COGNITIVE SKILLS OF CRITICAL THINKING person to share thoughts, ideas and to think

beyond the logical.

AND PROCESSES
Clarification
Cognitive Skills of Critical Thinking
 To clarify something is to make it clear or
Divergent Thinking
understandable.
 It is the ability to analyze many opinions, ideas,  Assumptions are identified, and similarities and
and judgments. This type of thinking is a skill to differences are noted. Identification of
be developed by practice and is accomplished assumptions and beliefs, and how these can
by evaluating many types of data, distinguishing affect actions, is an important aspect of critical
relevant from irrelevant data, drawing thinking.
inferences, presenting and analyzing
Critical Thinking Processes: Good Critical Thinking
arguments, and recognizing the value of
opposing viewpoints.  Good critical thinking clarifies the meaning of
 An inference is a conclusion that was arrived at terms central to the discussion. Even at the
by data collection. To analyze something is to start of a conversation/argument, the individual
evaluate or study based on the data collected. who possesses this skill should be able to
establish the meaning of a particular term
Reasoning
appropriate to the subject matter at hand.
 It is another cognitive component of critical  Good critical thinking requires an individual to:
thinking. The ability to reason means that a o refine generalizations and avoid
person is able to apply logic to a given situation. oversimplification,
Critical thinkers have the ability to tell the o listen critically, seriously considering
difference between fact and fiction and come to views with which one disagrees,
a logical conclusion based on facts that are o generate and assess solutions to
presented. problems,
 There are two types of reasoning that critical o read critically, seeking out information
thinkers use: that disagrees with one’s perspectives,
o Inductive reasoning – goes from and
particular to general. o compare perspectives, interpretations
o Deductive reasoning – goes from or theories.
general to particular.
NOVICE CRITICAL EXPERT CRITICAL
Reflection THINKER THINKER
Tries to find and Always ensures that
 To reflect on data that you have gathered and subscribe to the easiest factors and problems
to think objectively about information requires and most attainable involved are properly
time and is often the result of experience. solution. analyzed before
Reflective thinking is the ability to integrate proposing solutions.
past experiences with the situation at hand and Discriminates reading Has indiscriminate
make a critical judgment. materials/ sources that appreciation of reading
disagree with his views. materials/sources even if
Creativity these are contrary to his
views.
 Critical thinkers are usually very creative
Emotionally unprepared Anticipates objections to
thinkers. for possible objections their positions.
 Creative thinking is not always purposefully or concerning his position.
necessarily goal-directed; it is sometimes called
“brainstorming.” This type of thinking allows a Incapable of identifying Can easily identify faulty
fault arguments. arguments.
  God exists.
 From the given examples, we may notice that
there are two kinds of claims, one is objective
Argumentation claim and the other one is subjective claim.
What is the difference between them?
 Argument refers to “a set of statements in
o Objective claim – a kind of claim that
which a claim is made, support is offered for it, involves factual matters.
and there is an attempt to influence someone in
o Subjective claim – as opposed to
a context of disagreement.”
objective claim, it involves matters of
o The foregoing definition has two
pure opinion.
contexts: argumentation is a claim and
argumentation as disagreement. Compositions of Evidence
 Argumentation as a claim – in
 Facts and conditions – must be objectively
this context, we consider an
observable.
argument as a reasoning
 Beliefs or statements – generally accepted as
process.
true by the recipients.
Example: Pedro made an argument  Conclusions – the result of an outcome or
in support of his proposal for the process.
new marketing plan.
Critical Thinking and Problem Solving
 Argumentation as a
disagreement – in this context,  Problem solving involves giving a thorough
we consider argument as part attention to a specific problem while finding
of man’s relation with other solutions to resolve such problem.
people.  Most experts suggest that critical thinking goes
beyond problem solving. Instead of finding
Example: Pedro and Pablo were available and accessible solutions to resolve the
having an argument about the color problem, critical thinking aims to raise
of their car. questions on all aspects of the situation and
critique the solutions.
 Argument = Attempt to Convince
 Perhaps one reason why confusion exists
o The attempt to convince is also known
around the differences between problem
as the process of argumentation.
solving and critical thinking is because critical
 Differentiating argument from other forms of
thinking needs to be understood as a process.
communication
For example, an important step in problem
o Greetings, issuing commands,
solving and decision making is the need to
expressing emotions, and making
utilize critical thinking abilities to reframe a
promises are not examples of
problem or situation. Too often, problem
argumentation. It is said that in order to
solving is used in its pure scientific term, as in a
be considered as an argument, the
recipe – follow the steps and an outcome will
statement should carry a claim.
be achieved.
o A claim refers to an expressed opinion
or conclusion that the arguer wants
accepted.
 Examples of claims:
 Mango-flavored ice
cream tastes better
than vanilla ice cream.
 Abortion is morally
wrong.
CRITICAL THINKING AND COMMUNICATION
Communication
 It is a process that allows organisms to
exchange information by several methods.
Exchange requires “feedback.” (Wikipedia)
 It is defined as a process by which we assign and
convey meaning in an attempt to create shared
understanding. This process requires a vast
repertoire of skills in intrapersonal and
interpersonal processing, listening, observing,
speaking, questioning, analyzing, and
evaluating. (Professional Education and
Certification)
 Communication plays an important role in
delivering professional/industry services
effectively notwithstanding the existence of
cultural diversity and other elements that could
disrupt the provision of industry services.
 Mutual understanding and clear
communication are the two prerequisites to
achieve harmony in every form of human
interaction. However, harmony is elusive in an
interaction where there are cultural diversity
and barriers. In order to achieve a harmonious
relationship with individuals from other
cultures, one must evaluate the other’s level of
understanding. Broadly speaking,
communication is a human activity that involves
an exchange process. Thus, it does not entail a
one-sided conversation for it would only result
to misunderstanding and dispute.
 Oral language (verbal communication) is
popularly used by professional workers in
sharing their knowledge with regards to the
ways on how to perform their tasks in the
industry.
 Body language, on the other hand, utilizes non-
verbal communication which involves gestures
and body movements. In addition, body
language is more complicated than oral
language because though the latter may vary in
every territorial area, the message conveyed
using a particular language may be translated
into another one. The meaning of body
language also varies from culture to culture.
The Nature and Basic Functions of Language
Language
 It is the systematic coordination of grammar
and vocabulary used to convey meaning. (Inch
and Warnich)
 It is a systematic way of combining a group of
words that are arbitrary and similar to us all.
 It is a method exclusively used by human beings
in order to express opinions, and different kinds
of emotions and to provide a material (or
spoken) equivalent of a specific abstract
concept.
 It is the primary tool for human thought. There
are three specific features of human language.
The main purpose of providing such features is
to distinguish human from animal language.
o Syntax - It refers to how we present the
words (tangible representation of
constructs) to convey a meaningful and
comprehensible message. Furthermore,
it involves a set of general rules and
principles. Because language is
dynamic, these sets of grammatical
principles may be enhanced through
the course of time.
o Symbol - It refers to the essential
component of language. Symbols may
be in the form of numbers, letters,
pictures, ideas, events, etc. Again, the
dynamic characteristic of language
enables us to develop other sets of
symbols constantly.
o Abstraction- Language represents the
past, the present and the future, and
things that will never happen.
Characteristics of Language
 Governed by rules. Language is governed by
rules in order to avoid confusion. The language
convention developed a shared set of patterns
and schemes to form meaningful and
grammatically sound words.
 Communicative. The primary function of
language is to facilitate communication so as to
express one’s thoughts and emotions.
 Understanding and expressing thoughts are two
of the essential elements to promote social
harmony.
 Dynamic. Language is a continuous process.
 Multiple Levels. It is considered as one of the
wonders of language. Language can be
understood even if we change the
pattern/order of symbols.
 Spontaneously acquired. Language is naturally
acquired through constant social interaction.
 Productive. Language teaches us how to be
creative. We are in a continuous process of
inventing symbols (or words) that are intended
to represent newly discovered objects such as
cellular phone, laptop, iPad, etc. Furthermore, it
is composed of different ideas that can be
expressed in any other kind of language.
 Arbitrary. Human language is composed of a
shared system of arbitrary symbolic reference.
This system is composed of symbols that were
arbitrarily picked to represent various
objectives. Symbols may be in the form of
images, sounds, etc. Ideas/concepts may be
represented by various kinds of symbols.
Language may be changed based on the
purpose and location of representation.
Language as Communicative Tool
Vocabulary – a list of words and phrases, usually
arranged alphabetically.
Grammar – set of rules setting forth the current
standard of usage for reference purposes.
Michael Calvin McGee - an American rhetorical theorist,
claimed that language also serves as an important tool
that unifies a society.
McGee on Language
 McGee assumed that people who share a
language also share a set of cultural
assumptions and a way of thinking.
 Based on this assumption, language is a tool
that helps shape the culture, ideology and
norms of the society.
o For instance, words like equality,
transparency and accountability are
some of the identifiable words in a
democratic society. McGee emphasized
that these words serve as the building
blocks of ideology. In addition, ideology
serves as a common frame of reference
of the members of a society for
understanding the world around them.
Elements on How Humans Understand a Simple
Symbol to a Concept
 Mental image (representation) - result of direct
experience or imagination.
 Referent - actual material object referred to in
language.
 Symbol - refers to the one created by humans
(either through sound or symbol).
 Reference - the association that the language
user makes between the symbol and the
referent.
Connotations, Denotations and Euphemism
 Denotation refers to the objective
interpretation of meanings; the dictionary
meaning of the word.
o Characteristics of denotative meanings:
 Words that have denotative
meanings can be found in
dictionaries.
 Dictionary - a collection
of words presented in
alphabetical form with
corresponding
definitions,
etymologies,
pronunciations, and
other related
information.
 Also, these words are
universally understood and
established in the culture as a
whole.
 Relatively stable.
o Examples of denotative meanings:
 “Snake” - a cold-blooded,
legless reptile (little emotional
content)
 “Fraternity” - brotherhood,
social organization for higher
education or secondary
students.
 “EDSA” - a Philippine national
highway.
 Connotation refers to the subjective
interpretation of meanings; the emotional or
cultural meaning to a word.
o Characteristics of connotative
meanings:
 Have something to do with
emotions (emotive
significance).
 Every connotative meaning is
unique for the individual.
 Connotative words are unstable
because connotative meanings
are unique or shared by a small
number of individuals.
o Examples of connotative meanings:
 “Snake” - cold, slimy, yucky
monster/an individual who is a
traitor (strong emotional
content)
 “Fraternity” - gang, violent
group
 “EDSA” - name of the two
peaceful uprisings in the
Philippines.
 Euphemism is to substitute a negative word or
statement with a rather agreeable or
inoffensive one to avoid the occurrence of
conflict between the speaker and the hearer.
 Examples of euphemism include:
o Restroom as opposed to toilet room
o Sanitary landfill as opposed to garbage
dump
o Pre-owned/pre-loved vehicles as
opposed to used/second hand cars
o Custodian as opposed to janitor
o Sanitation worker as opposed to
garbage man
o Informal settlers as opposed to
squatters
 FACTORS AFFECTING CRITICAL THINKING
SKILLS
Factors Affecting Critical Thinking Skills
Memory
 It is an active system that receives information
from the senses, organizes and alters
information as it stores, and then retrieves the
information from storage.
 Psychologists have developed different
techniques to evaluate individual’s skill in
memorizing things. These methods are normally
objective in character (the likes of objective
examination format such as fill in the blanks,
multiple choice, true or false test, etc.). The
aforementioned exam formats are some of the
examples of recall and recognition memory.
o In recall memory, the subject is tasked
to produce a remembered set of items
which have been previously given or
reviewed. Moreover, recall memory
comes in three variations namely,
paired associates, serial recall, and free
recall.
 In paired associates recall, the
subject is presented with a list
of paired words (i.e. bookpencil,
car-boat, needle-house, bread-
mayo). After storing these
words in memory, the subject
will be tasked to recall an item
based on a given word. For
instance, he is given a stimulus
(word) needle; the subject is
expected to state house instead
of mayo, pencil or boat.
 In serial recall, the subject is
presented with a list of items
(can be numbers, words or
names). He is also expected to
recall these words based on its
original arrangement.
 In free recall, the subject is also
presented with a list of items
and expected to enumerate
these items in any order.
 In recognition memory, the
individual is tasked to recognize
a particular item/concept from
the other items (i.e. multiple
choice). The combination of
recall and recognition memory
is called cued recall. “Fill in the
missing letters” is one of the
examples of this kind of recall
for it commands the subject to
produce an item based on the
given clues (letters). For
instance, the subject will be
asked to give the first name of
the 13th president of the
Philippines. This should be
followed with a clue, let us say
J_s_ph (Joseph for “Joseph
Estrada”).
o Memory can also be viewed as
procedural and declarative.
 Procedural memory works as
implicit memory because it
involves recognition and
awareness of techniques and
procedures as to how to ride a
bicycle, how to setup an
internet connection, etc.
 Declarative memory, on the
other hand, involves
recognition and understanding
of the content of an article,
speech or any form of factual
information.
Explicit Memory
 It refers to a kind of memory in which the
subject is aware that he performs a particular
memory task (either recall or recognition).
Implicit Memory
 It refers to a kind of memory in which the
subject is not aware that he performs such
memory task. This includes activities that
require skills such as reading, riding a bike and
writing an essay.
Testimony
 It refers to a statement that is either spoken or
written by other people for the purpose of
giving information to the issue at hand. It
 should be noted that other persons’
testimonials are as liable and as flawed as our
own. Much skepticism is needed to avoid any
Beliefs
form of deception. Here are some points that
may be considered about relying on
testimonials:
o Most of the time, a deceptive
testimonial appears to be a perfect
argument/claim. Words are
appropriately used and calculated.
Thus, making them appear very
believable. Critical thinkers should be
able to identify the essence and real
purpose of such testimony.
o Sometimes, deceptive testimonials are
believable because people choose to
believe them (either because of their
beliefs or opinions).
Ignorance
 Dictionary.com defines it as “the condition of
being uneducated, unaware or uninformed.”
 Ignorance, in the context of critical thinking,
refers to being unaware of the important points
involved in the subject matter at hand. It should
not be viewed as stupidity.
o Stupidity is the quality of being
incompetent to apply intelligence in any
given task.
 Here are some tips on how to improve critical
thinking skills and at the same time, overcome
ignorance:
o One of the possible ways to improve
one’s critical thinking (as well as to
overcome ignorance) is to improve
one’s vocabulary skills. One can do this
by learning how to appreciate the use
of a dictionary. A dictionary is a
collection of words presented in
alphabetical form with corresponding
definitions, etymologies,
pronunciations, and other related
information.
o Having background knowledge on the
Wishful Thinking and Self Deception
subject matter at hand is as important
as having an understanding on its
important points. Note that being
unaware of the basics could result to
failure on our end to judge the truth,
relevance, or sufficiency of evidence put
forth to support positions in that field.
 Beliefs “represent man’s conviction about the
reality of things and are shared ideas about how
the world operates.” (Panopio and Rolda, 2000:
53).
 The following can hinder one’s critical thinking
process:
o The belief that intelligence is inherent,
it runs through genes.
 People who agree to this kind
of belief are afraid to fail. They
think that failure is synonymous
with being dumb, stupid, and
weak.
 As this saying goes, “One of the
dumbest things people do with
the fixed view of intelligence is
to sacrifice important learning
opportunities when those
opportunities contain a risk of
revealing ignorance or making
errors.” Each of us must realize
that there is no such thing as
perfection and no one is all-
knowing.
o The belief that people who are placed
on the wrong side of intelligence usually
have a hard time grasping a set of
knowledge as compared with intelligent
people who can learn effortlessly.
 This belief is called self-
handicapping. This refers to an
attitude in which the individual
pretends to be smart (or
pretends to avoid looking
dumb). Normally, this individual
is preoccupied with his
reputation rather than
working/developing on
something.
 Wishful thinking is a manner of interpreting a
particular thing (i.e. perception, event, report)
the way we want it to be (regardless of how it
occurred in reality). Self deception, on the other
 hand, refers to a kind of attitude where we try
to look at a particular thing to be true when it is
not.
Suggestibility, Conformity and Admiration for Experts
and Authorities
 Skepticism, open-mindedness, intellectual
perseverance, integrity, and empathy are not
enough to develop the most reasonable beliefs
in many areas of inquiry.
 No one has the ability to know a wide range of
knowledge. This is the reason why part of
professionalism (and being a critical thinker too)
is to accept that our system of knowledge is
limited (even if it falls under our expertise).
 It is also a good attitude to accept that we are
incompetent to make reasonable judgments.
We may seek the help of some experts and
authorities to pursue our goal to attain the
highest possible form of knowledge. It should
be noted, however, that it is also important for
us to use intelligently the claims of these
authorities and experts.
 Most of the time, suggestibility and persuasion
through the form of these experts’ opinion
could affect our way of thinking or could hinder
us to think critically.
 British psychologist Robert Thouless described
how suggestibility and persuasion affect our
mode of thinking.
o If a topic is confidently delivered by a
professional from a prestigious
university but without argument or
proof, chances are his audience would
accept the suggestions made by him
even if there are no sufficient evidences
presented before them.
 Professor’s “prestige” – refers
to the acknowledged dignity of
authority possessed by
senators, bishops, and others
who occupy key and important
positions in the society.
 These experts are skillful in
convincing us to believe their
claims uncritically. It is as if we
have no choice but to accept
their claims for the reasons that
they are “experts,” they are
“authorities” in their respective
fields, and they graduated from
a prestigious university.
However, such qualifications
should not intimidate us from
validating their claim/opinion if
it is within the periphery of
reason. Such attitude is not
synonymous with questioning
their authority in a particular
subject matter.
The Tortoise and the Hare
A hare once made fun of a tortoise. “What a slow way
you have!” he said. “How you creep along!”
“Do I?” said the tortoise. “Try a race with me and I’ll beat
you.”
“What a boaster you are,” said the hare. “But come! I
will race with you. Whom shall we ask to mark off the
finish line and see the race is fair?”
“Let us ask the fox,” said the tortoise.
The fox was very wise and fair. He showed them where to
start and how far they were to run.
The tortoise lost no time. He started out at once and
jogged straight on.
The hare leaped along swiftly for a few minutes until he
had left the tortoise far behind. He knew he could reach
the mark very quickly, so he lay down by the road under
a shady tree and took a nap.
By and by he awoke and remembered the race. He sprang
up and ran as fast as he could. But when he reached the
finish mark the tortoise was already there!
“Slow and steady wins the race,” said the fox.
Laziness and Pride
 Laziness is an attitude that drives us to think
uncritically for it encourages us to conform and
accept the claims made by authorities. It usually
emerges because of our desire to attain ready
and accessible results. Thus, it hinders us to
think critically. Lazy people tend to think in
terms of stereotypes and slogans.
o Stereotypes – generalizations that
people make about the characteristics
of all members of a group, based on an
 image (often wrong) about what people
in that group are like. Examples are:
 Americans are arrogant,
domineering, impatient.
 Asians are shrewd and alert, but
Confirmation Bias
reserved.
 Products made in China have
substandard qualities.
o Slogan – refers to oversimplification of
things that are complex.
 Darwin’s theory is that we all
come from monkeys
 For Sigmund Freud, sex is what
we are as human beings.
 Pride, just like laziness,
minimizes our skill in critical
thinking. Pride can also be
understood as self-
handicapping.
Communal Reinforcement
 It refers to a collective behavior in which the
members of the community consider a claim to
be correct even if it has been poorly researched
and not supported by pertinent evidence and
data.
 Communal reinforcement would likely emerge
in the society where claims are repeatedly
Physical and Emotional Hindrances
asserted to be true.
 Examples of communal reinforcement include:
o Alternative health practice – a method
of healing that has not been proven to
be effective, untraditional, and usually
involves unscientific principles.
o Existence of the “Bermuda” triangle
o Existence of Santa Claus
o Exorcism – a practice of expelling
demons or other unworldly entities
Prejudice
 It refers to the strongly held opinion about
some topic or a group of people. A positive
prejudice often stems from a strong sense of
ethnocentrism, that is, a belief that one’s
cultural group is vastly superior to the beliefs
held by others.
o Ethnocentrism – it refers to the
individual’s belief that his cultural
beliefs and values are superior to those
of other cultures.
 Prejudice may also be derived from ignorance,
misinformation, past experiences, and fear.
 Psychologists and cognitive scientists consider
confirmation bias as a type of selective
attention in which the individual tends to relate
a particular situation/ phenomenon to
something (i.e. unusual situation, phenomenon)
in order to confirm/support his
beliefs/preconceptions without looking at
different factors that may have contributed to
the occurrence of such belief.
 Further, it is somehow similar to the fallacy of
false cause in which it involves a presumption
that the existence of something is brought
about by the existence of another thing. Thus,
the reasoning proceeds to the effect from the
considered cause when it is not in fact the real
cause. The only difference between
confirmation bias and false cause is that in the
former, the individual tends to look for what
confirms his beliefs while at the same time,
ignoring the relevance of what contradicts one’s
beliefs.
 Stress, illnesses and current emotional state are
some of the factors that affect our ability to
think and act critically.
o Excessive chemical intake (i.e. caffeine,
nicotine, and other chemical
substances)
o Lack of sleep
o Lack of body nutrients and energy
boosters
 Tips on how to overcome such factors include:
o Avoid excessive chemical intake.
o Get enough sleep. The average enough
sleep for adults is 7-8 hours.
o Avoid making judgments when upset.
Decisions made during this emotional
status would only produce bad
outcomes. Wait until a stable moment
arrives.
Ignorance

 One of the best ways to overcome ignorance is

to find some time to have basic knowledge of
the subject matter. The individual may check on
the available resources that could help him
obtain essential information in a particular field.
 These resources include books, published
articles, manuscripts and records, Internet, etc.

Tendency to Conform

 This particular kind of limitation is difficult to

overcome for such act involves social pressure.
As mentioned before, man’s tendency to
conform is a part of his social life. It is also his
means to bring harmony in his social relations
with other individuals.
 The best way to start is to consider such
hindrance as a problem. The individual should
be aware that it is really his problem that
discourages him to think and act critically.
 On the other hand, the individual should know
how to weigh his priorities. Sometimes, it is
unnecessary to challenge the claims/views of
others (i.e. your boss or your friend) if the
relationship with him is at risk. Awareness of
the problem would not eliminate it and
challenging one’s friends is not always to one’s
advantage.

Admiration for Experts and Authorities

 Such limitation is one of the most difficult to

overcome (aside from the tendency to conform)
for it involves challenging the experts’ opinions
and judgments. It is also the usual problem of
students who are frequently exposed to the
views and academic insights of their professors.

Laziness and the Desire for Quick Results

 One should make an effort to overcome this

limitation. Learning how to prioritize and value
important things could lessen, if not eliminate,
this hindrance.

Physical and Emotional Hindrances

 The individual should make some conscientious

efforts to overcome this set of hindrances.
 FALLACIES OF AMBIGUITY AND  The cause of any of the
previous errors including what
PRESUMPTION
are normally referred to as
Basic Concepts “rhetorical techniques.”
 Fallacy refers to a type of
 History argument that may seem to be
o Ancient Classical Period. Given that correct, but that proves, on
Aristotle spent his life in studying things examination, not to be so.
related to science (physical, natural and  Others say that committing
argumentative), it can be said that he is fallacious statements or
the logician who discovered the arguments is also synonymous
concept of fallacy, that is, an error in with violating the usual norms
reasoning. Aristotle defined 13 of good reasoning.
typologies of fallacies.
 Aristotle’s fallacies are
enumerated in his book entitled
Topics, under De Sophisticitis
Elenchis (Sophistical
Refutations). The book was
written as early as 350 B.C.
 Definitions
o Based on its etymological definition,
fallacy comes from the Latin word fallo,
which means “I deceive.”
o In a nutshell, a fallacy refers to incorrect
form of reasoning. In a claim, if both
premises are true but the conclusion
proves to be inconsistent to one or both
premise/s, we can say that such
proposition/claim is fallacious.
o One of the major purposes of studying
logic is to study correct and incorrect
reasoning. In order to do this, students
should familiarize themselves with the
common types of fallacies.
o Some authors describe or define
fallacies as deceptive arguments. These
arguments, according to them, appear
to be valid or correct but when
examined, they turn out to be invalid or
incorrect.
o However, some logicians consider
fallacies as ambiguous terms. Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy enumerates
four definitions of fallacies.
 A kind of error in argument.
 A kind of error in reasoning
(including arguments,
definitions, explanations, etc.).
 A false belief.