INTRODUCTION

to

Structural Geology
 IMPORTANT

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Structural Geology deals with the change in shape, position
and/or volume of a rock in response to applied forces.

deformation

Deformation is the change in shape, position and/or volume

of a rock in response to applied forces. It is determined by
comparing the deformed and undeformed states.
 Types of deformation
Rigid Body Deformation
Rigid body deformation
occurs where a rock mass
moves or rotates with no
change of shape
• During translation every point in
a rock body undergoes the same
displacement. There is no
distortion and no change of
shape.
• Rotation is the same as
translation only with a rotational
component
Non-rigid Body Deformation
Strain is the change in shape of a
rock body during deformation.
Original form Strained form
Volume change occurs where a rock
body increases or decreases in volume.
In two dimensions this is a change in
area. A rock body may retain the same
shape if the volume (area) change is
the same in all directions or it may
change shape if the volume (area)
change varies.
 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Structural geology is the study of the architecture of the Earth’s

crust as this architecture has resulted from deformation.
origin
kinematics

final
geometry
Thus Structural Geology addresses:
• Origin and final geometry
• kinematics (motion of points, objects and systems)
• forces or processes during the deformation
of structure’s formation on all scales.
 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Structural geology also focuses on the:

• strength and
• mechanical properties of
crustal materials
(both now and at the time they
were formed and deformed)
The architecture of the Earth’s crust is fashioned by
large scale fault and flow movements in the crust
which may be generated in many ways:

Plate tectonics is the main driver

1. Compressional forces that concentrate stresses
at margins of colliding plates (development of
major fault systems and fold belts)
Analog modeling of contactional deformation
2. Rifting and extension of the oceanic or
continental crust
3. Gravitational collapse of volcanoes (Crater-
like calderas)
Meke Gölü (Karapınar, Konya)
Nemrut Krater Gölü (Van)
4. Deep depressions and concentrated volcanic
activity
5. Ascent of hot magma through rock from great
depths towards the Earth’s surface
A STRUCTURAL GEOLOGIST deals with a finished
product and is challenges to ask a number of
questions
 What is the structure?
 What starting material were used?
 What is the geometry of structure?
 How did the materials change shape
during deformation?
 What was the sequence of steps in
construction?
 When was the job done?
 How long did it take?
 What were the P-T conditions?
 How strong were the materials?
 Why?
 FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURES
The basic geologic structures in nature are Faults, Joints, Folds,
Cleavage, Foliation, and Lineation.

FAULTS are fractures that have

accommodated displacement in the
crust. During deformation rocks are
forced to move past one another.
faulting permits part(s) of the crust to
be shortened or lengthened.
JOINTS are also fractures or cracks along which there has been no or
negligible movement occurs parallel to the plane. Filled with minerals like
quartz, calcite, copper, etc. They are termed as VEINS when they have
accommodated an extension or lengthening of the rocks they occupy.
FOLDS are systematically curved layers and surfaces in rocks. They
occur in all size and have various shapes. They reflect shortening
and buckling of originally horizontal layers.
 FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURES
Cleavage, foliation and lineation- they form under conditions of elevated
pressure and/or temperature, through deformation and recrystallization during
ductile flow in igneous or metamorphic environments.

FOLIATION is closely spaced parallel planer alignments of mica minerals,

crystals, microfaults, pebbles, etc.
CLEAVAGE is closely spaced subparallel surfaces that impart a
splitting property to highly deformed rocks. They form in response to
shortening during folding. Most reflect discontinuities along which rock
has been partially removed by stress-induced dissolution to permit
even greater shortening of the rock mass.
LINEATION is the preferred linear TECTONITES- Rocks that acquire
alignments of elements like pervasive cleavage, foliation and/or
hornblende needles, mineral lineation are known as Tectonites;
aggregates, striations, etc... i.e. rocks have been distorted by flow
in the solid state.

The study of structures is fundamental to any historical understanding of

how rocks have responded to physical processes that have been at work
through time (Force, Pressure, Stress, Strain)