S A I P C A N S: Participant Module PEW-105.04

PARTICIPANT MODULE PEW-105.
04
SAUDI ARAMCO
INSPECTION OF PRIMER COATING
FOR APPLICATION TO NEW STEEL
WARNING: The training materials contained in this manual are the

property of the Saudi Arabian Oil Company (Saudi Aramco) and are
intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco employees enrolled
in advanced inspection training courses. Any material contained in
this manual which is not already in the public domain, may not be
copied, reproduced, sold, given or disclosed to third parties, or
otherwise used, in whole or in part, for purposes other than for use
in Saudi Aramco’s Professional Engineering and Development Unit
courses without the prior written permission of the Chief Engineer
of Saudi Aramco.
PEW-105.04 PARTICIPANT REVISION
DATE REVISION DESCRIPTION PAGE(S) AFFECTED
12/00 COMPLETE REVISION

ALL
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PEW-105.04 PARTICIPANT TABLE OF CONTENTS
MODULE COMPONENT
Objectives
Coating Material Components and their Functions
Exercise 1. Components of Coatings:

Pigments
Exercise 2. Components of Coatings:
Vehicle
Curing Mechanisms and Coating Types
Exercise 3. Curing Mechanisms for
Coatings
Work Aid 1. Curing Mechanisms for

Coatings
Linings 32
Powder Coatings
Pipeline Coatings
Exercise 4. Coating Types

Coating Systems
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Coatings and the Inspector
Exercise 5. Using Saudi Aramco Data
Sheets to Obtain Data on Primer
Coatings
Exercise 6. Using Manufacturer’s Data
Sheets to Obtain Data on Primer
Coatings
Inspection of Primer coat Material
Exercise 7. Viscosity of a Coating
Work Aid 2.Check Viscosity with the Zahn
Cup
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PEW-105.04 PARTICIPANT TABLE OF CONTENTS
Exercise 8. Calculate Coverage of Coatings
Wet Film Thickness

Exercise 9. Calculate Wet Film Thickness
Inspecting Application Equipment
Inspecting Primer Coat Application
Work Aid 3.Recognize and Remedy Faulty
Spray Patterns (Conventional
Spray)
Work Aid 4.Recognize and Remedy Faulty
Spray Patterns (Airless Spray)
Completing Quality Control Forms
Work Aid 5. In-Process Inspection Form for
Primer Coat Inspection
Work Aid 6. Paints/Coatings and Equipment
Log for Primer Coat Inspection
Glossary
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PEW-105.04 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
OBJECTIVES
Terminal Objective
Upon completion of this module, the participant will be able to
inspect internal and external primer coat applications on new
steel, using the proper tools, forms, coating material samples and
Manufacturer’s Data Sheets, following the applicable Aramco and
industry standards, procedures and instructions.
Enabling Objectives
In order to accomplish the Terminal Objective, the participant will
be able to do the following:
 Explain the functions of the coating material components.
 Identify the characteristics, curing methods and inspection
points of primer coatings.
 Calculate the wet film thickness.
 Measure the wet film thickness.
 Ensure the proper operation and use of the coating
application equipment.
 Inspect the primer coat application, using the inspection
checklist.
 Inspect health and safety precautions, using the inspection
checklist.
Note: This training material has been developed using the

latest available versions of applicable Saudi Aramco and
industry standards. However, these documents are
regularly updated; therefore, it is the responsibility of the
inspector to ensure that he is conducting his inspections
according to the latest versions of these documents.
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INTRODUCTION
Purpose
The purpose of this module is to prepare the Saudi Aramco
Inspector to perform a primer coat inspection for coating of new
steel.
Scope
This module is the third in a series on the inspection procedures
for coating new steel. This module covers only primer coat
application inspection. It does not include maintenance coatings
or specialized coatings such as tape wrap or heat shrink sleeves.
The ability to inspect the primer coat application is as important
as surface preparation. The entire coating system depends upon
the primer coat. Primer coats are the basis of corrosion
resistance and control Inspection of the primer coat application
is as important as inspection of the surface preparation.
Application
The Saudi Aramco Coating Inspector will be required to use the
checklists and inspection plans explained during this course. The
Inspection Section provides these checklists and plans. The
inspector will be required to use the measurements and
instruments taught in this module to determine viscosity, wet film
thickness and coating coverage. Calculations of wet film
thickness will be required. The inspector must ensure the safety
of the personnel and equipment when the coating is applied. He
must also ensure the quality of the coating as a finished product.
This quality is achieved mainly through the rigorous application
of the principles of coating inspection taught in these modules.
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COATING MATERIAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

A coating is a clear or pigmented film-forming liquid, which
protects the surface to which it is applied to from the effects of
the environment. Coatings consist of two major components:
 Pigment
 Vehicle
Pigments
A pigment is defined as a "discrete particulate solid" used to
impart specific protective or decorative qualities to the coating.
Pigments do not dissolve in a material; they remain solid,
individual particles whether in the liquid coating or the solid film.
Pigments must be thoroughly wet with the binder to function
properly in a coating. Each particle of pigment must be
surrounded by a layer of binder resin. If too much pigment is
added to a particular binder, the pigment will not be covered
completely by the binder. The result is a porous flat film with
little strength. Each pigment varies in wetting characteristics.
Hundreds of pigments are available and the properties of the
different pigments vary with manufacturers, type of manufacture,
etc. While some pigments are more dangerous than others, all
pigments should be regarded as hazardous and proper safety
precautions taken to avoid ingestion or inhalation.
Pigment Functions
Pigments are added to coating for a number of reasons,
including:
 to provide rust inhibiting characteristics
 to decrease the permeability of the film
 to hide the color / or provide color
 to protect the film from the effects of ultraviolet light and
weather
 to provide mechanical reinforcement for the coating film
 to perform other functions including:
 self cleaning and controlled chalking
 decrease gloss and to increase the bond of
subsequent coats
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 assist in drying the coating binder

 to provide certain desired finishes such as metallic
luster
 to aid in the storage properties of coatings
 to increase body consistency so that thicker films
may be applied
 to provide galvanic properties and allow sacrificial
protection
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(CONT’D)
Pigments (Cont’d)
Pigment Functions (Cont’d)

Several pigments may be used in the same coating to gain the
necessary qualities. However, improper use of pigments in
coatings can destroy corrosion-resistance properties.
Hiding Ability
The pigment must be thick enough to cover the substrate
completely. No metal can show after the coating is applied. There
must be no holes and voids in the coating. The pigment will also
hide the previous coat. The second coat must always be
compatible with the first coat and should be a different color.
Gloss Control
Gloss control refers to how the pigment affects the surface
texture. The texture of the coating is determined by the size of
the pigment particles. Smaller particles produce a smooth
texture; larger particles produce a rough texture. This causes the
difference in the appearance of high gloss varnish and flat finish
coating.
Color
The coating will absorb or reflect light according to which
pigment is selected. Light-colored coatings reflect light; dark-
colored coatings absorb light. The color is chosen depending on
the coating’s function.
Pigments are chosen with caution; many greatly reduce the basic
binder’s resistance to corrosion. White pigments such as titanium
dioxide and black pigments such as lamp black are inert and
have some chemical resistance qualities; they are excellent in
corrosion-resistant coatings.
Inorganics such as iron oxide pigments have very good corrosion-
resistant properties and are widely used when the proper colors
can be found. The color may not be as clean as some organic
pigments.
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Protection of Resin Binders

The sun’s ultraviolet rays can cause resinous binders to break
down. Pigments serve to protect the binder by absorbing or
reflecting the ultraviolet rays.
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(CONT’D)
Pigments (Cont’d)
Pigment Functions (Cont’d)
Corrosion Resistance and Inhibition

Pigments may be chosen for their corrosion-inhibiting
characteristics. Some of these pigments directly resist the
chemicals that attack the coating. Others, such as metallic zinc,
resist the environmental elements by providing cathodic
protection.
Pigment Classes
Pigments can be divided into four classes:
 Color pigments
 Reinforcing pigments
 Inhibiting pigments
 Metallic pigments
Color Pigments
These pigments provide color and decoration to ordinary paints.
Color pigments in corrosion-resistant coatings provide protection
from environmental conditions and chemicals.
Reinforcing Pigments
These pigments are also called extender pigments because they
make the coating cover a larger area. They also help reduce the
cost of coatings. Inorganic pigments, a type of reinforcing
pigment, are corrosion-resistant and are often used in corrosion-
resistant coatings.
Inhibiting Pigments
These pigments are the most important in primers. They are
normally used in primer or first coats. These pigments react with
the moisture absorbed by the coating to form ions. The ions react
to the substrate to make it more corrosion-resistant.
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(CONT’D)
Pigments Classes(Cont’d)
Metallic Pigments
These pigments are listed separately because they have unique
properties. They are usually metal flakes or flat platelets; zinc
dust is an exception. The flake-like structure reinforces the
binder.
Leafing pigments are a type of metallic pigment. The particles of
leafing pigments overlap like roof shingles. This shingle effect
reduces the moisture-vapor transfer rate through the coating; it
also prevents ultraviolet rays from penetrating into the binder.
Pigment Shapes
The shape of pigments is an important characteristic, which can
influence the physical properties of the coating.
Nodular pigments
Nodular pigments are lump-shaped and are generally used to add
color, (such as titanium dioxide) or are sacrificial (such as
metallic zinc).
Acicular (needle-shaped) pigments

Acicular (needle-shaped) pigments such as zinc oxide or glass
fibers are used to reinforce and strengthen the coating film, as
well as provide coloring.
Lamellar or plate-like pigments

Lamellar or plate-like pigments such as aluminum flake, and
micaceous iron oxide, overlap when the coating dries, increasing
the degree to which the coating is impermeable to moisture.
Figure 1 shows pigment shapes.
8

(CONT’D)
Pigment Shapes (Cont’d)
Figure 1. Pigment shapes
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EXERCISE 1. COMPONENTS OF COATINGS: PIGMENTS

Refer to the Information Sheet, any appropriate Addendum and
your peers to complete this Exercise.
1. Lamellar pigments are:

a) round
b) acicular
c) nodular
d) plate shaped
2. Pigments are added to coatings to:

a) provide rust inhibition
b) provide mechanical reinforcement
c) decrease the permeability of the film
d) all of the above
3. Pigments are used in coatings to add:

a) corrosion resistance
b) hiding ability
c) color
d) all of the above
4. An extender pigment is classified as a:

a) leafing pigment b) metallic pigment
c) reinforcing pigment d) color pigment
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EXERCISE 1. COMPONENTS OF COATINGS: PIGMENTS (CONT’D)
5. refers to how the pigment affects the surface

texture.
a) Hiding ability
b) Gloss control
c) Corrosion resistance
d) Adhesion
6. Pigments are solid grains of material:

a) that do not dissolve in the binder
b) that will be left in the film along with other solids when
the coating dries
c) that must be thoroughly wetted with the binder to
function properly in a coating
d) all of the above
7. What will happen if too much pigment is added to a

particular binder?
8. Give an example of a particular pigment that provides

corrosion
resistance.
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(CONT’D)
Vehicle
The vehicle consists of binders (resins) with solvents and
additives. It is basically the liquid portion of the coating and can
be divided into two sub-groups:
 Non-volatile, film forming (binder)
 Volatile solvents
Binder
The name given to a coating is that of its principal resin; epoxy
and vinyl for examples. Just about the only time this is not the
case is when primers also use the name of the pigmentation such
as is the case for zinc-rich epoxy and red lead. Resins may be
natural organic materials or synthetic materials. Most resins
require the addition of solvent to aid application.
In order to create a protective coating film on a substrate, the
binder resins must convert from a pliant liquid form (which allows
application), to a cohesive solid form, which adheres to and
protects the surface. It is this capability to change from one form
to the other that identifies the resins suitable for use as a
coatings binder.
To be suitable for use as a binder in corrosion resistant
protective coatings, the binder should:
 Have good wetting and adhesion properties
 Resist water vapor and oxygen transmission
 Tolerate variation in application processes
 Resist chemical and physical change in their service
environment
 Dry within an acceptable period to prevent surface
contamination
In the coating selection process, the most critical decision is
probably the choice of binder.
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(CONT’D)
Vehicle (Cont’d)
Solvents
Almost all coatings contain solvents. Solvents are added to
coatings for a number of reasons:
 To make a solution of resin to allow its use as a coating
vehicle. Many synthetic resins are solids. This is added at
the factory during manufacturing, it is called solvent.
 To permit easier application of the coating. When added in
the field, the solvent is referred to as thinner. Solvents or
solvent blends are carefully balanced to promote an
evenness of the applied film. There is generally a maximum
amount of solvent that should be used for each particular
formulation of coating, depending on the method of
application and the application conditions.
The amount of solvent used in a coating will vary with the type of
resin and the application procedure. The quantity of solvent may
vary from perhaps several percent by weight of the vehicle, as in
the case of some high solids epoxy coatings, to roughly 75% by
weight of the vehicle in some vinyl coatings.
The volatile content is expressed in terms of either weight or
volume percent of the vehicle. When calculated on the basis of
volume percent, the percent of solvent becomes very important in
the coating because of its low density. It may vary from 50% to
90% by volume of the total coating for vinyl type coatings, while
for some high solids epoxy coatings it may be only 5% to 10%.
The addition of solvents to a coating at the application stage will
decrease the viscosity and the wet film thickness, which will, in
turn, lead to a decrease in dry film thickness due to the thinning.
Solvents have two major characteristics, which influence their
use in coatings. These are:
 Solvency power - The ability to dissolve other chemical
compounds such as resins
 Evaporation rate - The speed at which the solvent will leave
the coating
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Each of these factors is important in the choice of solvents

(usually a blend) for a particular coating type. As the Coating
Inspector, you shall allow only the solvent specified in the coating
specification to be used. The manufacturers determine the
thinners for their particular products. The correct thinner is listed
in the Saudi Aramco Data Sheet. Permission to use a different
solvent must be authorized by CSD and in cooperation with the
Coating Manufacturer.
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(CONT’D)
Vehicle (Cont’d)
Solvents (Cont’d)
One of the more spectacular things that may occur if the wrong
type of solvent is used is "solution kickout," which is the
separation of the resin from the volatile content of the coating. If
this occurs, the coating should not be used.
Solvent Safety
The flash point of a solvent is the lowest temperature at which
enough vapors, of the solvent will be present above the liquid to
be ignited by an ignition source such as a flame. In addition to
open flames, sources of ignition can include static electric
sparks, sparks from nails in shoes, sparks from grinding
operations, lit cigarettes, and many others.
The lower the flash point, the greater the amount of vapors
released from the liquid and the greater the risk of vapor ignition.
It could be said that the lower the flash point of a solvent, the
more highly flammable that solvent is.
The Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) is the lowest percentage solvent
vapor in air that can be ignited. The Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
is the highest percentage of solvent in air that can be ignited.
Solvent Health Hazards

While some solvents are more immediately and directly
hazardous to your health than others, all solvents present a
health hazard and should be handled accordingly. Approved
breathing equipment and protective clothing should be used at all
times, but particularly when handling solvents or when working
in enclosed areas.
Some terms you may hear when solvent safety is discussed
include:
Threshold Limit Value (TLV) - A concentration of airborne material
allowed by the pertinent safety regulation, which can be inhaled
for a period of time by workers.
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Threshold Limit Value/Time Weighted Average (TLV/TWA) - Time

weighted average concentration for a stated working period such
as an eight hour day or forty hour week.
Threshold Limit Value/Short Term Exposure Limit (TLV/STEL) -
Maximum concentration to which workers can be exposed to for
15 minutes.
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(CONT’D)
Additives (Miscellaneous Components)
Additives (sometimes called modifiers) are put into the coatings
to enhance the other ingredients. They provide some quality not
supplied by the other ingredients or a compound not present in
sufficient amount for the required use. These components are
usually used in small quantities and seldom exceed 1 to 2
percent of the total coating material.
The most common additives are drying agents added to oil-based
paint to speed the drying time. These dryers are catalysts for
oxidizing film formers. Other additives include wetting agents
that help disperse the pigment during manufacturing and
defoamers that help break up foam during mixing, agitation and
application. Biological inhibitors, used to prevent the growth of
fungi on coatings, are also common additives.
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EXERCISE 2. COMPONENTS OF COATINGS: VEHICLE
1. What does the vehicle consist of?
2. What types of materials do resins come from?
3. What properties must the binder have in order to be suitable

for
protective coatings?
4. What are the reasons for adding solvents to coatings?
5. What happens to coating viscosity when solvents are

added?
6. Explain the term “solution kickout.”
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CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES

The curing mechanism is the way a coating goes from a liquid to
a solid state. It is important to the Coating Inspector since it is
the inspector's job to verify that each coating applied has cured
properly, prior to the application of further coatings.
The coatings industry refers to two basic types of cured coatings
as:
 Non-convertible
 Convertible
Non-convertible coatings cure solely by the evaporation of the
solvent. The resins used in non-convertible coatings do not
change chemically when the coating cures and are resoluble in
the solvent originally used to dissolve the resin.
Convertible coatings cure principally by one of several types of
polymerization, although evaporation may also be involved. The
resins used in convertible coatings undergo a chemical change
when the coating cures, and are not easily resoluble in the
solvents originally used in application.
Thus coatings cure by one or by a combination of the following:
 Solvent Evaporation
 Coalescence/Evaporation
 Polymerization
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CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES (CONT’D)

Non-Convertible
Solvent Evaporation Coatings

Coatings, which cure solely by solvent evaporation are made by
dissolving a resin in a solvent. For example, when one of these
materials is applied, it cures by simple evaporation of the solvent.
The resin remains unchanged and can be re-dissolved by its
original hydrocarbon solvent, no matter how old the cured film is.
An evaporation type coating should not be topcoated with a
different type of coating containing a strong solvent. The topcoat
solvent may attack the base coating causing it to re-dissolve.
Evaporation type coatings may be applied over a different type of
base coat such as a vinyl topcoat applied over an epoxy base
coat.
Since all the solvent must evaporate for the coating to be
properly cured, evaporation type coatings should not be applied
too thickly. If applied too thickly, the coating will have solvent
trapped within the film. These trapped solvents will ultimately
become voids as the solvent escapes and will be a weakness in
the coating.
When used in a multiple-coat system, these types of coatings
fuse together, forming a single solid film, rather than layered film.
The ease of maintenance coating is considered to be a major
advantage of these coatings.
Solvent evaporation coatings are generally considered to retain
more of their initial properties unless chemical changes take
place such as the effects of ultraviolet light.
Coatings in Saudi Aramco which cure by solvent evaporation
include:
 Chlorinated Rubber
 Bitumen/Coal Tar
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Non-Convertible (Cont’d)
Solvent Evaporation Coatings (Cont’d)
Chlorinated Rubber
Chlorinated rubber coatings are especially resistant to alkalis
and acids and generally have good water and chemical
resistance. They have good intercoat adhesion, provided the
previous surface has not been contaminated. Solvents are slow
to evaporate from chlorinated rubber coatings. Taking dry film
thickness measurements may be a problem due to soft film.
These types of coatings are used in chemical plants, water
treatment plants or wherever resistance to water, acid or alkali is
required. Chlorinated rubber coatings have poor resistance to
animal and vegetable oils and fats. Chlorinated rubber coatings
have poor resistance to aromatic solvents, esters and ketones.
They have limited heat resistance and will deteriorate if exposed
to temperatures in excess of 65°C for prolonged periods. APCS – 9
is a Chlorinated Rubber coating.
Tar/Bitumen/Asphalt
This is a very broad range of materials ranging from solvents cut
of asphalt to a rubber-modified, pigmented, highly refined,
emulsified coal tar. These are traditional coating materials,
which have been widely used throughout the world. The three
words tar, bitumen and asphalt have become more or less
interchangeable unless discussing:
 Blown asphalt, which is modified by blowing compressed air
through the heated liquid product
 Coal tar, which is a byproduct of coal processing
Advantages of these coatings include very easy to use, low cost,
ability to build heavy coats, excellent resistance to water.
Limitations of these coatings include limited adhesion, very
toxic, and they are thermoplastic. Some tar-based coatings can
be very irritating to the skin. Contact with tar-based coatings
should generally be avoided.
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These types of coatings can be used on pipelines, water tanks

and buried structures. APCS – 10 is a Bituminous Coating.
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Non-Convertible (Cont’d)
Coalescence/Evaporation Coatings
Coalescence is a special case of evaporation. In these types of
coatings tiny particles of resin are encapsulated in a soap-like
material and then dispersed in water, which dilutes it, unlike a
true solvent. This is known as emulsion.
When the water evaporates, the resin particles fuse together
(coalesce) forming a stable coating film. While these coatings,
once cured, will not re-dissolve in water, they may dissolve in
strong solvent.
Several items of particular concern when emulsion coatings are
being used include: Prevent exposure to moisture such as dew,
rain or spray before the coating is fully cured. This may cause
streaking, wash-off, running and inadequate protection of the
substrate. Liquid components exposed to freezing temperatures
during shipment, storage and/or application. Freezing can disrupt
the emulsion and cause separation of the coating components. If
this occurs, the coating may be impossible to mix and cannot be
applied.
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Convertible
Polymerization-Cured Coatings
Polymerization is a chemical reaction in which, a compound is
formed from the joining of many similar chemical groups called
monomers. The major characteristics of monomers are:
 They are inherently stable
 They are capable of linking together chemically
The joining together of monomers within a resin is the process
called polymerization and is the most common curing method of
paint coatings. When one monomer joins another, we have a di-
mer; when another monomer joins, we have a tri-mer and so on.
When we have a group of monomers chemically joined, the result
is a polymer (poly- meaning many). Polymerization may take
place to form long-chain molecules (one dimension linking) or a
more complex three-dimensional molecule (cross-linking). The
end-result of such cross-linking is a rigid, three-dimensional
molecular structure formed as a coating film on the substrate.
The more effective the cross-linking polymerization process is,
the stronger and the more chemical-resistant the cured resin
becomes.
The three main types of polymerization are:
 Oxygen-induced
 Chemically-induced
 Heat-induced
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Convertible (Cont’d)
Oxygen-Induced Polymerization Coatings

These types of coatings form a solid film by a polymerization
process called oxidative cross-linking using the oxygen in the air.
There may be some evaporation because some solvent is usually
added for ease of application. Heat is sometimes applied to
speed up the curing process.
The main ingredients in many oxidation type coatings are
vegetable oils, dehydrated castor oil and fish oils. Film formation
depends on the oil reacting with oxygen to form a cross-linked
structure. Since the oxygen in the air can only enter the film at
the surface, there is a limit to the wet film thickness that can be
applied. This should generally not be greater than 45-75 microns.
If the wet film thickness is greater than this, the oxygen may not
completely penetrate to the bottom of the wet film, resulting in a
situation in which the film is solid at the top and liquid at the
bottom. This can cause the film to pucker and wrinkle at the top
and take a very long time to turn into a solid at the bottom.
Because film formation depends on oxygen in the air entering the
wet film and reacting with the oil, curing can take a considerable
amount of time. In order to speed up the reaction between the oil
and oxygen, small amounts of driers are added during
manufacturing. The usual driers are cobalt, lead, and manganese
compounds. Like all chemical reactions, the speed of the reaction
is increased with an increase in temperature and an increased
flow of air over the surface
Manufacturers of oxidation-type coatings usually add a small
amount of a material to stop the oxygen reaction while the
coating is stored in the can. This is usually effective only while
the can is full and only for a stated “shelf life.” If some of the
coating is removed and the can resealed, the coating will react
with oxygen in the can to form a solid film skin on the top of the
remaining coating. This must be entirely removed and the
coating strained before the coating is used.
The oils used in oxidation-type coatings react with alkali to form
soap, a process known as saponification. Oxidation type coatings
are generally not suitable for use in conditions where severe
corrosion may be encountered as they may saponify the coating
25
and cause it to become detached. Oxidation-type coatings are

not suitable for application on new concrete.
26

Oxygen-Induced Polymerization Coatings (Cont’d)

When oxidation-type coatings dry, they can be attacked by strong
solvents, such as acetone, methyl ethyl ketone and ethyl acetate.
These solvents will cause the film to swell and wrinkle.
Therefore, it is generally not recommended to overcoat an
oxidation type coating with a coating that contains strong
solvents such as the vinyls, epoxies, etc.
Coatings in Saudi Aramco which cure by oxidation include:
 Alkyds
 Epoxy Ester
Alkyd Coatings
Alkyd coatings are oil-modified resins that dry to a tough hard
film. The proportion of oil used will determine whether the alkyd
is termed “long-oil” or “short-oil.” Alkyds are used for making
moderately fast drying enamels for both interior and exterior
industrial coatings. They may be modified with many other resin
types, such as phenolic, urethane or silicone. The choice of
modifying resin will affect the final physical properties of the
coating. Like other coatings, which cure by oxidative
polymerization, alkyds should not be used directly on concrete
surfaces except over an alkali resisting primer or sealer.
The advantages of alkyds are excellent exterior durability,
excellent flexibility, easily applied and maintained, good
appearance and gloss retention and low cost. The limitations are
poor chemical and solvent resistance, fair water resistance,
limited heat resistance and low wet film thickness. APCS – 4, 6
and 7 are Alkyd coatings.
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Oxygen-Induced Polymerization Coatings (Cont’d)
Epoxy Esters
Epoxy esters are epoxy resins modified with oil to produce a one
package coating that cures by oxidative polymerization. They are
neither as hard nor chemically resistant as two component
epoxies. They do have an intermediate degree of chemical
resistance and can be used on areas subjected to occasional
spillage of chemicals. They are easily applied and offer some
abrasion resistance. Epoxy esters have poor gloss and color
retention and are low film build. Since they do not require use of
a catalyst, they are one package systems and do not have a pot
life restriction like two-component epoxies. These can be
furnished for wide range of application methods and are typically
used as primers for APCS 4 and 6.
Chemically-Induced Polymerization Coatings

This type of curing occurs when the resin is activated by a
converter or a catalyst. This includes the familiar two-package
coating. Coatings that cure by chemically induced polymerization
include:
 Two Component Epoxy
 Coal Tar Epoxy
 Epoxy Modified Phenolic
 Polyurethane
Two-Component Epoxy
Two-component epoxies are coatings produced by adding a
converter (or hardener) to an epoxy resin. Epoxy coatings
generally provide good chemical, solvent and water resistance.
High film build per coat, good adhesion, hardness and good
exterior durability are also an advantage. Epoxy coatings are
susceptible to chalking in exterior exposures and do not have a
good long-term (gloss) appearance.
28
29

Chemically-Induced Polymerization Coatings (Cont’d)
There are three general types of curing agents that are used.
These are:
 Polyamine, which produces a film having good chemical and
immersion resistance, but may form a “blush” as a result of
unreacted amines rising to the surface of the coating film,
when affected by moisture or high humidity. APCS –
2A,2B,2C,2D,22,26,26T and 113.
 Polyamide, which produces a film having less tendency to
blush than the polyamine and having generally better
wetting characteristics. APCS 1A,1B,1C,1D,1E,1F, 12 and
19A.
 Isocyanate, which produces a film which will cure in
adverse conditions (example: temperature below 50°F), but
which may have limited pot life (typically 1-2 hours).
Two-component epoxy coatings, that use polyamine curing
agents, may develop amine blush when exposed to very high
relative humidity or moisture before they are completely cured.
Amine blush is an oily, waxy, milky film, which blooms to the
surface. It may be clear or yellow in color. It usually occurs when
the film cures during cool, damp conditions. The amine part of
the coating reacts with carbon dioxide in the air and surface
water. When this occurs, intercoat adhesion failure may result.
The amine blush remains sensitive to water and is removed by
wiping, with a solvent recommended by the manufacturer, prior to
overcoating.
30

Polymerization-Cured Coatings (Cont’d)
Coal Tar Epoxy

Coal tar is a resin that is combined with epoxy resins and have
the effect of reducing permeability of the epoxy film. Coal tar
epoxy provides heavy duty structural protection and is water,
chemical and solvent resistant. Coal tar has a wide variety of
applications, including oil tank interiors, pipelines, river and
ocean docks, ships hull coatings (at or below waterline), sewage
and water plants, water pipeline linings and oil platforms. Coal
tar is not generally used in a system with other types of coatings.
Since coal tar epoxy gives a relatively high film build per coat,
most specifications call for just one or two applications. Some of
the disadvantages of coal tar epoxy include difficulty of repair
and re-coating and generally short pot life. APCS – 3.
Epoxy Modified Phenolic (Two-Component)

As the name implies, these coatings contain a significant amount
of reactive phenolic resin as well as epoxy resin. The phenolic
resin will contribute to improved water and solvent resistance,
but takes away from sunlight resistance. On exterior exposure,
the epoxy phenolics will yellow and develop chalk more rapidly
than will the straight epoxy coatings. As a result of better solvent
resistance, the re-coat interval must be carefully observed. Two-
pack epoxy-phenolic materials exhibit a very high cross-link
density, which results in excellent resistance to a wide range of
chemicals and solvents. It is also very hard. The major deficiency
of this coating is its poor flexibility. The two-component epoxy
phenolic coatings are normally used on tank interiors and
pipeline interiors.
APCS – 100 and 114.
31

Polyurethane
Two-component polyurethanes (often called urethanes) come in
two varieties:
 Aliphatic - These catalyzed coatings have outstanding
abrasion resistance, hardness, flexibility, good exterior
gloss and color retention. They have limited pot life and
should not be applied once this pot life is exceeded. They
may be encountered in almost all heavy industrial
applications except immersion service.
 Aromatic - These coatings have many of the same
characteristics of the aliphatic polyurethanes, with the
addition of the ability to be used in some immersion service
situations. They do not have the same degree of exterior
gloss and color retention.
The isocyanate fumes given off by these coatings are extremely
hazardous and an air supplied respirator must be worn. The liquid
components of these coatings should not be opened until ready
for mixing, as premature opening of the containers may lead to
degradation of the coating material due to its moisture
sensitivity.
These coatings are typically used as tank linings, floor finishes
or as a gloss over epoxy. They are sometimes used as a topcoat
in a system using inorganic zinc as the primer and two-
component epoxy as the intermediate coating.
APCS – 1D,1E,1F,26T and 101.
32

Heat-Induced Polymerization
This occurs when the coating is baked, generally at
temperatures ranging from 95°C to 245°C. Coatings in Saudi
Aramco which cure by heat induced polymerization include:
 Epoxy Phenolic (One Component)
 Silicone
Epoxy Phenolic (One-Component)

This coating is very similar in composition to the two-component
chemically cured type, with two exceptions, it usually contains a
higher ratio of phenolic resin and it requires a carefully controlled
baking schedule to cure and form a protective film. The baking
schedule may range from set-up bakes (used to drive off solvents
and start the cross-linking reaction) at about 95°C to final bake
(to complete cross-linking), ranging from about 165°C to 200°C.
The heat converting or one component epoxy phenolic coatings
are very resistant to water, solvents and chemicals. High-bake
phenolic coatings have poor flexibility, which limits the potential
film thickness. Problems may arise on surfaces, which vibrate or
even on thin substrate. Surface profile and cleanliness become
very important, since it is important that the coating achieves
maximum adhesion to counteract the possibility of failing due to
expansion or contraction.
It is important to check the final coating for pinholes, since these
coatings are typically used in critical exposures and/or
immersion environments. Repair of unacceptable areas may be
difficult and will always be a potential weakness in the coating.
Defective pieces are often re-blasted and re-coated.
Main areas of usage for this coating include, interior coating of

down-hole oil well tubing, drill pipe, process vessels and interiors
of drums. APCS – 100.
33
34

Heat-Induced Polymerization (Cont’d)
Silicone
Silicone-based coatings are frequently used in high temperature
environments and are available in two types: modified and
unmodified.
Modified silicone coatings may be modified with other resins. The
resins hold the silicone in place on the workpiece during erection
or stand-by. When the workpiece is baked, the other resins burn
off and the silicone portion becomes effective. This type of
coating is frequently used when heat resistance in the range of
200°C to 375°C is required, and may be used in heat environments
such as furnaces, piping, boilers, stills, etc.
Unmodified silicone coatings are frequently used when heat
resistance up to 535°C continuous exposure or 650°C intermittent
may be encountered. Silicones should be applied directly to a
cool, clean surface. Organic resin based primers should never be
used as they are not formulated to withstand high temperatures.
However, inorganic zinc is sometimes used as a primer in
services up to 402°C.
For successful application, it is important that a high standard of
surface preparation is achieved. The coating then requires a bake
schedule for successful cure. The cure temperature and the time
of heating may be critical to the cure process. These coatings
are very expensive, very soft and have low abrasion resistance.
APCS – 11A and 11B.
35
EXERCISE 3. CURING MECHANISMS FOR COATINGS

Refer to Work Aid 1, the Information Sheet and your peers to
complete this Exercise. Write True or False in the blank spaces
provided.
1. The oxygen induced method is the specified

curing
method for alkyd coatings.
2. Catalyst induced (thermoset) is the

specified curing
method for urethane coatings.
3. Heat curing is the specified curing method

for oils.
4. Silicone coatings cure by the solvent

evaporation
method.
5. Coal tar epoxy uses the solvent evaporation

curing
method.
6. Coal tar uses the oxygen induced curing

method.
7. A limitation of a Bitumen type coating is

that it is
thermoplastic, toxic and has limited
adhesion .
36
WORK AID 1. CURING MECHANISMS FOR COATINGS

Follow these steps using the table on this page.
1. Look down the first column until you find the Curing Method
specified
to be used.
2. Look across the row until you find the name of the type of
coating
products that cure by this method.
Table of Curing Mechanisms
CURING TYPES OF COATING MATERIAL

METHODS
Solvent Vinyl, chlorinated rubber. coal tar, and asphalt.

Evaporation
Coalescence Acrylic emulsion, latex emulsion, and vinyl

emulsion.
Evaporation Water-based inorganic zinc

Induced
Heat Induced Phenolics, rubber, powders, metallics, and

silicone.
Oxygen Oils, alkyds, epoxy esters, and uralkyds.

Induced
Catalyst Epoxy, urethanes, and coal tar epoxies.

Induced
Water Induced Solvent-based inorganic zincs, alkali silicates,

and moisture cured urethane.
37

Zinc-Rich Coatings: An Overview
Zinc-rich coatings are distinguished by 75% to 95% weight of zinc
dust in the dried film. They cure to a tough hard film, which can
serve as a single protective coat. They protect steel by acting as
a sacrificial anode, corroding in place of the steel. Zinc-rich
coatings can be used alone as a true one coat system but are
usually used as a primer for many other types of coatings. Zinc-
rich coatings are used to protect a broad range of products
including power plants, chemical processing plants, paper mills,
transmission towers, offshore platforms, ships, bridges and many
other large steel structures.
When mixing zinc-rich coatings, mechanical agitation should be
used. They should not be mixed by shaking as this can cause
rapid heating resulting in gel formation in the product or in
extreme cases, the container may burst due to the build-up of
internal pressure. To ensure complete dispersion of the zinc dust,
the material should be strained through a 30/60 mesh screen or
vacuum paint strainer. If more than about 125 grams of zinc dust
per 3 or 4 liters is removed by a 30/60 mesh screen, it is an
indication of old materials. Check the shelf life of the material.
Zinc-rich coatings, if exposed to the environment for a period of
time, may form a surface layer of insoluble zinc salts such as zinc
oxide or carbonate. A surface coated with a zinc-rich coating
which has been left to stand for a period of time, should be
carefully checked for the presence of any soluble zinc salts,
which may have formed. If necessary, the surface should be
washed thoroughly with sweet water to ensure removal of these
salts. This is the reason why specified re-coat intervals and
surface preparation procedures should be carefully followed
when these coatings are being used.
38

Zinc-Rich Coatings: An Overview (Cont’d)
The four main types of zinc-rich coatings are:
 Inorganic Post Cure, Water-Based - These are water-soluble
and require heat or application of a separate wash coat or
cure solution to complete the curing process
 Inorganic Self-Cure, Water-Based - These may be thinned by
water and cure by chemical reaction which takes place
during and after evaporation of the water component of the
coating. APCS – 17B
 Inorganic Self-Cure, Solvent-Based - These are solvent
reducible and are dependent on moisture in the air to
complete the curing process. Thus, a relative humidity in
the range of 50% to 90% is required when this type of
coating is used, otherwise, the coating must be misted with
water to complete the cure. The water reacts with the
organic silicate which releases an alcohol in the coating
film during the evaporation phase to complete the cure. If
applied too heavily, above 125 microns, they tend to
mudcrack and crumble. APCS – 17A
 Organic - These are solvent reducible and mostly use a
catalyzed epoxy resin as a vehicle. Other resins may be
used, such as vinyl, but are rare. Primer for APCS – 1C,1F.
Inorganic Zinc Silicate Coatings

Inorganic Zinc Silicate coatings generally use a silicate binder,
which may be lithium, potassium, ammonium or most commonly,
ethyl silicate. The binder is unusual in that it is an inorganic
material, from which it derives some of its unique characteristics.
Zinc silicate coatings require a high standard of surface
preparation, generally to Sa 2-1/2 or better.
The porosity previously mentioned is responsible for many of the
pinhole and blister effects, which emerge when zinc silicate is
overcoated. The problem can be overcome by use of a properly
designed tie coat, a low volume solids product that can penetrate
and fill the porosity prior to application of further coatings.
39

Zinc-Rich Coatings: An Overview (Cont’d)
Zinc-Rich Converted Epoxy

Zinc-rich epoxy is a two or three package, converted two-
component epoxy coating containing a high weight of metallic
zinc powder (75% to 95%) in the cured film.
Linings
A material applied to an interior surface subject to direct contact
and immersion in liquids, chemicals or other products, is known
as a lining. Linings are used to protect the interior of equipment
from corrosion and abrasion and the contents of a vessel from
being contaminated by the substrate
Because of the generally more severe service conditions,
following the specification for linings becomes highly critical.
Lining operations may call for the application of heat. The type,
amount and technique of heating may vary depending on the
curing mechanism of the specific lining.
Linings, which cure by evaporation, are heated:
 To ensure maximum film density
 To increase chemical and permeation resistance
 To aid in removal of solvent or carrier from the vessel so
that the curing process can proceed
 To prevent solvent wash (re-dissolving of the lining material)
 To decrease or eliminate residual odor
 To decrease time required for cure
 To decrease time between coats
40
CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES (CONT)

Linings (cont)
Linings, which cure by chemically induced or heat-induced
polymerization are heated:
 To remove volatile solvent and products of polymerization
from the lining and the vessel
 To accomplish polymerization or cure to obtain chemical
and permeation resistance
 To decrease the time required for cure by the accelerating
process
In each case, one reason for heating is to remove volatile solvent
or water, not only from the lining, but also from the vessel. Unless
removed from the vessel during the heating process, a portion of
the solvent or water may be
re-absorbed into the lining material and the heating process all
but wasted. Therefore, proper ventilation is essential. Many types
of heating units are available. The inspector should ensure that
the type used is the type called for in the specification and that it
is carefully used in such a way that the lining is not damaged
either by contamination or excessive heat.
Some cautions to observe include:

 Avoid hot or cold spots
 Avoid introduction of products of combustion or water vapor
into the vessel (frequently this is done by using heat
exchangers and dehumidifiers)
 Temperature should be brought up gradually to avoid
thermal shocking the lining
 Avoid all combustible products and open flames
41
POWDER COATINGS
Powders have been developed very successfully for heavy duty
industrial applications such as pipeline coatings. Powders
contain the following components:
 Pigment
 Curing agents (partially reacted solid resins)
 Wetting agents
 Flow control agents
 Fillers and extenders
 Foam breakers and other additives
All are dry particles resembling a sack of flour and they can be
different colors depending on the manufacturer and process.
Powders fall into two main categories:
 Thermoplastic - softens when heated and returns to its
original hardness when cooled
 Thermosetting - hardens when heated and retains its
hardness when cooled
The key to the curing mechanism is the word “thermo” - heat.
Once the powder is applied to a heated surface either in a pre-
heat or post-heat situation, the powder changes its state and
becomes a liquid coating. Once cooled it forms a homogenous
film over the steel surface. Powders applied to a heat source
pass through four distinct stages:
 Flow stage - the particle of powder begins to flow but is not
fully liquid
 Wetting stage - the particle of powder absorbs more heat
and fully liquefies and wets the surface
 Gel stage - the powder begins to gel converting into a solid
 Curing stage - further changes take place allowing the
powder to fully cure
This whole process may only take up to three minutes, or less.
This makes it an excellent production line process.
42
POWDER COATINGS (CONT’D)

Generic Types of Powder
Thermoplastic Thermosetting
Polypropylene Epoxy
Polyethylene Urethane
FBE Acrylic
Powders contain partially reacted curing agents and require a

heat source to convert them from a powder state to a liquid state.
It is important that powders are stored away from any heat
source until they are ready to be applied. In hot weather, they
may need to be stored in refrigerated containers.
The range of temperatures at which powders are usually applied
is 250 to 277°C. Thermoplastic powders normally require lower
application temperatures and the manufacturers data should be
consulted for the maximum temperature range. Powders are
commonly applied by the following methods:
 Flock spray
 Electrostatic spray
 Fluidized bed - dip method
 Rotolining
 Flamespray
 Cloud chamber
43
PIPELINE COATINGS
The major types of pipeline coatings used for both factory or field
application are:
 Fusion Bonded Epoxy
 Extruded Polyethylene
 Liquid coatings include epoxies, coal tar enamels, coal tar
polyurethanes and elastomeric polyurethanes
Some are thermoplastic, some thermoset and some cured by
chemical reaction. Coal tar enamels are thermoplastic. They are
melted by the use of heat and when cooled they solidify. They can
be remelted by the application of heat. Fusion bonded epoxies are
thermosetting they are melted by heating and then solidify when
cooled. They do not remelt when reheated. Coal tar epoxies are
chemically cured coatings. Heat-shrink sleeves, hot dope and
most of the coatings mentioned above can also be used in the
field. Field applications are normally limited to joint treatments.
Liquid coatings used for pipeline coating may be solvent based
coatings or chemically cured coatings, such as coal tar
cutbacks, vinyls, inorganic zinc coal tar epoxies, high solids
epoxies, vinyl esters, 100% solids epoxy coal tars, coal tar
polyurethanes and 100% solids elastomeric polyurethanes. Each
must be applied over a properly cleaned, dry surface, according
to the specifications. Application equipment can consist of a
simple conventional air spray rig with coal tar cutbacks and
vinyls, hi-ratio (30:1 or 45:1) airless spray units with coal tar
epoxies, etc. or finally with more sophisticated plural component
spray units in the case of coal tar polyurethane and 100% solids
elastomeric polyurethanes.
44
EXERCISE 4. COATING TYPES
1. What are the advantages of alkyd coatings?
2. What are the limitations of alkyd coatings?
3. What are the advantages of coal tar epoxy?
4. What are the limitations of coal tar epoxy?
45
EXERCISE 4. COATING TYPES (CONT’D)
5. What are the four types of zinc-rich coatings?
6. What are the three reasons for using linings?
7. What are the two main categories of powder coatings?
46
COATING SYSTEMS
Single-Coat Systems
In a single coat system, only one application of the coating is
applied. Single coat systems most commonly occur:
 When a short life is all that is required, such as when
structural steel is coated at the mill to protect it until it can
be properly blast cleaned and coated at the construction
site.
 When it is applied for purely decorative reasons, such as in
painting the interior of a house.
 When the coating has been specifically formulated for one-
coat application, such as coal-tar epoxy or certain types of
zinc-rich coatings.
Some problems frequently encountered with one-coat systems
include:
 Solvent entrapment
 Difficulty in maintaining the specified coating thickness
 Large number of holidays
Multiple-Coat Systems
Multiple coat systems may consist of:
 More than one coat of the same coating material, generally
in contrasting colors. This type of system is frequently
found when a coating can act as both the primer and as a
topcoat.
 One or more applications of different types of coatings. An
example of this type of system is a zinc-rich primer with
epoxy topcoats.
47
COATING SYSTEMS (CONT’D)

Multiple-Coat Systems (Cont’d)
Primers
Primers are a particular class of coating used within a multi-coat
system. They are often known by the name of their pigmentation,
since the pigment plays a significant, active role in the coating.
A primer is the first coating applied to the workpiece. The
functions of the primer include:
 To adhere to the substrate
 To provide a base or key for subsequent applications of
coatings
 To protect the substrate against corrosion by acting as a
corrosion inhibitor, by providing a barrier coating or by
being sacrificial
 Can contain all of the above characteristics or a
combination
There are three types of primers:
 Galvanic or sacrificial
 Inhibitive
 Barrier (non-inhibitive)
Galvanic Primers
Galvanic primers have a high concentration of zinc dust and
protect the steel substrate like galvanizing. Zinc in electrical
contact with steel will protect the steel by sacrificing the zinc as
an anode. Galvanic primers provide electrochemical protection to
the steel even if the steel is exposed at small discontinuities
such as breaks, scratches, etc. This protection will be localized
and cannot extend for more than a fraction of an inch from the
source of zinc in the coating.
Inhibitive Primers
In order to create a rust inhibitive primer, an inhibitive pigment
must be added. Frequently used inhibitive pigments are:
 Red lead
48
 Zinc phosphate
 Barium metaborate
 Strontium Chromate
 Zinc Chromate
49
COATING SYSTEMS (CONT’D)

Multiple-Coat Systems (Cont’d)
Primers (Cont’d)
Barrier (Non-Inhibitive) Primers

These primers form a protective barrier. Barrier-type primers
range from highly cross-linked phenolic and/or epoxy types to
lacquer types. The only difference between these primers and
their topcoats, with the exception of flexibility, is the modification
of the formulation to improve surface wetting characteristics and
therefore, adhesion properties.
Intermediate Coats
The mid-coats in a multi-coat system are typically added to the
system in order to improve the “barrier” characteristics of the
system. All coatings are permeable to some extent, and will allow
some passage of water vapor and oxygen through the cured
coating film. Naturally, some resins have better properties in this
respect than others. Most coating systems will become more
permeable as the amount of pigmentation is increased.
Finish Coats
Finish coats are often chosen for their appearance. Good color
retention, low levels of chalking and good gloss are generally
desired. A smooth finish prevents the collection of surface
contamination and allows deposits to be washed away. This
benefits both appearance and corrosion resistance. In some
exposures, increased chemical or solvent resistance may be
beneficial and can be achieved by selection of the correct finish
coat. Good resistance to the ultraviolet (UV) component of
sunlight is important.
50
COATINGS AND THE INSPECTOR

The following are the items for which the inspector must be
particularly alert to during the coating operation:
 During the coating issue and material storage
 During the surface preparation
 During the mixing and thinning operations
 During the coating application
If the specified degree of surface preparation is not attained, it
may result in adhesion failure at the substrate and will ultimately
allow corrosion attack. Residues of oil, grease, fingerprints,
chemical salts and dust that have been deposited on the surface
after surface preparation may cause defects and/or premature
failure through loss of adhesion, pinholes or fisheyes.
Inspector’s Responsibilities During Issue and Material Storage

The inspector must verify that the coating material is approved
by Saudi Aramco and has been properly stored and issued. The
inspector must ensure the following points are inspected:
 Storage conditions – The proper storage of material is
covered in SAES-H-101V, Saudi Aramco Data Sheets. Any
opened, leaking or damaged containers must be discarded.
This is particularly true of coatings that use chemical
curing. The loss of the catalyst will affect the curing of the
coating.
 Batch number and date sequence – These dates and
numbers must be clearly marked on each container. If not,
the container must be set aside and discarded. Material
must be issued in order according to these numbers.
 Shelf life expiration date – The inspector must check the
shelf life of the material in the Saudi Aramco Data Sheets,
Section 1 and compare it to the date of manufacture on the
container. If the shelf life has expired, the material must be
disposed of properly.
51
COATINGS AND THE INSPECTOR (CONT’D)
Inspector’s Responsibilities During Mixing and Thinning

Operations
The inspector must ensure that the material used in mixing is the
proper component such as solvents, thinners, primers and finish
coats. If the coating is multi-component, the inspector must
ensure that all the components and the complete package are
used. Never allow parts of a package of multi-component
coatings to be mixed. Never allow the amount of one component
to be changed without the manufacturers and the engineers
permission. The inspector must ensure that the primer is the one
specified. Component information is contained in the Saudi
Aramco Data Sheet and compatibility information is found in
SAES-H-001, Paragraph 7.2, “Overcoating Chart”, Addendum page
19-20.
The mixing ratio is found in Section 2 of the Saudi Aramco Data
Sheet. The inspector must ensure that the contractor strictly
adheres to the mixing ratio. Failure to comply with the standards
will result in a failed coating.
Example
In the data sheet for the Saudi Industrial Paint
Company’s APCS-1A Epoxy Topcoat, Section 2.2, lists a
mixing ratio of 4 to 1, base to hardener, by volume. This
means that the contractor must mix 4 units of base with
1 unit of hardener. If the job requires 5 gallons of coating,
4 gallons of base material must be mixed with 1 gallon of
hardener.
52

Operations
Thinning
The inspector must ensure that the thinning of the coating
material is accomplished with only those thinners approved by
Saudi Aramco in the Saudi Aramco Data Sheet for that particular
coating. The thinners are listed by the SAMS stock number in
Section 2.3, of the data sheets. The inspector must ensure that
the contractor uses only the allowed amount of thinner. The
amount of thinner will affect the volume of solids of the mixed
coating. This will affect the amount of surface the coating will
coverage. The inspector must always record the amount of
thinner used. Too much thinner may result in reduced dry film
thickness, together with runs and sags. Too little thinner may
cause dry spray, also known as cobwebbing. A non-uniform film
with pinholes and/or poor appearance may result. Any thinner
other than the one in the specification or manufacturer's data
sheet is the wrong thinner. Even if the coating can be
successfully applied, a variety of defects, including failure to
cure, may result from the use of the wrong thinner.
Mixing
The inspector must verify that all coating material is mixed
according to Saudi Aramco Safety Procedures and Standards.
Mixing is one of the most important steps in the inspection
process. The coating’s resistance to the environment will be
affected by improper mixing and thinning. This is extremely
important in the primer coat because it is the surface for the next
coats. The effects of not mixing the material properly, may vary
between different types of coatings, but will generally result in
lessened protective qualities and waste of expensive pigment
materials. Failure to mix components sufficiently or in the correct
proportions may result in poor film forming characteristics,
inadequate or non-uniform cure or partial separation of
components after application.
53
54

Operations
Mixing should be continued until all components required are
completely mixed. The substance should be smooth and free of
surface swirls that contain a color other than the intended color.
There should be no pigment lumps. Many paints settle out, or
separate, in the bottom. Heavy pigmented paints should be mixed
in two different containers. The paint should be poured back and
forth from container to container until fully mixed. This is called
boxing.
Multi-component coatings must be mixed together thoroughly in
the exact amounts specified in the data sheets. The base and the
curing agents are mixed just before use. The curing agent is
added to the base in small amounts and constantly stirred. Power
mixers may be used, but must be used on all containers greater
than 5 liters.
When zinc dust is added to the binders of zinc-rich primers, the
inspector should ensure that the contractor sifts the zinc dust
through a 30/60 mesh screen into the liquid portion while mixing
it. This eliminates the lumps and ensures that the spray guns do
not clog. A device called an agitator is used in the container or
pot to keep the coating mixed. The inspector must ensure that
the agitator is working to keep the pigment in suspension.
Some general rules for all coatings are located in SAES-H-100,
Paragraphs 6, 7 and 8, Addendum page 21. The inspector must
ensure that the contractor adheres to these standards.
Induction time, also called the ingestion time or sweat in time, is
the waiting time, after mixing, before a coating can be used. The
Saudi Aramco Data Sheets specify the induction time for a
coating, based on the ambient temperature. The inspector must
ensure that the induction time is closely monitored.
Pot life is the length of time the coating remains usable. The pot
life starts when the contractor completes mixing the material, or
after the induction time, if required. The material must be applied
immediately after mixing and induction time.
The solid content of a coating material is the non-volatile part of
the coating. After the volatile components evaporate, the solid
content will form the coating The solid content is usually listed
55
as the percentage of solids by volume in the Saudi Aramco Data

Sheet, Section 4, “Technical Properties.” The inspector must know
the percentage of solids in order to calculate the coverage of a
given amount of coating material, and the wet film thickness.
56

Inspector's Responsibilities During Coating Application
During the coating application, make sure that the correct
coating thickness is achieved. If the coating is too thick, it may
create a slow or improper cure time resulting in runs, sags,
solvent entrapment, mud-cracking or other defects. If the coating
is too thin, the result may be pinpoint rusting.
Make sure the specified time to apply the coating after cleaning
is observed. The surface may have deteriorated and begun to
rust. This may cause failure of the coating to adhere properly to
the substrate.
Observe specified re-coat intervals. Application too soon after
the previous coat may result in solvent entrapment or improper
cure leading to a variety of defects including wrinkling, blistering
and delamination. If too much time has passed, the surface may
have become contaminated by airborne particles, resulting in
intercoat adhesion failures. Make sure that the specified surface
temperature is not exceeded. If the substrate is too cold, cure
may be slowed resulting in poor protective qualities of the
coating. Additionally, poor flow may result in poor adhesion and
an irregular surface. If the substrate is too hot, the coating will
blister and/or “pop” because of too rapid solvent release.
Inspection of Chemically Induced Polymerization Coatings

When a job involves the application of coatings that cure by
chemically induced polymerization, the inspector should look for:
 Converter added to base - Failure to add the converter to the
base before use, may cause the coating to appear to dry but
will not cure. It may run or sag and will probably not
withstand intended service.
 Correct proportion of converter added to base - If the
incorrect proportion of the base is added to the converter,
the polymer formed will not be the correct one. Pot life may
be affected. In addition, the applied film may have poor
chemical and corrosion resistance. The coating may set up
in the spray pot or lines.
57
 Correct induction time - For many coatings of this type, the

manufacturer will recommend that before application the
coating be allowed to sit for a period of time after mixing
the converter and the base. This allows the base and the
converter to complete the polymerization reaction for an
uniform consistency throughout the coating material.
Incorrect “sweat-in” time may lead to inadequate cure or to
separation of the components during the application or
curing process. In extreme cases, craters or “fisheyes” may
occur.
58

Inspector's Responsibilities During Coating Application (Cont’d)
 Pot life not exceeded - Once the base and the converter are
mixed, the polymerization reaction begins, immediately and
continues until it is complete. There is usually a limited
period of time during which the two-component coating
must be applied. As the mixed coating ages and approaches
its pot life, its viscosity increases. The coating may still be
liquid, even though its pot life has expired. The coating
inspector must ensure that coatings that have exceeded
their pot life are not applied. Applicators may be tempted to
try to apply a coating that has exceeded its pot life,
sometimes using thinner to reduce viscosity for spraying. If
this done, the coating will have poor spray ability, low film
build, sags, and may not cure properly. The finished film
may have poor integrity, air entrapment, pinholes, sags, low
film thickness and give poor performance in-service.
Inspection of Heat Induced Polymerization Coatings

A critical inspection item unique to coatings which cure by heat
induced polymerization is ensuring that the specified bake
schedule is adhered to.
Many coatings of this type require precise temperature and
duration of baking, which if not followed, can adversely affect the
cure and performance of the coating.
In some cases, when more than one application is made the work
piece is baked between each application at a temperature lower
than which will affect a full cure of the coating material.
The intermediate bake may be performed to drive off solvent and
to attain a partial cure.
Particular attention must be paid to the intermediate bake
schedule, since, if incorrect, bubbling or pinholing may occur
during the final bake or subsequent intercoat lack of adhesion
may occur.
Final baking to a higher temperature than an intermediate bake
will complete the polymerization process and produce a
homogenous coating.
59
60
EXERCISE 5. USING SAUDI ARAMCO DATA SHEETS TO OBTAIN

DATA ON PRIMER COATINGS
Use APCS-10 Data Sheet for bituminous coating supplied by
Arabian Danish Paints Co. Ltd.
1. What is the percent Volume Solids?
2. What type of thinner can be used?
3. What is the required induction / sweat-in time?
4. What is the mixing ratio?
61
EXERCISE 6. USING MANUFACTURER’S DATA SHEETS TO

OBTAIN DATA ON PRIMER COATINGS
Solve the following problems. Write the answer in the blank
space provided. The remainder of the questions concern
1. What is the recommended DFT of the product?
2. What is the solids content of the product?
3. What is the mixing ratio of the product by volume?
4. Would this product be good to use on submersed surfaces?
5. What would be the re-coating time for this product?
6. What is the shelf life of the product?
62
INSPECTION OF PRIMER COAT MATERIAL

Viscosity
The viscosity measurement ensures that the proper amount of
thinner was used and that thinning has not changed significantly
from pot to pot. The inspector must obtain information about the
viscosity and how to measure it from the supplier/contractor. The
inspector may see a viscosity reading on the Saudi Aramco Data
Sheets followed by the letters KU. This is not a field
measurement and is not important to the inspector in the field.
The inspector in the field will use the Zahn Cup when doing
viscosity testing in the field.
The Zahn cup, shown in Figure 2, is a small cup with a known
volume (44 cc). The center of the rounded bottom has a hole
numbered 1 to 5, orifice number is stamped on the side of each
cup (Addendum page 39). Each manufacturer specifies the orifice
to use with their coating and the time, in seconds, that it takes
for the mixed coating to run through the orifice. If the cup drains
too quickly, the coating is too thin. If the cup drains too slowly,
the coating is too thick. In either case, the mixed coating must be
dumped and a new batch mixed if the problem cannot be
corrected by adding more of a component, such as pigment or
solvent. However, adding more of a particular component is not
allowed in multi-component packages.
ASTM D-1200, Addendum page 47, explains viscosity
measurement using the Ford cup.
63
Figure 2. Zahn cup
64
EXERCISE 7. VISCOSITY OF A COATING

Use the Addendum in order to answer the following questions.
1. What is the suggested use for Cup size #1?
2. What is the effective orifice size opening for Cup #5?
3. When performing the Zahn cup test, what can cause

reading errors?
65
WORK AID 2. HOW TO CHECK VISCOSITY WITH THE ZAHN CUP

Follow these steps to measure viscosity:
1. Obtain the data on viscosity testing from the vendor.
2. Obtain the Zahn cup and the correct orifice as indicated in
the vendor
data.
3. Obtain the correct timekeeping stopwatch.
4 Ensure the coating is at manufacturer’s recommended
temperature
before testing.
5. Immerse the clean Zahn cup completely into the liquid
coating.
6. Withdraw the cup filled with the coating. Hold the cup
straight up
over the liquid container.
7. Start the stopwatch as soon as the liquid starts to drain
from the
orifice.
8. Stop the stopwatch when you see the first break in the
liquid.
9. Compare the time on the stopwatch with the time
recommended by
the coating manufacturer.
10. If the times are the same, no action is required. If the times
are not
the same, and the discrepancy is significant, action must be
taken by
the Inspector to increase or decrease the thinning of the
material.
11. If the time is greater than that recommended by the
manufacturer, the
coating is too thick and must be thinned, if possible.
12. If the time is less than that recommended by the
manufacturer, the
coating is too thin and must be thickened, if possible.
13. If the mix cannot be adjusted to the proper viscosity, it
must be
discarded.
66
INSPECTION OF PRIMER COAT MATERIAL (CONT’D)

Theoretical Coverage
Coverage is the term used to describe the amount of surface that
can be coated by a specified amount of coating product. The
inspector must know how to calculate two types of coverage:
theoretical and practical. He performs these calculations to
ensure there is enough coating on hand to complete the job.
Theoretical coverage is the number of square feet that can be
covered by one liter of coating product, assuming no loss during
application. This formula cannot be applied to coating material
packaged by weight. Section 4 of the Saudi Aramco Data Sheet
specifies coatings both as solids by volume and solids by weight.
Section 3.4 specifies the theoretical coverage for a thickness of
25 micrometers. However, the required wet film thickness (WFT)
and dry film thickness (DFT) are much greater than this.
Therefore, the inspector must calculate the theoretical coverage
in the field.
This is the formula used to calculate theoretical coverage:
TC = 39.36 x % VS
DFT x 4
TC = theoretical coverage of 1 liter of specified
coating
material
39.36 = coverage of 1 Liter, 100% solids, at 25
microns
% V.S. = actual percentage of solids by volume

DFT = Dry Film Thickness
Both % V.S. and DFT are read from the data sheets.
Example
The data sheet specifies that a coating is to be applied
at 50 microns DFT. It also specifies that the coating
material has 70 percent solids by volume. Inserting these
values into the equation gives this result:
67
TC = 39.36 x 70
50 x 4
TC = 13.77 sq. meter per liter
68
INSPECTION OF PRIMER COAT MATERIAL (CONT’D)

Practical Coverage
Practical coverage takes into account losses of coating

in the application process. Coating loss may be as much
as 50 to 60 percent, due to wind drift, overspray or
coating material remaining in the application system.
The formula used to calculate practical coverage is

PC = TC - PL
where:
PC = practical coverage
TC = theoretical coverage
PL = percentage loss of the coating
The following example uses the data from the theoretical

coverage example and assumes a loss of 25 percent:
Example:
PC = 13.77 – 25%
PC = 10.33 square meter per liter
69
EXERCISE 8. CALCULATE COVERAGE OF COATINGS

Calculate theoretical coverage for questions 1-2.
1. One liter is used, 67% V. S., DFT = 50 microns

TC =
2. Five liters is used, 30% V. S., DFT = 100 microns

TC =
Calculate practical coverage for questions 3-4.
3. Determine practical coverage for problem #1 if loss is 55%.

PC =
4. Determine practical coverage for problem #2 if loss is 30%.

PC=
70
CALCULATING WET FILM THICKNESS

The dry film thickness is the “thickness of record” or the official
acceptance thickness for all coatings. Saudi Aramco standards
specify the required DFT. The inspector can estimate whether a
coating will meet the specifications using the ratio between WFT
and DFT, based on the percentage of solids by volume. The Saudi
Aramco Data Sheets may specify WFT, DFT or both. In cases
where the WFT is not specified, the inspector must calculate
WFT.
Unthinned Coatings
This is the formula used to calculate WFT for unthinned coatings:
Re quired DFT
WFT = %Solids byVolume
where:
WFT = Wet Film Thickness
DFT = Dry Film Thickness
If the required DFT is 100 microns and the coating material is 44

% by volume, the formula gives this result:
WFT = 100
.44
WFT = 227
Note: Round off the answer to the nearest micron

For this coating, a wet film thickness of 227 microns should
result in a dry film thickness of 100 microns. However, the
inspector must measure the dry film thickness to ensure that the
coating meets the specification.
71
CALCULATING WET FILM THICKNESS (CONT’D)

Thinned Coatings
This formula will not work if the coating material has been
thinned. Thinned coating has a lower percentage of solids by
volume. Adding thinner to the coating increases the overall
volume, but not the amount of solids. A heavier wet film
application of thinned material must be applied to produce the
same dry film thickness as obtained with unthinned material.
This formula must be used to calculate WFT for thinned coatings:
Re quired DFT(1 %thinner)
WFT =
%Solids by Volume
By using the coating from the previous example and adding 10

percent thinner, the formula gives this result:
WFT = 100 x 1+10
.44
WFT = 110
.44
WFT = 250
By adding 10 percent thinner to the coating material, the wet film
thickness now must be 250 microns to achieve a dry film
thickness of 100 microns.
72
EXERCISE 9. CALCULATE WET FILM THICKNESS
1. Find the wet film thickness given the following information.
DFT = 50 microns V. S. = 55%No thinner is added
2. Find the wet film thickness given the following information.
DFT = 150 microns V. S. = 30% No thinner is added
3. Find the wet film thickness in problem 1 if 5% thinner was

added.
4. Find the wet film thickness in problem 2 if 20% thinner was

added.
73
MEASURING WET FILM THICKNESS

Whether the required WFT is specified in the data sheets or
calculated, the inspector must measure the thickness to see if it
meets the specification. He uses a wet film thickness gauge to
take this measurement.
The wet film thickness must be obtained immediately after the
application of the coating. The main concern is to take enough
measurements to give reliable results. The wet film thickness
must meet the requirement throughout the areas checked. The
inspector will inform the coating supervisor of any discrepancy.
There is no accept/reject criteria for wet film thickness unless
stated in the job specification. The accept/reject criteria is for
dry film thickness only.
Problems in Measuring Wet Film Thickness
Heavily Pigmented Coatings and Primers

The wet film thickness gauge may give a false reading in these
types of coatings because the gauge does not penetrate to the
substrate surface. The heavy pigment is not displaced when the
gauge is inserted into or rolled across the coating. Another
problem with these types of coatings is that the material is
disturbed at the point the gauges are inserted or rolled. Each of
these spots must be repaired, because the pigment compacts
under the blade or roller of the gauge and the surrounding
material does not move to fill in the depression.
Fast Solvent Evaporation

Those coatings that have fast thinners and solvents that dry
quickly. This fast-dry condition is called “flash off” and it
significantly changes the wet film/dry film ratio. The wet film
measurement must be taken immediately after application or the
measurement of the coatings will be low. Low measurements of
the thickness can lead to the unnecessary application of
additional coating. This would cause the dry thickness to exceed
the specified maximum thickness. In addition, solvent could be
trapped in the film, resulting in defects that can be corrected
only by removing the old coating and starting the application
process over.
74
MEASURING WET FILM THICKNESS (CONT’D)

Wet Film Thickness Gauges
Notched Wet Film Thickness Gauge

Measurement of wet film thickness by notch gages is covered
under ASTM D 4414,Addendum page 50. This practice describes
the use of thin rigid metal notched gages, also called step or
comb gages, in the measurement of wet film thickness of organic
coatings. Notched gage measurements are neither accurate nor
sensitive, but they are useful in determining approximate wet film
thickness of coatings. Measurement of wet film thickness at the
time of application is most appropriate as it permits correction
and adjustment of the film by the applicator at the time of
application. Notch gages are not as accurate as interchemical
wet film gages, but tend to be more effective than interchemical
wet film gages on rough surfaces.
An operator experienced in the use of a notched gage can
monitor the coating application well enough to ensure the
minimum required film thickness will be obtained. Application
losses, such as overspray, loss on transfer and coating residue in
application equipment, are a significant unmeasureable part of
the coating used on a job and are not accounted for by
measurement of wet film thickness.
The notched wet film thickness gauge used has a square metal
head. Each side of the square head has a series of leaves or
steps that are notched progressively deeper. Each leaf or step is
marked with a number, which represents a specified distance in
mils or microns. The head is attached to a handle so that it can
be rotated.
The inspector chooses one side of the gauge, presses the it firmly
into the wet film and then withdraws it. The two ends are the
lowest point of the step and will always be wet from the coating
material. If none of the intermediate steps are wet, the inspector
chooses a lower side of the gauge and repeats the process until
some of the intermediate steps are wet. If all the intermediate
steps are wet, the inspector chooses a higher side. The wet film
thickness is represented as being between the last wetted step
and the next adjacent step which is dry.
Figure 3 shows the notched wet film thickness gauge. Figure 4
shows how to read the gauge. In this example, the third step from
75
the end is wet and the fourth step is dry; the wet film thickness is
2.5 mils.
76

Wet Film Thickness Gauges (Cont’d)
Notched Wet Film Thickness Gauge (Cont’d)
Figure 3. Notched wet film thickness gauge
Figure 4. How to read the notched wet film thickness gauge
77

Notched Wet Film Thickness Gauge (Cont’d)

Figure 5 shows an inexpensive notched gauge called a comb. It
fits in the pocket and is made of stainless steel or of wood. There
are also one-time use wooden stick gauges.
All notched gauges work the same way. They are inserted into the
coating and withdrawn. The thickness is taken from the scale.
With the exception of throw-away wooden sticks, the gauges
must be thoroughly cleaned after each use to prevent coating
from building up on the bottom of the steps. Coating build-up can
result in a false reading.
Note: Do not take a measurement at a point with surface

irregularities such as welds, seams, joints and corners.
Irregularities will distort the readings.
Note: When taking measurements on a curved surface, be sure

to take the measurement along the length of the curve
and not across the width of the curve. Measurements
across the width may result in a false reading.
Figure 5. Comb gage
78

Interchemical Wet Film Thickness Gauge

The use of the Interchemical Wet Film Thickness Gauge is
covered by ASTM D 1212 (Test Method A), Addendum page 53. This
gauge is also called a “wheeled” gauge (as shown in Figure 6)
because it uses a wheel to obtain the readings. It has a narrow
wheel with two outer rings of the same size and an offset inner
ring. To take a measurement, the inspector rolls the wheel across
the surface and withdraws it. The wet film thickness is read from
the inner ring. It is represented by the number at a point where
the coating no longer wets the inner ring. For the measurement
shown in Figure 6, the wet film thickness is between 3 and 4
(approximately 3.25 mils).
There are other types of Interchemical wet film thickness. For
example, the Elcometer Wet Film Wheel. It is held between the
thumb and index finger as it is rolled across the wet surface.
This gauge has separate scales and a holder for the wheel. There
is a set of 8 different scales, ranging from 0 to 1500 microns.
79

Interchemical Wet Film Thickness Gauge (Cont’d)
Figure 6. Interchemical wet film thickness gauge
80
INSPECTING APPLICATION EQUIPMENT

Numerous types of equipment are used to apply coatings. This
section covers the equipment that delivers the coating to the
surface.
Methods
There are five methods of paint application:
 Brush
 Paint Pads
 Rollers
 Mitts
 Spray
The following sections discuss each method.
81
INSPECTING APPLICATION EQUIPMENT (CONT’D)

Methods (Cont’d)
Brush
The brush is a necessity in hard to reach areas and on irregular
surfaces. These areas should be coated by brush before any of
the main coating application starts. This is called stripe coating.
Most coatings in Saudi Aramco will specify spray application
with brush or roller touch-up. Brush application is used more in
maintenance painting and requires less preparation before and
more clean-up after. Although the brush is the least productive
method of coating, some manufacturers recommend brush
application for primer coats because it gives better wetting
capability.
The conventional wall brushes shown in Figure 7A are used on
steel. Small areas require the use of sash brushes, shown in
Figure 7B. The inspector should check as to how the brush is
being used. The inspector must ensure that the brush is not
poked or dabbed into the corners and angles. The brush should be
placed upon the surface and turned or rotated to ensure paint is
applied all the way into the corner. SAES-H-100 states the
maximum brush size allowed is 125mm.
Figure 7. Types of wall and sash brushes
82

Methods (Cont’d)
Paint Pad
Pads are more efficient than brushes but lack versatility. They
are mostly for small flat areas that cannot be covered by spray.
Their application on structural steel is limited. They are used
mostly on industrial interior applications, hard to reach surfaces
and pipes.
Rollers
There are many types of rollers and many ways to use them.
Rollers are excellent for large flat areas and do not require the
skill of spray application. When used with extension handles, they
can cover large hard to reach areas, such as a tank exterior.
Special rollers can be used to coat round pipe in one stroke. A
pipe roller is made up of 2 to 5 narrow rollers on a spring spindle.
The size of the pipe determines the number of section rollers
required. Figure 8 shows a pipe roller in use.
Figure 8. Pipe roller in use
83
84

Methods (Cont’d)
Mitts
Paint mitts are ideal for pipe and irregular surfaces where
spraying is not acceptable. The paint mitt is a lamb skin glove
that is dipped into the coating. The coating is then swabbed onto
the surface. Figure 10 shows some typical paint mitts.
Figure 10. Paint mitts
85

Methods (Cont’d)
Spray
Spraying is the preferred method for most coating applications.
This method is specified for most of the coatings supplied to
Saudi Aramco.
Figure 11 shows that the most productive types of application are
the two spraying techniques. They also give better coverage. The
coverage per coat of the other methods is about 1/3 to 1/2 the
coverage of the spray applications. Two or three brush coats may
be required to get the same thickness.
Figure 11. Table of typical average area coated per day
86

Methods of Spray Application
For rapid application of coatings to large areas and highly
uniform application of coatings in all situations, the easiest and
generally best method is spray application.
There are two general types of spray equipment:
 Conventional or air spray - in which the spray gun uses
compressed air to atomize the coatings and apply them to a
surface. Both the air and the coatings enter the gun through
separate channels and are mixed and ejected at the aircap
in a controlled spray pattern
 Airless spray - in which the coating is forced at high
pressure through a small precisely shaped orifice at the tip
of the spray gun, and is atomized as it is applied to the
surface
Air Spray
Air spray is the original method of spray application. The air to
drive the coating to the spray tip is provided by an air
compressor. The compressor supplies compressed air to an air
tank or to the spray gun. The coating is forced through the fluid
line at relatively low pressure. Compressed air is directed at the
fluid stream. This air stream flows through the spray gun and the
spray nozzle orifice to atomize the coating. It reduces the fluid
stream to a fine mist, which is directed at the surface to be
coated.
The following pages describe the components of the air spray
system.
87

Methods of Spray Application (Cont’d)
Air Spray (Cont’d)
Paint Container (Spray Pot)

The container that holds the paint to be fed to the gun is called a
pot. Pots come in different sizes. These pots are pressurized with
air to provide a constant flow of coating to the spray gun. The
inspector must ensure that all pressure spray pots have a
working safety valve, pressure gauge and pressure regulator. An
additional pressure regulator must be provided to regulate
pressure, at the gun, for atomization. They must have an air inlet
valve to get pressure into the pot and a fluid outlet valve to get
coating to the gun.
The inspector must ensure that all pressurized equipment is
approved by applicable industry standards and has a tag to
indicate this approval. The inspector must test the safety relief
valve periodically to ensure it is working. The pressure relief
safety valve should always be tested each day before the coating
application begins. It should be tested throughout the day to
ensure it has not been plugged with dry coating material. This is
extremely important when using heavy coatings.
Safety shut-off valves are required on pressurized application
equipment the same as on abrasive blasting equipment. These
shut-off valves must be pneumatic and must use the same airline
for activation as the one used for the spray gun.
Most pots have agitators to keep the coating pigments mixed and
in suspension within the vehicle. Some coatings, such as
inorganic zinc, are very heavy and cannot be drawn upward. In
this case, pots must be located above the work. The material
must be adequately agitated to keep the components mixed.
Figure 12 shows a diagram for a typical air spray set-up.
88

Paint Container (Pots) (Cont’d)
89

One-Element Spray Gun

There are several different types of spray guns. The typical one-
element spray gun is shown in Figure 14. The air nozzle for
atomizing the fluid is shown at A. The fluid coating is supplied
through the fluid nozzle B. The amount of the fluid released is
controlled by the fluid control knob E and needle C. The air nozzle
releases the air provided by the compressor. When the trigger D
is pulled, both air and fluid is released and the atomized coating
is sprayed on the surface. The pattern control G is used to control
the width and height of the pattern. It can be spread out in a wide
oval or a narrow oval using this control. The gun body or handle,
is shown at H. The fluid packing nut is shown at I and the air
control valve at F.
Figure 14. One-element spray gun
90

Air Control Valve

The air control valve is located in the gun's handle, directly
behind the trigger. When the trigger is pulled, the air control valve
opens, allowing air to pass through the gun. A positive return
spring in the drum of the air control valve keeps the valve closed
until the trigger is pulled. The air control valve provides no air
pressure regulation. When the air valve is closed, no air enters
the gun. When the valve is opened, the full air pressure is
admitted. The air pressure is entirely controlled by a pressure
regulator located between the compressor and the gun. The air
pressure can be adjusted according to the viscosity of the
material being sprayed and the desired density of the spray (light
or heavy coverage).
Air Adjusting Valve

An air adjusting valve (or screw) is provided on some low and
medium volume guns and is included as an option on high volume
guns. When the valve is built into the gun, it is located adjacent
to the air inlet at the base of the handle. When included as an
option, the valve is placed at the air inlet connection in line with
the air hose. This valve controls only the flow of air (cfm) and has
no effect on air pressure (psi).
Pattern Adjusting Valve

This valve (or screw) is located at the back of the gun. It is the
top knurled knob. The stem of the valve seats in the front of the
gun, in either an air baffle or air port. It regulates air to the horns
of the air cap. The horn air controls the shape of the spray
pattern. When the valve is closed (turned completely clockwise) a
round pattern results. As the valve is opened (turned counter-
clockwise) an increasingly wide fan pattern develops.
91
92

Internal Mix
Internal mix guns must be used with a pressure supply. They are
used when a fine finish is generally not required, such as ceiling
texture spray and mastic roof coatings. Also known as low-
pressure guns, they are generally used when only a low pressure
compressor is available or when slow drying or viscous materials
are used. Fast drying materials would tend to plug the gun's cap
hole. The internal mix air cap mixes air and materials inside the
gun cap before ejecting them through a single slot or round
orifice and are used only with a pressure feed. Atomization air
and material pressure must be approximately equal at the gun.
The fan pattern is determined by the shape of the air cap
opening.
Internal Mix Advantages

 Requires less air volume and less air pressure
 Minimum overspray
 Maximum film build per pass and maximum size spray
pattern
Internal Mix Limitations

 Coarse atomization
 Fixed spray pattern size
 Air cap and fluid tip will wear
 Only pressure feed available
93

External Mix
External mix guns combine air and material just beyond (or
outside) the fluid tip. Air atomizes the material while leaving the
gun. They may be supplied by either pressure feed or suction feed
sources. They are used when a fine painted finish or versatility is
required. They are a widely used type of gun because they
provide better atomization and more control than internal mix
guns.
External Mix Advantages

 Fine atomization
 Control of spray pattern size
 No wear on air cap
 Suction and pressure feed available
External Mix Disadvantages

 Requires more air volume and higher air pressure
 Maximum overspray
 Minimum film build per pass and minimum size spray
pattern
Spray Nozzle/Tips
Each type of coating has different requirements for application.
The air, nozzle, cap and tip requirements may be given in the
Saudi Aramco Data Sheets. Different nozzles and tip sizes give
different patterns and coverage.
Air Exchanger
The air exchanger is a device that:
 Regulates and indicates, by gauge, the regulated air
pressure
94
 Provides multiple air outlets for spray guns and other tools
95

Air and Fluid Hoses

Air hoses used to connect the spray gun to the air exchanger
should be 9.5 mm in diameter if the length is 50 feet or less. If the
airhose I. D. is too small the spray gun is "starved" for air due to
excessive pressure drop, which can result in a variety of spray
defects. For a greater length, a larger hose must be used because
of the pressure loss due to friction. This hose should be rated at
150 psi working pressure. Generally, the air hose will be red,
although in a small low pressure system it may be covered with a
black and orange fabric.
The fluid hose is usually black or brown rubber and is electrically
conductive so that the system can be grounded. Since solvents in
coatings would readily attack and destroy ordinary rubber
compounds, the fluid hose is lined with a special solvent
resistant material impervious to all common solvents. For light
bodied coatings, 9.5 mm I. D. hose is suitable. Guns used in
maintenance or for heavy bodied coatings like vinyl and neoprene
rubber, may require 12.7 mm I. D. hose. These hoses may require
a 100 psi pressure rating. High viscosity materials could require
19 to 25.4 mm I. D. material hose.
Note: The Coating Inspector should check to assure that the

coatings or solvents are never applied through an air
hose, since the air hose does not have the essential
protective liner. The consequence of this practice is that
the air hose may be attacked by the coating or solvent
causing the hose to rupture or contaminate the spray air
with particles of deteriorated hose.
Hoses should be stored by hanging in neat coils. They should

never be dragged across the floor, pulled around sharp objects,
kinked, run over with a vehicle, or used as a rope for lowering
persons or equipment from scaffolding.
96

Air and Fluid Hoses (Cont’d)

The inspector should ensure that all hoses not in use are
plugged. This prevents solvent evaporation from the pot. Plugging
the hoses will also keep insects and debris out of the hose, which
prevents clogging the nozzle. The fluid hose can be cleaned using
the hose cleaner, a device which forces a mixture of solvent and
air through the fluid hose and guns ridding them of coating
residue. A valve stops the flow of solvent and allows air to dry the
equipment. The outside of both the air and fluid hose should be
wiped down with solvent at the end of every working day.
Airspray Advantages
 Spray pattern is easily adjusted to almost any desired fan
width
 Produces high quality finishes
 Very adaptable
Airspray Disadvantages
 High loss of coating due to overspray
 Billowing and air turbulence due to compressed air
requirement, dryspray
 Reduction of coatings with solvent often necessary for
proper atomization, resulting in lowered DFT per application
 Not recommended for high solids coatings ( 80%and
greater)
97

Airless Spray
Airless spray differs from conventional airspray because it does
not use compressed air to atomize the coating materials. Instead,
paint is pumped from its container, usually the manufacturer's
original cans or large drums, through a supply line to the airless
spray gun. The paint is forced through a small orifice under high
pressure, atomizing the fluid as it is discharged from the gun. In
airless spray equipment, the material is under pressure between
the pump and the gun. Unlike conventional air spray, the material
is not under pressure in the material container. Thus, the material
may be drawn directly from the original container by suction from
the pump.
The atomization achieved is so effective that liquids may be
passed through a membrane, such as human skin, without
breaking it. The hazard of accidental injection of coating
materials is a very real and present danger. Accidental injection
can result in loss of limb, or even be fatal. When inspecting near
airless equipment you would be well advised to treat it as though
it were a loaded firearm. Some additional rules for airless spray
safety:
 Never leave a pressurized unit unattended. Shut off the unit,
relieve the pressure, engage the spray gun trigger safety,
and shut off the power before leaving.
 All fluid connections should be high pressure rated airless
spray fittings, tightened securely, and checked before each
use.
 Fluid hose should be grounded to reduce the hazard of
static electricity sparking.
Airless spray uses very high hydraulic pressure of 1,000 to 6,000
psi. This pressure atomizes the coating through a precision-
ground spray tip. Changes in the spray pattern are made by
changing the tips or fluid orifices. A wide range of spray patterns
can be attained by changing the tips and varying the fluid
pressure. Saudi Aramco Data Sheets specify the tips and
pressure for airless spray guns for a specific product. The airless
spray method is particularly good for heavy, high-solid materials.
98
Figure 19 shows the typical configuration for the normal airless

spray unit.
99

Airless Spray (Cont’d)
Warning: Airless spray uses extremely high pressure.

The Inspector must not allow any
maintenance, connection, or disconnection to
the unit while the power is on and pressure is
applied.
100

Airless Spray Advantages

 Reduced overspray and bounce back resulting in material
savings
 Does not require compressed air to atomize coating
 Does not require a pressure pot
 High production rate
Airless Spray Disadvantages

 Fan width of individual spray tip not variable
 Little control over the quality of coating applied except by
changing tips
 Very dangerous due to high pressures
 Produces poor quality finish on small items
101

Set-up
There are numerous types of set-ups for airless spray systems.
An electric motor, gasoline engine or air compressor can be used
to operate a pump. The pump supplies high pressure to the spray
gun. The pump pressure forces the coating through a single line
to the spray gun. In the spray gun, a single stream of paint is
separated into several smaller streams and forced through an
orifice to form the spray pattern without the use of air. Airless
spray provides better coverage because the coating is not
‘diluted’ with air. Figure 20 illustrates the difference between
conventional air spray and airless spray.
Figure 20.
102

Set-up (Cont’d)
The pump for the airless unit may be driven by a gasoline engine.
These units are for use in the field where other power sources
are not available.
Airless spray pumps may also be powered by electric motors.
These units vary considerably in size. They must be approved
according to the electrical codes and industry standards. They
must be spark-proof and double-grounded. Ensure that the motor
is explosion-proof.
The pump for the airless system may also be driven by a
compressor. The same safety rules apply here as for all
compressor operation. The compressor supplies low-psi air to the
hydraulic unit, which boosts the psi several times higher. This
boosted pressure forces the coating through the fluid hose.
103

Spray Guns
The two basic types of airless guns are:
Internally ported - in which the pressurized coating passes
through the gun body before being forced through the orifice.
Externally ported - in which the coating is carried to the orifice
through a tube on the outside of the gun.
Major spray gun components include:

 Inlet
 Material port
 Tip guard
 Orifice (tip)
 Gasket
 Diffuser
 Body
 Trigger
 Trigger safety
Spray Heads and Tips

Airless spray tips are available in wide variety of types and sizes.
Since an airless spray gun acts as an on/off switch and does not
have the air and fluid controls found on airspray guns, airless
spray fan width and spray pattern are adjusted solely by the tip
chosen. The best tips are made from Tungsten Carbide. However,
the spring tension on the trigger may be adjusted to allow more
or less air.
Some have two nozzles. Others will spray two materials onto the
surface at once in the exact amount required. Some spray heads
have hoppers that chop fiberglass to be added to the coating.
Other spray heads spatter material onto the surface at a low psi
and the material is then smoothed with trowel or squeegee. Some
104
heads rotate or spin for inside pipe work and others are at fixed
or adjustable angles.
105

Spray Heads and Tips (Cont’d)
Several tip configurations are available. The standard tip provides

a single orifice size. If it plugs, the system must be shut down,
depressurized, and the safety tip removed before the orifice can
be taken out and cleaned. Never attempt to remove a plugged
orifice when the system is under pressure.
The adjustable tip can spray two different size spray patterns, a
narrow fan for narrow surfaces and a wide fan for wide surfaces.
The reversible ball tips can be reversed by turning a lever when
they become plugged. The gun is then triggered and the
obstruction blown out. If the cylinder tip plugs, the cylinder can
be reversed, the gun triggered and the obstruction blown out.
Gasket and Diffuser

The gasket ensures a tight seal between the fluid tip and the
diffuser thus preventing high pressure leaks. The diffuser helps
the efficiency of atomization. The diffuser has an .090" orifice
with a bar inside which splits the high pressure stream of
materials.
Inlet
Usually 1/4" NPSM nipple to which the grounded fluid hose is
attached.
Material Port
Carries pressurized coating from the inlet to the diffuser.
106

Safety Tip
Required by OSHA, the safety tip is colored bright OSHA Safety
Orange. The safety tip is designed to prevent anyone from getting
part of their body close enough to the orifice to receive an
injection of coating.
A safety device required by OSHA. When in the "on" position the
trigger safety prevents the gun from being triggered, just as the
safety on a firearm can prevent accidental discharge.
Material Containers
In a airless spray system the material container is not
pressurized. The coating is drawn from the container by the
pump, which then pressurizes the coating. Since the material is
drawn by suction through the inlet hose, the hose should be
armored to prevent its collapse and any subsequent restriction of
paint flow.
Pump
An airless spray pump is a piece of equipment which draws the
coating under pressure to the rest of the airless spray system.
Delivery rate is frequently stated in gallons per minute or liters
per minute. Fluid pressure can vary depending on pump design.
Airless spray pumps work on a fixed-ratio multiplication principle.
This means they provide a fluid pressure which is a direct
multiplication of the incoming pressure. Typical ratios are 25:1,
30:1, 40:1, depending on the size of the pump motor.
The most commonly used airless spray pumps are powered by
compressed air. Although the pumps may be driven by
compressed air, the air does not come into contact with the
paint, and is not used to atomize the paint. Pumps can also be
powered by electricity or by hydraulics.
107
108

Pump (Cont’d)
The pump unit for the set-up has different capacities and fits
many different containers from 1 liter cans to 55 gallon drums.
The principle is the same regardless of the size of the pump.
Figure below shows a drum-mounted pump to fit a 55 gallon
drum. The parts of a pump unit are illustrated at the numbers as
follows:
1. Pump (must be large enough to meet the demand of all the
equipment)
2. Regulator to control pump operation
3. Fluid outlet fittings for hose hook-up
4. Drum lid (or other appropriate lid) to mount to the container
5. Agitator for continuous movement of the coating material
6. Hydraulic lift to allow quick changes from one container to
another (only on large pumps)
109
110

Airless Spray Hose and Fittings

The fluid hose and fittings used with airless equipment are
designed to safely withstand the high pressures produced by
these systems, and to be resistant to the materials and solvents
which pass through them. The most common materials used in
airless fluid hose are nylon, teflon, and polyurethane. All airless
hoses are grounded to prevent static electricity buildup. The
airless unit itself should be grounded in hazardous environments,
such as a live gas plant or an enclosed space. Be sure the gun is
grounded through the hose connections. Improper use or handling
of hose could result in hose failure and possible personal injury.
Before each use, check the entire hose for cuts, leaks, abrasions,
bulging of the cover, or damage or movement of the couplings.
Tape or any other device must never be used to mend an airless
spray application hose. If any of these conditions exist, they must
be replaced.
111
INSPECTING PRIMER COAT APPLICATION

Spray Technique
The inspector should know the difference between good and bad
spray techniques. The inspector should also recognize faulty
spray patterns. It is not the inspector’s job to show the
contractor’s application personnel how to spray coatings. It is
important that the inspector be able to recognize when the
application technique is right or wrong. It makes his inspection
easier and more effective. The inspector must take action when
he observes an operator that is performing poorly on a critical
coating job. He can tell the crew supervisor to resolve the
problem by advising the applicator or by replacing him. However,
if poor performance is a matter of certification and reoccurs,
then the inspector can require that the applicator be retested for
proficiency and re-certified for the job.
From time to time you may hear the coating applicators talk
about different types of coats such as:
 Tack coat - which allows the application of heavier wet
coats without sagging or runs. This is a light covering coat
applied to the surface and then allowed to flash until it is
just tacky, which usually takes only a few minutes. The
finish wet coats are then sprayed over the tack coat.
 Full wet coat - a heavy gloss coat that is applied in a
thickness almost heavy enough to run. It requires skill and
practice to spray such a coat.
 Mist coat - an incomplete "spatter coat" applied with a fast
gun motion. The idea is to partially displace the air in
porous coatings like inorganic zinc primer.
112
INSPECTING PRIMER COAT APPLICATION (CONT’D)

Spray Technique (Cont’d)
The inspector should observe how the applicators adjust the
spray pattern. On conventional spray, the applicator should turn
off the atomizing valve at the gun and adjust the paint valve at
the pot. The coating stream should be a solid stream of coating
about 60.9 cm long. The air valve should then be opened to
achieve the desired pattern and finish. If the applicator adjusts
the gun using a different method, the inspector should watch for
faulty patterns.
Observe the way the applicator holds the gun. On conventional
guns, the operator should hold the gun 15 to 20 cm from the
surface. On airless guns, 25 to 30 cm is the correct distance. The
gun and the stroke should always be perpendicular to the
substrate surface. Figure 31 illustrates proper and improper
technique. A shows the right way to hold the spray gun. Both B
and C show the wrong way to hold the gun. At B, the gun is tilted
downward. This should never be allowed. At C, the stroke is
arching and uneven, which will give an uneven coating job.
Holding the gun too close to the surface, as shown in Figure 32A,
results in excess spray pressure. This incorrect technique may
apply more coating than the surface can hold. The coating will
run and sag.
Holding the gun too far from the surface, as shown in Figure 32B,
causes a condition called dryspray. Dryspray occurs when some
of the solvent evaporates before the coating reaches the surface.
The coating particles dry before reaching the surface, resulting
in a sandy finish. It will cause pinholes in the finished coating,
which will make the coating susceptible to early failure.
Excessive air pressure can cause overspray. The least amount of
air necessary should be used. Pressure may have to be increased
when the paint is thick or the hoses are longer than normal.
113
114
Figure 32.
115

Ensure that the operator uses a straight arm with a pivoting wrist
action as shown in Figure 33A. The travel of the gun should be
perpendicular to the work area shown by line ab. The trigger is
engaged just after the beginning of the stroke as shown at c and
released just before the end of every stroke as shown at d. Line
cd shows the surface that is being coated. The edges have been
coated before the flat surfaces. Be sure the movement is in a
straight line parallel to the surface stopping 2.5 to 5 cm from any
edge. Figure 33B shows an incorrect technique. Coating applied
in this manner will be too heavy causing it to sag in the middle at
point f and too light to provide acceptable coverage at the ends,
points e and g ..
116
Figure 33.
117

When coating a flat area, check that the operator starts at the
top corner and sprays within 2.5 to 5 cm of the opposite end of
the top area. Aim the first stroke at the top of the panel as shown
at a in Figure 34. On the return stroke, shown at b, ensure that
operator overlaps the first area by 50 %. Rows c and d show
successive strokes. This minimizes both overspray and a
condition call banding. Banding occurs when the stroke aiming
point is too far below the last stroke. This gives no coverage
between strokes. Point f indicates the start/stop point of each
stroke.
118
Figure 34.
119

On flat surfaces, the edges should be coated first, as shown in
Figure 35A. This will ensure that they are totally covered. On
outside corners, the gun must be held facing directly at the
corner, as shown in Figure 35B.
Figure 35.
120

Ensure that applicators spray each side of an inside corner
separately with a sweeping stroke downward as shown in
Figure 36A at point 1. The strokes at 2, 3, 4, and 5 are successive
strokes toward the outside edge of the corner. Never allow
applicators to spray directly into the corner as shown in
Figure 36B. The area at point 6 will be too thin to cover the
surface and the area at point 7 will be too thick causing runs and
sags.
Figure 36.
121

On large surfaces, ensure that the applicators spray the work in
sections. Each section should overlap by four inches as shown in
Figure 37 at the points labeled A. Work from one side to cover
the first section, B. Do the center sections next as shown at C.
Then do the other outside section as shown at D. The sections
should be about 45 cm to I m wide. Be sure the applicators
overlap the strokes horizontally as well as vertically.
Figure 37.
122

Spray Patterns
The inspector must be able to recognize faulty spray patterns and
correct the situation immediately, especially on critical coating
jobs. Recognizing faulty patterns may also help him in his
application inspection. The inspector can identify areas in
advance that may present problems and check those when the
other application tests are performed.
With conventional spray guns, applicators adjust the pattern by
turning the air control valve. This adjustment supplies more or
less air to the stream for atomizing the coating. The spray forms
a round pattern when the applicator turns the air control valve
“clockwise” (to the right). The spray forms a fan or oval pattern
when the air control valve is turned “counter-clockwise” (to the
left). The best pattern is an oval pattern. However, as the pattern
gets larger, the coating gets thinner. Figure 38A shows a correct
pattern. Figure 38B shows an incorrect pattern.
With airless spray guns, the pattern is adjusted by changing the
tip or by adjusting the tip when the applicator is using an
Adjusta-Tip.
123
Figure 38.
124

Spray Patterns (Cont’d)
There are four causes of faulty spray patterns:
 Improper air/fluid mix (conventional spray)
 Low pressure (airless spray)
 Dirty fluid tips or filters
 Wrong/worn tips and nozzles
Always ensure that equipment is operated at the lowest possible
air and fluid pressure when the applicators use conventional
spray. Ensure operators avoid pressure leaks on airless spray
systems. Ensure that the equipment is clean and in good working
order before the work starts. Ensure that the correct tip is
selected for the job, and that the tips and nozzles are not worn.
The table in Work Aid 3 identifies faulty spray patterns, along
with their causes and their remedies in conventional spray
systems. The table in Work Aid 4 provides similar information for
airless spray systems. The Addendum also has problems listed
for air spray, Page 57 and for airless, Page 61.
125
WORK AID 3. FAULTY SPRAY PATTERNS
FAULTY SPRAY PATTERNS ( CONVENTIONAL SPRAY )
PATTERN / TYPE CAUSE REMEDY
CLOGGED SIDE PORT. CLEAN OUTSIDE OF

SPRAY EXITS FROM NOZZLE WITH THINNER
CLEAN SIDE ONLY TO DISSOLVE DRIED
MATERIAL
BOOMERANG
DRIED COATING AROUND REMOVE NOZZLE AND

ONE SIDE OF AIR NEEDLE AND CLEAN
NOZZLE, LOOSE AIR OR REPLACE.
NOZZLE, BENT FLUID
NOZZLE OR NEEDLE
LARGER AT ONE END
AIR PRESSURE TOO HIGH ADJUST PRESSURES

FLUID PRESSURE TOO
LOW
HOUR GLASS
AIR PRESSURE TO ADJUST PRESSURES

LOW
FLUID PRESSURE TO
HIGH
HEAVY MIDDLE
NEEDLE VALVE CLEAN PACKING WITH

PACKING DRY, FLUD LIGHT MACHINE OIL
TIP, PACKING NUT, OR OR REPLACE, CLEAN
FLUID NOSE DIRTY FLUID TIP AREA WITH
THINNER, TIGHTEN
CONNECTIONS AND
FLUID SPITTING
FITTING
126
WORK AID 4. FAULTY AIRLESS SPRAY PATTERNS
FAULTY SPRAY PATTERNS ( AIRLESS SPRAY )
PATTERN / TYPE CAUSE REMEDY
PULSATING DELIVERY INCREASE AIR PRESSURE

( FLUID ), SUCTION REDUCE # OF GUNS, USE
LEAK SMALLER TIP, CLEAN TIP
FILTER, LOOK FOR HOSE
LEAK.
RIPPLING PATTERN
CLOGGED OR WORN CLEAN OR REPLACE TIP

FLUID TIP
HEAVY AT ONE END,

COMMA, DISTORTED
INADEQUATE FLUID INCREASE FLUID

DELIVERY, IMPROPER PRESSURE, DECREASE
FLUID ATOMIZATION FLUID VISCOSIT, CHOOSE
LARGER TIP, CLEAN
SPRAYGUN AND FILTER,
REDUCE # OF GUNS ON
HOUR GLASS OR TAILS SAME PUMP
WORN FLUID NOZZLE, REPLACE WORM NOZZLE,

FLUID TOO HEAVY FOR DECREASE FLUID
NOZZLE SIZE VISCOSITY, INCREASE
FLUID PRESSURE,
CHOOSE CORRECT
ROUND NOZZLE SIZE.
AIR ENTERING SYSTEM LOOK FOR SIPHON

FROM OUTSIDE HOSE LEAK.
FLUID SPITTING
127
COMPLETING QUALITY CONTROL FORMS

Both the Paints/Coatings and Equipment Log and the In-Process
Inspection Form must be completed during the primer coat
inspection. Take an inventory of all materials to ensure proper
labeling and storage. Log all materials in Paints/Coatings and
Equipment Log. The Quality Control Checklist must be filled out
for the compressors and spray equipment used during the primer
coat application. Remember to enter information in the daily work
log as required. Sign the log after the Crew Supervisor has
signed it.
Inspection forms are in the Addendum beginning on Page 28 - 35.
128
WORK AID 5. HOW TO COMPLETE AN IN-PROCESS INSPECTION

FORM FOR PRIMER COAT INSPECTION
Follow the steps below:
1. Fill out the Date/time block with the current date and time.
In the “to”
block put the hour the work will continue to.
2. Fill out “Prime Coat” portion of Paragraph 2, “PAINTING,”
Items 1.
through 8. Notice in item 4.1, if thinning is required you
must enter
the ratio of thinning. In item 5 you must enter the dew point
at the
start of work and at midpoint, which is usually 4 hours. You
may take
readings more often and record them if you feel it is
necessary. In item
6, enter the surface temperature of the substrate at start
and
midpoint.
Caution: If the ambient conditions do not meet those

specified, work must be put on hold.
3. Item 9 requires that you accept or reject the prime coat by

circling yes
or no.
4. Make any remarks required concerning the prime coat such
as areas
that require re-accomplishment and reasons why improper
equipment should also be noted here. Comments should be
made
about anything that might affect the protective quality of
the coating.
Even if the job is accepted, remarks should be made if there
are
discrepancies that need correcting, such as runs and sags
in a specific
area of the coating.
129
WORK AID 6. HOW TO COMPLETE PAINTS/COATINGS AND

EQUIPMENT LOG FOR PRIMER COAT INSPECTION
This Work Aid will assist the Participant in making/verifying
entries in the Paints/Coatings and Equipment Log once a Pre-
Preparation Inspection has been performed.
Follow the steps below:
1. Inspect all the materials and equipment as outlined in the
Inspection
Plan and as instructed in the Information Sheet.
2. Verify that the information in the log identifies the plant
number and
name. This information is found in a number of documents
such as the
coating history.
3. In the next two lines, verify that the equipment and
pertinent
information required about the equipment has been logged
by the crew
supervisor. Ensure that the type of fluid service required,
working
pressure and temperature have been properly entered.
These are
critical.
4. Under the Heading “COATING SPECIFICATION,” ensure that
all the
manufacturer’s data has been logged.
5. Ensure that the shelf life has not been exceeded and that
the product
is used in batch number sequence.
5. Ensure proper method of application has been logged.
6. Write in the remarks any item of discrepancy such as
excessive shelf
life, equipment discrepancies, or error in amount or color of
paint. Fill
in any coating discrepancies.
9. After all discrepancies have been noted, the inspector must
print and
sign the log. By so doing, the Inspector is verifying that the
information is correct.
130
131
PEW-105.04 PARTICIPANT GLOSSARY
additive Any substance of small quantity

placed in another substance, usually
to improve the properties (sometimes
called modifiers).
Adjusta-Tip The trade name of an adjustable

spray tip for airless spray.
agitator A mechanical device used for mixing

or stirring coating to keep the
components in suspension.
aiming point The point at which the spray pattern

is placed.
air spray Spray coating technique using

compressed air to atomize the
coating and distribute it to the
surface.
airless spray Spray coating technique that uses

high pressure to atomize the coating
and distribute it to the surface.
alkyds Synthetic resins.
applicator Person who coats surfaces.
aromatics A class of organic compounds which

contain an unsaturated ring of
carbon atoms such as benzene and
naphthalene.
banding A condition in which the coating is

not properly overlapped, leaving strips
where the coating is too thin.
binder The portion of the liquid vehicle of a

coating that does not dissolve. It
binds the pigment particles together.
bituminous coating An asphalt or coal tar coating.
132
catalyst A substance that increases the rate

of chemical reaction.
cfm cubic feet per minute – A

measurement of the flow of air
provided by exhaust blowers and fans.
chlorinated rubber Resin formed from the reaction of

rubber with chlorine to form a soluble
highly chemical-resistant coating.
coal tar A dark sticky substance used in

various coatings. It is made by
destructive distillation of bituminous
coal.
coat A film remaining after application of a

coating.
compatible The ability to mix two coatings with

each other to form a stable product
that will provide a quality coating.
cure To change the coating from an

unstable liquid to a stable solid coat.
cure agent Materials added to help cure a film.
cure time The period of time that a coating is

exposed to specific conditions in
order to reach specified property
levels.
dusting A condition in spray coating caused

by holding the gun too far from the
receiving surface. A portion of the
coating dries before reaching the
surface, making the coated surface
appear dusty or sandy.
emulsion Small droplets of one liquid dispersed

uniformly throughout a second liquid
133
epoxy resins Cross-linking resins based on the

reactivity of the epoxide group.
epoxy esters An epoxy resin partially esterfied with

fatty acids and rosin.
ester Organic salt formed from an alcohol

(base) and an organic acid by
eliminating water.
esterfication Process involving the interaction of a

compound of the hydroxyl group with
a acid, eliminating the water.
evaporation rate A measure of the length of time

required for a substance to evaporate,
compared to an equal amount of ethyl
ether.
extender Pigments used in coatings to reduce

cost, achieve durability and alter
appearance.
filler A pigment used to fill cracks and

reduce the cost of coatings (see
extender).
film One or more coats of a coating

material that cover a surface.
film former A material capable of forming a

quality film.
“flash off” Condition in which the greater part of

the more volatile solvents in a coating
of lacquer or enamel evaporate before
the application of another coat.
gloss control Use of pigments to determine how

much shine a coating has.
134
heat-cured A coating allowed to form film through

the use of heat (either physical or
chemical).
induction time The time a coating is allowed to sit

prior to application.
ingestion time The time required for the coatings to

set after they are mixed before they
may be applied.
inorganic The name of compounds that contain

no animal or vegetable matter.
inorganic coatings Coatings based on silicates or

phosphates and usually used
pigmented with zinc.
intermediate coat A second coat or a coat between the

primer and the top coat.
ketone An inorganic compound such as

acetone.
KU Krebbs Unit. This is an arbitrary

measurement of viscosity.
lacquer Coating composition based on

synthetic thermoplastic film formers
dissolved in organic solvent which
dries primarily by solvent evaporation.
latex Fine dispersion of rubber or resin in

water.
maintenance coating Coating applied over existing

coatings.
micron Measure of thickness which is use to

measure coating thicknesses
mil Measurement of thickness.

1 mil = .001 inch =25.4 microns.
135
mineral spirits A refined petroleum distillate that is

suitable for solvent and thinner.
mixing ratio The amount of each component added

together for a coatings as described
in the data sheets.
modifier See additives.
non-volatile Does not evaporate.
oil-based primers Primers that have some type of oil as

the base
oils Any number of mineral, vegetable or

synthetic oil used in coatings.
opacity The ability of a coating to hide the

substrate.
overcoat A coating that is applied over another

coating.
oxidation The curing of a film by the

introduction of oxygen into the
molecule.
perpendicular At right angles to the surface such as

holding the spray gun perpendicular
to the surface.
phenolics Thermosetting plastic or resin used in

coating.
pigment Finely ground substance that is used

in coatings to add color, texture,
durability, and other special
properties.
pot The container that coatings are

placed in to distribute to the coating
operation
136
pot life The time allowed for the coating to sit

in the pot. The length of time in
which the coating must be applied
before it must be disposed of.
practical coverage The area of coverage of a specified

amount of coating taking into
consideration losses due to wind
conditions and overspray.
prime coat The first or initial coat. This coat

usually contains the basic corrosion
inhibiting portion of the coating
system.
primer (See prime coat.) A coating compound

designed for a prime coat.
resins Polymers used in coatings.
(to) set-up The drying of a coating to a tacky

state.
silicone resin A high temperature, water repellant,

chemical resistant resin used in
coatings.
solid content The amount of solid material in a

coating usually stated as the
percentage of solids by volume (%
V.S.).
solid thermoplastic A substance that can be heated and

when cooled, returns to its original
shape.
solids by volume See solid content.
solids by weight Solids of a coating according to the

weight of the total contents.
solvent A liquid, usually volatile, used in the

manufacture and thinning of coatings.
137
solvent evaporation Curing of a coating through the

evaporation of the solvents in the
coating.
theoretical coverage The area a coating would cover if

there were no losses.
top coat The last coat or sometimes called the

finish coat.
vehicle The liquid portion of a coating in

which the pigment is suspended. It
consists of binders, thinners and
additives.
vinyls A group of tough, flexible plastics

used in coating.
viscosity The fluidity of coatings. It may be

thought of as thickness.
wet film thickness The thickness of a film immediately

after application.
wetting ability The ability of the coating, particularly

primer, to completely cover the
substrate uniformly and rapidly.
Zahn cup A cup-shaped device that measures

viscosity.
138
139

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PARTICIPANT MODULE PEW-105.

INSPECTION OF PRIMER COATING

FOR APPLICATION TO NEW STEEL

WARNING: The training materials contained in this manual are the

DATE REVISION DESCRIPTION PAGE(S) AFFECTED

12/00 COMPLETE REVISION

Exercise 1. Components of Coatings:

Work Aid 1. Curing Mechanisms for

Exercise 4. Coating Types

Exercise 8. Calculate Coverage of Coatings

Wet Film Thickness

Note: This training material has been developed using the

COATING MATERIAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

 assist in drying the coating binder

COATING MATERIAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Pigment Functions (Cont’d)

Protection of Resin Binders

COATING MATERIAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Pigment Functions (Cont’d)

Corrosion Resistance and Inhibition

COATING MATERIAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Acicular (needle-shaped) pigments

Lamellar or plate-like pigments

COATING MATERIAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Figure 1. Pigment shapes

EXERCISE 1. COMPONENTS OF COATINGS: PIGMENTS

1. Lamellar pigments are:

2. Pigments are added to coatings to:

3. Pigments are used in coatings to add:

4. An extender pigment is classified as a:

EXERCISE 1. COMPONENTS OF COATINGS: PIGMENTS (CONT’D)

5. refers to how the pigment affects the surface

6. Pigments are solid grains of material:

7. What will happen if too much pigment is added to a

8. Give an example of a particular pigment that provides

COATING MATERIAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

COATING MATERIAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Each of these factors is important in the choice of solvents

COATING MATERIAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Solvent Health Hazards

Threshold Limit Value/Time Weighted Average (TLV/TWA) - Time

COATING MATERIAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

EXERCISE 2. COMPONENTS OF COATINGS: VEHICLE

1. What does the vehicle consist of?

2. What types of materials do resins come from?

3. What properties must the binder have in order to be suitable

4. What are the reasons for adding solvents to coatings?

5. What happens to coating viscosity when solvents are

6. Explain the term “solution kickout.”

CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES

CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES (CONT’D)

Solvent Evaporation Coatings

CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES (CONT’D)

Solvent Evaporation Coatings (Cont’d)

These types of coatings can be used on pipelines, water tanks

CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES (CONT’D)

CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES (CONT’D)

CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES (CONT’D)

Oxygen-Induced Polymerization Coatings

and cause it to become detached. Oxidation-type coatings are

CURING MECHANISMS AND COATING TYPES (CONT’D)

Oxygen-Induced Polymerization Coatings (Cont’d)