9th International Conference on Probabilistic Methods Applied to Power Systems
KTH, Stockholm, Sweden – June 11-15, 2006
Decision Trees Applied to Spanish Power
Systems Applications
E. Lobato, A. Ugedo, L. Rouco, Member IEEE, F.M. Echavarren
Abstract— Decision trees are useful data mining tools designed
to face classification problems, dividing the output variable space
by the evaluation of partition rules developed from explanatory
variables. The output variable is classified by the explanatory
variables rules that give the maximum quality to the decision tree.
This paper provides a comprehensive review of the different
forecasting techniques available pointing their advantages and
disadvantages. In addition, it describes three different
applications developed in the Spanish electricity market context
faced with success employing decision trees, pointing the great
versatility of decision trees and their adequacy to be applied to
very diverse different real applications. Firstly, decision trees
have been used to predict stochastic residual demand curves in
the Spanish electricity market. Secondly, a methodology based on
decision trees has been developed to estimate the daily load
pattern of units, which have not been cleared in the daily energy
market and can be connected to alleviate voltage constraints.
Finally, decisions trees have also been applied to predict the
values of reactors and capacitors of the Spanish power system in a
short-term time scope (24 and 36 hours ahead).
Index Terms—competitive electricity market, strategic
bidding, decision trees, power system operation, security
assessment.
I. INTRODUCTION
D ifferent forecasting techniques can be applied to
forecast a magnitude of interest. The most recent
approaches have been based on a number of methods including
clustering techniques [1,2], time series [3,4] and dynamic
regression techniques [5], neural network approaches [6,7],
input-output hidden Markov models (IOHMM) [8,9] and
decision trees approaches [10,11].
Clustering techniques can be applied to forecast a specific
magnitude by a process that consists in two steps. The first
step lies on classifying the possible patterns of the magnitude
under study, using clustering algorithms such as the neural gas.
The second step consists of predicting the pattern of the
variable of interest that is expected to occur in a certain period
of time. The forecast is carried out by clustering together the
past values of the explanatory variables, objective variable and
the future estimated value of the explanatory variables. All the
objective variable values contained in the same cluster of the
estimated explanatory variables are assigned the same
E. Lobato (e-mail: Enrique.Lobato@iit.upco.es), A. Ugedo, F. M.
Echavarren, L. Rouco are with the School of Engineering of Universidad
Pontificia Comillas, C/Alberto Aguilera, 23, 28015 Madrid, Spain.
© Copyright KTH 2006
probability. This clustering technique has the advantage of
little complexity, but it is not able to discern the degree of
expectation for each scenario, giving the same probability to
all of them.
Time series and dynamic regression are linear techniques
that are appropriate to forecast in the short term time scope, by
means of identifying patterns found in the temporal evolution
of the magnitude under study and/or carrying out a regression
with explanatory variables. In the long term, the identified
patterns may change, so it is frequent the use of trends or the
construction of scenarios that consider future possibilities,
instead of using linear models [12]. Although time series and
dynamic regression are widely used techniques that perform
with enough accuracy for some purposes, they have some
limitations. On one hand, they only model linear relationships;
in this way they are not appropriate for problems that are
complex or have non-linear characteristics. On the other hand,
hypothesis of white noise is needed to develop this type of
models and to obtain prediction intervals or probabilities.
A neural network is an adaptable model, inspirited in the
human brain structure, originally developed to target
classification problems, but nowadays its use within regression
problems is worldwide recognized with enormous success
[13]. With regard to neural networks performance, they are
accurate in a wide range of complex applications, being able to
capture non-linear singularities. Regardless, neural networks
have disadvantages with respect to other automatic learning
methods, mainly due to its black box characteristic; given an
input vector of explanatory variables, is not always easy to
interpret the output.
Other forecasting methodologies have been proposed to
address switching processes, such as speech recognition or
handwriting. Namely, Hidden Markov Models suit specially
well in human behavior modeling or processes in which human
actions are involved. An extension of the Hidden Markov
Models are Input/Output Markov Models (IOHMMs) , which
have been successfully applied to different fields, such as
grammatical inference, financial return series or forecasting
electricity prices. The advantage of this type of Markov Model
for the electricity market context, is the possibility of
representing the switching nature related to the changes in
competitors’ strategies. On the contrary, interpretation of
results is difficult and the theoretical basis behind these models
and their implementation can be considered rather complex.
Finally, decision trees are designed to face classification
problems, dividing the output variable space by the evaluation
 9th International Conference on Probabilistic Methods Applied to Power Systems
KTH, Stockholm, Sweden – June 11-15, 2006

of partition rules developed from explanatory variables. The computed. This way of estimating probabilities does not
output variable is classified by the explanatory variables rules requires the assumption of specific probability distributions for
that gives the maximum quality to the decision tree. This the variables, which represents an important advantage for this
particular model has been applied in a creative way to different methodology.
purposes with success. It has been successfully employed in a Pattern 1
ExP1
number of steady state security assessment applications ρ P1 = Pattern 2
[10,14-19], financial applications [20] or electricity market
∑ Ex p
p
Pattern 3
applications [21-23]. The main advantage of decision trees is
Pattern 4
the easy interpretability of the results and the supply of
Pattern 5
probability values without assuming normal distributions. ExP1
This paper summarizes three different applications, Pattern 6
developed in the Spanish electricity market context, that the ∑ Ex
p
p Pattern 7
authors have faced successfully using decision trees two Pattern 8
different issues with encouraging results. The objective of the Fig 1: Structure of a decision tree node and computation of each pattern
paper is pointing the great versatility of decision trees and their probability.
adequacy to be applied to very diverse different real To illustrate the use of a decision tree in an estimation
applications, being very interpretable and suitable for process, a virtual simplified decision tree (Fig 2) composed of
probabilistic approaches. In the first application, decision trees seven nodes, has been built to forecast an objective variable
have been used to predict stochastic residual demand curves in that can take 8 different patterns.
Pattern 1
the Spanish electricity market. Secondly, a methodology based Pattern 2

on decision trees to estimate the daily load pattern of units. Pattern 3

Pattern 4
Finally, decisions trees have also been applied to predict the Pattern 5

values of reactors and capacitors of the Spanish power system Pattern 6

Pattern 7
in a short-term time scope (24 and 36 hours ahead). More Pattern 8
DGI < 5
detailed descriptions and results of each application can be
found in [22] (residual demands), [23] (daily load pattern of
units) and [24] (shunt reactor/capacitor forecasting).
The paper has been organized as follows. Section II reviews DGI < 2 LineStatus > 7

the structure of decision trees and practical details of the

training process. Section III is devoted to the residual demand
curve estimation process. Section IV describes the daily load
pattern estimation. Shunt reactors/capacitors are dealed in Fig 2: Decision tree to estimate the probability of each objective variable
section V. Finally, conclusions are provided in Section VI. pattern according to separation rules.

II. REVIEW OF DECISION TREES The first node contains all the learning set. The first
separation is done using the value of DGI explanatory
A decision tree is a classification data-mining tool aimed to
variable. Patterns of the objective variable 2, 3, 6, 7 and 8 go
extract useful information contained in large data sets and so it
to the left branch. The rest of the patterns are classified in the
can be used to help in decision-making processes. A decision
right one. Both left and right branches have one or more
tree is made up of a set of nodes that classify the past
separation rules. The left branch separates using only the DGI
realizations of an objective variable. Each classification is
explanatory variable. The right branch uses in addition the
achieved by separation rules according to the numerical or
value of the line status explanatory variable. As can be seen in
categorical values of the explanatory variables. The
Fig 2, the patterns are successively classified until a final node
classification rules of each node are derived from a
is reached. The final nodes of the tree usually contain more
mathematical process that minimizes the impurity of the
than one possible pattern. It is not convenient to force the tree
resulting nodes, using the available learning set. In this way,
to expand until all final nodes are pure (that is, containing a
by evaluating the separation rules using the numerical or
single pattern), because the decision tree complexity highly
categorical values of the explanatory variables a final node is
increases with respect to the information provided by the
reached. In a final node, no more separation rules are applied.
learning set causing an over-fitted tree. Conversely, if the
The final nodes can be used to estimate the probability of each
number of nodes of the tree is very poor, the tree results over-
pattern. If the node depicted in Fig 1 is the reached final node,
smoothed: the model is not complex enough to capture the
pattern P probability is computed as the division of the
basic information provided in the learning set. Over-fitting and
examples or past realizations of the pattern P contained in the
over-smoothing affect the capability of the decision tree for
node ( ExP ) by the total number of examples contained in the
predicting accurate values of new data not used to train the
node ( ∑ Ex p ). Fig 1 shows how the first pattern probability is tree. Real applications decision trees usually contain between
p
50 and 100 nodes.

© Copyright KTH 2006

 9th International Conference on Probabilistic Methods Applied to Power Systems
KTH, Stockholm, Sweden – June 11-15, 2006

When training a decision tree (that is, the construction of each curve must be sampled at the same energy vector
the separation rules), a portion of the total available data must ( q1 ,...,qn ) , in order to perform mathematical computations
be saved to assess the capability of generalization of the
between curves, or to classify them.
decision tree. The saved data is referred as the test data set,
while the portion of the total available data used to build the Price
tree is referred as the learning set. Practical figures of real
decision tree applications are to save 25% of the initial p 1i
available data to form the test set, and 75% of the total data to p ik
represent the learning set. A similar value of the efficiency
index of the tree applied to the learning data set (used to build
the tree) and the efficiency index of the tree applied to the test p in
data set (used to assess the capability of generalization of the
tree) represents a valuable measure to guarantee that the tree is
neither over-fitted nor over-smoothed. These efficiency
indexes reveal a good forecasting ability of the decision tree, q1 qk qn
at least in the short term where the explanatory factors do not Amount of energy
change. Once the tree has been built, if a significant reduction Fig 3: Sampling of the RDC at a set of n equally spaced values of energy
of the initial tree efficiency when applied with new data is
observed, new explanatory factors or market conditions may
B. Description of the methodology
need to be considered and a new analysis must be done to
update the decision tree. Fig 4 depicts the methodology for estimating the RDC
patterns , which comprises five steps.
III. RESIDUAL DEMAND CURVE ESTIMATION
Correlations study
A. Motivation y
Initial selection of variables.
The electricity industry has experienced a process of Study of the correlations
deregulation in an increasing number of countries. Within this of the explanatory variables.

deregulated framework, strategic bidding procedures must be x1

developed by a generating firm in order to maximize its total Factor Analysis
expected profit.
Depending on the number and size of the market Variables analysis.
Explanatory variables
participants, a competitive market may behave as a monopoly, reduction.
oligopoly or a perfect competitive market. Nowadays many
electricity markets behave like oligopolies. Therefore, the
Clustering
production supplied to the market by an agent may affect the
clearing price. According to the theory of supply function Residual demand curves
classification.
equilibrium [25], the residual demand curve (RDC) can be Patterns of behaviour
used to represent the influence of an agent’s production supply are obtained.

in the clearing price of the market, and therefore, in its

expected profit. The RDC of an agent is obtained subtracting Decision tree
to the total demand curve, the added supply curve of the x1 < X 1 ?
A decision tree is built, in
remaining competitors. However, due to the uncertainty in the order to obtain the probability
market conditions and the strategic behavior of the of each RDC pattern. x2 < X 2 ?

competitors, residual demand curves are not known.

Therefore, their patterns, together with their associated Model
probability need to be estimated to represent the market power Linear regresion of RDC patterns
within a stochastic strategic bidding procedure [26]. Income
Different scenarios of
residual demand (patterns)
A generation bid consists on a set of non-decreasing blocks function - probability (decision tree).
of energy-price. In the same way, demand bid curves are
formed by non-increasing blocks of energy-price. Hence, the Fig 4: Proposed methodology for estimating residual demand curves
RDC of an agent results in a non-increasing set of energy-price
blocks for each hour. A useful representation consists on Firstly, a set of possible explanatory variables of the RDC
sampling the i RDC at a vector of n equally spaced values of behaviour is selected. The initial selection of explanatory
energy ( q1 ,...,qn ) , obtaining the corresponding vector of variables is based on the knowledge and experience of the
market performance. With the selected variables a correlation
prices ( p1i ,..., pni ) , as depicted in Fig 3. It should be noted that study is performed.

© Copyright KTH 2006

 9th International Conference on Probabilistic Methods Applied to Power Systems
KTH, Stockholm, Sweden – June 11-15, 2006

Afterwards, a factor analysis of the set of explanatory B. Description of the methodology

variables is carried out. The factorial analysis is a statistical
technique that reduces the number of explanatory variables,
excluding the non-significant ones. The factor analysis will
select the minor number of factors (each factor is a linear
combination of the initial explanatory variables) that explain
most of the data variability.
Then, the set of RDC data is classified through clustering
techniques obtaining a finite number of significant patterns
that group similar behaviours of RDC.
The next step builds a decision tree that explains the
patterns of the residual demand curves attending to the values
of the factors computed in the factor analysis. Finally, taking
as input the estimations of the explanatory factors, the decision
tree is applied to obtain the probability of each RDC pattern. A
linear regression of the RDC patterns are computed to feed the
stochastic mixed-linear optimization model formulated in [26].
Fig 5 provides an overview of the methodology for
estimating the daily load pattern of a unit located in an
importing area which is involved in a congestion management
procedure. The process comprises three steps.
The first step consists on collecting and pre-processing the
data corresponding to the explanatory variables (demand-
generation imbalance and line unavailability of the electrical
area of the unit) and the objective variable (daily load profile
of a particular generating unit).
Pre - processing
24 hour generation-demand imbalance curves formation
Availability line curves formation.

IV. DAILY LOAD PATTERN ESTIMATION 0 24

A. Motivation Clustering
Power system constraints are addressed in Spain by
Clasification of each explanatory variable curves.
increasing and decreasing the generation of connected units, Clasification of the daily load curves (objective variable).
Patterns are obtained for each cluster.
and by connecting off-line ones, based on the generation bids
submitted by the generating agents into the market [27-30]. A
generator offer consists of a set of power-price blocks for each
hour of the following day. A minimum income complex
condition is also submitted in the offer. This condition consists 0 24
of a fixed income term and a variable income term. The fixed
term internalises the start up cost of the generating unit.
Decision tree
Voltage violations are more frequent than overloads in the
Spanish system, due to the lack of reactive power in the areas A decision tree is built in order to obtain the probability of each
daily load pattern.
where they occur and the existence of a big generation
imbalance between exporting and importing areas. The
generation demand imbalance of an electrical area is computed x1 < X 1 ?
subtracting to the total area demand the total area generation,
and thus, it indicates the magnitude of the energy transport x2 < X 2 ?

entering the area from the rest of the system. Voltage

constraints are solved by connecting a set of off-line
generators, and reducing an equal amount of power in the most Fig 5: Methodology of daily load pattern estimation with decision trees
expensive connected ones. The new connected generators
In the second step clustering techniques are applied to
provide reactive support in the importing areas and also inject
obtain a finite number of significant daily patterns that group
active power in the system, which reduces the power transfers
similar behaviors of both unit daily load profile and demand-
between exporting and importing areas.
generation imbalance profile of the zone.
Spanish regulation imposes that generators that increase
The final step builds a decision tree that explains the daily
their output in the congestion management procedure are paid
load patterns of the unit attending to the daily demand-
at their offer price (as detailed in the following section). In this
generation imbalance patterns obtained in the clustering step,
context, the annually income that a unit located in an area
and the daily status of the transmission lines that feed the
where voltage constraints are frequent, is highly dependent on
electrical area.
the solution of power system constraints by the System
Operator. Thus, for a market participant it is necessary to
V. SHUNT DEVICES ESTIMATION
predict when its generating units are connected, in order to
prepare the annual budget and/or decide the time and location A. Motivation
of new plant investments.
In real time operation, the system operator of a power
system needs to check the power system variables are within
their limits not only in normal operating condition, but also

© Copyright KTH 2006

 9th International Conference on Probabilistic Methods Applied to Power Systems
KTH, Stockholm, Sweden – June 11-15, 2006
when any credible contingency occurs. This verification
includes running a number of static security assessment tools
that could be very time consuming. In this context, the
necessity of forecasting power system scenarios for the
following hourly scenarios emerges, with two main objectives:
(a) to foresee potential network problems in normal operating
condition or under the occurrence of contingencies, and (b) to
anticipate preventive or corrective measures for selected
contingencies in order to comply with the N-1 or N-2 security
criteria. A convenient time scope for forecasting future
network scenarios may vary between several hours and few
days, depending on different factors such as the complexity of
the network (number of nodes, branches and generators), time
consumption of the available security assessment tools, risk
aversion sensitivity of the system operator that is on charge of
managing the transmission system or the accuracy accepted of
the predictions.
In order to anticipate the future state of the power system
different power system data must be forecasted: network
topology, active and reactive power loads, generation of each
generating unit, wind power prediction, and the position of
voltage control resources (which include the generator
voltages, transformer ratios and shunt devices). Network
topology is provided by the maintenance scheduling of the
elements of the transmission system performed by the system
operator; active and reactive power loads are easily predicted
using the different geographical temperatures; generation is
provided from the market clearing of the units and wind power
prediction and generation voltages is obtained by internal
models using time series.
Switched shunt devices (reactors and capacitors) are usually
large, and cannot be treated as continuous variables
maintaining high accuracy. Their discrete nature suggests
classification tools such as decision trees as appropriate to
predict their value.
It should be noted that decision trees have also be tried to
forecast the transformer ratio of automatic load tap changing
(ALTC) transformers, but no completely successful results
have been obtained and further research must be undertaken.
One possible reason is the almost continuous nature of their
value: although transformer taps are discrete they may be
treated as continuous due to the fact that the difference
between two successive transformer taps is usually small.
B. Description of the methodology
The methodology for estimating shunt devices comprises
three steps: identification of explanatory variables,
development of the decision tree, and evaluating the results on
the power flow results.
First the potential explanatory variables are selected. One
forecasting tree is trained for each shunt device (the Spanish
power system comprises a total amount of 51 shunt devices).
In order to build the trees, historical values of the shunt
devices and explanatory variables have been gathered for three
months. Once the shunt Mvar value of each shunt device has
been estimated, the total forecasted values of the power system
© Copyright KTH 2006
data are collected together and a power system scenario is built
and converged.
It should be noted that the objective of the forecasting tool
is not the predictions of individual shunt device values, rather
the main interest lays on the forecasting the overall of power
system scenarios. The quality of the overall forecasting tool
can be measured by comparing the predicted scenarios with
the scenarios effectively provided by the state estimator of the
energy management system. For this purpose, two comparison
indexes have been defined: the branch flow quality index and
the bus voltage quality index. A very challenging research is
being focused in detecting which of the different forecasted
power system data is responsible for the main inaccuracies
yielded by the quality indexes and analyzing their impact in
running the security assessment tools.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
This paper has proved the great versatility of decision trees
showing their adequacy to be applied to very diverse different
probabilistic real applications. The main advantage of decision
trees is the easy interpretability of the results and the supply of
probability values without assuming normal distributions.
Decision trees have been used to predict stochastic residual
demand curves in the Spanish electricity market, to estimate
the daily load pattern of units and to predict the values of
reactors and capacitors of the Spanish power system in a short-
term time scope. In addition, the paper has provided a
comprehensive a review of the different forecasting techniques
available pointing their advantages and disadvantages.
VII. REFERENCES
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 9th International Conference on Probabilistic Methods Applied to Power Systems
KTH, Stockholm, Sweden – June 11-15, 2006

[14] L. Wehenkel, I. Houben, M. Pavella, L. Riverin and G. Versailles VIII. BIOGRAPHIES

“Automatic learning approaches for on-line transient stability preventive
control of the Hydro-Québec system- Part I Decision Tree approaches”,
in Proc of SIPOWER’95, 2nd IFAC Symp on Control of Power Plants Enrique Lobato Miguélez was born in Burgos,
and Power Systems, December 1995, pp. 231-236. Spain, in 1974. He received the degree of Electrical
[15] L. Wehenkel, I. Houben and M. Pavella, “Automatic learning Engineer in 1998 and the PhD degree in 2002, from
approaches for on-line transient stability preventive control of the Universidad Pontificia Comillas, Madrid, Spain. Since
Hydro-Québec system- Part II A tool box combining decision trees with June 1998, he is a Researcher at the Instituto de
neural nets and nearest neighbor classifiers optimised by genetic Investigación Tecnológica, Universidad Pontifica
algorithms”, in Proc of SIPOWER’95, 2nd IFAC Symp on Control of Comillas. His areas of interest include analysis,
Power Plants and Power Systems, December 1995, pp. 237-242. planning, operation and economics in electric power
[16] L. Wehenkel, M Pavella, E. Euxibie and B. Heilbronn, “Decision Tree systems. He has participated in several research
based transient stability method- a case study”, IEEE Trans. on Power projects for different firms related with the energy
Systems, PWRS-9, No. 1, pp. 459-469, 1994. industry.
[17] L. Wehenkel and M. Pavella, “Decision Tree approach to power system
security assessment”, International Journal Electrical Power and Alejandro Ugedo Álvarez-Ossorio was born in
Energy Systems, Vol. 15, No. 1, Feb 1993. Madrid, Spain, in 1979. He obtained an Industrial
[18] N. D. Hatziargyriou, G. C. Contaxis, N. C. Sideris, “A decision tree Engineer degree in 2002 from Universidad Pontificia
method for on-line steady security assessment”, IEEE Trans. on Power Comillas, Madrid, Spain. Since September 2002, he is
Systems, vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 1052, May 1994. a Researcher at the Instituto de Investigación
[19] N. Hatziargyriou, S. Papathanassiou, M. Papadopoulus, “Decision Trees Tecnológica, Universidad Pontifica Comillas. His
for Fast Security Assessment of Autonomous Power Systems with large areas of interest include analysis, planning, operation
Penetration from Renewables”, IEEE Trans. on Energy Conversion, and economics in electric power systems. At the
Vol. 10, No. 2, June 1995 present time, he is participating in a research project
[20] L. C. Thomas, D. B. Edelman, J. N. Crook, “Credit Scoring and its for a firm related with the energy industry.
Applications”, SIAM (Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics),
Philadelphia, 2002.
[21] J. Villar, A. Muñoz, E. F. Sánchez-Úbeda, A. Mateo, M. Casado, A.
Luis Rouco Rodríguez (Student Member 1989,
Campos, J. Maté, E. Centeno, S. Rubio, J. J. Marcos, R. González,
Member 1991) obtained the Electrical Engineer degree
“SGO: Management information system for strategic bidding in
and the Ph.D degree from Universidad Politécnica de
electrical markets”, in Proc. 2001 IEEE Power Tech. Conference,
Madrid in 1985 and 1990. He is Associate Professor
Porto, Portugal, POM6-394. September 2001.
of the School of Engineering of Universidad Pontificia
[22] A. Ugedo, E. Lobato, A. Franco, L. Rouco, J. Fernandez-Caro, J. de-
Comillas. His areas of interest are modeling, analysis,
Benito, J. Chofre and J. de-la-Hoz, “Stochastic Model of Residual
simulation and identification of electric power
Demand Curves with Decision Trees”, IEEE/PES 2003 General
systems. He has been visiting researcher at Ontario
Meeting Proceedings, Toronto, Canada, July 2003.
Hydro, MIT and ABB Power Systems.
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Management of Voltage Constraints in the Spanish Market”, ”, IEEE
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applied to forecasting switched shunt devices within the Spanish power Madrid, Spain, in 1977. He received the degree of
system”, accepted for publication at Artificial Inteligence in Energy Electrical Engineer from Universidad Pontificia
Systems and Power AIESP 2006 ASP, Madeira, February 2006. Comillas in 2001. Since June 2001, he is a Research
[25] P. D. Klemperer and M. A. Meyer, “Price Competition vs. Quantity Assistant at the Instituto de Investigación Tecnológica,
Competition: The Role of Uncertainty.”, RAND Journal of Economics, Universidad Pontificia Comillas. His areas of interest
vol 17, 1986. pp. 618-638. include modeling, analysis and simulation of power
[26] A. Franco, E Lobato, L. Rouco, A. Ugedo, J. Fernández-Caro, J. De- systems with special emphasis in voltage stability
Benito, J. Cofre, “Optimization of the Spanish Market Séquense by a phenomena.
Price-Taker Generating Firm”, submitted for presentation at 2003 IEEE
Power Tech. Conference, Bologna, Italy, September 2003.
[27] E. Lobato, L. Rouco, M. I. Navarrete, R. Casanova, J. García-Castillejo,
G. López, “An Integrated Tool for Analysis of Power System
Constraints in the Spanish Electricity Market”, in IEEE/PES 2000
Summer Meeting Proceedings, Seattle, USA, pp.1627-1632, July 2000.
[28] E. Lobato, L. Rouco, T. Gomez, F. Echavarren, M. I. Navarrete, R.
Casanova and G. López, “Hourly Solution of Voltage Constraints in the
Spanish Electricity Market”, PES 2003 General Meeting Proceedings,
Toronto, Canada, July 2003.
[29] E. Lobato, L. Rouco, T. Gomez, F. Echavarren, M. I. Navarrete, R.
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Casanova, G. López,” Preventive analysis and solution of overloads in
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68, Nº 3, pp. 185-192, March 2004.

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