Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
CHAPTER 1
Metallurgy
ture for a given composition. It is not remotely not a small, pedantic point. Most stainless steels
feasible, however, to give an adequate treatment are used in the metastable condition. For exam-
of the thermodynamics required to do this. The ple, the common alloy 304 (also called 18-8) is
topic alone requires a book. The necessary normally used in the fully austenitic condition.
knowledge has been embedded in proprietary It would “rather” be partly ferritic, but the sub-
computer programs that will be used instead. stitutional diffusion of chromium in austenite
that is required to form a ferrite phase of a sepa-
rate composition is so slow that it cannot occur
Thermodynamics of Stainless Steel in terrestrial time frames. However, if energy is
applied by mechanical shear, the austenite can
Pure metals, from a practical viewpoint, are transform without diffusion to the lower free-
either liquid or solid depending on temperature, energy martensite phase, a quasi-bcc structure
with the possibility of some trivial small gas of lower free energy.
vapor pressure. A law of thermodynamics is that The calculation of which phases exist under
the number of possible condensed (i.e., solid) equilibrium conditions proves to be extraordi-
phases equals the number of elemental con- narily difficult in complicated alloy systems.
stituents plus one. The solid has a crystallo- This is because thermodynamic values can be
graphic structure that may vary with tempera- measured accurately only in the liquid state, so
ture. Many metals have a less-dense bcc the values for the solid state are extrapolations.
structure at high temperature and transform to a Also, the interaction between elements is very
denser fcc structure at lower temperatures. Iron important in nondilute alloys such as stainless
does this. Iron has the curious characteristic of steel. Consequently, most published phase dia-
transforming from fcc back to the low-density grams are experimentally derived. To determine
bcc at still lower temperatures. This is a result of which phases exist at a given composition and
the unpaired 3d orbital electrons (those that give temperature, a sample is made, equilibrated at
rise to ferromagnetism) that are not given up as the appropriate temperature, and quenched to
valence electrons, causing repulsive forces be- room temperature. It is assumed that the charac-
tween atoms and requiring a more widely spaced teristic equilibrium phases have been frozen and
structure. are then identified by various techniques for
All thermodynamic properties are based on structure, composition, and the like. This impor-
interatomic attractions. In metals, the metal tant work is obviously tedious and susceptible
atoms give up valence electrons to the entire to experimental error and applies only to spe-
mass. These electrons are of varying energy cific compositions. Any “what if” extrapolation
states and highly mobile. They are responsible to a different alloy composition carries the risk
for the ability of metals to conduct heat and of error.
electricity well. The attraction, the strength of A practical tool has been developed that per-
the bond, is proportional to the charge differ- mits phase diagrams to be calculated for arbitrary
ence and distance. The attraction determines compositions. These are computer simulated,
such macroscopic properties as melting temper- mathematical models that can perform the com-
ature, density, and elastic modulus. plex thermodynamic calculations. To do this with
In this book, the main concern with thermo- accuracy requires databases of thermodynamic
dynamics is predicting which phases are present values. These values must be derived from com-
both at equilibrium and in the quite frequent puter analysis of experimental phase equilibrium
metastable state. The prediction involves calcu- diagrams. They are expensive to derive and vali-
lating the free energy of the various possible date, and only a few exist. Hence, they are pro-
phases. The phase with the lowest energy is prietary. In Appendix 3, a license to one such
most favored, but others may have free energies program, Thermo-Calc, can be found. The ver-
that permit them to exist. The difference be- sion has a reduced three-element capability but
tween these two is that the equilibrium state, uses the same proprietary thermodynamic data-
that of the lowest free energy, may require base of the full version. The program allows de-
atomic rearrangements to occur for equilibrium termination of which phases can exist for any
compositions to be reached on an atomic scale. composition and temperature. Whether the
If diffusion is too sluggish for these rearrange- phases will form depends also on kinetic factors.
ments to take place, the structure may retain the First, however, it is good to become familiar with
prior metastable structure indefinitely. This is the principal phases found in stainless steel.
Chapter 1: Metallurgy / 3
too high. So, to avoid the detrimental effects of The bcc structure of ferrite allows more
chromium carbide and nitride formation in fer- rapid diffusion than does the fcc structure of
rite, other benign carbides and nitrides such as austenite. This is true for both the interstitial
those of titanium or niobium are allowed to form diffusion of the elements helium, boron, car-
preferentially. This approach is called stabiliza- bon, nitrogen, and oxygen and the substitu-
tion and is used for most ferritic alloys today. The tional diffusion of all other elements. The rate
older approach, as characterized by alloy 430, is of diffusion of all elements, both interstitial
to permit chromium carbides and nitrides to form and substitutional, in ferrite is about two or
but then to perform a subcritical anneal to reho- three orders of magnitude higher than in
mogenize the chromium and coarsen the pre- austenite. The practical implication of this is
cipitates so that they have only a small negative that precipitation reactions generally cannot be
effect on mechanical properties. suppressed by quenching in ferrite if they in-
Hydrogen and boron are other elements that volve interstitial elements, whereas they can
can be interstitially dissolved in ferrite. Boron is be in austenite. Intermetallic phases can form
normally found at levels of around 5 to 10 ppm. more rapidly in ferrite. This becomes an issue
At higher levels, boron substitutes for carbon in only when total chromium plus molybdenum
carbides. Hydrogen is soluble to several parts exceeds about 20%, above which the sigma
per million by weight. It does not cause hydro- phase appears. This is thus only an issue for
gen embrittlement in annealed ferrite. If the fer- superferritic (high chromium content) alloys or
rite is cold worked, the solubility of hydrogen for the ferrite phase of duplex (ferrite-austen-
increases as the defect structure accommodates ite) alloys.
hydrogen atoms. In this condition, ferrite may The mechanical properties of the ferrite phase
be embrittled by hydrogen, especially if it en- are discussed extensively in Chapter 8, “Ferritic
ters the metal through corrosion processes like Stainless Steels.” Here, it is only necessary to
pitting. This is one explanation of, and the most note that ferrite in stainless steel closely resem-
likely explanation for, stress corrosion cracking. bles low-carbon steel in mechanical behavior. It
While hydrogen is easily removed by argon shares the following characteristics:
oxygen decarburization (AOD), assuming ab- • A toughness transition that occurs around
solutely dry blowing gases and additions are
room temperature
used, it can be picked up during pickling, weld- • Notch sensitivity
ing, or annealing as well as by corrosion. • A yield point phenomenon
All stainless alloys rely on having a uniform • Pronounced crystallographic anisotropy of
level of chromium and the other element,
mechanical properties
molybdenum, which assists in corrosion resist- • High stacking fault energies and low work-
ance, distributed throughout the matrix. If there
hardening rates
are locally low levels of these elements, local-
ized resistance to corrosion is reduced, and lo- These issues are dealt with in the same way as
calized corrosion can occur. This can occur by in carbon steel when these characteristics be-
the precipitation of any phase that is richer in come an issue. The first two are controlled by
chromium or other corrosion-resisting ele- reduction of interstitial levels and refining of
ments. Because chromium is a reactive ele- grain size. The yield point is eliminated by
ment, its success depends to a great degree on slight elongation by temper rolling or elimina-
maintaining the homogeneity required for tion of interstitial carbon and nitrogen, whose
proper corrosion-resistant performance. Incor- interaction with dislocations causes the yield
rect thermal processing is the main way homo- point. The anisotropy is either utilized to advan-
geneity can be lost. Stabilizing makes it much tage by maximizing it, as in the case of deep-
easier to keep chromium from segregating in drawing alloys, or minimized by refining grain
ferritic alloys. size and randomizing grain orientation by spe-
A by-product of stabilization with titanium is cial thermomechanical processing.
that oxygen and sulfur are also eliminated as Ferrite has a greater thermal conductivity
compounds of titanium along with carbon and and lower thermal expansion than austenite. Its
nitrogen. These impurity elements would other- strength decreases with temperature more than
wise also precipitate as compounds containing that of austenite, but the good match in thermal
some chromium, potentially depleting chromium expansion between the ferrite and its oxide
in the vicinity of their precipitation. still makes it an excellent high-temperature
Chapter 1: Metallurgy / 5
material. Ferrite has very nearly the same cor- basis. Their use is limited by their solubility and
rosion resistance as austenite, but since ferrite their tendency to form precipitating compounds
can hold no nitrogen in solution, it cannot ben- with chromium. Manganese acts largely through
efit from this element. In duplex alloys, the its ability to promote nitrogen solubility. Super-
ferrite is generally the more corrosion resistant austenitic stainless steels, such as S34565, use 4
phase because it is richer in chromium and to 6 % manganese to permit nitrogen levels of
molybdenum. 0.4 to 0.6% to be achieved, resulting in higher
pitting corrosion resistance.
Since all stainless steels contain principally
Austenite
iron and chromium, the addition of a substantial
The second major constituent phase of the amount of austenitizing elements is necessary to
stainless steel alloy system is austenite. Austen- transform the structure to austenite. As a rule of
ite has an fcc atomic structure. The fcc structure thumb, iron alloys require about 17% chromium
is common in many transition metals to the right and 11% nickel (or its equivalents) to remain
of iron in the periodic table. As stated, the fcc austenitic at room temperature. One percent
structure should be considered normal for metals nickel can be replaced by about 2% manganese
well below their melting temperature as it is a as long as nitrogen is present to maintain the
denser structure. The presence of the bcc struc- same phase stability. The omnipresent carbon
ture relates to the unpaired 3d electrons, which and nitrogen have an effect 30 times that of
provide ferromagnetism. Adding elements to nickel, so even in the small amounts in which
iron that causes pairing of the 3d electrons di- they are normally present, they have a signifi-
minishes ferromagnetism and promotes the fcc cant effect. These stabilizing factors are mapped
structure. Nickel and manganese are the most in the Schaeffler diagram of Fig. 2 (Ref 1),
prominent alloying elements that do this, but the whose purpose is to predict the phase makeup
interstitials carbon and nitrogen are the most of weld metal. Since welds solidify relatively
powerful austenite stabilizers on a percentage rapidly, no carbides or intermetallic phases
Fig. 2 Schaeffler-Delong constitution diagram showing phases present in as-solidified stainless steels at room emperature as a func-
tion of composition demonstrating carbon and nitrogen contributions to nickel effects. Adapted from A.L. Schaeffler,
Constitution Diagram for Stainless Steel Weld Metal, Met. Prog., Vol 56, Nov 1949, p 680–688; and W.T. Delong, A Modified Phases
Diagram for Stainless Steel Weld Metals, Met. Prog., Vol 77, Feb 1960, p 98
6 / Stainless Steels for Design Engineers
form, and only ferrite, austenite, and martensite and then frozen in a state of supersaturation in
will be present. Thus, they provide useful infor- the austenite when it forms on cooling. The sul-
mation about the compositional effects on phase fur and oxygen then precipitate during cooling or
development in nonequilibrium situations. The subsequent hot working as isolated inclusions.
nickel equivalent (vertical axis) summarizes The interface between these inclusions and the
how nitrogen, carbon, and other elements com- matrix is the locus of corrosion pit initiation,
bine to create a nickel-like effect. The horizon- quite probably because of chromium depletion
tal axis does the same for chromium and those occurring during and as a result of inclusion
elements that have a similar effect. growth. When an alloy solidifies as austenite,
In most common stainless steels, austenite is sulfur immediately segregates to the grain
normally present in the metastable state, for ex- boundaries because of its low solubility in
ample, the retained austenite in alloy steels. Those austenite, and it forms a low-strength film with a
with carbon above 0.02% would eventually break low melting temperature. This causes poor hot
down into austenite plus carbides, and those with workability and hot cracking of welds.
less than about 30% chromium plus nickel will The diffusion rates in austenite are quite low
form martensite if deformed sufficiently. But in compared to ferrite, so even interstitial elements
the annealed state, the austenite in standard cannot move quickly enough to precipitate below
austenitic stainless steels will remain indefinitely about 400 °C (750 °F). This permits carbon and
as fully austenitic without precipitates unless nitrogen to exist in very high degrees of supersat-
heated above 400 °C (750 °C) for protracted peri- uration if introduced below this temperature, as
ods of time or deformed extensively. is done by various proprietary processes. The
Interstitial elements are much more soluble in low diffusion rates restrict such colossally super-
austenite than in ferrite. Of these, only nitrogen saturated zones to thin surface layers, but they
is considered a beneficial alloying element. It can reach phenomenal hardness of over Rc 70.
both strengthens and improves the pitting corro- The austenite structure does not discourage the
sion resistance of austenite. Carbon has a paral- formation of intermetallic compounds such as
lel effect, but its tendency to form chromium sigma, but it does, fortunately, make their forma-
carbides limits its use and in fact leads to its tion very sluggish, as seen in Fig. 4. The differ-
minimization in most alloys. Before the AOD ence of three orders of magnitude for carbide
was developed and carbon levels in stainless formation reflects the difference between the dif-
steels were higher, austenitic stainless steels fusion of carbon and that of substitutional ele-
were sometimes stabilized by titanium or nio- ments. The formation of sigma in ferrite is about
bium to counter the effects of carbon. Both car- 100 times faster than in austenite. Sigma is al-
bon and nitrogen stabilize the austenite phase, most never seen in commercial 316 alloys.
permitting lower levels of nickel to be used in
austenitic alloys.
Interstitial atoms of carbon and nitrogen dis-
tort the fcc lattice, causing it to expand about
1% linearly per 1 wt% of solute (Fig. 3) (Ref 2).
This produces solid solution hardening of the
austenite. The work hardening of austenite is in-
creased by nitrogen. A third interstitial solute,
hydrogen, produces the same effect but to a
lesser degree. Austenite is not embrittled by hy-
drogen to the extent ferrite or martensite is, but
hydrogen does raise its flow stress and hardness
while lowering its work-hardening rate.
Sulfur and oxygen are considered impurities
because they form inclusions, usually chrome/
manganese silicates and sulfides. If present in
sufficient amounts, sulfur and oxygen precipitate
as primary inclusions before or during solidifica-
tion. In most austenitic stainless alloys, the re-
mainder of these elements are near saturation in
the as-solidified ferrite at very high temperatures Fig. 3 Lattice expansions due to carbon. Source: Ref 2
Chapter 1: Metallurgy / 7
The mechanical properties of austenite are The physical properties of austenite com-
quite different from those of ferrite. Austenite is pared to ferrite include lower thermal and elec-
characterized by: trical conductivity and greater thermal expan-
sion. It is also, of course, nonmagnetic.
• Low stacking fault energies leading to high
work-hardening rates
• Good toughness even at very low tempera- Martensite
tures Martensite is a phase that forms from the dif-
• Low notch sensitivity fusionless shear of austenite to a distorted cubic
• Lack of a sharp elastic limit or hexagonal structure. This transformation can
• Good high-temperature strength occur spontaneously on cooling or isothermally
• Fairly isotropic mechanical properties with externally applied deformation. It is essen-
tially ferrite that has been formed with a super-
While there is not a great deal of difference saturation of carbon. The resulting structure is
in the yield strengths of austenitic and ferritic very fine and highly faulted, making it quite
alloys of similar alloy levels, austenitic alloys hard. As in carbon steel, the hardness of the
are more ductile, have high work-hardening martensite increases dramatically with intersti-
rates, and therefore have higher tensile tial content because of the huge strain intersti-
strengths. Austenite can be cold worked to ex- tial elements impose on the bcc lattice, distort-
tremely high strengths, around a maximum of ing it into tetragonality.
2000 MPa (290 ksi). Chapter 3, “Austenitic Martensite in stainless steels is restricted to
Stainless Steels,” gives a more thorough and alloy levels at which austenite can form at
quantitative treatment of the mechanical prop- higher temperatures but at which the austenite is
erties of austenite. unstable at ambient temperatures. This gives
In duplex stainless steels, a secondary austen- martensite a fairly narrow composition range.
ite, γ2, can form from ferrite below 650 °C The lowest alloy level is that of the basic 12%
(1200 °F). At this temperature, it has the same chromium steels with 0.1 to 0.2% carbon. The
composition as the ferrite from which it forms most highly alloyed martensites are found in the
and is called type 1. In the 650 to 800 °C (1200 precipitation-hardening grades. Thus, marten-
to 1470 °F) range, a range that can be encoun- sitic stainless steels are inherently limited in
tered in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) at γ/δ corrosion resistance to a level no better than a
boundaries during welding, another type forms. 17 or 18% chromium alloy and often barely
This so-called secondary austenite, γ2, type 2, is qualify as stainless after the chromium tied up
somewhat enriched in nickel over the ferrite as chromium carbide is recognized as not con-
from which it forms but poorer in nitrogen than tributing to the corrosion resistance.
the primary austenite, giving it poorer corrosion The as-formed martensite to the degree it has
resistance. Secondary austenite can also coform significant carbon content is hard and requires
with sigma as γ/δ grain boundaries are depleted tempering to give it adequate toughness. The
of chromium. This secondary austenite is called tempering reaction is the precipitation of car-
type 3 and is also poor in chromium. bon in the form of carbides with the concurrent
loss of internal strain in the martensite lattice.
The complexities of tempering require its dis-
cussion in detail to be found in Chapter 3,
“Martensitic Stainless Steels.” It is worth noting,
however, that all tempering involves carbide for-
mation, thus losing some corrosion-fighting
chromium.
There are two forms of martensite, the ε, ep-
silon, and the α', alpha prime. Epsilon is formed
in steels with low stacking fault energy, which
are primarily the leaner austenitic alloys. Thus, it
forms at cryogenic temperatures or by cold
working. It appears in martensitic alloys of the
precipitation-hardening type. It is nonmagnetic,
Fig. 4 Precipitation kinetics in 316 stainless steel. Source: Ref 3 has a hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure,
8 / Stainless Steels for Design Engineers
higher diffusion rate of alloy elements in ferrite. The precipitation of the carbide from ferrite
This makes it a much larger issue in superfer- occurs at grain boundaries, is extremely rapid,
ritic and duplex alloys, which have high and cannot be suppressed by quenching. Less
chromium and/or molybdenum levels. Chapter than 20 ppm carbon content is required to pre-
7, “Duplex Stainless Steels,” contains an in- vent its precipitation from ferrite, although up
depth discussion of sigma. to 50 ppm can be effectively kept in solution by
Chi. Chi, χ, is similar to sigma except it con- very vigorous quenching. From austenite, car-
tains more molybdenum and less chromium and bide precipitation occurs below about 900 °C
has a cubic structure. It can coexist with sigma (1650 °F) for carbon levels under 0.10% and at
and forms in the same temperature range. It also 650 °C (1200 °F) for carbon levels below
precipitates at ferrite-austenite boundaries and 0.03%. For practical purposes, precipitation
has the same deleterious effects. ceases below 500 °C (930 °F) due to the slow-
Laves Phase. The laves phase has the struc- ing diffusion of carbon. While carbon is essen-
ture A2B where A is iron or chromium and B is tially insoluble in austenite at room tempera-
molybdenum, niobium, titanium, or silicon. It ture, quenching can easily preserve up to 0.10%
forms at 550 to 650 °C (1020 to 1200 °F) over in supersaturation, as is commonly seen in type
the course of hours. Thus, although its effect 301 stainless.
would be deleterious, it seldom becomes a prac- The carbide precipitation occurs first at grain
tical problem. It is possible for it to form at tem- boundaries. The chromium that combines with
peratures below sigma and above alpha prime, the carbon comes from the matrix in the imme-
but the long times for formation make it rare. diate vicinity and therefore decreases the
chromium content of that region, giving rise to
Carbides, Nitrides, Precipitation Hardening, the phenomenon of sensitization, which comes
from the original phrase “sensitization to inter-
and Inclusions
granular corrosion.” Nickel and molybdenum
Carbon and nitrogen are very important in all decrease the solubility of carbon and thus accel-
steels, but they take on a special significance in erate the precipitation. Nitrogen retards precipi-
stainless steel because chromium, the essential tation. Cold work accelerates precipitation. The
alloying element of stainless steel, reacts more carbide has a hardness of about Rc 72. This
vigorously with carbon and nitrogen than iron makes the phase a useful constituent in wear
does. Except for its role in hardening martensite resistance in martensitic alloys.
and strengthening austenite at high tempera- In higher carbon grades such as the marten-
tures, carbon is almost universally a detrimental sitic stainless alloys, additional, more carbon-
impurity from a corrosion point of view and is rich, carbides may form. These include M7C3
minimized. Its beneficial effect on corrosion re- and M3C. The latter carbide forms during the
sistance when it is in solution is negligible low-temperature tempering of martensite, while
because so little of it can be held in solution. the former precipitates at higher temperatures.
Nitrogen has a lesser tendency to form com- Stabilizing carbides are those that are formed
pounds with chromium, so it is considered a by the intentional addition of elements such as
beneficial alloying element in austenite but not titanium and niobium. These elements form car-
in ferrite, in which it has essentially zero solu- bides of the type MC (metal carbide). The car-
bility. Common carbide and nitride precipitating bon in these compounds may be replaced by ni-
phases are also listed in Table 1. trogen or, in the case of titanium, sulfur. These
Carbides. M23C6 is the main carbide found in carbides form preferentially over chromium car-
stainless steel. Its structure is orthorhombic, and bides and thus prevent sensitization. They pre-
it contains both iron and chromium. It can form cipitate in both the liquid and solid states. In the
at any temperature at which the host austenite or solid state, the precipitate normally forms within
ferrite becomes saturated with carbon. It is grains. The Ti(CN) appears as a cube of gold
mainly chromium carbide, but iron can substitute TiN surrounded by gray TiC. The Nb(C,N) is
for chromium up to about 50%. Other elements, less regularly shaped. They affect mechanical
such as tungsten, vanadium, and molybdenum, properties in ferrite both by their influence on
can also dissolve in this carbide. The ratio of recrystallization and by their ability to act as nu-
chromium to iron in the carbide increases with cleation sites for brittle fracture
time and temperature, as chromium diffusion Nitrides. At low levels, nitrogen can substi-
permits, up to a maximum of 4 or 5 to 1. tute for carbon in M23C6. At higher nitrogen
10 / Stainless Steels for Design Engineers
levels, Cr2N can form. This can occur in duplex tal as inclusions have been shown to be the initi-
alloys if they are heated to a solution annealing ation sites for corrosion pits, which have been
temperature at which the alloy has high solubil- linked to both their sulfur ions disrupting the
ity for nitrogen. Cooling from these tempera- passive layer and their chromium content caus-
tures can cause the excess nitrogen to precipi- ing slight local chromium depletion.
tate as needles of Cr2N. Another nitride CrN
can form in HAZs of welds.
Precipitation-Hardening Phases. Phases
that have a very similar lattice match to the par- Properties of Stainless Steels
ent phase can precipitate coherently, that is,
without changing the continuity of the crystal Physical and mechanical properties of repre-
lattice. In these cases, the slight mismatch sentative stainless steel alloys are summarized
causes a strain that can significantly restrict dis- in Appendix 2. Properties are also discussed in
location movement and thereby strengthen the chapters specific to each alloy family. The
matrix. One such precipitate is gamma prime, reader is referred to primary sources, such as
an intermetallic, ordered, fcc phase with the company web sites, such as Ref 4 and 5.
composition Ni3(AlTi). Copper forms the ep-
silon phase, essentially pure copper, which
causes precipitation hardening. The secondary REFERENCES
hardening of martensite due to the precipitation
of molybdenum nitride or carbide is also a pre- 1. D.J. Kotecki, Welding of Stainless Steels,
cipitation-hardening reaction. Welding, Brazing, and Soldering, Vol 6,
Inclusions. Inclusions are principally oxides ASM Handbook, ASM International, 1993,
and sulfides that form in the melt (type I), at the p 677–707
end of solidification (type II), or in the solid 2. G.E. Totten, M. Narazaki, R.R. Black-
(type III). Type I inclusions are the largest and wood, and L.M. Jarvis, Failures Related to
are globular. Except when they are deliberately Heat Treating Operations, Vol 11 ASM
kept to improve machinability, they are physi- Handbook, ASM International, 2002, p
cally removed by various steelmaking practices. 192–223
Type II inclusions form in interdendritic spaces 3. High Performance Stainless Steels, Refer-
as the solubility of oxygen and sulfur drop on ence Book Series 11 021, Nickel Develop-
solidification. Type III inclusions precipitate the ment Institute, p 16
remaining oxygen and sulfur, up to 100 ppm for 4. ASM Handbook, Vol 1, Properties and
normal manganese-silicon killed stainless Selection, ASM International, 1990
steels, in the solid state either on preexisting in- 5. ASM Speciality Handbook, Stainless Steels,
clusions or as micron-size particles. Inclusions ASM International, 1996
are mainly oxides and sulfides of silicon and
manganese. If more reactive elements, such as
aluminum or titanium, are present, their oxides SELECTED REFERENCES
and sulfides can also be present.
Sulfides and oxysulfides can be beneficial for • D.J. Kotecki and T.A. Siewert, WRC 1992
machining as solid-state lubricants and chip Constitution Diagram, Welding Journal, Vol
breakers. Otherwise, their presence is detrimen- 5, 1992, p 171s–178s