Citrobacter These enteric bacteria are slow lactose-

fermenting, Gram-negative rods that typically

produce yellow colonies on plate count agar.
All members can use citrate as the sole
carbon source.

C. freundii is the most prevalent species in

foods, and it and the other species are not
uncommon on vegetables and fresh meats.

1
Clostridium These anaerobic spore-forming rods are
(Gr. closter, a spindle)
widely distributed in nature, as are their
aerobic counterparts, the bacilli.

The genus contains many species, some of

which cause disease in humans (C.
perfringens food poisoning and botulism).

Mesotrophi c , psychrotrophi c , and

thermophilic species/strains exist.

A reorganization of the genus created the

following five new genera: Caloramater,
F i l i f a c t o r, M o o r e l l a , O x o b a c t e r, a n d
Oxalophagus.

2
Corynebacterium This is one of the true coryneform
(Gr. coryne, club)
genera of Gram-positive, rod-shaped
bacteria that are sometimes involved in
the spoilage of vegetable and meat
products.

M o s t a r e m e s o t ro p h s , a l t h o u g h
psychrotrophs are known, and one, C.
diphtheriae, causes diphtheria in humans.

The genus has been reduced in species

with the transfer of some of the plant
pathogens to the genus Clavibacter and
others to the genus Curtobacterium.

3
Enterobacter These enteric Gram-negative
bacteria are typical of other
Enterobacteriaceae relative to
growth requirements, although
they are not generally adapted
to the gastrointestinal tract.

4
Enterococcus More than 16 species of Gram-
positive ovoid cells that occur singly, in
pairs, or in short chains.

They were once in the genus

Streptococcus.

Two species are common commensal

organisms in the intestines of humans:
E. faecalis (90-95%) and E. faecium
(5-10%).

5
Erwinia These Gram-negative enteric rods are
especially associated with plants.

At least three species have been

transferred to the genus Pantoea, and the
former E. carotovora and E.
chrysanthemi are now in the genus
Pectobacterium as P. carovovorum and
P. chrysanthemi.

6
Escherichia This is clearly the most widely studied
genus of all bacteria.

Some strai ns cause foodborne

gastroenteritis, and E. coli is also used
as an indicator of food safety.

strain 0157:H7

7
Flavobacterium These Gram-negative rods are characterized
by their production of yellow to red
pigments on agar and by their association
with plants.

Some are mesotrophs, and others are

psychrotrophs, where they participate in the
spoilage of refrigerated meats and
vegetables.

Flavobacterium columnare causes the

cotton-wool disease on freshwater fishes.

Some of the former flavobacterial species have been

placed in the following five new genera: Empedobacter,
Chryseobacterium, Myroides, Sphingomonas, and
Sphingobacterium.

8
Hafnia These Gram-negative enteric rods are
important in the spoilage of refrigerated
meat and vegetable products;

H. alvei is the only species at this time. It

is motile and lysine and ornithine positive.

9
Kocuria A new genus split off from the genus
(after M. Kocur)
Micrococcus.

The three species (K. rosea, K.

varians, and K. kristinae) are oxidase
negative and catalase positive.

10
Lactobacillus They are Gram-positive, catalase-negative rods
that often occur in long chains.

Although those in foods are typically

microaerophilic, many true anaerobic strains
exist, especially in the colon and the rumen.

They typically occur on most, if not all,

vegetables, along with some of the other lactic
acid bacteria.

Their occurrence in dairy products is common.

Many fermented products are produced, and

are common on refrigerator-stored, vacuum-
packaged meats.

11
Lactococcus The nonmotile cocci once classified in the
genus Streptococcus have been elevated to
generic status.

They are Gram-positive, nonmotile, and

catalase-negative, spherical, or ovoid cells,
that occur singly, in pairs, or as chains.

They grow at 10◦C but not at 45◦C.

L-Lactic acid is the predominant end-

product of fermentation.

These organisms are commonly used in the

dairy industry in the manufacture of
fermented dairy products like cheeses.

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Leuconostoc Along with the lactobacilli, this is another of the
(colorless nostoc) genera of lactic acid bacteria.

They are Gram-positive, catalase-negative cocci

that are heterofermentative.

The genus has been reduced in number of species.

The former L. oenos has been transferred to a new genus,

Oenococcus as O. oeni, and the former L. paramesenteroides
has been transferred to the new genus Weissella.

These cocci are typically found in association with

the lactobacilli.

Leuconostoc is, along with other lactic acid

bacteria such as Pediococcus and Lactobacillus
responsible for the fermentation of cabbage,
making it Sauerkraut.
13
Listeria This genus of six species of Gram-positive,
nonsporing rods is closely related to
Brochothrix.

The six species show 80% similarity by

numerical taxonomic studies; they have
identical cell walls, fatty acid, and
cytochrome composition.

Commonly found in soil, stream water,

sewage, plants, and food.

Listeria are known to be the bacteria

responsible for listeriosis, a rare but
potentially lethal food-borne infection.

14
Micrococcus These Gram-positive and catalase-positive
cocci are inhabitants of mammalian skin
and can grow in the presence of high levels
of NaCl.

This genus has been reduced by the creation

o f t h e f o l l o w i n g fi v e n e w g e n e r a :
Dermacoccus, Kocuria, Kytococcus,
Nesterenkonia, and Stomatococcus.

At the present time, M. luteus and M.

lylae are the only two micrococcal
species.

Micrococci have been isolated from human

skin, animal and dairy products, and beer.

15
Moraxella These short Gram-negative rods are
sometimes classified as Acinetobacter.

They differ from the latter in being sensitive

to penicillin and oxidase positive.

The genus Psychrobacter includes some

that were once placed in this genus.

Their metabolism is oxidative, and they do

not form acid from glucose.

Moraxella bovis is the cause of Infectious

Bovine Keratoconjunctivitis; known
colloquially in the United Kingdom as 'New
Forest Eye'.
16
Paenibacillus This newly established genus comprises organisms
(almost a bacillus) formerly in the genera Bacillus and Clostridium, and
it includes the following species: P. alvei, P.
amylolyticus, P. azotofixans, P. circulans, P.
durum, P. larvae, P. macerans, P. macquariensis,
P. pubuli, P. pulvifaciens, and P. validus.

Recently, two new species were added (P. lautus and

P. peoriae).

The paenibacilli are notable for their degradation of a

number of macromolecules, their production of
antibacterial and antifungal agents, and the capacity of
some to fix N2 in association with plants.

A newly-named species was isolated from raw and

UHT-treated milk.

17
Pandoraea Although first isolated from sputa of
cystic fibrosis patients, these organisms
are related to some of the
pseudomonads.

Although not demonstrated to be

common in foods, one species, P.
norimbergenesis, has been isolated
from powdered milk.

18
Pantoea
T h i s g e nu s c o n s i s t s o f G r a m - n e g a t i ve ,
noncapsulated, nonsporing straight rods, most of
which are motile by peritrichous flagella.

They are widely distributed and are found on

plants and in seeds, in soil, water, and human
specimens.

Some are plant pathogens. The four recognized

species were once classified as enterobacters or
erwinias.

P. agglomerans includes the former Enterobacter

agglomerans, Erwinia herbicola, and E. milletiae;
P. ananas includes the former Erwinia ananas and
E. uredovora; P. stewartii was once E. stewartii;
and P. dispersa is an original species.

19
Pediococcus These homofermentative cocci are lactic acid bacteria that
(coccus growing in one plane) exist in pairs and tetrads resulting from cell division in two
planes.

It can grow in 18% NaCl.

responsible for the fermentation of cabbage, making it

Sauerkraut.

Pediococcus bacteria are usually considered contaminants

of beer and wine although their presence is sometimes
desired in beer styles such as Lambic.

Certain Pediococcus isolates produce diacetyl which gives

a buttery or butterscotch aroma to some wines (such as
Chardonnay) and a few styles of beer.

Pediococcus species are often used in silage inoculants.

Pediococci are used as probiotics, and are commonly
added as beneficial microbes in the creation of cheeses
and yogurts.

20
Proteus These enteric Gram-negative rods are aerobes
that often display pleomorphism, hence the
generic name.

All are motile and typically produce swarming

growth on the surface of moist agar plates.

They are typical of enteric bacteria in being

present in the intestinal tract of humans and
animals.

They may be isolated from a variety of vegetable

and meat products, especially those that
undergo spoilage at temperatures in the
mesophilic range.

21
Pseudomonas These are typical soil and water bacteria
(false monad) and they are widely distributed among fresh
foods, especially vegetables, meats, poultry,
and seafood products.

Although once the largest genus of

foodborne bacteria, the genus has been
delimited by the transfer of many former
species to at least 13 new genera:
Acidovorax, Aminobacter, Brevundimonas,
Burkholderia, Comamonas, Delftia, Devosia,
Herbaspirillium, Hydrogenophaga,
Marinobacter, Ral- stonia, Sphingomonas,
Telluria, and Wautersia.

P. fluorescens and P. aeruginosa remain in the

original genus.
22
Psychrobacter This genus was created primarily to
accommodate some of the nonmotile Gram-
negative rods that were once classified in the
genera Acinetobacter and Moraxella.

They are plump coccobacilli that often occur in

pairs.

Also, they are aerobic, nonmotile, and catalase

and oxidase positive, and generally do not
ferment glucose.

Growth occurs in 6.5% NaCl and at 1◦C, but

generally not at 35◦C or 37◦C.

They are common on meats, poultry, and fish,

and in water.

23
Salmonella All members of this genus of Gram-
negative enteric bacteria are
considered to be human pathogens.

It should be noted that the

salmonellae have been placed in two
species with those that affect
humans placed in the species
Salmonella enterica.

24
Serratia These Gram-negative rods that belong
to the family Enterobacteriaceae are
aerobic and proteolytic, and they
generally produce red pigments on
culture media and in certain foods,
although nonpigmented strains are not
uncommon.

S. liquefaciens is the most prevalent of

the foodborne species; it causes
spoilage of refrigerated vegetables and
meat products.

25
Shewanella T h e b a c t e r i u m o n c e c l a s s i fi e d a s
Pseudomonas putrefaciens and later as
Alteromonas putrefaciens has been placed in
this genus as S. putrefaciens.

They are Gram-negative, straight or curved

rods, nonpigmented, and motile by polar
flagella.

It is also one of the organisms associated

with the odor of rotting fish, as it is a marine
organism which produces trimethylamines
(hence the species name putrefaciens, from
putrid).

26
Shigella All members of this genus are presumed to
be human enteropathogens.

The causative agent of human shigellosis,

Shigella causes disease in primates, but not
in other mammals.It is only naturally found
in humans and apes.

During infection, it typically causes

dysentery.

The genus is named after Kiyoshi Shiga,

who first discovered it in 1898.

27
Sphingomonas There are at least 33 species of this genus
of Gram-negative bacteria that typically
produce yellow pigment, and which
formerly were in the genus Flavobacterium.

They are found in water, on certain

vegetables, and cause human disease.

Some of the sphingomonads (especially

Sphingomonas paucimobilis) also play a role
in human disease, primarily by causing a
range of mostly nosocomial, non-life-
threatening infections that typically are
easily treated by antibiotic therapy.

28
Staphylococcus These Gram-positive, catalase-positive cocci
(grape-like coccus)
include S. aureus, which causes several disease
syndromes in humans, including foodborne
gastroenteritis.

29
Stenotrophomonas These Gram-negative rods are common
(a unit feeding on few substrates)
inhabitants of plants and they have been
recovered from soil, water, and milk.

They are growth-promoting or symbionts in

the rhizosphere of several crop plants.

S. maltophila is regarded as the second most

common nosocomial bacterium after
Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

One species, S. rhizophila, has been used to

control fungal diseases in plants.

30
Vagococcus They are motile by peritrichous flagella, are
(wandering coccus)
Gram positive and catalase negative, and
grow at 10◦C but not at 45◦C.

They grow in 4% NaCl but not 6.5%, and no

growth occurs at pH 9.6.

They are found on fish, in feces, and in water

and may be expected to occur on other
foods.

31
Vibrio These Gram-negative straight or curved rods
are members of the family Vibrionaceae.

Several former species have been transferred

to the genus Listonella.

Several species of which can cause food-

borne infection, usually associated with eating
undercooked seafood.

Several species cause gastroenteritis and

other human illness.

32
Weissella
(after N. Weiss) This genus of lactic acid bacteria was
established in 1993 in part to
accommodate the “leuconostoc
branch” of the lactobacilli.

All produce gas from carbohydrates.

W. hellenica is a new species associated
with fermented Greek sausages.

The former Leuconostoc paramesenteroides is

now W. paramesenteroides, and the following
five species were formerly classified as
Lactobacillus spp.: W. confusa, W. halotolerans, W.
kandleri,W. minor, and W. viridescens.

33
Yersinia This genus includes the agent of human
plague, Y. pestis, and at least one species that
causes foodborne gastroenteritis, Y.
enterocolitica.

Infection may occur via consumption of food

products (especially vegetables, milk-derived
products and meat) contaminated with
infected urine or feces

34