Chapter_1-98.pdf
https://www.bakesonline.com/images/MediaLibrary/EngineCompressionTest.pdf
https://www.testresources.net/test-machines/by-test-type/compression-test-
machines/
https://www.admet.com/testing-applications/testing-standards/astm-e9-metal-
compression-testing/
http://www.instron.us/en-us/our-company/library/test-types/compression-test
https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=5550
https://www.testresources.net/applications/

pág. 25