Aircraft Electrical System Chapter 2 - Generator Rev 1.1

Subject Code AKD 20403 / AAB 30403
UNIVERSITI KUALA LUMPIR Page 1
Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
Aircraft Electrical Systems
Chapter 2
Sources of Aircraft Power
- Generators
AIRCRAFT POWER REQUIREMENTS

The aircraft electrical system provides
electrical power to the onboard aircraft
electrical and avionic equipment .
Configuration of the electrical system and the
type of power it provides is dependent on the
size and category of the aircraft .
Light, single-engine aircraft:
Engine-driven DC generator or DC alternator
Require inverter for the AC voltage requirements.
Medium size aircraft have a much greater electrical

load than smaller aircraft, they employ 28-volt
instead of 14-volt systems.
Higher voltage results in a lower current requirement for a
given load.
Smaller cable size and less weight.
Require inverter for the AC voltage requirements.
Some medium size aircraft uses wild frequency
generator as supplementary power supply to the
DC generators.
115 Volts at about 370 to 430 Hz frequency range.
Mainly used for heating.
In larger, multi-engine aircraft, DC generators

are replaced with AC generators, which are
more efficient and lighter in weight.
Generate 115-volt power at 400 Hz.
High voltage allows to use smaller cable – less
weight.
High-frequency require less iron in transformer
cores and armatures – less weight.
Require TRU (Transformer Rectifier Unit) for the
DC voltage requirements.
DC Generators Theory
 Based on Faraday’s Law
Faraday’s Law state that when a conductor (loop) cut a
magnetic field or a magnetic field cut a conductor,
electromotive force (emf) is induced into the conductor.
Mechanical energy (rotation of the loop) is converted into electrical energy
(induced emf).
The magnitude of induced emf generated depend upon:
Magnetic field’s flux density or strength (B)
Length of conductor (l)
Relative motion or speed of cutting (v)
 Formula - Induced EMF (e) = B l v
 Question 1 : State the principle by which generators convert mechanical
energy to electrical energy
Page No :5
DC Generators Theory (cont’d)

 Principle of Operation
Page No :6

A – The loop lies at right angle/perpendicular to the magnetic field. No voltage
induced since the loop’s movement is parallel to the flux line.
B – As loop rotates and the cut flux lines to 90 degrees, voltage is increasingly
induced to the maximum.
C – When loop rotates from 90° to 180° , the cutting of the flux line will be
gradually reduced thus the voltage induced will drop to zero.
D – As loop rotate further to 270 degrees, the voltage induced will be maximum
again at negative value.
A - As rotation continues, the number of flux line cut decreases and induced
voltage reduces to zero thus return to the first position.
Page No :7

The direction of the
induced emf into the
conductor can be
determined by using:
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule –
Conventional flow (UK) .
Left Hand Rule – Electron flow
(US) .
Thumb – Motion.
1st Finger – Field.
2nd Finger – Current.
Page No :8
5. DC Generators Theory (cont’d)

Principle of Operation
 The output of a simple generator is alternating current (AC).
Question 2 : State the rule to be applied when you determine the direction of
induced emf in a coil.
Page No :9
 The AC is converted into direct current (DC) by a switching system known as a

commutator.
 A commutator is basically two half-cylinders and is connected to the external circuit
through stationary brushes.
Page No :10
As the loop rotate, the commutator allows one brush to contact with the conductor
that moves downward and the other brush in contact with the conductor that moves
upward as ‘B’ and ‘D’. This commutator action produces pulsating DC voltage that
varies from zero to maximum twice in one revolution.
Page No :11
Note : The direction of current through the

load at all time is from Q to P. Commutator C1 and C2 change,
but brushes +ve and –ve remain
Page No :12

Figure shows a commutator having two segments C1 and C2. It consists of a
cylindrical metal ring cut into two halves or segments C1 and C2 respectively
separated by a thin sheet of mica.
The commutator is mounted on but insulated from the rotor shaft.

The ends of coil sides AB and CD are connected to the segments C1 and C2
respectively as shown in Fig.
Two stationary carbon brushes rest on the commutator and lead current to the
external load. With this arrangement, the commutator at all times connects the
coil side under S-pole to the +ve brush and that under N-pole to the -ve brush.
Page No :13

Commutation -The positioning of the DC generator brushes so
that the commutator segments change brushes at the same time
the armature current changes direction
The brushes are positioned on opposite sides of the commutator; they

will pass from one commutator half to the other at the instant the loop
reaches the point of rotation, at which point the voltage that was induced
reverses the polarity.
•Every time the ends of the loop reverse polarity, the brushes switch
from one commutator segment to the next.
The criterion for good commutation is that it should be sparkless. i.e the
brushes should lie along magnetic neutral axis.
Page No :14

One important point to note is that, as the brushes pass
from one segment to the other, there is an instant when
the brushes contact both segments at the same time.
•The induced voltage at this point is zero. If the induced

voltage at this point were not zero, extremely high
currents would be produced due to the brushes shorting
the ends of the loop together.
•The point at which the brushes contact both commutator

segments, when the induced voltage is zero, is called the
"neutral plane
Page No :15

 To reduce the ripple of DC
voltage, more loops are
added.
 Increase in loops:
 will increase the number of
commutator segments.
 will smoothen the ripples and
generate enough DC power supply.
 does not increase the maximum
value of the generated voltage.
 The value of the generated voltage can be increased by

increasing the number of turns in each loop.
Page No :16
The AC is converted into direct current (DC) by a

switching system known as a commutator.
A commutator is basically two half-cylinders and is
connected to the external circuit through stationary
brushes.
As the loop rotate, the commutator allows one brush
to contact with the conductor that moves downward
and the other brush in contact with the conductor
that moves upward as ‘B’ and ‘D’. This
commutator action produces pulsating DC voltage
that varies from zero to maximum twice in one
revolution.
To reduce the ripple of DC

voltage, more loops are
added.
Increase in loops:
will increase the number of
commutator segments.
will smoothen the ripples and
generate enough DC power
supply.
does not increase the maximum
value of the generated voltage.
The value of the generated voltage can be increased by

increasing the number of turns in each loop.
DC GENERATOR
COMPONENTS
DC GENERATOR COMPONENTS
Field frame or Yoke
Commutator End Frames and Drive End Frames.
Field Poles or Shoes
Field Coils or Windings
Brushes
The Armature Assembly
The shaft
The iron core
Armature or output winding
Commutator
Factors Affecting DC Generators Performance
Heat
Caused by high current flow and flux changes.
Dissipated by ram air.
Generator Armature Seizure
Jamming of generator’s armature rotation due to bearing failure.
‘Quill drive’ with weak point will break to prevent damage to the
generator and gearbox.
Internal Voltage Drop
Caused by internal resistance of the generator.
Voltage regulator keeps output voltage constant under all load.
Factors Affecting DC Generators Performance

(cont)
Reactance Voltage
Caused by changing current direction at the brush.
Interpoles windings.
Armature Reaction
Distortion of the main field caused by the interaction between the
main field and the armature field produced when current flow in
the armature windings.
Compensating Windings
Interpoles Auxiliary Windings

 AFFECTING FACTORS
2. Generator Armature Seizure
 Jamming of generator’s armature rotation due to
bearing failure.
 Generator drive system can be disconnected from
the gearbox by the use of ‘quill shaft’.
 ‘ Quill shaft’
 a drive shaft that has a smaller diameter
section between the spline drive that will
shear if excessive torque is applied.
 To prevent generator damage incase of
armature seizure happen.
Page No :23

3. Internal Voltage Drop IA RA
 Caused by resistances from the EMF
armature windings and brushes TERMINAL LOAD
(E) G pd (V)
when supplying current to the
load.
 Due to this the terminal voltage
(V) is equal to “E – IA x RA.
Generator
 As load increases, the terminal Terminal pd
voltage decreases further. (V) IA RA
 In practice, a voltage regulator at Full
load
keeps the generator output
voltage constant under all load V = Generator
conditions. Terminal pd at Full
Load
Full Load Current
Page No :24

4. Reactance Voltage
 Occur when the current collapses at the
plane or point of commutation (the
brush shorting the coil) which produces
a changing field and cuts the coil to
induce back e.m.f. (reactance voltage)
 As the armature rotate to the next
commutator segment at no. 1, the
current produced on the coil is opposed
by the reactance voltage and cause
some of the current to flow to segment 2
and jump to the brush.
Page No :25

4. Reactance Voltage (cont.)
 This action is called reactive sparking
and occurs at each point of
commutation for every coil.
 Reactive sparking will cause brush
wear, commutator wear and
interference to radio system.
 One method to overcome this
problems is to use Interpoles.
Note: In some generator, interference with radio reception due to brush sparking is
prevented by installing suppressor, consists of capacitors connected between
generator casing and the main terminals.
Page No :26

 Interpoles:
 small poles located between the main
poles.
 windings are connected in series with
the armature.
 has the same polarity as the next
main pole ahead in the direction of
rotation.
 placed at the point of commutation
and carry the same current as the
armature winding.
Page No :27

 Interpoles:
 magnetic fields will attempt to induce
an e.m.f that is opposite the magnetic
fields which produce the reactance
voltage.
 Both fluxes cancel each other, thus no
reactance voltage and reactive sparking.
Page No :28

5. Armature Reaction:
 The distortion of the main field caused by the interaction between the main
field and the armature field produced when current flow in the armature
windings.
 Will cause the shifting of the brush position from Geometric Neutral Axis (GNA)
to Magnetic Neutral Axis (MNA).
Page No :29

5. Armature Reaction (cont):
 The shifting depend on the load, the higher the load the more will be the
angle of lead.
 To prevent arcing, the brush position would have to be continually adjusted.
Page No :30

 Methods used to overcome the problems are:
A. Compensating Windings
 An auxiliary winding embedded in the
slots in the main pole faces.
 connected in series with the armature
winding and its current varies directly
with load current.
 current is made to flow in the opposite direction of the armature

winding and the two magnetic fields produced will neutralize each
other thus preventing armature reaction.
Page No :31

B. Interpoles with Auxiliary or Bias Windings
 to obtain a correct interpole strength over all
load and speed ranges.
 auxiliary windings is wound on the interpole
and connected in series with the main field.
 at high speed and heavy load, the bias winding gave little opposition to the
strong interpole magnetic field , which is needed to suppress reactance
e.m.f.
 at low speed and heavy load, the bias windings will oppose the interpole
windings in reducing its strength and increase the efficiency of the
generator.
Page No :32
DC GENERATOR MAINTENANCE
To keep the generator in good working order
Carried out as specified in the aircraft maintenance schedule
Overhaul is often accomplished at the same time as engine overhaul
thus minimize aircraft down time
Carried out in accordance with CMM.
Routine Inspection and Servicing:
Inspect for security of mounting
Inspect mounting flange for oil leaks
Inspect electrical connections for cleanliness and security of
attachments
Inspect area around the commutator and brush assemblies for any
solder particles. Loose solder particles indicate generator has
overheated
Use compressed air to blow out accumulated dust around the
brushes and commutator
Inspect brushes for wear and freedom of movement
AC Generator
Main electrical power source in larger aircraft
Two major components of aircraft generator.
Rotor
Stator
Three basic types of ac generator:

Permanent Magnet Generator.
Rotor is permanent magnet
Commonly used as the first stage of brushless generator.
Rotating Armature Generator.
Same construction as DC generator except the commutator
is replaced with slip rings.
Output is taken out through slip rings (2 or 4) and carbon
brushes.
Current is passed through the stator winding to provide field
excitation. - limited output.
Output frequency, f=Np/60 where N is rotation speed and p
is pair of poles.
Rotating Field Generator

Armature stationary and magnetic field rotates
Used almost universally in aircraft systems
Only two slip rings and carbon brush requires to power
the rotating field.
Output can be 3 phase connected in Wye connection
or Delta connection.
Normal output is 115/200Volts 3 phase connected in
Wye connection.
Brushless Generator
Mostly used as aircraft AC generators.
It is a 3 unit in one generator as shown in the next figure.
permanent magnet generator
rotating field
three-phase output.
Better power to weight ratio.
Generator Control Unit (GCU) controls the output voltage,
current and frequency.
Maintenance
Very little maintenance required for AC generators.
They are normally treated as an “on condition” item.
Frequency wild generator

Frequency that varies depending on the speed of shaft rotation.
acceptable for resistive loads, e.g. de-icing, but not for many induction
motor loads
Larger aircraft having multiple generators at parallel need to ensure each
generator operating at the same frequencies.
Constant Speed Drive (CSD) is used
An electro-mechanical device installed on each engine. The input shaft is
connected to the engine gearbox; the output shaft is connected to the
generator.
The CSD is based on a variable ratio drive employing a series of
hydraulic pumps and differential gears.
CSDs can be disconnected from the engine via a clutch, either manually
or automatically.
BUT it is only possible to reconnect the clutch on the ground
Integrated Drive Generator (IDG)

Modern commercial aircraft employ a combined CSD and brushless AC
generator, in one item – the integrated drive generator (IDG).
Typical characteristics are a variable input speed of 4500/9000 r.p.m.
and a constant output speed of 12,000 150 r.p.m. The IDG on a large
commercial aircraft is oil-cooled and produces a 115/200 V 400 Hz three-
phase, 90 m kVA output.
Variable speed constant frequency (VSCF)

comprise a generator and power converter
convert variable frequencies into 115/200 V AC, 400 Hz three-phase
power supplies.


Starter Generator
It is basically a DC generator that can be used as
starter motor.
When used as starter, the battery power is
connected to the starter-gen. It will become a motor
and crank the engine.
At certain speed, the battery supply is removed and
the starter-gen will be driven by the engine and
become a generator.
Generator control unit (GCU) control this transition
smoothly.
Maintenance of starter-gen is similar to DC
genarator.
DC Alternator
An AC generator with built in full wave rectifier unit.
Internally, it is a rotating field AC generator.
Two carbon brush and slip rings are required to provide
power to the rotating field.
Excitation power is provided by the aircraft battery.
The AC voltage from the stator windings are fed to built-in
full wave rectifier. Output of the rectifier is used to power
the aircraft and charge the aircraft battery as shown in the
following figure.

Inverter
Device for converting direct current into alternating current at
the frequency and voltage required for particular purposes
On large aircraft, inverters are typically used for emergency
situations only. It convert battery power to AC during total
power failure.
On aircraft with DC generators, inverter is occupied full time
to convert the DC to AC. The AC power is required by some
instruments.
There are two basic types of inverters, rotary and static
Modern aircraft employ static inverters because of their
reliability, efficiency, and weight savings over rotary inverters

Rotary Inverter
That is, a constant-speed motor was employed to
drive an alternator that was designed to produce
the particular type of power required as shown in
the next figure.
High maintenance due to many moving parts.
Low power to weight ratio.
Less Efficient and noisy.
Output voltage tend to reduce at high load.

Static Inverter
Solid-state inverter with no moving parts as shown in the
next figure.
Higher power to weight ratio.
Stable output voltage at different loads.
Minimum maintenance since no moving parts.
Short warm up time
Quiet operation

Typical static inverter

Transformer Rectifier Unit (TRU)

Used to convert ac power to dc power
Consists of transformer and rectifier
Transformer step the voltage down while the rectifier convert
it to dc current.
In majority of aircraft, TRUs are their main dc power source.
There are single phase rectifier or three phase rectifier.
As shown below, single phase full wave rectification

produces an output at twice the original frequency
but the ac content or ripple has been reduced
The next figure shows a full wave rectification of a three

phase supply. We can see that the ripple has reduced a lot
and the frequency is six time the supply.
Maintenance
Ensure TRU has adequate cooling, ducts not
blocked
Ensure cooling air flow in the right direction.
Check that electrical connections are secured.
Functional test the overheat circuit.
Functional test the TRU
Wassalam

Aircraft Electrical System Chapter 2 - Generator Rev 1.1

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Subject Code AKD 20403 / AAB 30403

UNIVERSITI KUALA LUMPIR Page 1

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Aircraft Electrical Systems

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

AIRCRAFT POWER REQUIREMENTS

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Medium size aircraft have a much greater electrical

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

In larger, multi-engine aircraft, DC generators

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

DC Generators Theory (cont’d)

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

DC Generators Theory (cont’d)

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

DC Generators Theory (cont’d)

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

5. DC Generators Theory (cont’d)

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

5. DC Generators Theory (cont’d)

 The AC is converted into direct current (DC) by a switching system known as a

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

5. DC Generators Theory (cont’d)

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

5. DC Generators Theory (cont’d)

Note : The direction of current through the

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

5. DC Generators Theory (cont’d)

The commutator is mounted on but insulated from the rotor shaft.

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

5. DC Generators Theory (cont’d)

The brushes are positioned on opposite sides of the commutator; they

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

DC Generators Theory (cont’d)

•The induced voltage at this point is zero. If the induced

•The point at which the brushes contact both commutator

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

DC Generators Theory (cont’d)

 The value of the generated voltage can be increased by

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

The AC is converted into direct current (DC) by a

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

To reduce the ripple of DC

The value of the generated voltage can be increased by

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Factors Affecting DC Generators Performance

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Factors Affecting DC Generators Performance

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

5. DC Generators Theory (cont’d)

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

5. DC Generators Theory (cont’d)

Full Load Current

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

5. DC Generators Theory (cont’d)

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

5. DC Generators Theory (cont’d)

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

5. DC Generators Theory (cont’d)

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

5. DC Generators Theory (cont’d)