PART II

MECHANICS (CONTINUATION)

A. Work, Energy and Power

B. Momentary and Impulse

C. Circular Motion and Gravitation

D. Rotational Motion

E. Torque and Angular Momentum

F. Fluids

G. Elasticity and Oscillations

H. Waves

I. Sounds

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PART II. MECHANICS

A. WORK, ENERGY and POWER

WORK
Work is a physical quantity, a measure of the amount of change to which a force
gives rise when it acts on something.
The work done by a constant force “F” acting on an object while it undergoes a
displacement “x” is equal to the magnitude of the force contact Fx in the direction of
the displacement multiplied by the magnitude “x” of the displacement

Work is a scalar quantity with no direction.

Joule is the SI unit of work. One joule is the work done by a force of 1N acting through
a distance of 1 meter.

1 joule = 1J – 1 N. m

(Illustrative Example Problems)

 WORK DONE AGAINST GRAVITY
The work needed to lift an object of mass “m” against gravity. The force of quantity
in the object is simply its weight w= mg.

W = mgh work done against gravity

(Illustrative Example Problem)

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 POWER

Power is the rate of doing work. In doing work, like pushing a car along the road
there is two factors involved:
1. The size of the force F
The bigger the force, the greater the amount of work done.
2. The distance (x) you push the car
The further you push it, the greater the amount of work
Thus, the bigger the force, and the further it moves, the greater the amount of work
done.
If the amount of work W is done in a time interval t, the power involvement is

(Illustrative Example Problems)

 Force, Speed and Power

How much power is delivered when a constant force ‘F” does work on object
moving at the constant velocity “V”. If ө is the angle between F and V, then

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 The principle of Conservation of energy states that the total amount of energy in a
system isolate from the rest of the universe always remains constant although energy
transformations from one form to another may occur within the system.

Work done by a conservative force (such a gravity) is independent of the path taken;
such a force can give rise to a potential energy. Work done by a non-conservative force
(such as friction) varies with the path taken and is dissipated, such a force cannot give
rise to a potential energy.

B. MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE

LINEAR MOMENTUM (P)
The linear momentum of an object is the product of its mass and velocity. Linear
momentum is a vector quantity having the direction of the object’s velocity.

P = mv p = linear momentum

(Illustrative Problem)

IMPULSE

The impulse of a force is the product of the force and the time during which it
acts. Impulse is a vector quantity having the direction of the force. When a force
acts on an object that is free to move, its change in momentum equals the impulse
given it by the force.

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 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

The law of conservation of momentum states that when the vector sum of the
external forces acting on a system of particles equals zero, the total linear momentum
of the system remains constant.

∑p = p1 + p2 + p3 ……….

The thrust with a rocket is the force that results from the expulsion of exhaust gases.

Elastic and Inelastic Collision

In an elastic collision, kinetic energy is conserved
mv = 0 = m1v1 = m2v2
m1v1 = - m2v2
w1v1/g = w2v2/g
w1v1 = -w2v2
(Illustrative Example Problem)

In an inelastic collision, KE is not conserved. A completely inelastic collision is

one in which the objects stick together on impact, which results in the maximum possible
KE loss. Linear momentum is conserved in all collisions.

(Illustrative Example Problem)

ENERGY TRANSFER

Energy transfer is maximum when the colliding objects have the same mass.

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COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION
The coefficient of restitution is the ratio between the relative speeds of two colliding
objects after and before they collide. It equals to 1 for an elastic collision and to 0 for a
completely inelastic collision.

(Illustrative Example Problem)

C. CIRCULAR MOTION AND GRAVITATION

An object travelling in a circle at constant speed is said to be undergoing uniform
circular motion. The velocity of an object in circular motion continually changes in
direction, although its magnitude may remain constant. The centripetal force is the
force perpendicular to the velocity of an object moving along a curved path. The
centripetal force is directed forward the center of curvature of the path. The acceleration
that causes the objects velocity to change is called centripetal acceleration, and it points
forward the center of the objects circular path.

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NEWTONS LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION
Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that every object in the universe
attracts other object with a force directly proportional to both their masses and universally
proportioned to the square of the distance separating them.

D. ROTATIONAL MOTION
ANGULAR MEASURE
The radian is the unit of angular measure equal to 57.30o. If a circle is drawn
with center at the vertex of an angle, the angle in radian measure is equal to the
ratio between the arc of the circle cut by the angle and the radius of the circle. A
fuel circle contains 2π radians

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 (Illustrative Example Problem)

ANGULAR SPEED

The angular speed (w) of a rotating body is the angle through which it turns
per unit time.

ANGULAR ACCELERATION
The angular acceleration ά of rotating body is the rate of change of its
angular speed with respect to time.
All particles in circular motion experience centripetal acceleration not only
those particles whose angular speed changes have tangential acceleration.

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 The moment of inertia (I) of a body about a given axis is the rotational
analog of mass of the body is distributed about the axis.
(Illustrative Example Problem)
E. TORQUE AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM
The torque of the force about a particular axis is the product of the magnitude of
the force and the perpendicular distance from the unit of action of the force to the
axis. The later distance is called the momentum of the force.
τ = Іά or τ = FL

The angular momentum L of a rotating body is the product τω of its moment of

inertia and angular speed.

L=I
Work and Power W = τθ
P = τω

Angular Momentum L = Iω

(Illustrative Example Problem)

The principles of conservation of angular momentum state that the total angular
momentum of a system of particles remains constant when no net external torque
acts on it.

F. FLUIDS
When a force F acts perpendicular to the surface of area A, the pressure P extended
on the surface is the ratio between the magnitude F of the force and the area.
Because a perpendicular force is also a normal force, the pressure is the magnitude
of normal force per unit area.

P = F/A pressure = normal force

Area

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 The unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), which is equal to 1 N/m2. In English system,
the unit of pressure is lb/in2 or psi.

(Illustrative Example Problem)

Three Properties of Pressure in Fluid

1. The forces of a fluid at rest exerts on the walls of its container, and vice versa,
always act perpendicular to the walls.
2. An external pressure exerted on the fluid is transmitted uniformly throughout
the volume of the fluid.
3. The pressure on a small surface in a fluid is the same regardless of the
orientation of the surface

o PRESSURE AND DEPTH

The pressure in a fluid becomes greater with increasing depth because of

the weight of the overlying material. With volume of the tank V =Ah and
weight w = mg.

W = mg = (pv)g – pgAh

The pressure Pf of the fluid exerts on the bottom of the tank is its weight
divided by the area of the bottom.

Pf= = F/A = ω/A = pgh

The pressure difference between the top and the bottom of the tank is
proportional to the heights of the fluid container and to the fluid density.

The total pressure at a depth h in a fluid of density ρ is

P =P external + Pfluid
(Illustrative Example Problem)
Bernoulli’s Equation
Bernoulli’s equation states that quantity p + pgh + ½ρ v2 has the same value at all
points in an incompressible liquid with negligible viscosity that undergoes laminar flow.
ρ1 + ρgh1 + ½ρv2 = ρ2 + ρgh2 + ½ρv2

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 For liquid at rest:
P2 – P1 = Pg (h1-h2)

(Illustrative Example Problem)

Archimedes Principles states that the buoyant force in a submerged object is equal to the
weight of fluid it displaces.

Pascal’s Principles states that an external pressure exerted on a combined fluid is

transmitted uniformly throughout the volume.

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal friction.

The surface tension of a liquid refers to the tendency of its surface to contract in the
minimum possible area in any situation.

Flow through a Pipe

Poiseville’s Law: If the pipe is cylindrical with the length L and inside radius r1
and a fluid of viscosity ή is in laminar flow through it under the influence of a pressure
differences ∆ρ = ρ1 – ρ2 the ratio of flow is

(Illustrative Example Problem)

G. ELASTICITY and OSCILLATIONS

Simple Harmonic Motion
Simple harmonic motion is the most basic kind of oscillation. In harmonic motion
the energy vibrations goes back and forth between kinetic and potential forms. The
potential energy may be elastic rather than gravitational.
A body under stress has elastic potential energy which is equal to the work done in
deforming it.
Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is an oscillatory that occurs whenever a restoring
force acts on a body in the opposite direction to its displacement from its equilibrium

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position, with the magnitude of the restoring force proportional to the magnitude of the
displacement.
The amount x by which an elastic solid stretched or compressed by a force is
directly proportional to the magnitude F of the force, provided the elasticity is not
exceeded.
Hooke’s Law then is F = kx
where k is a constant whose value depends on the nature and dimension of the object.

The work done by a force is the product of the magnitude force and the distance
through which it acts. The average force F applied while the body is stretched from its
normal length by an amount “x” to its final length is

F = Finitial + Ffinal = 0 + kx = ½ kx
2 2
The work done in stretching the spring is the product of the average force F = ½kx
and the elongation of x.

W = PE = ½kx2 Elastic Potential Energy

(Illustrative Example Problem)

The maximum displacement A of an object undergoing harmonic motion on either
side of its equilibrium position is called amplitude of the motion.
A = Xmas

Amplitude = maximum displacement from equilibrium position

PERIOD OF SHM

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 A quantity often used in describing harmonic motion is frequency (f). The
frequency is the number of cycles that occur per unit time.

F = 1/τ the unit of frequency is hertz and 1 hertz (Hz) = 1 cycle

(Illustrative Example Problem)

POSITION, SPEED AND ACCELERATION IN SHM

Let f = frequency, A = amplitude, x = displacement, KE= ½mv2, PE = ½ kx2. At

either end of the motion, when x = +A = -A, the object is stationary and has only the
potential energy.

(Illustrative Example Problem)

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 The period T of a system undergoing SHM is the time needed for it to make one
complete oscillation. The frequency of each system is the number of complete oscillation
it makes per unit time.
The amplitude of a body undergoing SHM is its maximum displacement in either
side of its equilibrium position. The period of the motion is dependent of the amplitude.
The center of oscillation of a pivoted object is that point at which it can be stuck
without producing a reaction force on its pivot.

Thus the mass of a physical pendulum can be regarded as concentrated at a point

C, the distance L = 1/mh from the point O. This point is called the center of oscillations.
In a damped harmonic oscillation, friction progressively reduces the amplitude of
the vibrations.

Harmonic Oscillation

H. WAVES
Pulses in a string

Wave in a string
Where V = speed of waves in a
Stretched spring
m=mass
L=length
T=tension

Principles of Superposition
When two pulses travel past a point in a string at the same time, the displacement
of the string at that point is the sum of the displacements each pulse would produce there
by itself.
Periodic Waves

Wave motion involves the propagation of a change in a medium. Waves transport

energy from one place to another.

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 In a periodic wave, one pulses follows another in a regular succession. Sound
waves, water waves and light waves are almost always periodic although in each case a
different quantity varies on the wave passes. Periodic waves of all kinds usually have
sinusoidal waveform.
Three related quantities are useful in describing periodic waves.
1. The wave speed (V1) which is the distance through which each wave moves per
second
V = fλ
2. The wavelength (λ greek letter lambda), which is the distance between adjacent
crests is troughs.
3. The frequency (f), which is the number of waves that pass a given point per
second.
(Illustrative Example Problem)

The amplitude A of a wave is the maximum displacement of a particle of the

medium on either side of its normal position when the wave passes.
The correspondence between harmonic and wave motion leads to an interesting
result. A particle of a mass m that undergoes simple harmonic motion of frequency f and
amplitude A have a total energy of
E = 2π2 mf2 A2

TYPES OF WAVES

1. Longitudinal waves occur when the individual particles of a medium vibrate

back and forth in the direction in which the wave travel (soundwaves)
2. Transverse wave occur when the individual particles of a medium vibrate from
side to side perpendicular to the direction in which the waves travel. (vibrations
of a stretched string)
Waves on the surface of a body of water/on other liquid are a combination of
longitudinal and transverse waves.

STANDING WAVES (IN STRETCHED STRING)

Principles of superposition states that when two or more waves of the same nature
travel past a given point at the same time, the displacement (amplitude) at that point is the
sum of the instantaneous displacements (amplitudes) of the individual waves.
The interaction of different wave trains is called interference. Constructive
interference occurs when the resulting composition wave has an amplitude greater than that

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of either of the original waves and destructive interference occurs when the resulting
composite waves has an amplitude less than that of either of the original waves.
The condition that nodes occur at each end of the string restricts the position wave
length of standing waves to λ= 2L/n, n= 1,2,3…
The lowest possible frequency of oscillation f1 of a stretched string corresponds to
the longest wavelength λ = 2L
Thus f1 = V/A = V/2L
Higher frequency corresponds to the shorter wavelengths.
F1 = nƒLn=2,3,4….
Where ƒ1 is the fundamental frequency of the string and the higher frequencies ƒ2, ƒ3 and
so on are called overtones. The wave velocity

(Illustrative Example Problem)

RESONANCE
Resonance is the addition of energy to a system of some kind by a periodic force
that varies with a frequency equal to one of the system’s natural frequencies of vibration.
Resonance occurs when periodic impulses are applied to a system at a frequency equal to
one of its natural frequencies of oscillation.
Examples: rattling of car at a certain speeds
Earthquake wave
I. SOUNDS
Sound is a longitudinal wave phenomenon that results in a periodic pressure
variations. It is a pressure fluctuation in a solid, a liquid or a gas. Most sounds are produced
by vibrating objects.
The speed of sound in air at the sea level and at 200 C is 343 m/s, which is 1125
ft/s. This speed increases at about 0.6 m/s per 0C because the random speed of air molecules
increase with temperature and so make the passage of pressure fluctuation more rapid.

A normal car responds to sound waves with frequencies in air for about 20 Hz to
About 20,000 Hz. Sound waves whose frequencies are about 20,000 Hz are called
ultrasonic and can be detected by appropriate electromechanical devices.

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 A shock wave is a shell of high pressure produced by the motion of an object whose
speed exceeds that of sand.
The Doppler Effect refers to the change in frequency of wave where there is relative
motion between its source and an observer. The relationship between the frequency ƒL the
listener hears and the frequency ƒs produced by the same is

(Illustrative Example Problem)

SOUND INTENSITY (I)

Sound intensity is the rate at which a wave of any kind carries energy per unit cross-
sectional area. The decibel is the unit of sound intensity level or watt/m2 (where I0 = 10-12
watt/m2.
The ß sound intensity level is decibels of a sound wave whose intensity is ω/m 2 is
I is given by

(Illustrative Example Problem)

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