oundSchoolManual PDF

PART 101:
GROUND SCHOOL
MANUAL
Doc Ref: CD-2
Abstract
When the weight of the paper equals the weight of the airplane, only then you can go flying.

— attributed to Donald Douglas
UAV Industries (Pty) Ltd, Company Registration: 2015/119229/07

PO Box 125, Cape Town International, Cape Town, 7525
Directors: Peter C. Venn, Ken A. Venn, Martin E. Venn, Albert J.J. Wessel
1
Part 1: Administration & Control
1.1 Company Details
UAV Industries (Pty) Ltd

Co. Registration 2015/119229/07
PO Box 125
Cape Town International
7525
072 925 5688
takeoff@flyuavi.com
Rev. 1
07 March 2016 © UAVI Part 101 Ground School Manual Doc Ref: CD-2
1.2 Record of Amendments
Revision Number Date Applicable Date Entered Entered By:

Original 1 August 2015 1 August 2015 Braam Botha
Revision 1 07 March 2016 07 March 2016 Greg B Donaldson
Rev. 1
07 March 2016 © UAVI Part 101: Ground School Manual Doc Ref: CD-2
3
1.3 Index
Part 1: Administration & Control 1
1.1 Company Details 1
1.2 Record of Amendments 2
1.3 Index 3
1.4 Foreword 13
1.5 List of Effective Pages 14
1.6 Definitions and Acronyms 15
1.7 Distribution List 19
1.8 Operator’s Manual System 20
1.9 Amendments, Revisions and Distribution 20
1.9.1 General 20
1.9.2 Record of Amendments to this Manual 21
1.9.3 Handwritten Amendments 22
1.9.4 Review of This Manual 22
2 Human Factors 23
2.1 Vision 23
2.1.1 The Anatomy of the Eye 23
The Cornea 23
The Cornea is a transparent window of about 10- 12mm which seals the front of the eye and allows light to
pass through it. The surface of the Cornea is curved and some refraction of the light rays takes place. 23
Cones: Cones provide the best visual acuity or accuracy. They achieve maximum efficiency in conditions
of good illumination and become less effective in poor light and darkness. 24
The Fovea 24
The Anatomical Blind Spot 24
The Night Blind Spot 25
2.1.2 Type of Vision 25
2.1.3 Empty Field Myopia 25
2.1.4 Night Vision 26
Rev. 1
4
2.1.4.1 Colour Vision 27
2.1.4.2 Optical Illusion 27
Stress 28
2.1.5 Background 28
2.1.6 Types of stress 28
2.1.7 Categories of stress: 28
Acute stress 28
Acute Stress: is considered to be relatively short-term and occurs as a result of immediate demands placed
on the body 28
Chronic stress 28
2.1.8 STIMULATION AND STRESS 29
2.1.9 Stages of Stress 30
2.1.9.1 Anxiety: 31
2.1.10 Managing Stress 32
2.1.10.1 Recognizing a stressful condition 32
2.1.10.2 Dealing with Stress during Flight 32
2.1.10.3 Dealing with Long-Term and Chronic Stress 33
2.2 Fatigue 34
2.2.1 Introduction 34
2.2.2 Sleep 35
2.2.3 Sleeping Problems 36
2.2.4 Sleep Management 36
3 Self health assessment 37
4 Air Law and Procedures 38
4.1 Part 101 Civil Aviation Regulations 38
4.1.1 Grouping and Classifications 38
4.1.2 Directives 38
4.1.3 RPA sales or re-sales labelling 39
4.1.4 RPAS Letter of Approval 39
Rev. 1
5
4.1.5 RPAS system safety 39
4.1.6 Altimeter 39
4.1.7 Registration and marking 39
4.2 SUBPART 3: PERSONNEL LICENSING 41
4.2.1 General 41
4.2.2 Requirements for the issue of an RPL 41
4.2.3 Theoretical knowledge examination 42
4.2.4 Flight training 42
4.2.5 Skill test 42
4.2.6 Revalidation check 42
4.2.7 Pilot logbook 43
4.3 SUBPART 4: RPAS OPERATOR CERTIFICATE 44
4.3.1 General requirements 44
4.3.2 Duties of the holder of an ROC 44
4.3.3 Documentation and records 44
4.3.4 Safety management 45
4.3.5 Security 45
4.3.6 Insurance 45
4.4 SUBPART 5: RPA OPERATIONS 46
4.4.1 Weather conditions 46
4.4.2 Landing on roads 46
4.4.3 Controlled airspace 46
4.4.4 Releasing object or substance 46
4.4.5 Dangerous goods 46
4.4.6 Accidents and incidents 47
4.4.7 Consumption of alcohol and drugs 47
4.4.8 C2 operational requirements 47
4.4.9 Precautions and safety considerations 47
4.4.10 General restrictions 48
Rev. 1
6
4.4.11 Beyond visual line-of-sight 48
4.4.12 Night operations 48
4.4.13 Operations in the vicinity of people 49
4.4.14 Operations in the vicinity of property, structures and buildings 49
4.4.15 Operations in the vicinity of public roads 49
4.4.16 Radio communication requirements 49
4.4.17 Pre-flight preparation 50
4.4.18 Duties of the pilot 50
4.4.19 Flight operations 50
4.4.20 Right of way 51
4.4.21 Use of time 51
4.4.22 Flight folio 51
4.4.23 Power reserves 52
4.4.24 First aid kits 52
4.4.25 Hand-held fire extinguishers 53
4.5 SUBPART 6: MAINTENANCE 54
4.5.1 Continued system maintenance 54
4.5.2 RPAS maintenance 54
4.5.3 Issuing of an RMT authorisation 54
4.5.4 RMT logbook 55
4.6 Part 101 Civil Aviation Technical Standards (SA-CATS) 55
4.6.1 RPAS System Safety 55
4.6.2 Registration and Marking 57
4.6.3 Use of time 57
4.6.4 Practical Exercises for RPA Licence 58
4.6.4.1 General Skill Test 58
4.6.4.2 Airplane Skill Test 59
4.6.4.3 Helicopter Skill Test 60
4.6.4.4 Multi-Rotor Skill Test 61
Rev. 1
7
4.6.5 Operations close to People, Buildings and Public Roads 62
4.6.5.1 Operations in the vicinity of people 62
4.6.5.2 Operations in the vicinity of property, structures and buildings 62
4.6.5.3 Operations in the vicinity of public roads 62
4.6.6 Security 63
4.6.7 Duties of the pilot 63
4.6.8 Commercial Operations Requirements 63
4.6.8.1 Commercial Operation Requirement within an ATZ or CTR 64
4.6.9 C2 Operational Requirements 64
4.6.10 B-VLOS, Night and Operations within an ATZ or CTR 65
4.6.10.1 Additional Requirements for B-VLOS 66
4.6.10.2 Night Operations 67
4.6.10.3 Controlled Airspace 67
4.6.11 Pre-flight Preparation 67
4.6.12 Flight Folio 68
4.6.13 RMT Logbook 69
4.7 Other Applicable Laws 69
4.7.1 Aircraft Lightning Requirements 69
4.7.2 Flight & Duty 70
4.8 Airspaces and Aircraft Rights 70
5 Navigation and Flight Planning 71
5.1 Latitude and Longitude 71
5.1.1 Geographic Coordinate System 71
5.1.2 Geographic latitude and longitude 71
5.1.3 Aeronautical Chart 73
5.1.4 GPS 74
5.1.4.1 GPS Errors 75
5.1.4.2 How to prevent GPS Errors / Failures 76
5.1.5 Solar Flares 77
Rev. 1
8
5.2 Flight Planning 77
5.2.1 Site Location Assessment Considerations: 77
5.2.1.1 Airspace Considerations 77
5.2.1.2 Conflicting Aircraft or RPA Traffic 77
5.2.1.3 Hazards Identification 78
5.2.1.4 Local By-Laws 78
5.2.1.5 Obstructions 78
5.2.1.6 Restrictions 78
5.2.1.7 Habitation and Conflicting Activities 79
5.2.1.8 Public Access 79
5.2.1.9 Permission from Landowner 79
5.2.1.10 Likely Operating Site and Alternative Sites 80
5.2.1.11 Weather Conditions and Planning 80
5.2.2 Logging of flight 80
5.3 Check lists and site inspections 83
5.4 B-VLOS Flying 86
5.5 Night Flying 86
5.6 Observer 86
6 Meteorology 86
6.1 Air Density 86
6.1.1 Pressure Altitude 87
6.1.2 Density Altitude 88
6.2 Fog, Mist and Visibility 89
6.3 Wind and Gusts 90
6.3.1 Gust Front 91
6.3.2 Sea and Land Breezes 91
6.3.3 Mountain Winds 92
6.4 Clouds 93
6.4.1 Cirrus Clouds 93
Rev. 1
9
6.4.2 Cirrocumulus Clouds 93
6.4.3 Cirrostratus Clouds 94
6.4.4 Altocumulus Clouds 94
6.4.5 Altostratus Clouds 95
6.4.6 Nimbostratus Clouds 95
6.4.7 Cumulus Clouds 95
6.4.8 Cumulonimbus Clouds 96
6.4.9 Stratocumulus Clouds 96
6.4.10 Stratus Clouds 97
6.5 Thunderstorms 98
6.6 Aviation Weather Reports 98
6.6.1 Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) 99
6.6.2 TAF 102
6.6.3 Significant Changes in Forecast 102
6.6.4 METAR /TAF Abbreviations / Cloud Types 102
6.6.5 PIREP – Pilot Weather Report 109
6.6.6 AIRMETs 109
6.6.7 SIGMETs 109
7 Aviation Radio and Restricted Radio Use 111
7.1 Radio communication requirements as per the Law 111
7.2 NATO Phonetic Alphabet 112
7.3 Communication in Aviation 113
7.3.1 Communication Do’s 113
7.3.2 Communication Don’ts 113
7.3.3 Listening 114
8 Principles of Flight 115
8.1 Introduction 115
8.2 Newton’s Three Laws 115
8.3 The Forces of Flight for Airplanes 115
Rev. 1
10
8.3.1 Lift 116
8.3.2 Drag 117
8.3.3 Weight 117
8.3.4 Thrust 118
8.3.5 Controlling the Motion of Flight 118
8.3.5.1 Elevator | Pitch 119
8.3.5.2 Ailerons | Roll 119
8.3.5.3 Rudder | Yaw 119
8.3.6 The Axes of Flight 119
8.3.6.1 The Lateral Axis (Pitch) 119
8.3.6.2 The Longitudinal Axis (Roll) 120
8.3.6.3 The Vertical Axis (Yaw) 120
8.3.7 The Centre of Gravity 120
8.4 Basic Controls of an Airplane 121
8.4.1 Throttle 122
8.4.2 Elevators 122
8.4.3 Ailerons 123
8.4.4 Rudder 123
8.4.5 Control Surface Mixing 124
8.4.5.1 Aileron Differential 125
8.4.5.2 Adverse Yaw 125
8.5 Principles of flight of a Helicopter 126
8.5.1 Controlling the Helicopter 126
8.5.1.1 Main Rotor 126
8.5.1.2 Tail Rotor 127
8.6 Principles of Flight for a Multi-Rotor 127
9 Controls of the RPA 129
9.1 Radio Control Gear & Parts 129
9.1.1 Transmitter (Tx) 129
Rev. 1
11
9.1.2 Transmitter Modes 129
9.1.3 Receiver (Rx) 130
9.1.4 Servos 130
9.1.5 Speed Controllers 131
9.2 Data Link 131
9.3 Flight Controller Autopilot 132
10 TECHNICAL 133
10.1.1 Power Units 133
10.1.1.2 Brushless Motors 135
10.2 Batteries 136
10.2.1 Introduction to Batteries 136
10.2.2 NiCd Batteries 136
10.2.3 NiMH Batteries 136
10.2.4 Li-Ion Batteries 137
10.2.5 Li-Po Batteries 137
10.2.5.1 How to balance your Li-Po Battery 138
10.2.6 Discharge of Batteries 140
10.2.7 Discharge Rate of Batteries 140
10.2.8 The Basics of Series and Parallel 141
10.2.9 Milliamps per Hour (MAh) 141
10.2.10 Battery resistance 142
10.3 Gyroscopes 142
10.4 Accelerometer 144
10.5 Helicopter Parts 145
10.5.1 Main Rotor blades 145
10.5.2 Tail Rotor 145
10.5.3 Body 145
10.5.4 Landing Gear 145
10.5.5 Motors 145
Rev. 1
12
10.5.6 Swashplate 146
10.6 Multi-Rotor Parts 147
10.6.1 Frame 147
10.6.2 Gimbal 147
10.6.3 Motor 148
10.6.4 Flight Control Board 148
10.6.4.1 Telemetry 148
10.6.5 Propeller 148
11 Risk Management - Identification of the Hazards, Risk Assessment, Mitigating Procedures. 149
12 Forms and Annexures 152
12.1 Risk Assessment Matrix – Level of Risk 152
12.2 Risk Calculation Sheet 155
12.3 Security Incident Report Form 156
12.4 Risk Assessment Tool Prompt Sheet 158
12.5 Job Safety Assessment 159
12.6 Accident / Incident / Hazard Form 160
12.7 Annexure A – RPA Sales or Re-Sales Labelling (SA-CATS 101.01.7) 161
12.8 Annexure B – VLOS and E-VLOS Diagram 162
13 Aircraft and Support Material 163
14 Reference Materials 164
Rev. 1
1.4 Foreword
The Aircraft Training Organisation at UAV Industries (Pty) Ltd focuses on the training of
new and current holders of an approved Remote Pilot Licence. This handbook has been
created to assist you the student to get the most accurate information on the relevant subjects
as required by the SACAA and the Part 101 CARs and CATS. With dedicated facilities in a
secure environment with state of the art Simulators, Remote Piloted Aircraft and experienced
Instructors to assist you in becoming an expert in the Piloting of Remote Piloted Aircraft.
The Management team of UAVI are committed to setting the highest standard of training for
RPA Pilots in line with the SACAA CARs and CATS.
Safety is our Number One priority. Providing the Aviation Industry with the best pilots with
the necessary experience and knowledge to handle RPAs in any possible scenario, is not our
aim, but our Task, and one we take very seriously at UAVI.
This Handbook was created for Students and Instructors of RPAs and the RPL Course. We
have created in such a way that it focuses on various factors that can be controlled:
• Human Factors
o Vision
o Fatigue
o Stress
o Etc.
Factors that cannot be controlled, but with the right guidance and experience will know how
to react in these situations:
• Meteorology
o Rain
o Wind
o Air Density
And most importantly the principles of flight for the various types of RPAs, how to operate
them legally with in the Laws of South Africa.
We will do more than what is required by law, as we believe that you can never have enough
knowledge and experience when it comes to running a safe aviation operation.
Rev. 1
1.5 List of Effective Pages
Amendment No. Date Page/s No.

1 07 March 2016 1-166
Rev. 1
1.6 Definitions and Acronyms
For the purposes of this Manual, unless the context otherwise indicates, the following definitions shall apply:
a) Where reference in this TPM is made to the “Operator”, the “Company”, the “Air Service” and/or the “air
service provider”, it shall mean UAV INDUSTRIES.
b) For conciseness, the pronoun "he" is used throughout the text. When appropriate, "she" should be
added to or substituted for "he" or “her” for “him” or “his”.
c) When used in this TPM, the following terms shall have the following meaning:
i. “Shall”, "will", "must" or an action verb in the imperative sense means that the application of a rule
or procedure or provision is mandatory.
ii. “Should” means that the application of a procedure or provision is recommended.
iii. “May” means that the application of a procedure or provision is optional.
iv. “No person may...” or “a person may not...” mean that no person is required, authorised, or
permitted to do the act concerned.
v. "Approved" means the applicable a uthority has reviewed the method, procedure or policy in
question and has issued a formal written approval.
vi. "Acceptable" means the applicable authority or UAVI has reviewed the method, procedure or
policy and has neither objected to nor approved its proposed use or implementation.
vii. "Prescribed" means the applicable authority or UAVI has issued a written policy or methodology
which imposes either a mandatory requirement if it states "shall", "will", "must" or an action verb in
the imperative sense, a recommended requirement if it states "should", or a discretionary
requirement if it states "may".
viii. "Note" is used when an operating procedure, technique, etc., is considered essential to be
emphasised.
ix. “Aerodrome” means an aerodrome as defined in the Act and in Part 1;
x. “AMO” means the Maintenance Department or designated individual that is responsible for the
maintenance of the particular or all aircraft
xi. “Autonomous unmanned aircraft” means an unmanned aircraft that does not allow intervention
in the management of the flight;
xii. “Autonomous operation” means an operation during which an unmanned aircraft is operating
without intervention in the management of the flight;
xiii. “Background check” means the checking of a person’s identity and previous experience, including
any criminal history as part of the assessment of an individual’s suitability to implement a security
control and/or for unescorted access to a security restricted area;
Rev. 1
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xiv. “Beyond visual line-of-sight” means an operation in which the remote pilot cannot maintain direct
unaided visual contact with the remotely piloted aircraft to manage its flight and to meet separation
and collision avoidance responsibilities visually;
xv. “Command and control link” means the data link between the remotely-piloted aircraft and the
remote pilot station for the purposes of managing the flight;
xvi. “Communication link” means a digital or analogue data link to transfer voice or data between
the remote crew, air traffic control, airspace users and other data users;
xvii. “Corporate operation”, means a non-commercial operation or use of RPAS by an entity for
professional or aerial work as an aid to the conduct of business of that entity;
xviii. “Dangerous goods” means the dangerous goods as defined in Part 1;
xix. “Down-link” means the direct or indirect communication link from the RPA;
xx. “Extended visual line-of-sight” means an operation below 400 ft above ground level in which an
observer, maintains direct and unaided visual contact with the remotely piloted aircraft at a
distance not exceeding 1000 m from the pilot;
xxi. “Extended visual line-of-sight operation” means an operation below 400 ft above ground level, in
which an observer assists in the direct unaided visual contact with the RPA, in order to
facilitate separation and collision avoidance requirements;
xxii. “Model RPA’s” means a non-human-carrying RPA’s capable of sustained flight in the atmosphere
and used exclusively for air display, recreational, sport or competition activity;
xxiii. “Observer” means a trained and competent person designated by the operator who, by visual
observation of the remotely piloted aircraft, assists the remote pilot in the safe conduct of the
flight;
xxiv. “Payload” means all the elements of an RPAS that are not necessary for flight but that are
carried for the purpose of fulfilling specific mission objectives;
xxv. “Private operation” means the use of an RPA for an individual’s personal and private purposes
where there is no commercial outcome, interest or gain;
xxvi. “Radio line-of-sight” means a direct electronic point-to-point contact between a transmitter and
receiver;
xxvii. “Remote pilot” means the person who manipulates the flight controls or manages the flight
command instructions of a RPA during flight time;
xxviii. “Remote pilot station” means the station at which the remote pilot manages the flight of the
RPA;
xxix. “Remotely piloted aircraft” means an unmanned aircraft which is piloted from a remote pilot
station, excluding model aircraft and toy aircraft as defined in this Part;
xxx. “Remotely piloted aircraft system” means a set of configurable elements consisting of a
remotely piloted aircraft, its associated remote pilot station(s), the required command and
Rev. 1
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control links and any other system elements as may be required at any point during flight
operation;
xxxi. “Restricted visual line-of-sight” means an operation within 500 m of the remote pilot and below
the height of the highest obstacle within 300 m of the RPA, in which the remote pilot maintains
direct unaided visual contact with the RPA to manage its flight and meet separation and
collision avoidance responsibilities;
xxxii. “Toy aircraft” means a product falling under the definition of aircraft which is designed or
intended for use in play by children;
xxxiii. “Visual line-of-sight” means an operation below 400 ft above ground level in which the remote
pilot, maintains direct and unaided visual contact with the RPA at a distance not exceeding 500
m.
d) In this Manual any word or expression to which a meaning has been assigned in (a) the Civil
Aviation Act, 2009 (Act No. 13 of 2009) and/or (b) Part 1 of the CARs shall have that meaning, unless
the context indicates otherwise.
For the purpose of this Manual, the following abbreviations shall apply –
AD Aerodrome
AGL Above Ground Level
AIC Aeronautical Information Circular
AIP Aeronautical Information Publication
AIRAC Aeronautical Information Regulation and Control
AMO Aircraft Maintenance Organisation
ASAP As Soon As Possible
ATO Approved/Aviation Training Organisation
ATS Air Traffic Services
ATSU Air Traffic Services Unit
ATZ Air Traffic Zone
B-VLOS Beyond Visual Line-of-Sight
C2 Command and Control Link
CAMU Central Airspace Management Unit
CAR/CARs Civil Aviation Regulation(s), 2011
CATS Civil Aviation Technical Standards, 2011
CD Controlled Document
CEO Chief Executive Officer
CTR Control Zone
DCA Director of Civil Aviation
DOP Dilution of Precision
ENR Enroute
ETA Estimated Time of Arrival
ETD Estimated Time of Departure
E-VLOS Extended Visual Line of Sight
FUA Flexible Use of Airspace
Rev. 1
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ft, FT foot (feet)

GEN Generalities
GUIC Globally Unique Identification Code
HF High Frequency (3 to 30 MHz)
IATA International Air Transport Association
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation
kg, KG kilogram(s)
kHz kilohertz
km, KM kilometre(s)
kt, KT knot(s)
LOS Loss of Sight
m, M metre(s)
MCM Maintenance Control Manual
MP Management Plan
MTOW Maximum Take-Off Weight
NASRS NASA’s Aviation Safety Reporting System
NOTAM Notice to Airmen
OCC Operational Control Centre
TPM Operations Manual
PCB Printed Circuit Board
PIC Pilot-In-Command
QA Quality Assurance
QAM Quality Assurance Manager
QMS Quality Management System
QNH Altitude above sea level based on local station pressure
REM Rapid Eye Movement
RFT Radio Frequency Transmission
RLA RPA Letter of Approval
RLOS Radio Line of Sight
RMT RPAS Maintenance Technician
ROC RPAS Operating Certificate
RP:A Responsible Person: Aircraft
RPA Remotely Piloted Aircraft
RPAS Remotely Piloted Aircraft System
RP:FO Responsible Person: Flight Operations
RPL Remote Pilot Licence
RPS Remote Pilot Station
R-VLOS Restricted Visual Line of Sight
SACAA South African Civil Aviation Authority
SAPS South African Police Service
SARPS Standards and Recommended Practices
SHOR Safety Hazard/Occurrence Report
SMS Safety Management System
TPM Training and Procedure Manual
UHF Ultra High Frequency
VLOS Visual Line of Sight
VTOL Vertical Take-off and Landing
Rev. 1
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1.7 Distribution List
Copy Holder Copy No. Part Held

SACAA 1 Complete Manual
UAVI Office 2 Complete Manual
Rev. 1
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1.8 Operator’s Manual System
a) The Operator’s Manual System of UAVI consists of the following documents of which each document
forms an integral part of the other –
b) The Part 141 Training and Procedures Manual (TPM - Document Reference CD-1)
c) The Ground School Manual (Document Reference CD-2)
d) The Maintenance Control Manual (MCM - Document Reference CD-3)
e) RPAS Operator Handbook/Instructions (Document Reference CD-4).
f) The Safety Management System Manual (Document Reference CD-5).
g) The Quality Management System Manual (Document Reference CD-6).
h) Each of the abovementioned documents contains its own Amendment Record Sheet and List of
Effective Pages. Appendices to documents have separate Lists of Effective Pages to facilitate
document control.
i) All company documents and manuals are administered and controlled in terms of the QMS
j) Distribution of company manuals is controlled by means of a distribution list and receipt of manuals
acknowledged by signature by each controlled copy holder.
1.9 Amendments, Revisions and Distribution
1.9.1 General
The RP:FO shall be responsible for –

a) Amendment and revision of the contents of this manual.
i. Issuance and insertion of amendments and revisions.
ii. Ensuring the currency and validity of this manual.
iii. Issuance of individual copies of the manual and ensuring that appropriate amendments
are dispatched to the holders of such copies.
iv. Keeping the master copy (originally signed and approved by the SACAA) in a safe place.
b) Each copy volume shall be numbered individually to ensure adequate control of the copies of the
manual and amendments thereto. A complete record shall be kept by the RP:FO of the distribution
of each copy of the manual. Refer to the List of Controlled Copy Holders (Distribution List) contained
in paragraph 1.8.
Rev. 1
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1.9.2 Record of Amendments to this Manual
a) Amendments shall be made as and when required. External or variable factors may dictate that an
amendment be made and submitted in the correct manner and in adherence to the procedures
indicated below.
b) Amendments shall be required when –
i. Legislative changes require an amendment to the contents of this manual.
ii. An applicable amendment is effected to the air service license or scope of operations.
iii. Changes are effected to key personnel.
iv. By trial, misfortune, examination or practical experience the contents, a section or paragraph is
found to be a risk to aviation safety.
v. Company policies, practices and/or procedures contained herein change, or the annual SOP
review (refer to paragraph 1.10.4 below) necessitates an amendment.
vi. Changes result from the introduction of new equipment.
vii. Deemed necessary by the DCA.
c) Amendments shall be numbered sequentially. The status of a particular page shall be reflected. Each
amendment shall also have an effective date.
d) The amendment shall be forwarded to the SACAA for consideration. Two master versions of the
amendment (i.e. only those pages affected by the proposed amendment) shall be submitted. The
amendment will be accompanied by –
(i) An explanatory covering letter.
(ii) The revised List of Effective Pages.
e) The revised Amendment Record Sheet.
f) The amendment shall only become effective once approved by the SACAA. However, the effective
date (or the date of insertion) shall be null and void if the amendment is not approved by the
SACAA. An amendment shall remain a proposal until the SACAA has granted its approval.
g) On receipt of the SACAA’s approval, the RP:FO shall ensure that all the copy holders of this TPM
receive the revised pages affected by the amendment. It remains the sole responsibility of the RP:FO
to ensure that the master copy is kept current and valid. In the event of a dispute or discrepancy the
master copy shall be the only true and valid version of this manual.
Rev. 1
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1.9.3 Handwritten Amendments
a) Amendments to this manual shall, as a rule, be in the prescribed page format and in adherence to
the procedures set out above.
b) Handwritten amendments to this manual shall neither be accepted nor issued. The RP:FO shall, in the
most immediate and pressing cases, resort to circulating an internal company memo to all
personnel and students concerned. Such a memo shall have a checklist to ensure that every person
required to adhere to, to attend to or to take note of the matter at hand, has perused the said memo.
Such internal company memos shall be made permanent by effecting an amendment to the manual.
As soon as is practically possible, the RP:FO shall ensure that the memo is converted to the format of
an amendment and submitted to the SACAA for approval.
1.9.4 Review of This Manual
a) The manual shall be reviewed annually. The TPM shall be reviewed on a suitable date as decided
by the RP:FO. A revision may be delayed or even waived if the RP:FO decides that such a revision
is not necessary or critical to flight safety. The RP:FO shall keep record of all dates of revision
even if the revision did not necessitate an amendment to the manual.
b) The review may take the form of an internal audit or an external person or company may be tasked
to perform the audit.
c) The main aim of the audit of the manual will, inter alia, be to determine the following –
i. Applicability to all types of flight operations performed by UAVI.

ii. Conformity and adherence to the minimum legislative requirements.
iii. Simplicity and clarity of the content and text.
iv. Incorporation of practical experience gained in the operation of the air service.
v. Improvements to the scope and content of the manual pertaining to flight operations.
Rev. 1
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2 Human Factors
2.1 Vision
Vision is a pilot’s most important sense to obtain reference information during flight.
2.1.1 The Anatomy of the Eye
The Cornea
The Cornea is a transparent window of about 10- 12mm which seals the front of the eye and allows light to pass
through it. The surface of the Cornea is curved and some refraction of the light rays takes place.
The Iris
The iris is a coloured muscular membrane, it is situated behind the Cornea and contains the Pupil.
The iris is the first means of enabling the eye to adapt to changing light Conditions.
Poor light Conditions- The Iris expands

Bright light conditions the iris contracts
The Lens
Located behind the Iris, it is supported by Ciliary muscles which is used to change the shape of the Lens. If the
muscles relax the lens will flatten and if the muscles contract the lens will become more curved. The flattening
and contracting of the Lens is known as accommodation. Accommodation reduces with an increase in age,
this is easily corrected by using glasses or contact lenses.
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The Retina
The Retina is a soft transparent layer of light sensitive nervous tissue located at the rear of the eye.
It contains two types of photo-receptor cells, known as Rods and Cones.
Rods: The primary function of the rods is to define movement, but not in detail. Rods have no perception of
colour, only in shades varying from black to white. They are able to function in dim light and are thus instrumental
in our peripheral vision, the function of which is essential for both orientation and night vision.
Cones: Cones provide the best visual acuity or accuracy. They achieve maximum efficiency in conditions of
good illumination and become less effective in poor light and darkness.
The Fovea
The fovea is the small depression located in the exact center of the macula that contains a
high concentration of cones but no rods, and this is where our vision is most sharp.
The Anatomical Blind Spot
• There are no photoreceptors (i.e., rods or cones) in the optic disk, and, therefore, there
is no image
detection in this
area. The blind
spot of the right
eye is located to
the right of the
centre of vision
and vice versa in
the left eye. With
both eyes open, the
blind spots are not
perceived because
the visual fields of
the two eyes
overlap.
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The Night Blind Spot
The “Night Blind Spot” appears under conditions of low ambient illumination due to the
absence of rods in the fovea, and involves an area 5 to 10 degrees wide in the center of the
visual field. Therefore, if an object is viewed directly at night, it may go undetected or it may
fade away after initial detection due to the night blind spot.
2.1.2 Type of Vision
Myopia - Short Sighted

Myopia is the term used to define short sightedness. Light from a distant object forms an
image before it reaches the retina.
Hypermetropia - Long Sighted
Hypermetropia means long sight and is where the image of a nearby object is formed behind
the retina.
2.1.3 Empty Field Myopia

This is caused by flight at high altitude or at night, when there is nothing to look at.
The eyes tend to adopt a resting focus at a point approximately two metres away, with the
result that a distant object has to be fairly large in order to be seen, an obvious dangerous
situation.
This can be overcome by actively refocusing the eyes on distant objects such as the ground,
clouds or stars.
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Risk Scenarios
The list below consists of several identified conditions when the eyes often tend to turn back
to their natural resting state:
in VMC, when the sky is featureless and visibility is 10 km. or more;
in very dark night with no stimuli to focus on;
in hazy conditions;
in bright light and glare;
flying over snow covered and desert surfaces with predominantly featureless ground;
2.1.4 Night Vision
Physiologically, night vision is achieved through the rods because of their greater sensitivity.
Greatest night visual acuity is achieved by looking slightly off centre at an object, due to the
fact that the rods are concentrated away from the centre of the retina.
Maximum night efficiency of the rods may take as much as 45 minutes to achieve and
therefore a period of dark adaption may be necessary to acquire good night vision.
Factors which can adversely affect night vision include:
§ Mild hypoxia (oxygen deficiency)

§ Smoking
§ Alcohol
§ Stimulants
§ Increasing age.
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2.1.4.1 Colour Vision
Although normal colour vision is not necessarily essential for a pilot, the ability to
distinguish between:
§ Red
§ White
§ Green
2.1.4.2 Optical Illusion
False Horizon:
Common during flight in partial IMC, the pilot observes sloping cloud formations, and
obscured horizon, or at night, a combination of stars and ground lights and geometric ground
light patterns
Ground Lighting:
Many pilots, especially in unfamiliar areas, have mistaken lights along a straight road or on a
moving train, as approach or runway lights.
The effect of a Bright runway:

Pilot thinks he is close to the runway which results in a high approach
The effect of an unlit runway:

The lack of lights reduces height cues, and the pilot may fly a low approach.
Autokenesis:
Is an illusion that makes a static light appear to be moving when stared for at a period of 8-10
seconds in a dark environment.
To prevent autokenesis do not stare/focus on a source of light and expand your visual field.
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Stress
2.1.5 Background
Every person has experienced some form of stress in his or her life, but understanding exactly
what stress is and how it affects an individual’s performance can be difficult.
Stress is the logical results of an overload of mental and/or physical pressure and can be
divided into either physical or emotional stress.
2.1.6 Types of stress
Physical stress
Physical Stress can be caused by prolonged physical discomfort, such as flying an aeroplane
through turbulence for any length of time.
Emotional Stress
With regard to flying, emotional stress is considered to be the more important of the two and
can broadly categorized as either acute or chronic.
Stress inducing factors are referred to as stressors.
2.1.7 Categories of stress:

Acute stress
Acute Stress: is considered to be relatively short-term and occurs as a result of immediate
demands placed on the body
§ Bad weather
§ Diversion
§ Flight deck crisis
Acute stress is of short term, once the pilot has safely landed the aircraft this type off
stress dissipates.
Chronic stress
Chronic stress: is more serious, is longer lasting and may be brought about by both
positive and negative events, such as:
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§ Marriage
§ Death of a close friend or family member
§ Divorce
§ Concern over employment security
§ Health
§ Product of an entire lifestyle.
Both of these stress conditions will impact on flying performance.
STRESSORS:
These are generally placed in three categories:
Physical
Physiological
Emotional
Physical Stressors:
This comprises environmental conditions such as:

§ Extremes of both temperature and humidity
§ Lack of oxygen
§ Noise and vibration
Physiological
This includes:
§ Sleep deprivation (fatigue)
§ Hunger which may result in low blood sugar
§ The discomfort of full bladder or bowel
§ a mild infection i.e. flu
§ Pain i.e. chronic back ache
Emotional
These are usually associated with social interaction; problems related to the home and
work environment.
2.1.8 STIMULATION AND STRESS
It is a generally accepted principle that in order to act we need a stimulus and this
often takes the form of pressure: we tend to react to demand. The danger is not so
much the demand, but rather how we cope with it. Our ability to handle stress varies
from person to person, but there are a number of factors which determine our
response to stress.
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Health
Is the person well rested or not, in good physical condition with a happy and relaxed
external life.
Personality
Is the Person outgoing, Confident and does he make decisions easily?
Preparation:
Has the person adequately prepare for the flight. Does he know all the theory for the
exam?
Intelligence
Is the person right for the Job. Is he qualified for the job?
2.1.9 Stages of Stress
The human response to sudden demands is almost instinctive and is often referred to as the
“fight or flight” response.
The “fight or flight” reaction comprises of three stages:
§ The alarm Stage

§ The resistance Stage
§ Exhaustion
The Alarm Stage
The immediate reaction to a stressor is to either confront it or flee from it. During this stage
Adrenaline is released into the blood stream.
The adrenaline increases the heartbeat, Rate of breathing and blood sugar.
At the same time it is common to experience improved vision, hearing and muscular strength
– all of which may be necessary requirements for the solution to the alarm.
The resistance stage
The body enters a recovery cycle and starts to repair the damage either physiologically or by
adapting to the new situation (learning to cope).
No doubt you will already have recognized these first two stages simply because you will
experience them many times during your life. The third stage is more complex.
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Exhaustion Stage
If the body is continually subjected to a stressor it will remain in the alarm stage for a
prolonged period of time. Aviation related examples include bad weather experiences without
an instrument rating.
A prolonged alarm condition means that the body may eventually be unable to keep up with
the demands placed on it and exhaustion results.
In this condition control is lost because the mind is unable to keep a correct perspective of
matters and in really extreme cases the person may simply abandon themselves to fate.
2.1.9.1 Anxiety:
This is a condition which usually results from excessive worry.
Symptoms of anxiety varies from:
Unease
Fear
During Anxiety a person may perform poor and the following signs may displayed:
Physical:
Breathing difficulties, nervous twitches, dry mouth, stomach pains, headache and an
increased heart rate.
Behavioural:
Mood changes from being light-hearted to depressed, sudden changes in emotion, laughing
when it is inappropriate, being over co-operation, impatience, unwarranted anger, being rude,
smoking, drinking and even eating excessively.
Fatigue:
Being extremely tired from lack of sleep and/or over-worked and/or chronically stressed.
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Incorrect Stress Management:
Ego can be our biggest enemy. We are all subject to stress,it is a necessary catalyst for action.
This person may try to avoid stress by ignoring it, or by resorting to alcohol, drugs or
medication- which may relieve the symptoms but not the cause. Clearly they are unacceptable
methods of dealing with stress. These are referred to as defence mechanisms and may be
joined by other subconscious actions.
Stress defence Mechanisms include:
1. Giving up, accepting whatever outcome presents itself.

2. Trying to rationalize or justify incorrect actions, more often these are excuses
3. Anger which may include bad language and even violent behaviour.
4. A lack of awareness, a condition where the brain subconsciously refuses to recognize
a stressor.
2.1.10 Managing Stress
Stress is a mechanism that can sometimes over-stimulate the nervous system, making it hard
to address serious threats to flight safety. It is difficult to control stress reactions, but it is not
entirely impossible. Coping efforts can be focused toward the stressor or the emotions that
arise as a result of stress, but the most effective strategy is to deal with both the stressor and
its emotional impact. Reducing the negative emotional impact of the stressor removes many
of the barriers that obstruct the problem-solving thought processes.
2.1.10.1 Recognizing a stressful condition
The first step in effective stress management is to train yourself to be able to recognize the
symptoms that signal the onset of stress before stress levels get too high. Some common
signals of stress include:
§ Physical signs: cold, sweaty hands, headache, tension
§ Behavioral changes: irritability, anger, hurriedness, fixation
§ Speech patterns: fast, irregular, non-standard phrases, voice tone or loudness
2.1.10.2 Dealing with Stress during Flight
It is important to know how to deal with acute stress taking place during flight and chronic
stress that may have been around for an extended period of time. Reactive and preventative
measures are available to deal with both acute and chronic stress. Very often the preventative
measures help to improve the reactive coping techniques. For example, practicing a certain
emergency technique or making good backup plans are both preventive and make it much
easier to deal with an emergency. In general, preparation and practice create competence and
confidence and greatly reduce stress levels.
Some stressors that are faced in flight cannot be avoided. The best way of coping with such
stressors involves a combination of preparation (pre-flight) and during flight corrective
actions.
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a) Preparation. Knowledge of techniques for dealing with certain flight situations that are not frequently
encountered and the ability to apply these techniques proficiently is crucial for safety.
b) Anticipation. It is good to anticipate possible scenarios and threats that could arise during the flight
even if they are very unlikely to happen. This will reduce the surprise factor if something does happen.
c) Planning. Anticipating what might happen is not enough. It is important that once all reasonable
scenarios and threats are identified, a sound plan for dealing with them is made on the ground before
flight. This further increases preparedness.
d) Communication. Briefings both before the flight and during flight are critical. Letting other
crewmembers know what the plans are will ensure that everyone knows what to do and that no one will
be surprised or will do anything that is contrary to the planned action.
e) Use of Resources. Make the best use of all available resources. This includes careful distribution of
tasks at the operational area and other resources, such as equipment and ATC, which can always help
by providing information and advice that will help you deal with the situation and reduce stress levels.
f) Crew Resource Management (CRM). Share tasks to avoid work overload. If you are overloaded with
too many tasks, do not avoid asking for assistance. Learn to recognize the symptoms of stress, not only
in yourself, but also in other crewmembers. Provide advice or assistance when necessary. A good
workplace atmosphere with plenty of humour always helps, but remember there is a time to joke and a
time to be serious.
g) Time Management. Always do things in advance whenever possible. Do not leave tasks until the last
moment (e.g., asking ATC for clearances). Whenever possible, buy yourself more time to analyse and
solve a situation properly in order to avoid rushed actions.
Should you still be faced with a totally unexpected stressful situation despite all your careful
planning and anticipation, the keys are to recognize the symptoms, remain calm and buy
yourself as much time to think as possible. By understanding stress mechanisms, you can
control negative emotions resulting from stress such as irritation, nervousness and anxiety,
and attempt to solve the problem in the most logical and safe way possible.
2.1.10.3 Dealing with Long-Term and Chronic Stress
No matter how much you try to avoid certain stressful situations in flight, there will always
be personal or other stressors, some outside your control that will affect you. Some of these
stressors may be chronic. The most basic elements of coping with these chronic stress issues
are:
§ Taking care of the physical causes of stress - These includes ensuring you get enough
sleep, eat properly and exercise. Hunger and fatigue are some of the most obvious
stressors, and their effects are well-known. Climbing stairs is a very good way of
eliminating excess toxins in the body, and swimming helps restore equilibrium to the
nervous system.
§ Continuous Professional Training - Training ensures currency and competence in all
standard and emergency operating procedures.
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§ Social Interaction - It is not good to allow personal problems and worries to build up.
Communicating them with others is very important as it offers partial relief and also
because people may be able to offer help and advice.
§ Workload - Do not allow yourself to take on too many tasks and responsibilities (both
work and non-work related) that can cause work overload. It is important to learn to
say “no” when asked to do too many tasks.
2.2 Fatigue
2.2.1 Introduction
Fatigue can best describe as a very deep tiredness. It can be caused by the same factors
which lead to stress and can also be divided into two types.
a) Acute Fatigue
b) Chronic Fatigue
Acute Fatigue:
This condition can occur as a result of intense and undivided mental concentration, or
physical activity, over a prolonged period.
The cure is relatively straight forward: a restful and uninterrupted natural sleep, uninfluenced
by alcohol or drugs.
Chronic Fatigue:
This condition occurs over a longer period as a result of lack of sleep, excessive workload
stress and even jet lag. It cannot be as easily cured as acute fatigue as it requires a prolonged
recovery period.
The laws regarding flight and duty time are regarded as a preventative measure against
Chronic Fatigue occurring.
Symptoms of fatigue:
§ Obvious tiredness: slow and frequent yawning, drooping head.

§ Decreased awareness resulting in lack of response.
§ Much slower reactions.
§ Poor concentration, (Noticeable in instrument flying).
§ Forgetfulness.
§ Being unable to sleep.
§ Reduced short – term memory, (Forgetting clearances).
§ Tending to make more mistakes.
§ Loss of appetite and increased reliance on alcohol and drugs such as caffeine.
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Prevention and treatment of fatigue
The most obvious prevention and treatment for fatigue is sleep, combined with a prober
balance between work and rest.
A proper balanced diet and workout also reduces fatigue. Excessive alcohol, caffeine and
drugs should be avoided.
2.2.2 Sleep
Sleep is the body’s method of re-charging and re-vitalising itself and the amount and quality
thereof ultimately determines how well we can perform both mentally and physically.
Stages of Sleep:
REM Sleep
Non-REM Sleep
REM Sleep:
This commences some 90 minutes after falling asleep and is characterized by the
sleeper’s eyes moving rapidly back and forth beneath the closed eyelids.
REM sleep is closely related to wakefulness. This is due to the high frequency
electrical waves which occur during this condition.
REM sleep is believed to be the sleep period which rejuvenates the brain.
Non- REM Sleep:
This comprises four distinct stages:
Stage 1 is the transition between waking and sleeping and is characterized by

decreasing brain wave activity, slow rolling eye movements and can last from 1 to 10
minutes.
Stage 2 sleep continues for approximately 10 minutes during which brain wave
activity declines still further.
Stages 3 and 4 are referred to as slow wave sleep which is characterized by very low
frequency brain waves and is thought to be associated with physical restoration.
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2.2.3 Sleeping Problems
a) Nervous Insomnia
b) Situational/ Acute Insomnia
c) Clinical/ Chronic Insomnia
Nervous Insomnia:
The most common of all and probably one to which we are all subjected to at some time or
other, is based on the anticipation of some near-future event, perhaps an exciting one in the
case of children, or in the case of aircrew perhaps a major flight test.
Acute Insomnia:
This is the result of an disturbance in body rhythms also revered to as Jet Lag.
Again recovery is relatively easy which will occur within one week.
Clinical Insomnia:
This is difficulty in sleeping under normal circumstances when the body requires sleep.
The Person can be affected for weeks or months.
2.2.4 Sleep Management
Clearly, sleep is a vital part of our well-being and should be managed carefully with the
emphasis on natural sleep rather than on drug-induced sleep. This will involve proper
roistering in both normal and long distance flight operations.
The following recommendations are noted:
1. Be relaxed. Avoid strenuous physical, mental exercise, alcohol, caffeine and large
meals before going to bed.
2. Environment. A comfortable bed in a dark, quiet room at a pleasant temperature with
fresh air is ideal.
3. Maintain a regular sleep schedule.
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3 Self health assessment
I.M.S.A.F.E
• Illness - Is the pilot suffering from any illness or symptom of

an illness which might affect them in flight?
• Medication - Is the pilot currently taking any drugs
(prescription or over-the-counter)?
• Stress - Is the pilot overly worried about other factors in his
life? The psychological pressures of everyday living can
be a powerful distraction and consequently affect a pilot's
performance.
• Alcohol - Although legal limits vary by jurisdiction (0.04 BAC,
any consumption in the past 8 hours or current
impairment in the USA[2]), the pilot should consider their
alcohol consumption within the last 8 to 24 hours.
• Fatigue - Has the pilot had sufficient sleep and adequate
nutrition?
Emotion - Has the pilot fully recovered from any extremely
upsetting events such as the loss of a family member?
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4 Air Law and Procedures
4.1 Part 101 Civil Aviation Regulations
4.1.1 Grouping and Classifications
101.01.5 - RPAS shall be grouped in accordance with the classifications as prescribed in

Document SA-CATS 101.
RPA Classification
Class Line of Sight Energy (KJ) Height (ft)
Class 1A R-VLOS / VLOS E < 15 h < 400
Class 1B R-VLOS / VLOS / E- E < 15 h < 400

VLOS
Class 1C VLOS / E-VLOS E < 34 h < 400
Class 2A VLOS / E-VLOS E > 34 h < 400
Class 2B Experimental / Research
Class 3A B-VLOS E > 34 h < 400
Class 3B VLOS / E-VLOS Any h > 400
Class 4A B-VLOS Any h > 400
Class 4B Any Any Any
Class 5 Reserved Reserved Reserved
Reserved – Means to be defined in the future
h – means height above the surface
E – Energy at impact
4.1.2 Directives
101.01.6
The Director may, from time to time, issue directives which are necessary for safe and secure
operation of RPAS.
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4.1.3 RPA sales or re-sales labelling
101.01.7
No RPA shall be sold within the Republic unless the seller has, by way of a packaging label,
or in the case of the resale thereof, by way of written notification, notified the buyer of the
requirements as imposed by the Civil Aviation Authority as prescribed in Document SA-
CATS 101.01.7
4.1.4 RPAS Letter of Approval
101.02.1
(1) No RPAS shall be operated within the Republic, unless such RPAS has been issued with a
letter of approval by the Director.
4.1.5 RPAS system safety
101.02.2
(1) An applicant for the issue of an RLA, shall provide the Director with –
(a) documentation regarding the standard to which the RPAS was designed; or
(b) equivalent documentation that demonstrates a level of safety acceptable to the
Director; or
(c) documentation demonstrating system safety as prescribed in Document SA-
CATS 101.02.2
4.1.6 Altimeter
101.02.3
(1) Except as provided in sub-regulation (2), an RPA shall be equipped with an altimetry
system or equivalent that is capable of displaying to the operator on the RPS, the height of the
RPA above the surface.
(2) An RPA that is not equipped with an altimetry system or equivalent, required by sub-
regulation (1) shall be operated under R-VLOS only.
4.1.7 Registration and marking
101.02.4
(1) No RPA shall be operated within the Republic, unless such RPA has been issued with a
certificate of registration by the Director.
(2) An RPA registered on the South African Civil Aircraft Register shall be deemed to have
South African nationality.
(3) An application for a certificate of registration shall be –
(a) made on the prescribed form; and
(b) accompanied by the fee prescribed in Part 187.
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(4) The Director shall register an RPA, issue a certificate of registration and a registration
mark if the applicant complies with the requirements of this regulation. The Director shall
maintain a register of all RPAs registered in terms of this regulation.
(5) The format and specification of the nationality mark designated for use on RPA shall be
as prescribed in Document SA-CATS 101.02.4
(6) If the holder of a certificate of registration transfers to another person ownership of the
RPA, such holder shall, within 30 days, notify the Director of such transfer on the appropriate
form.
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4.2 SUBPART 3: PERSONNEL LICENSING
4.2.1 General
101.03.1
(1) No person shall act as pilot of an RPA, except when undergoing a skill test or
receiving flight instruction, unless he or she is in possession of a valid Remote Pilot License
(RPL) in the relevant category.
(2) A Remote Pilot License may be issued for the following categories:
(a) RPL (A): Remote Pilot License (Aeroplane);
(b) RPL (H): Remote Pilot License (Helicopter);
(c) RPL (MR): Remote Pilot License (Multi-rotor).
(3) The following ratings may be endorsed on the license:
(a) VLOS: visual line-of-sight operations;
(b) E-VLOS: extended visual line-of-sight operations;
(c) B-VLOS: beyond visual line-of-sight operations;
4.2.2 Requirements for the issue of an RPL
101.03.2
(1) An applicant for an RPL shall –
(a) not be less than 18 years of age;
(b) (i) hold at least a valid Class 4 medical certificate for B-VLOS operations or
operations involving RPAS classified as Class 3 or higher; or
(ii) for all other classes or types of operation, submit a self-declared medical assessment
report as prescribed in Document SA-CATS 101 for operations involving RPAS
classified as Class 2 or lower: Provided that an applicant who cannot meet the
requirements of the medical assessment shall submit a Class 4 medical certificate;
(c) hold at least a restricted Certificate of Proficiency in Radiotelephony (Aeronautical);
(d) provide proof of the ability to speak the English language at proficiency level 4 or higher, as
prescribed in Part 61;
(e) have completed the flight training
(f) have passed the theoretical knowledge examination
(g) have passed the skill test with a Designated Examiner
(2) An application for an RPL must be made to the Director on the appropriate form within 30 days of
completing the practical skill test.
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4.2.3 Theoretical knowledge examination
101.03.3
(1) The theoretical knowledge examination applicable to the category of licence sought
must be passed within 90 days preceding the skill test.
(2) The theoretical knowledge examination shall be conducted at a SACAA accredited
test center, except as provided for in sub-regulation (4).
(3) The syllabi as well as other requirements for the examination shall be as prescribed in
(4) Approval shall be obtained from the Director before any foreign theoretical training or
theoretical knowledge examination is undertaken if such training or knowledge is to be
accredited towards a South African RPL.
4.2.4 Flight training
101.03.4
(1) The flight training syllabi for the different categories of licence shall be as prescribed
in Document SA-CATS 101.
(2) The organisation conducting the training shall issue a certificate stating that flight
training has been successfully completed.
(3) All flight training shall be conducted with an aircraft of the same category for which
the licence is sought.
(4) Approval shall be obtained from the Director before any foreign flight training is
undertaken if such training is to be accredited towards a South African RPL.
4.2.5 Skill test
101.03.5
(1) The skill test for an RPL shall be conducted within 60 days of completing the flight
training by an examiner accredited by the SACAA.
(2) The skill test shall be conducted with an aircraft of the same category for which the
licence is sought.
(3) The holder of the RPL shall submit the skill test form to the SACAA within 30 days
of the skill test.
(4) The skill test shall include the applicable sections for the E-VLOS and B-VLOS
ratings if one or more of these ratings is sought.
4.2.6 Revalidation check
101.03.6
(1) An RPL is valid to the last day of the 24th month from the date of issue.
(2) A revalidation check shall be conducted in the 90 day period before the expiry date of
the validity period by an examiner accredited by the SACAA. The revalidation shall be valid
from the expiry date for a period of 24 months.
(3) The revalidation check shall be conducted with an aircraft of the same category for
which the license is held.
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(4) If a revalidation check is completed more than 90 days before expiry or within 36
months of the expiry of an RPL, the RPL shall be re-issued from the date of the check for the
normal 24 month period.
(5) The holder of an RPL shall submit the revalidation check form to the SACAA within
30 days of the revalidation check.
4.2.7 Pilot logbook
101.03.7
(1) The holder of an RPL must maintain in a pilot logbook a record of all his or her flight
time, instrument time, simulation time and instruction time.
(2) Where electronic logbooks are used, the electronic data must be printed on paper at least
every 90 days and the printed pages filed sequentially in a binder.
(3) The pilot must retain all pilot logbooks for at least 60 months from the date that person
no longer holds a valid pilot licence.
(4) The holder of an RPL must make the logbook available for inspection upon a reasonable
request by an authorised officer, inspector or authorised person.
Hand out – Copy of Pilot Logbook and do practical completion of form as per CARs &
CATS. .
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4.3 SUBPART 4: RPAS OPERATOR CERTIFICATE
4.3.1 General requirements
101.04.1
(1) No person shall operate an RPAS in terms of this Part unless such person is the holder of
–
(a) in the case of commercial, corporate and non-profit operations, a valid ROC
including the operations specifications attached thereto; and
(b) in the case of commercial operations, an air services licence issued in terms of
the Air Services Licensing Act, 1990 (Act No. 115 of 1990).
4.3.2 Duties of the holder of an ROC
101.04.4
(1) The holder of an ROC shall –
(a) conduct the activities granted by such certificate and ensure compliance with
the provisions authorised therein;
(b) ensure compliance with any other requirements which the Director may
impose;
(c) report to the Director any changes directly or indirectly related to the ROC
that may affect continued validity of the certificate or approval or safety of
persons and property; and
(d) ensure that the RPAS operation are conducted in a safe manner.
(2) For operations approved for E-VLOS, the operator shall –
(a) make use of at least one observer who shall not be younger than 17 years of
age; and
(b) ensure that each observer has completed the training prescribed by the
operator and as approved by the Director in their operations manual.
4.3.3 Documentation and records
101.04.6
(1) An RPAS operator shall establish a system of record-keeping that allows adequate storage
and reliable traceability of all activities developed, covering in particular –
(a) lines of responsibility and accountability;
(b) safety policy;
(c) identification of aviation safety hazards encountered by the activities of the
operator, assessment and mitigation of the associated risks, including taking
actions and verifying their effectiveness
(d) personnel training and competence
(e) quality, safety and security management records.
(2) The format of the records shall be specified in the ROC holder’s operations manual.
(3) Records shall be stored for at least 5 years in a manner that ensures protection from
damage, alteration and theft.
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4.3.4 Safety management
101.04.7
(1) The holder of an ROC shall establish a safety management system commensurate
with the size of the organisation or entity and the complexity of its operations.
(2) The safety management system established in terms of sub-regulation (1) shall
include –
(a) a process to identify actual and potential safety hazards and assess the associated risks;
(b) a process to develop and implement remedial action necessary to maintain an acceptable level
of safety;
(c) provision for continuous and regular assessment of the appropriateness and effectiveness of
safety management activities.
4.3.5 Security
101.04.8
(1) The holder of an ROC issued under this Part shall –
(a) conduct background checks on all personnel recruited for deployment, handling and
storage of any RPAS;
(b) conduct criminal record checks every 24 months on all personnel employed in the deployment,
handling, and storage of RPAS;
(c) ensure that RPAS not in use are stored in a secure manner to prevent and detect unauthorised
interference or use;
(d) ensure that the RPAS is protected from acts of unlawful interference;
(e) ensure that the RPA is stored and prepared for flight in a manner that will prevent and detect
tampering and ensure the integrity of vital systems;
(f) designate a security coordinator responsible for the implementation, application and
supervision of the security controls; and
(g) ensure that all personnel employed in the deployment, handling, and storage of RPAS have
received security awareness training as prescribed in Part 109.
(2) The holder of an ROC shall include in the operations manual referred to in regulation
101.04.5 the security aspects of the RPA operations as prescribed in this regulation and
4.3.6 Insurance
101.04.12
An ROC holder shall at all times be adequately insured for third party liability.
Rev. 1
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4.4 SUBPART 5: RPA OPERATIONS
4.4.1 Weather conditions
101.05.1
No person shall operate an RPAS in weather conditions that do not allow unobstructed visual
contact to be maintained with the RPA by other airspace users and by the operator unless in
B-VLOS or night operations approved by the Director in their operations manual.
4.4.2 Landing on roads
101.05.2
No person shall use a public road as a place of landing or take-off of an RPA, except:
(a) by the holder of an ROC and as approved by the Director in the operator’s
operations manual; and
(b) when approved by the relevant local authority.
4.4.3 Controlled airspace
101.05.3
(1) No RPAS may be operated in controlled airspace, except by the holder of an ROC and as
approved by the Director in the operators’ operations manual.
(2) The Director may approve an RPA operation in controlled airspace as contemplated in
sub-regulation (1) only in –
(a) VMC in an ATZ and CTR below 400ft; and
(b) subject to compliance with the conditions prescribed in Document SA-CATS 101.
4.4.4 Releasing object or substance
101.05.4
No object or substance shall be released, dispensed, dropped, delivered or deployed from an
RPA except by the holder of an ROC and as approved by the Director in the operators’
operations manual.
4.4.5 Dangerous goods
101.05.5
(1) Subject to sub-regulation (2), no RPA shall carry dangerous goods as cargo, except by the
holder of an ROC and as approved by the Director in the operations manual.
(2) The provisions of Part 92 apply, with the necessary changes, to the conveyance of
dangerous goods by an RPA.
Rev. 1
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4.4.6 Accidents and incidents
101.05.6
(1) All accidents and incidents involving an RPA shall be reported as prescribed in Part
12, where there is –
(a) any injury or death to a person;
(b) damage to property; or
(c) destruction of the RPA beyond economical repair.
(2) All incidents involving an RPA where loss of control occurred shall be reported to the
holder of the ROC.
4.4.7 Consumption of alcohol and drugs
101.05.7
No remote pilot, observer or RMT shall –
(a) consume alcohol less than 8 hours prior to reporting for duty;
(b) commence a duty period while the concentration of alcohol in any specimen of
blood taken from any part of his or her body is more than 0,02 grams per 100
milliliters;
(c) consume alcohol or any psychoactive substance during the duty period or
whilst on standby for duty; or
(d) commence duty period while under the influence of alcohol or any
psychoactive substance having a narcotic effect.
4.4.8 C2 operational requirements
101.05.8
An RPAS shall comply with C2 operational requirements as prescribed in Document SA-
CATS 101.
4.4.9 Precautions and safety considerations
101.05.9
(1) No person shall operate an RPAS unless –
(a) the RPA is in a fit-to-fly condition;
(b) the pilot is the holder of a licence issued in terms of this Part;
(c) the remotely piloted aircraft station is compatible and interoperable with the
aircraft it is connected to in all phases of flight; and
(d) the RPA is being controlled by only one RPS at any given moment in time.
(2) No person shall operate an RPAS in a negligent or reckless manner so as to endanger the
safety of any person, property or other aircraft in the air or on the ground.
(3) The operator shall, in the best interest of safety, ensure that certain RPAS operations are
supplemented with additional personnel for non-flying duties, such that the remote pilot can
maintain control and situational awareness in respect to positioning and collision avoidance.
Rev. 1
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4.4.10 General restrictions
101.05.10
(1) No person shall operate an RPA unless they have in their possession –
(a) a valid RPA Pilot Licence;
(b) a copy of the ROC and associated OpSpec;
(c) the certificate of registration for each RPA in operation;
(d) a copy of the RLA; and
(e) user manual for the RPA and the remote pilot station.
(2) No RPA shall –
(a) tow another aircraft;
(b) perform aerial or aerobatic displays;
(c) be flown in formation or swarm;
(3) Except by the holder of an ROC, and as approved by the Director, no RPA shall be
operated –
(a) above 400 ft above the surface;
(b) within a radius of 10 km from an aerodrome;
(c) within restricted or prohibited airspace; or
(d) adjacent to or above a nuclear power plant, prison, police station, crime scene,
court of law, national key point or strategic installation.
4.4.11 Beyond visual line-of-sight
101.05.11
(1) An RPA shall not be operated beyond visual-line-of-sight unless by the holder of an ROC
and as approved by the Director in the operations manual.
(2) The Director may approve B-VLOS operation subject to the operator meeting the
requirements prescribed in Document SA-CATS 101.
(3) Approved B-VLOS operations may only be conducted in VMC, below 400 ft above
surface level, unless otherwise approved by the Director.
4.4.12 Night operations
101.05.12
(1) An RPA may not be operated at night except –
(a) in R-VLOS operation; or
(b) by the holder of an ROC, and as approved by the Director in terms of sub-regulation (2).
(2) The holder of an ROC intending to operate an RPA at night, shall, as a minimum have
each RPA approved under their ROC for night operations subject to compliance with the
requirements prescribed in Documents SA-CATS 101.
(3) An RPA may not be operated at night in controlled airspace except as approved by the
Director as prescribed in regulation 101.05.3.
Rev. 1
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4.4.13 Operations in the vicinity of people
101.05.13
No person shall operate an RPA directly overhead any person or group of people or within a
lateral distance of 50 m from any person, unless –
(a) the operator is the holder of an ROC and the operation has been approved by the Director in their
operations manual; or
(b) such person is the operator of the RPA or such person is under the direction of the operator of the RPA;
or
(c) such person or group of people forms part of the operations of the RPA, and is under control of the
operator of the RPA, and adequate provisions have been made for their safety.
4.4.14 Operations in the vicinity of property, structures and buildings
101.05.14
(1) No RPA shall be operated within a lateral distance of 50 m from any structure or building, unless –
(a) the operator is a holder of an ROC and the operation has been approved by the Director in their
(b) permission is obtained from the owner of such structure or building.
(2) An operator conducting an operation as contemplated in sub-regulation (1) shall take
such measures as are necessary to ensure the safety of all persons on the ground accessing
such building or in the vicinity of such structure.
4.4.15 Operations in the vicinity of public roads
101.05.15
No person shall operate an RPA over a public road, along the length of a public road or at a
distance of less than 50 m from a public road unless –
(a) such person is the holder of an ROC and the operation has been approved by the Director in the
operator’s operations manual; or
(b) in the case of operations over a public road, such road has been closed for public use; and
(c) reasonable care has been taken to ensure the safety of road users and pedestrians in the event of loss
of control of the RPA.
4.4.16 Radio communication requirements
101.05.16
(1) Except for R-VLOS operations, no RPAS shall be operated unless the pilot has a
functioning air-band radio in his possession, tuned to the frequency or frequencies applicable
to the ATSU providing services or controlling such area or airspace or to aircraft in such area
or airspace.
Rev. 1
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(2) The air-band radio shall have the required output and be configured in such a way that the
range, strength of transmission and quality of communication extends beyond the furthest
likely position of the RPA from the pilot.
(3) For VLOS, E-VLOS and B-VLOS operations, the pilot shall, using the registration of the
RPA as a call-sign, make the required radio calls, indicating the altitude, location and
intended operation of the RPA in that area and at such intervals as are required in order to
ensure adequate separation from other aircraft is maintained.
(4) For approved RPA operations in controlled airspace, the pilot shall maintain radio
contact, using the registration of the RPA as a call-sign, with the relevant ATSU, and
acknowledge and execute such instructions as the ATSU may give at any time during the
operation of the RPA.
4.4.17 Pre-flight preparation
101.05.17
A pilot shall complete the pre-flight preparations prior to each flight, as prescribed in
4.4.18 Duties of the pilot
101.05.18
(1) The pilot is accountable for safe operation of the RPAS.
(2) The pilot of an RPA shall, on each flight, operate such aircraft in accordance with the
manual.
(3) The pilot of an RPA is responsible for separation and avoidance of the RPA from other
aircraft and any other obstacles and hazards.
(4) The pilot of an RPA shall pilot such RPA in a manner so as to minimize hazards to
persons and property on the ground, and other aircraft in the air.
(5) The pilot shall ensure that at least one observer is used for E-VLOS operations.
4.4.19 Flight operations
101.05.19
(1) The RPAS shall be operated in such a way that safe separation from other aircraft is
maintained and that adequate obstacle clearance is ensured, during all phases of the flight.
(2) The pilot of an RPA shall ensure that the take-off and landing area is safe and of the
appropriate dimensions, free from obstacles and has adequate surface conditions, with regard
to the type of operation, the size of the aircraft, the aircraft’s performance and external
factors.
Rev. 1
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4.4.20 Right of way
101.05.20
(1) Notwithstanding the provisions of sub-regulations (2) to (5), an RPA shall give way to manned aircraft.
(2) The RPA shall avoid passing over, under or in front of manned aircraft, unless it passes well clear and takes
into account the effect of aircraft wake turbulence.
(3) When two aircraft are approaching head-on or approximately in a way that there is danger of collision, each
aircraft shall alter its heading to the right.
(4) When two aircraft are converging at approximately the same level, the aircraft which has the other aircraft on
its right, shall give way.
(5) An aircraft which is being overtaken has the right of way, and the one overtaking shall
alter its heading to keep well clear.
4.4.21 Use of time
101.05.21
(1) For the purposes of reporting and recording time, Co-ordinated Universal Time (UTC) shall be used and shall
be expressed in hours and minutes and, when required, seconds of the 24-hour day beginning at midnight.
(2) A pilot shall have a time piece synchronised with UTC prior to operating a RPAS in controlled airspace and at
such other times during the flight as may be necessary.
(3) Wherever time is utilised in the application of data link communications, it shall be
accurate to within 1 second of UTC.
4.4.22 Flight folio
101.05.22
(1) The owner or operator of an RPA shall ensure that the RPA has a flight folio or any other similar document
which meets the requirements of and contains the information as prescribed in Document SA-CATS 101, and the
flight folio shall be accessible at the remote pilot station all times during flight.
(2) The flight folio shall be kept up-to-date and maintained in a legible manner by the remote pilot.
(3) All entries shall be made immediately upon completion of the occurrence to which they refer.
(4) In the case of maintenance being undertaken on the RPA, the entry shall be certified by
the person responsible for the maintenance.
(5) Without detracting from the generality of sub-regulation (1), the remote pilot shall –
(a) maintain fuel or charging records to enable the Director to ascertain that, for each flight under his or her
control, the requirements of regulation 101.05.23 are complied with;
Rev. 1
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(b) enter the fuel, charging and oil records referred to in sub-regulation (5)(a) in the flight folio; and
(c) maintain oil records to enable the Director to ascertain that trends for oil consumption are such that an
RPA has sufficient oil to complete each flight.
Hand out: Flight Folio copy and complete folio as example of process.
4.4.23 Power reserves
101.05.23
(1) During VLOS operations, the remote pilot shall ensure that the aircraft has enough fuel or electrical charge to
complete the flight, plus a reserve of at least 10%.
(2) During B-VLOS operations, the remote pilot shall ensure that the aircraft has enough fuel or electrical charge
to complete the intended flight plus a reserve of at least 10%.
4.4.24 First aid kits
101.05.24
(1) No owner or operator of an RPA shall operate the aircraft unless a first aid kit consisting of the medical
supplies as prescribed in Document SA-CATS 91 is available within the remote pilot station and within 300 m of
the take-off and landing points. A single kit may be used to comply with both these requirements.
(2) The owner or operator shall carry out periodical inspections of the first aid kit to ensure that, as far as
practicable, the contents thereof are in a condition necessary for their intended use.
(3) The contents of the first aid kit shall be replenished at regular intervals, in accordance with instructions
contained on their labels, or as circumstances require.
(4) The first aid kit shall be readily accessible to all crew members involved in the operation.
Rev. 1
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4.4.25 Hand-held fire extinguishers
101.05.25
No owner or operator of an RPA shall operate the RPA unless –
(a) a hand-held fire extinguisher is available at the remote pilot station and within 300 m of the
take-off and landing points;
(b) a hand-held fire extinguisher suitable for use with electronic equipment and any power
generating equipment in use is available in the remote pilot station; and
(c) a hand-held fire extinguisher suitable for use on the RPA is available within
300 m of the take-off and landing points.
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4.5 SUBPART 6: MAINTENANCE
4.5.1 Continued system maintenance
101.06.1
(1) An RPAS shall be compliant with the manufacturer’s instructions for continued
equipment maintenance through actions or inspections.
(2) The owner shall submit to the Director for approval, a maintenance programme for the
RPAS.
4.5.2 RPAS maintenance
101.06.2
(1) The maintenance on an RPA or any component thereof shall be carried out by the
following persons:
(a) In respect of an RPA classified as a Class 3 and higher, the holder of a valid RMT
authorization; or
(b) In respect of an RPA classified as Class 2 and lower, the ROC holder: provided
that the holder can demonstrate to the satisfaction of the Director, its ability to
perform the required maintenance on the RPA.
4.5.3 Issuing of an RMT authorisation
101.06.3
(1) An applicant for the issuing or renewal of an RMT authorisation shall –
(a) be not less than 18 years of age; and
(b) be a South African citizen or in possession of a valid permanent residence
permit or valid temporary work permit with a letter of employment; and
(c) shall have successfully completed appropriate training, provided by –
(i) an organisation approved by the competent authority in the country
where the training organisation is located;
(ii) training provided by an approved original equipment
manufacturer; or
(iii) a training facility approved by the Director; or
(d) demonstrate to the Director, the ability to perform maintenance functions
where no training for the particular RPA is offered or available.
(2) An application for the issuing of an RMT authorisation shall be made to the Director
in the appropriate form and accompanied by the appropriate fee as prescribed in Part 187.
(3) The Director shall issue an RMT authorisation if the applicant complies with the
requirements prescribed in sub-regulation (1).
(4) The holder of an RMT authorization shall not exercise privileges other than the
specific privileges for which the authorization is issued.
(5) An RMT authorisation shall be valid for a period of 24 months.
Rev. 1
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4.5.4 RMT logbook
101.06.4
(1) Any person responsible for maintenance of RPAS shall maintain a personal logbook and
shall record therein all work carried out on an RPAS and its components.
(2) The form of and information to be contained in a logbook referred to in sub-regulation
(1), and the manner in which such logbook shall be maintained, are as prescribed in
(3) No alterations of a logbook shall be made once it is signed off by a designated person.
4.6 Part 101 Civil Aviation Technical Standards (SA-CATS)
4.6.1 RPAS System Safety
101.02.2
For Class 1 - 2, only sections 1 & 2 below. For Class 3 - 5, all sections to be completed
1. Section 1 – RPAS Information
1.1. RPAS type
1.2. RPA structure
1.3. RPA composition
1.4. Flight envelope capability
1.5. RPA dimensions/measurements and mass together with drawings
1.6. Mass and balance
1.7. Payloads (specific or generic)
1.8. Use of frequencies
1.9. Remote pilot station
1.10. Ground support equipment
1.11. Flight recovery system
2. Section 2 - Performance Characteristics

2.1. Maximum altitude
2.2. Maximum endurance
2.3. Maximum range
2.4. Airspeed (take-off, cruise, landing, stall, maximum)
2.5. Maximum rate of climb
2.6. Maximum rate of descent
2.7. Maximum bank angle
2.8. Turn rate limits
2.9. Propulsion system (such as engine/motor, fuel, electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic, gas, solar)
Rev. 1
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3. Section 3 – Performance Capabilities and Limitations

3.1. RPA performance limitations due to environmental and meteorological conditions (wind, ice, humidity,
temperature, precipitation, hail)
3.2. Required take-off and landing distances and/or areas
3.3. Flight control surfaces and actuators
3.4. Location of all air data sensors, antennas, radios, and navigation equipment with respect to
segregation and redundancy
3.5. Autopilot (type, manufacturer, description of working method)
3.6. Navigation systems (description of the components, together with horizontal, vertical position and
velocity accuracy)
3.7. Sensors and/or telemetry
4. Section 4 – Emergencies & System Failures

4.1. At the minimum, the following emergency scenarios should be documented, with procedures for
handling them:
a) Loss of autopilot (fatal error)
b) Loss of flight control due to servo failure, if applicable
c) Loss of propulsion power
d) Loss of engine power (one engine out), if applicable
e) Low battery voltage, if applicable
f) Loss of navigation components (heading or altitude)
g) Loss of Global Navigation Satellite System
h) Loss of data link (radio control link failure)
i) Loss of remote pilot station (remote pilot station communication failure)
j) Loss of power of remote pilot station
k) Loss of remote pilot/RPA observer communication
l) Dealing with structural damage
m) Any other failure modes or scenarios other than those listed above that can endanger safe flight,
shall be identified, described and managed in a safe manner.
5. Section 5 – Hazard Assessment

5.1. An objective assessment of the RPAS’s potential hazard considerations, which should include:
5.2. Identification of RPAS functions
5.3. Systems that assist with the identification of failure conditions
5.4. Management and mitigations of the failure conditions
5.5. A list of alarms and methods for troubleshooting
Rev. 1
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6. Section 6 – Fail-safe features

6.1. Procedures to be followed by the remote pilot in case of malfunctions or failure.
6.2. Information of flight termination features.
4.6.2 Registration and Marking
101.02.4
1. Identification Plate
1) Every South African Registered RPA must have affixed to it an identification plate (engraved, stamped
or edged) with its nationality and registration marks.
2) The Identification plate must –
a) Be made of fireproof material of suitable physical properties;
b) Be affixed to the RPA in a prominent position
c) Include the registration mark issued by the authority which appears on the RPA’s certificate of
Registration, and;
d) Be commensurate with the size of the RPA
3. Location of Marks
1) The marks on a fix wing RPA must appear –
a) On the bottom and the top surface of each wing; and
b) On both sides of the fuselage between the wings and tail surfaces. Or on the upper halves of the
vertical tail surfaces
4.6.3 Use of time
101.05.21
(1) For the purposes of reporting and recording time, Co-ordinated Universal Time (UTC) shall be used and shall
be expressed in hours and minutes and, when required, seconds of the 24-hour day beginning at midnight.
(2) A pilot shall have a time piece synchronised with UTC prior to operating a RPAS in controlled airspace and at
such other times during the flight as may be necessary.
(3) Wherever time is utilised in the application of data link communications, it shall be
accurate to within 1 second of UTC.
Rev. 1
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4.6.4 Practical Exercises for RPA Licence
4.6.4.1 General Skill Test
Student Name
Instructor Name
Date
Manoeuvre / Task Lesson Rating Notes
Number
Aircraft pre-flight inspection and 2
setup
Post-launch in-flight evaluation 12
procedures
Automated flying and flight U1
controller flight modes
First Person View (FPV) Flying U2
Parachute-assisted landing (if U13
applicable)
Evasive action (manoeuvres) to 16
avoid collisions
Post-flight inspections 2
Camera Control (If Applicable) U14
External Load (If Applicable) U16
VLOS Flights U17

E-VLOS Flights U18
R-VLOS Flights U19
B-VLOS (If Applicable) U20
Rev. 1
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4.6.4.2 Airplane Skill Test

Student Name
Instructor Name
Date
Number
Pre-flight 2
Take-off into the Wind & 12
Cross Wind
VTOL - Vertical Take-off 12
and Landing (If applicable)
Catapult Launch (If 12
Applicable)
Hand Launch (If Applicable) 12
Straight and Level Flight (In 6
all Orientations)
Figure of 8 in different 6
directions
Slow & Low Pass into Wind 6
Left Hand Landing approach 13
from Right Hand Base
Right Hand Landing 13
approach from Left Hand
Base
Left Hand Landing approach 13
from Left Hand Base
Right Hand Landing from 13
Right Hand Base
Landing into Wind 13
Boundary Layer 10
Stalling Angle of Attack 10
Airplane Characteristics at 10
the stall
Emergency Procedures 17
Engine Failures 16
i. Altitude 16
ii. After Take-off 16
iii. On Final Approach 16
Post Flight Checks 4
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4.6.4.3 Helicopter Skill Test
Student Name
Instructor Name
Date
Manoeuvre / Task Lesson Ratin Notes
Numb g
er
Flight Controls
i. Collective Control
ii. Cyclic Control
iii. Anti-Torque Control
Main & Tail Rotors

Rotor Blade Stall
Fly Bar
Ground Effect
Helicopter Set-up & Pre-flight
Checks
Take-off Procedures
Fixed Pitch
Variable Pitch
Collective Pitch
Cyclic Pitch
Pitch Curve
Throttle Curve
Hover
Transition from Hover into
Forward Flight
Transition from Forward Flight
into Hover
Hovering & Correction during
Manoeuvres
Straight and Level Flight (In all
Orientations)
Tracking & Trimming
Tail-In Vertical Triangle
Constant Heading Circle
Tail-in Vertical Rectangle
Approach and Go Around
(downwind)
Approach and Landing (into
Wind)
Emergency Procedures
i. Autorotation
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4.6.4.4 Multi-Rotor Skill Test
Student Name
Instructor Name
Date
Number
Pre-flight Checks
Take-off Procedures
Tail in Hover
i. Tail in Hover
ii. Yawning slowly to right and

left, left to right
iii. Ascend and Descend
iv. Horizontal Rectangle
v. Vertical Rectangle
Nose-in Hover
Straight and Level Flight (In
all Orientations)
From Hover:
i. Fly a square box rotating
(yawning) the multi-rotor in
the direction of flight
ii. Fly a circle rotating

(yawning) the multi-rotor
nose-in to the centre of the
circle
iii. To forward flight
Turns from Level Flight

Approach and Landing
Procedures
Emergency Procedures
Rev. 1
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4.6.5 Operations close to People, Buildings and Public Roads
4.6.5.1 Operations in the vicinity of people
101.05.13
No person shall operate an RPA directly overhead any person or group of people or within a
lateral distance of 50 m from any person, unless –
(d) the operator is the holder of an ROC and the operation has been approved by the Director in their
(e) such person is the operator of the RPA or such person is under the direction of the operator of the RPA;
or
(f) such person or group of people forms part of the operations of the RPA, and is under control of the
operator of the RPA, and adequate provisions have been made for their safety.
4.6.5.2 Operations in the vicinity of property, structures and buildings
101.05.14
(1) No RPA shall be operated within a lateral distance of 50 m from any structure or building, unless –
(c) the operator is a holder of an ROC and the operation has been approved by the Director in their
(d) permission is obtained from the owner of such structure or building.
(2) An operator conducting an operation as contemplated in sub-regulation (1) shall take

such measures as are necessary to ensure the safety of all persons on the ground accessing
such building or in the vicinity of such structure.
4.6.5.3 Operations in the vicinity of public roads
101.05.15
No person shall operate an RPA over a public road, along the length of a public road or at a
distance of less than 50 m from a public road unless –
(d) such person is the holder of an ROC and the operation has been approved by the Director in the
operator’s operations manual; or
(e) in the case of operations over a public road, such road has been closed for public use; and
(f) reasonable care has been taken to ensure the safety of road users and pedestrians in the event of loss
of control of the RPA.
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4.6.6 Security
101.04.01
Security to be addressed in every operation and be displayed in the company’s operations
manual.
a) Appoint a security co-ordinator
b) Requirements for checks and searches of specific areas and accessible compartments of the interior
and exterior or RPAS
c) Controlling access to RPA and RPA systems
d) Preventing the interference with software and C2 Links
e) Response procedure for threats and incidents
f) Special procedures for Dangerous Goods handling and operations
g) Security briefings to crew members with regards to sensitivity of cargo and/or operations
h) Additional security measures for special and more threatening situations
i) Reporting of security related incidents to the authorities
j) Frequency of background and criminal checks
k) Details of security awareness and response procedure training
4.6.7 Duties of the pilot
101.05.18
(1) The pilot is accountable for safe operation of the RPAS.
(2) The pilot of an RPA shall, on each flight, operate such aircraft in accordance with the
manual.
(3) The pilot of an RPA is responsible for separation and avoidance of the RPA from other
aircraft and any other obstacles and hazards.
(4) The pilot of an RPA shall pilot such RPA in a manner so as to minimize hazards to
persons and property on the ground, and other aircraft in the air.
(5) The pilot shall ensure that at least one observer is used for E-VLOS operations.
4.6.8 Commercial Operations Requirements
a) Copy of ROC and Associated OpSpec

b) Fire Extinguisher within 300m of Take-off and Landing Area
c) First Aid Kit within 300m of Take-off and Landing Area
d) Air Band Radio, unless Operation is R-VLOS
e) Pilot Licence
f) Aircraft Documentation
i. Certificate of Registration
ii. RLA
Rev. 1
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iii. Log Book

iv. User Manual for Aircraft and Remote Pilot Station
g) Permissions
i. Land Owners
ii. Municipal
iii. SACAA
iv. Buildings within 50m radius
v. People within 50m radius, unless part of the Operation
4.6.8.1 Commercial Operation Requirement within an ATZ or CTR
a) Documented in Operations Manual

b) Notify relevant ATSU
c) Receive confirmation from relevant TSU
d) Supply ATSU with RPA’s performance details including at least the type of RPA, speed, rate of climb,
descent and abort or emergency procedure
e) Communicate with ATSU with regards to movements via air-band communications
f) Include emergency response plan, agreed by both the operator and ROC
a. Aborting the RPA’s Activity detailing the time to and expected landing place and capability
b. Loss of control link, which shall include both the technical failure of the RPA and a link failure
between the RPS and the RPA
c. Procedures to a loss of communication between the ATSU / CAMU and the RPA Pilot
4.6.9 C2 Operational Requirements
101.05.8
1) Develop a C2 performance requirements safety case for approval
2) The following C2 functions shall be considered for the safety case
a. Downlink
i. Link Health Telemetry (for B-VLOS operations)
ii. System Health
b. Telemetry
i. RPA Flight Dynamics
ii. Situation Awareness (for B-VLOS operations)
iii. Data Records
c. Uplink
i. Flight Control
ii. RPA System Control
iii. Automatic Identification System update (for B-VLOS operations)
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iv. RPAS hand over

v. Link Health telemetry (for B-VLOS operations)
3) The RPA Pilot shall present the target values of the C2 Performance requirements that were obtained
from the safety case of the C2 functions
a. Continuity
b. Integrity
c. Availability
d. Latency of the C2 data link
4.6.10 B-VLOS, Night and Operations within an ATZ or CTR
VLOS R- E- B- Night ATZ ATC

VLOS VLOS VLOS
Allowable Distance
500m X X X
1000m X
Beyond 1km X
400 Feet or X X X X X X
Allowable Height
Height of
Nearest
X X
Building within
300m
Above 400 Feet
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VLOS R- E- B- Night ATZ CTR

VLOS VLOS VLOS
Weather VMC X X
Transponder
X X X
(Mode C or S)
Altimeter X X X X X
Equipment
Strobe and/or
Landing X X X
Lights*
C2 – 101.05.8 X X X X
Approvals
ATSU /
X X
CAMU
*Navigational Lights for Airplane
4.6.10.1 Additional Requirements for B-VLOS
a) RPA must at all times be controlled via command inputs

b) RPA has ability to remain clear from obstacles and any other hazards and can take action to avoid
collision. This ability shall be applicable for normal and lost / degraded C2 links unless:
i. There is no other air traffic in the area
ii. The flight takes place in specific delimited and segregated airspace
iii. Other mitigations are in place to avoid other aircraft, obstacles and hazards
c) The C2 link has been approved by the Director as appropriate for the type of operation
d) Operate within VMC conditions and below 400ft, unless otherwise approved by the Director
The Pilot / Operator shall also proof the following to the Director:
a) Show that RPA can be controlled during flight and that device does not need to be flown manually
ordinarily
b) RPA is able to fly by means of pre-programming for a pre-determined course or group of way points
c) Proof that the RPA can be controlled during any stage of the flight, when it is pre-programmed for a
specific course or via way points
d) How the RPA is displayed in real time on a navigational map and how the pilot is able to make
appropriate calls to report the positioning of the RPA to other aircraft and/or ATC
e) How it reacts in the event of receiving a flight position command that conflicts with obstacles or high
ground
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4.6.10.2 Night Operations
Same as per B-VLOS, plus

a) Operate below 400ft within R-VLOS and VMC conditions
b) Strobe lights installed
c) Airplane have navigation lights, Multi-Rotor and Helicopter have a beacon light installed.
4.6.10.3 Controlled Airspace
The RPAS must meet the following technical requirements:

a) Fitted with a mode S or C transponder, able of displaying a unique squawk code issued to them, unless
otherwise approved by the Director or agreed by the applicable ATSU / CAMU as per the FUA
application
b) Fitted with an altimeter, capable of showing the pilot of the RPAS
a. RPA’s altitude above ground level
b. Corrected ambient pressure (QNH)
c) Fitted with functioning strobe light(s) that are visible from below and above and all azimuth angles
d) Airplanes will be fitted with functioning navigation lights
e) And as indicated in 4.6.8.1
4.6.11 Pre-flight Preparation
As a pilot you have to follow by the following points before starting your flight:
a) You shall verify the relevant notifications for the area of operation before take-off, and co-ordinate if
necessary
b) Verify the NOTAM publication for your area of operation before take-off, and adapt mission planning if
needed
c) Take into consideration the Meteorological Information for your area of operation
d) Asses the weather based on suitable documentation such as forecasts, current weather or other
suitable information, to determine if it the planned flight can be carried out in accordance the system’s
technical and operational limitations
e) The weather will not affect the safe operation of the aircraft at any stages of flight
f) Do flight planning on Aeronautical Charts to determine in which type of airspace the flight will be carries
out
g) Utilise AIP, AIP Supplements and NOTAMS when doing flight plaining to ensure the flight is done
accordance the approved ROC and Operations Manual
h) Ensure before take-off that the flight can be carried out in safe way
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i) Ensure the system’s status is inspected and ready for flight before take-off
j) Be mentally and physically fit
k) Have the required documents on site
l) Have a crew briefing and delegate roles and duties of each crew member in writing
You, the pilot, are responsible for the operation, safety and its payload, if applicable, and for
the safety of the crew members.
4.6.12 Flight Folio
The following items will be completed in the flight folio of the applicable aircraft used for the
flight.
91.03.5
1) An owner or operator must retain the following information for each flight in the form of a flight folio –
a) aircraft registration;
b) date;
c) name(s) of flight crew member(s);
d) duty assignment of flight crew member(s);
e) place of departure;
f) place of arrival;
g) time of departure (off-block time);
h) time of arrival (on-block time);
i) hours of flight;
j) nature of flight;
k) incidents, observations (if any);
l) signature of pilot-in-command;
m) the current maintenance statement giving the aircraft maintenance status of what maintenance,
scheduled or out of phase, is next due;
n) all outstanding deferred defects which affect the operation of the aircraft;
o) fuel and oil used; and (if applicable)
p) fuel and oil uplift (if applicable)
q) battery charge status (beginning and end of the flight, if applicable)
2) The owner or operator need not keep a flight folio or parts thereof, if the relevant information is available
in other documentation.
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4.6.13 RMT Logbook
If you as the pilot or an individual be approved as a Remote Maintenance Technician, You

will be responsible in keeping a logbook on the aircraft that you have worked on with the
following relevant information.
a) Full Name
b) Identification number as issued by the SACAA
c) Name of employer
d) Record of all technical courses attended
e) Date of maintenance
f) Type and make of RPA (Example: Multi-Rotor, DJI Phantom 3)
g) Work carried out (inspection, repair, overhaul)
h) Signature of Quality Assurance Personnel
4.7 Other Applicable Laws
4.7.1 Aircraft Lightning Requirements
Part 91.06.10
1) Except as provided by sub-regulation (4) and unless the aircraft was initially type-certificated without
such lights or is a non-type certificated aircraft approved without such lights, all aircraft shall display –
a) While operating in flight during the day and at all times at night, anti-collision lights intended to
attract attention to the aircraft;
b) While operating during night, navigation lights intended to indicate the relative path of the aircraft to
an observer;
c) While operating on the movement area of an aerodrome, lights intended to attract attention to the
aircraft, as specified in the IAIP; and
d) While operating with engines running on the movement area of an aerodrome, display a rotating
beacon to indicate that fact.
2) Except as provided by sub-regulation (4) –
a) All aircraft moving on the movement area of an aerodrome during night shall display navigation
lights intended to indicate the relative path of the aircraft to an observer; and
b) Unless stationary and otherwise adequately illuminated, all aircraft on the movement area of an
aerodrome during night shall display lights intended to indicate the extremities of their structure.
3) In respect of sub-regulations (1) (b) and (2) (a), other lights shall not be displayed if they are likely to be
mistaken for these lights.
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4) A pilot shall be permitted to switch off or reduce the intensity of any flashing lights fitted to meet the
requirements of sub-regulations (1), (2) and (3) if they do or are likely to –
a) Adversely affect the satisfactory performance of duties; or
b) Subject an outside observer to harmful dazzle.
c) The lights which shall be displayed by aircraft by day, night, on water or on the manoeuvring area
of an aerodrome, are prescribed in Document SA-CATS 91.
4.7.2 Flight & Duty
91.02.3 (3) No person shall act as a flight crew member of an aircraft if, prior to each flight,
the expected flight time exceeds, or is likely to exceed, the permissible aggregate of –
a) For all flying –

i. for pilots not subject to an approved flight time and duty period scheme, 10 hours within a 24
hour period;
ii. 400 hours, during the preceding 90 days;
iii. 700 hours, during the preceding six months; or
iv. 1000 hours, during the preceding 12 months;
b) In the case of flight instructors conducting ab initio or any training towards an initial rating or licence, six
hours within one calendar day: Provided that, for the purposes of computing flight time in meeting the
limitation referred to in paragraph a) i), each flight hour spent in such training shall be deemed to be one
and one-half (1½) hours flight time;
4.8 Airspaces and Aircraft Rights
CARS - 101.05.20
(1) Notwithstanding the provisions of sub-regulations (2) to (5), an RPA shall give way to manned aircraft.
(2) The RPA shall avoid passing over, under or in front of manned aircraft, unless it passes well clear and takes
into account the effect of aircraft wake turbulence.
(3) When two aircraft are approaching head-on or approximately in a way that there is danger of collision, each
aircraft shall alter its heading to the right.
(4) When two aircraft are converging at approximately the same level, the aircraft which has the other aircraft on
its right, shall give way.
(5) An aircraft which is being overtaken has the right of way, and the one overtaking shall
alter its heading to keep well clear.
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5 Navigation and Flight Planning
5.1 Latitude and Longitude
Watch this video on YouTube - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=swKBi6hHHMA
5.1.1 Geographic Coordinate System
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system that enables every location on the Earth to be specified by a set of
numbers or letters. The coordinates are often chosen such that one of the numbers represents vertical position, and two or three of
the numbers represent horizontal position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation.
To specify a location on a two-dimensional map reqbuires a map projection.
5.1.2 Geographic latitude and longitude
Latitude
• Latitude (shown as a horizontal line) is the angular distance, in degrees, minutes, and seconds of a point north or south of
the Equator. Lines of latitude are often referred to as parallels. Latitude is measured up to 90° north or south of the
equator(0°)
• Parallels of latitude are small circles,reducing in size as they move away from the equator.
• The equator is the only parallel of latitude which is a GC.
Longitude
• Longitude (shown as a vertical line) is the angular distance, in degrees, minutes, and seconds, of a point east or west of
the Prime (Greenwich) Meridian. Lines of longitude are often referred to as meridians.
• Meridians together with its anti-meridian are GC
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• Lines of longitude are measured up to 180° East or West from the prime meridian(Greenwich Meridian)
Position
• With the use of longitude and latitude we are able to find a exact position on the earth
• For accuracy we divide degrees in to minutes and minutes in to seconds
• 1°=60’(min)
• 1°=60’’(sec)
• E.g.. 40° 08’ 02’’N 030° 14’ 34’’W
• Latitude is always given first
Direction Measurement
• Direction is always measured clockwise from true North.
• However a compass shows magnetic North.
• The difference between true and magnetic North is called variation.
• Variation is either West or East of true North depending on your position on the earth.
Agonic line is where variation is zero
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Distance Measurement
• Nautical mile(nm) is the standard unit of distance measurement in aviation.

• It is defined as the average length of arc of one minute of latitude measured at the Earth’s surface
• The standard NM is assumed to be 6080ft
• 1’ of latitude = 1nm, the 1° of latitude = 60nm
5.1.3 Aeronautical Chart
Aeronautical Chart information can be found on the Website of the CAA – www.caa.co.za the go to
Information for the Industry and select Aeronautical Information.
• Most aviation charts fall into two categories; the aeronautical topographical chart and navigation
plotting chart
• Topographic means that the features of the earth are represented fairly accurately in the chart with a minimum of
distortions
• Lambert’s conformal conic projection

• Method of construction
• Conceptually, the projection seats a cone over the sphere of the Earth and projects the
surface conformally onto the cone. The cone is unrolled, and the parallel that was
touching the sphere is assigned unit scale. That parallel is called the reference parallel
or standard parallel.
• Parallels of latitude: Appears as arcs nearly equally spaced

• Meridians: Straight lines converging to the nearer pole
• Scale: Correct at the standard parallels, contracts between them and expands outside them
• Great circles: All straight lines on chart are GC
Scale
The ratio of the length of a line drawn on a chart to the corresponding distance on the surface of
the Earth.
1:1 000 000
This means 1 unit on the chart means 1 000 000 units on the Earth
Chart units can be cm or inches, Earth distance can be nautical miles, statute miles or kilometres
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!"#$% '()*%"
– Scale formula:
+#$%" ,-.%#)/(
Aeronautical Maps will be covered in your Radio Licence Course. Elements that will be discussed are:
• Positioning
• Frequencies
• Area of operation
• Zones
This information will assist you in reading a map, understanding where you are and what frequency and
zone you are operating in.
5.1.4 GPS
Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IoRQiNFzT0k
GPS allows the user to obtain information in with regards to the Global Positioning of the Aircraft. This
information is obtained through various satellites, (24 with 4 spares) that constantly rotate the earth. Each
satellite takes 12 hours to complete an orbit. At any given stage of day or night, there will be 6-12 satellites
within view of your aircraft.
A GPS receiver must be locked on to the signal of at least three satellites to calculate a 2D position (latitude
and longitude) and track movement. With four or more satellites in view, the receiver can determine the
user's 3D position (latitude, longitude and altitude).The GPS is a navigation system based on transmissions
from space and assist the RPA with the following information:
• Altitude
• Velocity
• Position
• Track
• Distance
The GPS system comprises of the following Components

– Space segment: Is a constellation of 24 satellites orbiting the Earth in 6 dedicated orbits at
an altitude of 20 200km. Coverage is achieved with only 21 satellites, leaving 3 in spare in
case of failure. Each satellite contains a very accurate atomic clock.
– Control segment: Comprises of a master control station (MCS) in the USA and a group of 5
unmanned monitor stations located around the world. A monitor station is an accurate radio
receiver which monitor the satellites within its area. It collects data and transmits it to the
MCS for processing. Corrections are made for errors and then rectified at the monitoring
stations via four antennas.
– User segment: This is the receiver operated by a GSP user in the air. The receiver processes
satellite radio signals to provide accurate time, position and velocity.
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Principal of operation:
GPS position fixing is based on a principal called, time of arrival which uses the transmission of radio
signals and accurate timing of transmission and arrival. Accurate position fixing is achieved by using three
distances from three different satellites. Using the principal of distance= speed(of radio wave) / Time
(Transmission sent)
For altitude a 4th satellite is used
5.1.4.1 GPS Errors
The analysis of errors computed using the Global Positioning System is important for understanding how GPS works, and for knowing
what magnitude of errors should be expected. The Global Positioning System makes corrections for receiver clock errors and other
effects but there are still residual errors which are not corrected.
GPS receiver position is computed based on data received from the satellites. Errors depend on geometric dilution of precision and the
sources listed in below.
5.1.4.1.1 Atmospheric Effects
Propagation error occurs when radio signals travel from a vacuum(space) to a denser atmosphere causing it
to slow down causing a timing error.
5.1.4.1.2 Multipath Effects
GPS signals can also be affected by multipath issues, where the radio signals reflect off surrounding terrain;
buildings, canyon walls, hard ground, etc. These delayed signals cause measurement errors that are different
for each type of GPS signal due to its dependency on the wavelength.
A variety of techniques, most notably narrow correlator spacing, have been developed to mitigate multipath
errors. For long delay multipath, the receiver itself can recognize the wayward signal and discard it. To
address shorter delay multipath from the signal reflecting off the ground, specialized antennas (e.g., a choke
ring antenna) may be used to reduce the signal power as received by the antenna. Short delay reflections are
harder to filter out because they interfere with the true signal, causing effects almost indistinguishable from
routine fluctuations in atmospheric delay.
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Multipath effects are much less severe in moving vehicles. When the GPS antenna is moving, the false
solutions using reflected signals quickly fail to converge and only the direct signals result in stable solutions
5.1.4.1.3 Ephemeris and Clock Errors
Ephemeris data is transmitted every 30 seconds, the information itself may be up to two hours old.
Variability in solar radiation pressure has an indirect effect on GPS accuracy due to its effect on ephemeris
errors. If a fast time to first fix is needed, it is possible to upload a valid ephemeris to a receiver, and in
addition to setting the time, a position fix can be obtained in under ten seconds.
The satellite's atomic clocks experience noise and clock drift errors. The navigation message contains
corrections for these errors and estimates of the accuracy of the atomic clock. However, they are based on
observations and may not indicate the clock's current state.
These problems tend to be very small, but may add up to a few meters (tens of feet) of inaccuracy. For very
precise positioning, these effects can be eliminated by differential GPS: the simultaneous use of two or more
receivers at several survey points.
5.1.4.1.4 Geometric Dilution of Precision Computation
When visible GPS satellites are close together in the sky (i.e., small angular separation), the dilution of
precision (DOP) values are high; when far apart, the DOP values are low. Conceptually, satellites that are
close together cannot provide as much information as satellites that are widely separated. Low DOP values
represent a better GPS positional accuracy due to the wider angular separation between the satellites used to
calculate GPS receiver position. HDOP, VDOP, PDOP and TDOP are respectively Horizontal, Vertical,
Position (3-D) and Time Dilution of Precision.
5.1.4.1.5 Selective Availability
GPS included a (currently disabled) feature called Selective Availability (SA) that adds intentional, time
varying errors of up to 100 meters to the publicly available navigation signals. This was intended to deny an
enemy the use of civilian GPS receivers for precision weapon guidance.
SA errors are actually pseudorandom, generated by a cryptographic algorithm from a classified seed key
available only to authorized users (the U.S. military, its allies and a few other users, mostly government)
with a special military GPS receiver. Mere possession of the receiver is insufficient; it still needs the tightly
controlled daily key.
Before it was turned off on May 2, 2000, typical SA errors were about 50 m horizontally and about 100 m
vertically. Because SA affects every GPS receiver in a given area almost equally, a fixed station with an
accurately known position can measure the SA error values and transmit them to the local GPS receivers so
they may correct their position fixes. This is called Differential GPS or DGPS. DGPS also corrects for
several other important sources of GPS errors, particularly ionospheric delay, so it continues to be widely
used even though SA has been turned off. The ineffectiveness of SA in the face of widely available DGPS
was a common argument for turning off SA, and this was finally done by order of President Clinton in 2000.
5.1.4.2 How to prevent GPS Errors / Failures
Here are some tips to prevent loss of GPS or flyaway.
• Calibrate your compass before take—off (if needed and prescribed by the manufacturer)
• Read the manual and follow the procedure to the T on how to switch on the RPA
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• Utilised correct batteries and ensure they are charged
• Be ready to switch off the GPS mode and land the RPA at any stage of flight in manual mode
5.1.5 Solar Flares

What are they?
A solar flare occurs when magnetic energy that has built up in the solar atmosphere is suddenly
released. Radiation is emitted across virtually the entire electromagnetic spectrum, from radio
waves at the long wavelength end, through optical emission to x-rays and gamma rays at the short
wavelength end.
Where to find them? http://www.aurora-service.eu/solar-activity/
5.2 Flight Planning
Flight planning starts long before the flight is due to take place and there are numerous tasks to be
completed before one is legal to take off. In the below section we will look at various points that needs to be
taken into consideration when doing flight planning and preparing an operational site for flight.
5.2.1 Site Location Assessment Considerations:
The following assessments at a minimum will be taken into consideration when a pilot is doing a
feasibility and risk analysis. See the Job Assessment Form along with other relevant forms to be
completed before embarking on a flight.
5.2.1.1 Airspace Considerations
a) Inspect take-off and landing locations

b) Select areas that are clear of any obstacles or where your take-off and landing approach might be affected
c) Stay well clear of airports or airfields, unless you have gained permission from the various authorities and have
access to an Aviation Radio to communicate with other ATC and/or other Aviation Traffic
d) Also see operation within a CTR or ATZ.
5.2.1.2 Conflicting Aircraft or RPA Traffic
In the case where there are other RPA’s in the direct area, follow these procedures:
a) Allocate an observer for each RPA
b) Constant Radio Communication and/or direct communication between the different piloting teams for the RPA’s
c) Vertical and/or Horizontal separation and all times to avoid any form of accident and/or incident
d) Agree upon different frequencies for each RPA in operation
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5.2.1.3 Hazards Identification
A hazard is a condition, object, activity or event with the potential of causing injuries to personnel, damage
to equipment or structures, loss of material, or reduction of ability to perform a prescribed
function. The analytical procedure below, develops the concept of ‘the hazard’ within a safety risk
management framework which also defines risk, safety events, undesirable events, outcomes, consequences
and risk controls (barriers or mitigations).
Use the Risk Calculation and Risk Assessment form with the Risk Assessment Matrix to determine risks and
hazards. Forms can be found at the back of the manual.
5.2.1.4 Local By-Laws
Each municipality has their own by-laws and can restrict you from flying in or over certain areas. The local
Disaster Management is always a good place to start when looking at operational restrictions.
5.2.1.5 Obstructions
Obstructions must be taken into consideration on all flights and flight planning. Obstructions are more when
compared with traditional flying of helicopters and/or other aircraft.
When operating RPAs obstructions are not only seen as those that can prevent one from flying from A to B
in a straight line, but also obstructions that prevent the Pilot from keeping the RPA in direct line of sight for
VLOS, E-VLOS and R-VLOS operations and interference with the radio communication between RPA
and RPAS. The following can be seen as obstructions and must be taken into consideration during flight
planning and flight.
- Trees
- Power lines
- Buildings
- People blocking the view or are obstructing the take-off and/or landing direction
- Vehicles and any other form of obstruction that can be seen as a threat to the flight
5.2.1.6 Restrictions
Restrictions cover a wide range of possibilities that will prevent a flight from taking off or achieving the
flight objective. The following are a list of possible restrictions and must be dealt with in order to ensure a
safe flight with the best possible outcome.
• Pilot does not have the necessary ratings to operate the RPA and/or have the necessary ratings to fly the RPA in this type
of operation. E-VLOS or B-VLOS.
• No fly zone. Always check AIP, AIP Supplements and NOTAMS for any changes or temporary changes to the
operational area due such notifications.
• RPA is not certified to carry the parcel (Dangerous Goods) and/or weight of the parcel
• Did not receive approval from all landowners and/or Municipalities and Authorities
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• Did not receive approval from relevant people.
• Weather
5.2.1.7 Habitation and Conflicting Activities
Each flight planning will take into consideration the habitation of the direct surrounding area and those
below the RPA at all times; and that all permissions have been granted for flying over and/or
near these restricted areas and/or habitations.
After habitation has been taken into consideration and cleared for flight to proceed, all activities will be
taken into consideration; those that are similar (RPA Flights) and those that might be seen as a risk to the
RPA and/or the RPA seen as a risk to them and/or it.
Habitation includes and not limited to:
• Human Residential Area
• Animal Sanctuary
• Natural Environment / Habitation for any kind of animal
5.2.1.8 Public Access
When planning a flight in a public area all possible caution must be taken to restrict public access, with the
approval from the local authorities and/or landowners, before, during and after the flight.
The following methods can be used to restrict public access to the flight area
• Red Tape to cordon of access paths and routes
• Barricades’ to block access paths and routes
• Private security to monitor and control access to flight areas
• Place notices that RPAs are in operation
5.2.1.9 Permission from Landowner
Before embarking on a flight the following permissions needs to be obtained, depending on where the flight
is taking place.
• Permission from landowners and surrounding properties should you come within 50m of those properties
• The SACAA,
• Local municipalities and other authorities which might have the legal right to object, reject and/or approve the flight
must be obtained before proceeding with any flight.
Flights can only proceed if approval is granted by all applicable authorities.

Also see Local By-Laws.
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5.2.1.10 Likely Operating Site and Alternative Sites
At the start of planning for a flight the operating site and all possible restrictions and/or objections must be
taken into consideration. Always have an alternative site as a Plan B and readily available for any possible
reason that will prevent the flight taking place from the first chosen operational site for the flight.
5.2.1.11 Weather Conditions and Planning
Access 2 or more sites for a detailed weather report within 12 hours prior to the flight to ensure you are well
prepared for the weather conditions and if it is suitable for flying and within the operational limitations of
your RPA.
Good weather sites are with the regular forecast are:
• http://www.windfinder.com/
• http://aviation.weathersa.co.za/
• http://www.windyty.com
Also see Meteorology for information on TAFs and METARs and sites to get the detailed aviation weather
reports.
Refer to the Flight planning hand out Checklists
5.2.2 Logging of flight
Each pilot of an RPA have the responsibility to capture data relating to their flight in the following
documents that can be either in an excel sheet or a book that can be purchased at local Aviation Shop. All
entries into these books must be done with a permanent pen and no pages that has been written on can be
removed and must be left as is.
a) Flight Folio
The flight folio contains information surrounding the flight, the pilot and the aircraft. Information that is required by law to
be present are:
i. Aircraft registration
ii. Date of flight
iii. Name(s) of flight crew member(s) – Pilot and Observer
iv. Duty assignment of flight crew member(s)
v. Place of departure
vi. Place of arrival
vii. Time of departure (off-block time)
viii. Time of arrival (on-block time)
ix. Duration of flight
x. Nature of flight (Photography, Filming, Surveillance etc.)
xi. Incidents, observations (if any)
xii. Signature of Pilot-in-Command;
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xiii. The current maintenance statement giving the aircraft maintenance status of what maintenance, scheduled or
out of phase, is next due. This will usually be displayed at the top of the page. Indicating at what time or after X
amount of landings the RPA needs to be serviced again.
xiv. All outstanding deferred defects which affect the operation of the aircraft;
xv. Fuel and oil used; or batteries
xvi. Fuel, oil or batteries was uplifted / used
b) Pilot Logbook
Your log book will contain all relevant information with regards to your flying career. Training received, hours flown, type
of work done and on what aircraft it was done.
As per the CARs –
101.03.7
(1) The holder of an RPL must maintain in a pilot logbook a record of all his or her flight time, instrument time, simulation
time and instruction time.
(2) Where electronic logbooks are used, the electronic data must be printed on paper at least every 90 days and the
printed pages filed sequentially in a binder.
(3) The pilot must retain all pilot logbooks for at least 60 months from the date that person no longer holds a valid pilot
licence.
(4) The holder of an RPL must make the logbook available for inspection upon a reasonable request by an authorised
officer, inspector or authorised person.
Information kept in the Logbook other than your personal information will be:
i. Date of Flight
ii. Aircraft Type (DJI Phantom 2)
iii. Aircraft Registration
iv. Duration of Flight
v. Start and End Location
vi. Duty (Observer, PIC, Co-Pilot)
vii. Type of Flight (Night, Photography, Aerial Display etc.)
See on the below example of a Logbook.
It is important to complete the Folio and Logbook after each flight and keep your totals complete in the
summary section on each page. Summaries on only completed once the page is filled. Unless you have an
electronic version that keeps the totals up to date as entries are made.
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Pilot UAV Log Book
Pilot Name __________________________ License Number _________________________
Location Multi-Rotor Airplane Helicopter

Aircraft
Date
Type Reg. To From PIC Description Solo Dual Solo Dual Solo Dual Instructor
Totals Brought Forward
I certify that the entries in this log are true,

Totals this page
_______________________________________ AMT. Forwarded

Pilot Signature Totals to date
Rev. 1
83
5.3 Check lists and site inspections
PRE-SITE ASSESSMENT FORM

SITE GENERAL: Operating Site Name:
Site Latitude:
Site Longitude:
Site Elevation (ft asml):
Maximum Operating Altitude (ft asml):
AIRSPACE: Controlled/Uncontrolled
Closest Controlled Airspace
Distance to closest Airfield
Airband Frequency:
Alternative Frequency:
PROXIMITES: Possible Manned Aircraft to expect:
Manned Aircraft Routes:
Heli-Pads
RESTRICTIONS: Restricted Areas:
Prohibited Areas:
Danger Areas:
NOTAMS: For operating Area:
TERRAIN: Flat/Mountain/Forest/Veld/City)
SENSITIVITIES: Nature reserve/Recreational Areas/Bye Laws):
PEOPLE: Public Area/Schools/Public Foorpaths:

Cordon Required:
LIVESTOCK: Farming/Horses/Animals:
PERMISSIONS: Local Authority, Land Owner, Military Space:
ACCESS: Public Right of Way, Gates & Roads:
Person to contact:
LIKELY OPERATING SITE:
POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVE SITE:
WEATHER: Long Term Forecast:
HAZARDS/RISKS: Aircraft:
Wind:
Obstructions:
Restrictions:
Public:
Fire:
Other:
Notifications of intended operations to affected Persons/Institutions:
COMMUNICATIONS: Radio Call:
Briefing:
EMERGENCY NUMBERS: Local Doctor/Hospital:

Local Police:
Local Fire Brigade:
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ON SITE SURVEY
OPERATING SITE LOCATION
JOB DATE OPERATING SITE NAME:
WIND SPEED:
WIND DIRECTION:
FLIGHT TEAM COMPOSITION TEMPERATURE:
PILOT IN COMMAND: CHANCE OF RAIN:
PAYLOAD OPERATOR: SUNRISE:
RPA REGISTRATION: SUNSET:
SPOTTER: TIME ARRIVAL ON SITE:
ITEM ACTION TO COMPLETE FINDINGS

OBSTRUCTIONS: Guy-Ropes YES NO
Power Lines YES NO
Buildings YES NO
Trees / Forest YES NO
Other Masts YES NO
VISUAL LIMITATIONS Mast YES NO
Trees / Forest YES NO
Buildings YES NO
Other YES NO
LIVESTOCK Animals YES NO
Other YES NO
TERRAIN: Open YES NO
Flat YES NO
High Dense Forests YES NO
Mountenous YES NO
PEOPLE Public YES NO
Spectators YES NO
PERMISSION Confirmed YES NO
BEST EXIT ROUTE DIRECTION:
CONTROL AREA SETUP POSITION:
LANDING / TAKE-OFF AREA:
EMERGANCY AREA:
NOTES:
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RISK ASSESSMENT FORM

SITE LOCATION:
JOB NUMBER:
FLIGHT OPERATION:
JOB DATE:
PILOT-IN-COMMAND: OBSERVER:
FLIGHT TEAM: PAYLOAD OPERATOR: AIRCRAFT:
1 - HAZARD 3 - EXISTING CONTROL RISK 7 - FURTHER CONTROL RISK
2 - AT RISK
MEASURES MEASURES
5 PROBABILITY
5 PROBABILITY
4 SEVERITY
6 RISK
4 SEVERITY
6 RISK
(Something with the potential to cause
harm, how will it be realised and what is
the potential injury?)
FURTHER ACTIONS (Further control measures which could be implemented at the planning stage to improve safety)
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS (Actions identified by personnel on site, to make the operation safer)
AUTHORISED BY THE NAME (Print): SIGNED:
ACCOUNTABLE MANAGER
AT RISK (Column 2) SEVERITY (Column 4 and 8) PROBABILITY (Column 5 and 9) RISK RATING (Columns 6, 8 and 10)
E - Employees 1 NO INJURY, PROPERTY DAMAGE 1 EXTREMELY UNLIKELY Severity X Probability - 1 to 5 MIN Y - Acceptable Risk
C - Client 2 MINOR INJURY 2 REMOTE POSSIBILITY Severity X Probability - 5 TO 10 LOW Y - Acceptable Risk
V - Visitors 3 REPORTABLE INJURY 3 WILL POSSIBLY OCCUR Severity X Probability - 12 TO 15 MED ? - May need further consideration
P - Public 4 MAJOR INJURY / SINGLE FATALITY 4 WILL PROBABLY OCCUR Severity X Probability - 16 TO 25 HIGH N - Unacceptable Risk
A - All 5 MULTIPLE FATALITIES 5 ALMOST CERTAIN
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5.4 B-VLOS Flying
Currently not applicable
5.5 Night Flying
Currently not applicable
5.6 Observer
The Observer reports to the PIC and have the following responsibilities:
a) A visual observer is required to perform the see and avoid function as alternative compliance to the Right-of-Way Rules
b) The task of the observer is to provide the pilot of the RPA with instructions to steer the RPA clear of any potential collision
with other traffic
c) Visual observer duties require the ability to maintain visual contact with the RPA when within 500m of the Observer at all
times while scanning the immediate environment for potential conflicting traffic.
d) Communicate with pilot via two way radio to inform the pilot of any possible dangers and/or directional information for the
safe operation of the RPA
6 Meteorology
Weather plays an important role in Aviation and it is essential to understand the various factors that can
affect flying conditions. In the following sections we will be looking at various factors, how they are
formed and what they essentially can result in, rain, thunderstorms, gusting winds etc.
6.1 Air Density
The density of air is the mass per unit volume of Earth's atmosphere.
Factors
• Pressure
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Height
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• PRESSURE
When air is compressed, at a constant temperature, more molecules occupy a given volume, thus the mass
increases which results in an increase in density.
Conversely, when air expands, less molecules occupy the original volume, mass is less and therefore density
decreases.
Pressure Increases – Air density Increases
Pressure Decreases – Air Density Decreases
§ TEMPERATURE
When air is heated, while keeping the pressure constant, it expands and therefore, less molecules occupy a given
volume and density decreases. The converse also applies.
Temperature increases – Air density decreases
Temperature Decreases – Air density Increases
§ HUMIDITY
As we have already discussed water vapour weighs less than dry air, therefore less molecules occupy a given
volume.
Thus density decreases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. In other words, water vapour
molecules displace the molecules of air: less air per unit volume, decreased density. Therefore, the higher the
humidity, the lower the density.
§ HEIGHT/ALTITUDE
Air density varies with altitude, a increase in altitude will result in a decrease in air density.
6.1.1 Pressure Altitude
This is the reading obtained on the altimeter with the subscales set to the Standard pressure of 1013.25 hPa
(QNE).
Q-Codes:
QNH – The Height of the aircraft above mean sea level
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QNE – The height of the aircraft above the standard ISA setting of 1013.25 hPa.
QFE – The height of an aircraft above the airfield or terrain (reference point).
Example 1:
Calculate the pressure altitude at grand central, airfield elevation is 5327 ft. QNH is 1028.
Solution:
Pressure altitude we use 1013.25 hPa as the reference point.
1028- 1013.25 = 14.75 hPa
1 hPa = 30ft
Thus 14.75 x 30 = 442.25ft
Thus we have to subtract 442.25ft from the airfield elevation to get our pressure altitude.
5327ft – 442.25ft = 4884.75ft
6.1.2 Density Altitude
Density altitude is the term used to describe the effect of temperature and altitude on air density.
Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for temperature.
When our outside temperature is higher than the ISA temperature = Density altitude higher than Pressure
altitude.
When our outside temperature is lower than the ISA temperature = Density altitude is lower than Pressure
altitude.
To calculate Density altitude, pressure altitude is corrected for any temperature deviation from the ISA
temperature.
A correction of 120ft for each one degree deviation from the ISA temperature is applied to the pressure
altitude.
Example 1:
Temperature is 25 C, Airfield elevation is 4400ft, QNH is 1027 hPa. Determine the density altitude:
First get the Pressure altitude:
1027 hPa – 1013.25 hPa = 13.75 hPa

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13.75 hPa x 30ft = 412.5 hPa
Thus 4400ft – 412.5ft = 3987.5ft
So pressure altitude is 4000ft(rounded up for ease of calculation)
The ISA temperature for a pressure altitude of 4000ft is:
4000ft x -2 / 1000ft = -8 + 15 = 7 C
Now= outside air temperature – ISA temp at 4000ft:
25 C – 7 C = 18 C
For every temp dev from ISA we have to add or subtract 120ft
18 C X 120 ft = 2160ft
Density altitude = 4000ft + 2160ft = 6560ft
6.2 Fog, Mist and Visibility
In meteorology, visibility is a measure of the distance at which an object or light can be clearly seen.
Fog ,Mist and Haze
Fog and mist are reported as weather phenomena when the

visibility is reduced by water droplets in suspension.
Haze is reduction in visibility due to the presence of solid

particles called “aerosols” such as dust, smoke etc.
Fog – visibility less than 1000 m
Mist – visibility is between 1000 m and 5000 m
Haze-visibility less than 5000m
Fog in a Town Centre .

RADIATION FOG
During clear nights when terrestrial radiation is a maximum, a thin layer of air near the ground will
be cooled by contact and, providing dew point temperature is not too low, condensation will take
place in the form of water droplets.
If there is no wind, these droplets condense on the ground in the form of dew.
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Frost occurs when the dew point is below zero, resulting in deposition (water vapor directly to ice).
ADVECTION FOG
Advection is the horizontal movement of an air mass and advection fog may, therefore, occur any
time warm moist air moves over a cold surface.Like radiation fog, it tends to form because of the
wind, but not when the wind is too strong. The air is cooled by contact with the cold surfaces to
below its dew point and water droplets then become visible in the form of fog. This type of fog
usually occurs over the sea, where the warm moist air mass blows over the cold Benguella current
being especially common along the west coast of South Africa.
UPSLOPE FOG
This type of fog is found where the land generally slopes upwards. Fog will form when the air cools,
due to adiabatic cooling as it ascends to higher altitudes and develops more frequently at night, due
to terrestrial radiation.
It is common on the great plains of the Lesotho and natal Midlands, but in the mountains upslope
fog may be far more common. It is one of the few types of fog that persists with stronger winds.
VALLEY FOG
When a Katabatic wind is persistent in mountainous regions, there is continuous down slope of
colder air into the valley or basin. The temperature at the bottom progressively attains a lower
temperature until dew point is reached and fog results, slowly building upwards. Fog due to these
phenomena is called valley fog.
SMOG FOG
This is a combination of both fog and smoke, normally occurring during the night when large
amounts of smoke from industry and home coal fires are emitted into the atmosphere. This smoke is
mixed with the fog (radiation fog) and acts as suitable nuclei for condensation to take place.
6.3 Wind and Gusts

Wind is air in motion. It is produced by the uneven heating of the earth’s surface by the sun. Since the
earth’s surface is made of various land and water formations, it absorbs the sun’s radiation unevenly. Two
factors are necessary to specify wind: speed and direction.
As the sun warms the Earth's surface, the atmosphere warms
too. Some parts of the Earth receive direct rays from the sun
all year and are always warm. Other places receive indirect
rays, so the climate is colder. Warm air, which weighs less
than cold air, rises. Then cool air moves in and replaces the
rising warm air. This movement of air is what makes the
wind blow.
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6.3.1 Gust Front
A gust front is the leading edge of cool air rushing down and out from a thunderstorm. There are two main
reasons why the air flows out of some thunderstorms so rapidly. The primary reason is the presence of
relatively dry air in the lower atmosphere. This dry air causes some of the rain falling through it to
evaporate, which cools the air. Since cool air sinks (just as warm air rises), this causes a down-rush of air
that spreads out at the ground. The edge of this rapidly spreading cool pool of air is the gust front. The
second reason is that the falling precipitation produces a drag on the air, forcing it downward. If the wind
following the gust front is intense and damaging, the windstorm is known as a downburst.
6.3.2 Sea and Land Breezes
In coastal regions, sea breezes and land breezes can be important factors in a location's prevailing winds.
The sea is warmed by the sun more slowly because of water's greater specific heat compared to land. As the
temperature of the surface of the land rises, the land heats the air above it by conduction. The warm air is
less dense than the surrounding environment and so it rises. This causes a pressure gradient of about 2
millibars from the ocean to the land. The cooler air above the sea, now with higher sea level pressure, flows
inland into the lower pressure, creating a cooler breeze near the coast. When large-scale winds are calm, the
strength of the sea breeze is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the land mass and
the sea. If an offshore wind of 8 knots (15 km/h) exists, the sea breeze is not likely to develop.
At night, the land cools off more quickly than the ocean because of differences in their specific heat values.
This temperature change causes the daytime sea breeze to dissipate. When the temperature onshore cools
below the temperature offshore, the pressure over the water will be lower than that of the land, establishing a
land breeze, as long as an onshore wind is not strong enough to oppose it.
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6.3.3 Mountain Winds
§ ANABATIC WINDS: (Day winds)
Where there is a tendency for air to flow upslope, it is called Anabatic. This wind owes its presence to the
heating of the hill slope by the sun, which in turn heats up the air in contact with it and becomes warmer
than the air the same level and is therefore lighter and ascends.
This thermal upslope current is replaced by cooler air from the valley, the general motion being upslope, in
the form of a gentle breeze
KATABATIC WINDS: (Night winds)
This is the reverse of an Anabatic wind. During the night, the ground loses its heat by radiation. Air in
contact with the slope thus becomes colder than the surrounding air of the free atmosphere. Being denser
and heavier, it starts to sink into the lower valleys.
The importance lies in the effect of local “pooling” of this cold air in the valley and, should the temperature
be lowered sufficiently to dew point, local fog or mist occurs.
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6.4 Clouds
Clouds form in the Earth's atmosphere when water evaporates into vapour from oceans, lakes, ponds, and
even streams and rivers; and by evaporation or transpiration over moist areas of Earth's land surface. The
vapour rises up into colder areas of the atmosphere due to convective, orographic, or frontal lifting. This
subjects the rising air to a process called adiabatic cooling.
The water vapour attaches itself to condensation nuclei which can be anything from dust to microscopic
particles of salt and debris. Once the vapour has been cooled to saturation, the cloud becomes visible. All
weather-producing clouds form in the troposphere, the lowest major layer of the atmosphere. However very
small amounts of water vapour can be found higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere and may
condense into very thin clouds if the air temperatures are sufficiently cold. The nephology branch of
meteorology is focused on the study of cloud physics.
The list of cloud types is a summarisation of the modern system of cloud classification according to their
height, forming mechanism and other characteristics that have been adopted universally. Below are some of
the more popular clouds you will find in South Africa.
6.4.1 Cirrus Clouds
Formation
• High-level ascent
• Shape due to wind shear
Characteristics
• White, without shading
• Delicate filaments
• Patches of narrow bands
• Fibrous or silky appearance
• Hook-shaped feathery filaments
• Composed of ice crystals
Precipitation
• None
6.4.2 Cirrocumulus Clouds
Formation
• Convection
• Develops from cirrus of cirrostratus
Characteristics
• Thin white patch, sheet or layer
• Very small elements - grains, ripples
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• Width of less than one finger held at arm's length
• Merged or separate
• More or less regularly arranged
Precipitation
• None
6.4.3 Cirrostratus Clouds
Formation
• Widespread upper-level ascent
Characteristics
• Transparent whitish veil
• Fibrous or smooth
• May cover whole sky
• Commonly produces halo
Precipitation
• None
6.4.4 Altocumulus Clouds
Formation
• Convection
• Wave flow near mountains
Characteristics
• Grey, featureless sheet or layer cloud
• Usually waved or in lumps or layers
• May be lens-shaped near mountains or islands
• White or grey or both white and grey
• Smallest elements have apparent width of two
fingers when held at arm's length
Precipitation
• Virga
• Light showers occasionally
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6.4.5 Altostratus Clouds
Formation
• Widespread ascent
Characteristics
• Grey, featureless sheet or layer cloud
• Can be fibrous or uniform
• Covers whole or part of sky
• Sun shines weakly (as if through ground
glass)
• Great horizontal extent
Precipitation
• Rain
6.4.6 Nimbostratus Clouds
Formation
• Widespread ascent
Characteristics
• Dark grey cloud layer
• Generally covering the sky
• Dense and thick enough to hide sun or moon
• Base indistinct as a result of continuous rain or
snow
• Base often lower than 2 500 meters
Precipitation
• Rain or snow - almost continuous
6.4.7 Cumulus Clouds
Formation
• Convection
• Surface heating
• Instability
Characteristics
• Detached cloud
• Develops vertically upwards
• In the form of turrets, towers
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• Tops domed or cauliflower-shaped
• Shaped outlines
• Sunlit parts are bright white
• Base nearly horizontal, relatively dark
• Size depends on stage of development
Precipitation
• Showers of rain
• Snow from large cumulus
6.4.8 Cumulonimbus Clouds
Formation
• Convection
• Surface heating
• Instability
Characteristics
• Bulging, dense cloud masses
• Huge cumulus cloud
• Fibrous top, often anvil-shaped or plume
shaped
• Base dark and stormy looking
• Thunder and lightning common
• Low tattered clouds below base
• Associated with gusts and squalls
Precipitation
• Showers of rain, snow - may be heavy
• Hail
6.4.9 Stratocumulus Clouds
Formation
• Spreading out of cumulus (usually evenings)
• Turbulent mixing under stable layer
Characteristics
• Grey or white layer with darker areas
• Often regular undulations
• Elements have apparent width of three or more fingers when extended at arm’s length
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Precipitation
• Occasional light rain
• Drizzle
6.4.10 Stratus Clouds
Formation
• Low-level ascent or cooling
• Due to Precipitation that has saturated the air
• Lifting fog or mist
Characteristics
• Grey uniform layer
• May be continuous or patchy
• Resembling fog, but not on the ground
• May appear as shreds of fragments below
nimbostratus
• May cover tops of mountains or hills
Precipitation
• Drizzle
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6.5 Thunderstorms
A thunderstorm, also known as an electrical storm, a lightning storm, or a thundershower, is a type of

storm characterized by the presence of lightning and its acoustic effect on the Earth's atmosphere known as
thunder. Thunderstorms occur in association with a type of cloud known as a cumulonimbus.
CONDITIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THURNDERSTOMS
There must be sufficient moisture present in the atmosphere, especially in the lower levels. Instability must
persist. There must be a lifting process (called trigger action) which will give rise to a sample of air
becoming saturated. This trigger action may be one of the following:
CONVECTIVE THUNDERSTOMS: occur due to excessive ground heating.
FRONTAL THURNDERSTOMS: occur along the boundaries of weather fronts
CONVERGENT THUNDERSTOMS :are the result of localized convection in an unstable air mass.
ORGRAPHIC THUNDERSTORMS: are caused by air that is forced up by a mountain or hillside.
STAGES IN THE LIFE CYCLE OF A THUNDERSTOM:
Development Or Cumulus Stage
Warm, moist air rises. As this occurs the air begins to condense into a cumulus cloud. As the warm air
within the cloud continues to rise, it eventually cools and condenses.
Mature Stage
Characterized by the presence of both updrafts and downdrafts within the cloud. The downdrafts are
initiated by the downward drag of falling precipitation.. As the mature-stage thunderstorm develops, the
cumulus cloud continues to increase in size. lightning usually begins when the precipitation first falls from
the cloud base. During this phase of the life cycle, the top of the resulting cumulonimbus cloud will start to
flatten out, forming an anvil shape often at the top of the troposphere.
Decaying Stage
Characterized by downdrafts throughout the entire cloud. Anvil becomes more pronounced in this stage. The
decay of a thunderstorm can also be initiated when the precipitation within the storm becomes too heavy for
the updrafts to support, when the source of moisture is cut off, or when lifting ceases.
6.6 Aviation Weather Reports
Weather reports are essential phase of flight planning. Dependant on the type of work to be done, weather
will determine the feasibility of flight and projected outcome of the flight.
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Weather reports for Aviators are issued in 2 formats – METARs and TAFs. Below are an example of each
and what the information displayed means.
6.6.1 Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR)
CAVOK – Ceiling and visibility OK. Replaces visibility/RVR, present weather, and clouds if:
- Visibility is 10KM or greater
- No CB and no cloud below 1500M (5000ft) or below highest minimum sector altitude whichever is greater, and
- No precipitation, thunderstorm, sandstorm, dust storm, shallow fog, or low drifting dust/sand/snow.
Example:
FVHA 261800Z 32007KT 9999 TS FEW033CB 20/17 Q1020 NOSIG
SCT035TCU
BKN080
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
GROUP (1)-Reporting Station
Example 1:FVHA – (Harare)
GROUP (2)- Date and Time
Example 1:UTC
GROUP (3)-Wind
Example 1:32007KT
GROUP (4)-Visibility Or Runway Visual Range (RVR)
Horizontal visibility is reported using the following reporting steps:
(a) 0 to 500m, rounded down to the nearest 50m
(b) 500 to 5000m, rounded down to the nearest 100m
(c) 5000 to 9999m, rounded down to the nearest 500m
(d) 9999 indicates 10 km or more
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Example 1:9999-10KM OR MORE
Example 1:03L/0800
GROUP (5)-Present Weather
Example 1:TS
Meaning: Thundershowers
GROUP (6)- Clouds
The cloud amount is reported as one of the following:
FEW Few (1 to 2 oktas)
SCT Scattered (3 to 4 oktas)
BKN Broken (5 to 7 oktas)
OVC Overcast (8 oktas)
Example 1: FEW030CB
Meaning: 1 to 2 oktas cloud at 3000 ft and Cumulonimbus
GROUP (7)-Temperature/dew point
Example 1:20/17
GROUP (8)-QNH
The observed QNH value rounded down to the nearest whole hectopascal is indicated, preceded without space, by the letter
indicator Q.
If the value of QNH is less than 1 000 hPa, it is preceded by 0; for Example QNH 995.6 is reported as Q0995
GROUP (9)- SUPPLEMETARY INFORMATION
RECENT WEATHER (RE)
Example: WSRWY21R
BECMG - Becoming
TEMPO - Temporary
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NOSIG - No significant change
Trend Forecast (2 hours from time of observation) (Not used in US)
· PROB and 2 digits (30 or 40) = probability 30% or 40%
· Used to indicate the probability of occurrence of alternate element(s) or temporary fluctuations
· Change Indicator
- BECMG = Becoming (used where changes are expected to reach or pass through specified values
- TEMPO = Temporary (fluctuations of less than one hour duration
- NOSIG = No significant change
· Forecast Wind (same as item 4)
· Forecast Visibility (as item 5) (9999 indicates 10Kilometers vis or greater)
Qualifier Weather Phenomena
Intensity or Proximity Descriptor Precipitation Obscuration Other
BC Patches DZ Drizzle BR Mist (1)

– Light Widespread DS Duststorm
BL Blowing (2) GR Hail (3) DU
Dust
Small Hail and/or Funnel

DR Low Drifting (4) GS FG Fog (6) FC
No snow pellets (5) Clouds
Moderate
qualifier Dust/Sand
FZ Freezing IC Ice Crystals FU Smoke PO
Whirls
MI Shallow PL Ice Pellets HZ Haze

+ Heavy SQ Squall(s)
PR Partial RA Rain SA Sand
SH Shower(s) SG Snow Grains
TS Thunderstorm SN Snow
VC Vicinity (7) VA Volcanic Ash SS Sandstorm
Unknown
UP
Precipitation
(1) Visibility at least 1000m (5/8SM) but not more than 9600m (6SM)
(2) 6 feet or more above the ground
(3) Hailstone diameter 5mm or greater
(4) Less than 6 feet above the ground
(5) Hailstone diameter less than 5mm
(6) Visibility less than 1000m (5/8SM)
(7) Within 8KM (5SM) of the aerodrome but not at the aerodrome
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6.6.2 TAF
TAF FACT 070400Z 0706/0812 18015KT 9999 SCT030

FM071000 16022KT 9999 SCT030
BECMG 0718/0720 16008KT
TX25/0812ZTN16/0804Z=
6.6.3 Significant Changes in Forecast
1. Probability groups(s)
- PROB and 2 digits (30 or 40).
- Probability 30% or 40% used to indicate the probability of occurrence of alternate element(s) or temporary fluctuations. May also be
listed as TEMPO by some non US weather services.
- TIME (beginning 2 digits, ending 2 digits)
- Forecast weather phenomena.
2. Forecast Change
o Indicators
§ BCMG=Becoming (used when changes are expected to reach or pass through specified values)
§ FM = From and 2 digit time
§ TO = To and 2 digit time
§ TEMPO = Temporary fluctuation
6.6.4 METAR /TAF Abbreviations / Cloud Types
A Hail AMOS Automatic Meteorological observing

ABM Abeam system
ABV Above AMS Air mass
AC Altocumulus ANLYS Analysis
ACCAS Altocumulus castellanus AO1 Automated observation with no precip
ACCUM Altocumulate discriminator (rain/snow)
ACLD Above clouds AO2 Automated observation with precip
ACSL Standing lenticular altocumulus discriminator (rain/snow)
ACTV Active AOA At or above
ACYC Anticyclonic AOB At or below
ADDN Addition AP Anomalous propagation
ADRNDCK Adirondack APCH Approach
ADVCTN Advection APRNT Apparent
ADVY Advisory AS Altostratus
AFDK After Dark ASOS Automated surface observing system
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AFT After ATLC Atlantic
AFTN Afternoon ATTM At this time
AGL Above Ground Level AURBO Aurora Borealis
AGN Again AUTOB Automatic weather reporting system
AHD Ahead AWOS Automatic weather observing system
AIREP Air Report B Beginning of precipitation (time in
AIRMET Airmen’s Meteorological Info minutes (wx reports only)
ALF Aloft BACLIN Baroclinic prognosis
ALG Along BATROP Barotropic or barotropic prognosis
ALGHNY Allegheny BC British Columbia
ALQDS All quadrants BCFG Fog patches
ALSTG Altimeter setting BCKG Backing
ALTA Alberta BCM(G) Become (becoming)
ALUTN Alleutian BD Blowing dust (wx reports only)
AMD Amended forecast BFDK Before dark
AMDT Amendment BINOVC Breaks in overcast
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BKN Broken CLD Cloud

BLDUP Build up CLR Clear
BLKHLS Black Hills CAS Clear and smooth
BLO Below CNL Cancel
BN Blowing sand (wx reports only) CNDN Canadian
BNDRY Boundary CNTRL Central
BOVC Base of overcast CNVG Converge
BRAF Braking action fair CNVTV Convective
BRAG Braking action good CONT-DVD Continental Divide
BRAN Braking action nil CONTRAILS Condensation trails
BRAP Braking action poor CS Cirrostratus
BRF Brief CST Coast
BRKSHR Berkshire CTGY Category
BS Blowing snow (wx reports only) CTSKLS Catskills
BTWN Between CU Cumulus
BY Blowing spray (wx reports only) CUF Cumuliform
CA Clear above (PIREP only) CUFRA Cumulus fractus
CAN Canada CYC Cyclonic
CARIB Caribbean CYCLGN Cyclogenesis
CASCDS Cascades D Dust (wx reports only)
CAVOK Ceiling and visibility OK DABRK Daybreak
CAVU Ceiling and visibility unlimited DALGT Daylight
CB Cumulonimbus DCAVU Clear or scattered cloud and vis
CBMAM Cumulonimbus mammatus greater than 10, remainder or report
missing (wx reports only)
CC Cirrocumulus
CCSL Standing lenticular cirrocumulus DCR Decreased
CDFNT Cold Front DIAM Diameter
CFP Cold front passage DKTS Dakotas
CHC Chance DMSH Diminish
CHSPK Chesapeake DNS Dense
CIG Ceiling DNSLP Downslope
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DNSTRM Downstream FLG Falling

DP Deep FLRY Flurry
DPNG Deepening FNT Front
DPTH Depth FNTGNS Frontogenesis
DRFT Drift FNTLYS Frontolysis
DRZL Drizzle FORNN Forenoon
DSIPT Dissipate FRMG Forming
DSNT Distant FROPA Frontal passage
DTRT Deteriorate FRST Frost
DRG During FRZ Freeze
DWNDFTS Downdrafts FRZLVL Freezing level
DWPNT Dew point FRZN Frozen
E Ending of precipitation (time in FZRANO Freezing rain sensor not operating
minutes)(wx reports only) FT Terminal Forecast
E Equatorial (air mass) G Gusts reaching (knots)(wx reports
only)
E Estimated (wx reports only) GF Ground fog (wx reports only)
ELNGT Elongate GFDEP Ground fog estimated (feet) deep
EMBDD Embedded GICG Glaze icing
ENRT Enroute GLFALSK Gulf of Alaska
ENTR Entire GLFCAL Gulf of California
ERY Early CLFMEX Gulf of Mexico
EVE Evening GLFSTLAWR Gulf of St. Lawrence
EXCP Except GNDFG Ground Fog
EXPC Expect GRAD Gradient
EXTRM Extreme GRTLKS Great Lakes
F Fog (wx reports only) GSTS Gusts
FA Area Forecast GSTY Gusty
FAH Farenheit H Haze (wx reports only)
FAX Facsimile HCVIS High clouds visible
FIBI Filed but impracticable to HDEP Haze layer estimated (feet) deep
transmit
FINO Wx report will not be filed for HDSVLY Hudson Valley
transmission
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HI High LABRDR Labrador

HLSTO Hailstones LFT Lift
HLYR Haze layer aloft LGT Light
HURCN Hurricane LIFR Low IFR (wx reports only)
HVY Heavy LK Lake
IC Ice crystal LSR Loose snow on runway
ICG Icing LST Local Standard Time
ICGIC Icing in clouds LTGCA Lightning cloud to air
ICGICIP Icing in clouds and precipitation LTGCC Lightning cloud to cloud
ICGIP Icing in precipitation LTGCCCG Lightning cloud to cloud, cloud to
ground
IF Ice fog LTGCG Lightning cloud to ground
IFR Instrument flight rules LTGCW Lightning cloud to water
INCR Increase LTGIC Lightning in clouds
INDC Indicate LTLCG Little change
INDEF Indefinite LTNG Lightning
INLD Inland LYR Layer or layered or layers
INSTBY Instability M Measured ceiling (wx reports only)
INTR Interior M Missing (wx reports only)
INTR- Inter-mountain region MAN Manitoba
MTRGN
INTS Intense MDT Moderate
INTST Intensity METAR Scheduled aviation observation
INVRN Inversion MEX Mexico
IOVC In overcast MHKVLY Mohawk Valley
IP Ice pellets (wx reports only) MIDN Midnight
IR Ice on runway MIFG Patches of shallow fog not deeper than 2
meters
JTSTR Jetstream MLTLVL Melting level
K Smoke MNLD Mainland
KDEP Smoke layer estimated (feet) deep MOGR Moderate or greater
KLYR Smoke layer aloft MOV Move
KOCTY Smoke over city MRGL Marginal
L Drizzle (wx reports only) MRNG Morning
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MRTM Maritime PGTSND Puget Sound

MSTLY Mostly PIBAL Pilot balloon observation
MTN Mountain PK WND Peak wind (wx report only)
MVFR Marginal VFR PNHDL Panhandle
NB New Brunswick PNO Rain gauge not operating
NEW New England PPINA Radar weather report not available or
ENG omitted
NFLD Newfoundland
NGT Night PPINE Radar weather report no echoes
observed
NOSPL No special observations taken (wx PPINO Radar weather report equipment
reports only) inoperative due to breakdown
NS Nimbostratus PPIOK Radar weather report equipment
NS Nova Scotia operation resumed
NVA Negative vorticity advection PPIOM Radar weather report equipment
OBS Observation inoperative due to maintenance
OBSC Obscure PRBLTY Probability
OCFNT Occluded front PRESFR Pressure falling rapidly
OCLD Occlude PRESRR Pressure rising rapidly
OCLN Occlusion PRJMP Pressure jump (wx reports only)
OFP Occluded frontal passage PROG Prognosis or prognostic
OFSHR Offshore PSR Packed snow on runway
OMTNS Over mountains PTCHY Patchy
ONSHR On shore PTLY Partly
ONT Ontario PVA Positive vorticity advection
ORGPHC Orographic PWINO Precipitation identifier information not
available (wx reports only)
OTAS On top and smooth Q Squall (wx reports only)
OTLK Outlook QSTNRY Quasistationary
OVC Overcast QUE Quebec
OVR Over R Rain (wx reports only)
PAC Pacific RADAT Radiosonde observation data
PCPN Precipitation RAOB Radiosonde observation
PDW Priority Delayed Weather RCKY Rocky Mountains
PEN Peninsula RDG Ridge
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RGD Ragged TDWR Terminal Doppler Weather Radar

RHINO Radar echo height information not TEMP Temperature
available
RHINO Radar range height indicator not THDR Thunder
operating on scan
RIOGD Rio Grande THRU Through
RNFL Rainfall THRUT Throughout
ROBEPS Radar operating below prescribed THSD Thousand
standard
RPD Rapid TIL Until
RSG Rising TMW Tomorrow
RUF Rough TNGT Tonight
RVRNO Runway visual range missing TOP Cloud top
RW Rain shower (wx reports only) TOVC Top of overcast
S Snow (wx reports only) TPG Topping
SASK Saskatchewan TROF Trough
SAWRN Supplementary Aviation Weather TROP Tropopause
Reporting System
SC Stratocumulus TRPCL Tropical
SCSL Stratocumulus standing lenticular TRRN Terrain
SCT Scattered TSHWR Thundershower
SELS Severe local storms TSNO Lightning sensor not available
SFERICS Atmospherics TSTM Thunderstorm
SG Snow grains (wx reports only) TURB Turbulence
SHFT Shift (wx reports only) TURBC Turbulence
SHLW Shallow TWD Toward
SHWR Shower TWR Tower
SIERNEV Sierra Nevada TWRG Towering
SIR Snow and ice on runway TYPH Typhoon
SPECI Unscheduled aviation observation U Intensity unknown (wx reports only)
SLF Sea level pressure UA Routine PIREP
SLPNO Sea level pressure not available UDDF Up and down drafts
SNINCR Snow increasing rapidly UNSTBL Unstable
TCU Towering cumulus UNSTDY Unsteady
TDA Today UPR Upper
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UTC Universal coordinated time WND Wind

UUA Urgent PIREP WRM Warm
V Variable (wx reports only) WRMFNT Warm front
VCSH Showers in vicinity WRNG Warning
VCTY Vicinity WSHFT Wind shift
VFR Visual flight rules WW Severe weather forecast
VLY Valley WX Weather
VRBL Variable X Obscured sky condition
VSBY Visibility XCP Except
WDLY Widely YDA Yesterday
WEA Weather Z UTC
WFP Warm front passage ZRNO Freezing rain information not available
WK Weak (wx reports only)
WKN Weaken
WL Will
6.6.5 PIREP – Pilot Weather Report
Pilots must report any significant weather or flight condition to ATC as soon as possible. Additionally, all
significant weather or flight conditions that clearly differ from the forecast should be reported to Dispatch.
There is no specific format for this type of report.
NOTE: Report wind shear encountered during departure or approach to the tower controller as soon as
possible. Use the term “PIREP” to ensure that it is rebroadcast.
6.6.6 AIRMETs
Hazardous weather advisories of moderate intensity will be issued as AIRMETs. AIRMETs are issued
when the following conditions are expected to cover an area of at least 3000 square miles:
§ Moderate icing.
§ Moderate turbulence.
§ Sustained surface winds of 30 knots or more.
§ Ceilings less than 1,000 ft. and/or visibility less than 5km affecting 50% of an area at one time.
§ Extensive mountain obscuration.
6.6.7 SIGMETs
Hazardous weather advisories of severe intensity will be issued as SIGMETs. SIGMETs are reported as
convective or non-convective.
Convective SIGMETs report only thunderstorms and related phenomena (tornadoes, heavy precipitation,
hail and high surface winds.
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Non-convective SIGMETs are issued when the following conditions occur or are expected to cover an area
of at least 3,000 square miles:
§ Severe or extreme turbulence or clear air turbulence (CAT) not associated with thunderstorms.
§ Severe icing not associated with thunderstorms.
§ Widespread dust storms, sandstorms, or volcanic ash lowering surface or inflight visibilities to below 5km.
§ Volcanic eruption.
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7 Aviation Radio and Restricted Radio Use
The theory and practical lessons will be taught in your Radio Course with a Certified Radio Instructor.
When to make radio calls will be continuously practiced during Simulator and Flight Training to ensure you
are comfortable with all aspects of this important part of aviation.
7.1 Radio communication requirements as per the Law
101.05.16
1) Except for R-VLOS operations, no RPAS shall be operated unless the pilot has a functioning air-band radio in his
possession, tuned to the frequency or frequencies applicable to the ATSU providing services or controlling such area or
airspace or to aircraft in such area or airspace.
2) The air-band radio shall have the required output and be configured in such a way that the range, strength of transmission
and quality of communication extends beyond the furthest likely position of the RPA from the pilot.
3) For VLOS, E-VLOS and B-VLOS operations, the pilot shall, using the registration of the RPA as a call-sign, make the
required radio calls, indicating the altitude, location and intended operation of the RPA in that area and at such intervals
as are required in order to ensure adequate separation from other aircraft is maintained.
4) For approved RPA operations in controlled airspace, the pilot shall maintain radio contact, using the registration of the
RPA as a call-sign, with the relevant ATSU, and acknowledge and execute such instructions as the ATSU may give at any
time during the operation of the RPA.
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7.2 NATO Phonetic Alphabet
The ICAO developed this system in the 1950s in order to account for discrepancies that might arise in
communications as a result of multiple alphabet naming systems coexisting in different places and
organizations.
In the official version of the alphabet, the non-English spellings Alfa and Juliett are used. Alfa is spelled
with an f as it is in most European languages because the English and French spelling alpha would not be
pronounced properly by native speakers of some other languages – who may not know that ph should be
pronounced as f. Juliett is spelled with a tt for French speakers, because they may otherwise treat a single
final t as silent. In some English versions of the alphabet, one or both of these may have their standard
English spelling.
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7.3 Communication in Aviation
Communication can be regarded as a means of exchange of information between two different parties. In the
context of Aviation industry, the role of communication is vital. For the purpose of exchange of some
crucial and essential information, instruction and command between Pilots, the Observer, other support staff
and Air traffic controller, there is a need of having some intensive means and types of communication. As a
Remote Pilot you will be on the ground and not in the cockpit as other pilots, still you have a responsibility
to communicate with ATC and other aviation traffic in the surrounding area of operation.
In the safety issue of aviation, reliable communication is required and necessary. In recent radio telephone
survey it was found that 80% of Radio Frequency Transmissions (RFT) by pilots were incorrect.
Surprisingly, some statistics from the air traffic controller showed that 30% of all incidents occurred due to
communication errors and rising to 50% in airport environments and hence, there are many reasons for
making communication errors in different situations. Also, some of the important factors to produce errors
could be lack of information, mishearing or misunderstanding of information, sign confusion and Language
problems.
7.3.1 Communication Do’s
a) Use clear and unambiguous phraseology at all times; challenge poor RFT
b) Try to avoid issuing more than two instructions in one transmission
c) Be aware that you tend to be less vigilant when speaking in your native language
d) Always insist on complete and accurate read-backs from pilots
e) Set the clearance given, not the clearance expected
f) Both pilots, if applicable, should monitor the frequency whenever possible
g) On frequency change, wait and listen before transmitting
h) ATC instructions should be recorded where possible
i) Use standard phraseology in face-to-face telephone coordination
j) Monitor all read-backs, try to avoid distractions - especially the telephone
k) When monitoring messages - write as you listen and read as you speak
l) If you are unsure, always check!
7.3.2 Communication Don’ts
The following phases have been identified as incorrect and ones that can easily cause confusion:
a) In turn - intended sequence is unclear
b) Next exit - who’s next are you referring to
c) Pull forward - clearance is not clear
d) One hundred and eleven hundred - as in flight level
e) Three digit numbers ending in zero - heading often confused with flight level
f) Similar sounding letters and numbers - B,G,C, D and 3
g) Made a ... interpreted as Mayday
h) Holding position interpreted as hold in position
i) Climb to, two thousand - action, followed by qualifier
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7.3.3 Listening
Listening is an important skill and one that needs to be effectively used as a pilot. As a
Remote Pilot you have possibilities of receiving communication from various points at any
given stage during the flight. Here are a few examples of where communication can come
from during the different stages of flight:
• ATC before take-off
• Observer during flight
• Other Aviation traffic during flight
• The producer of the film during flight
• Crew members or other persons passing by
It is essential, while flying to concentrate on communication that is relevant to the flight and
minimise disturbance.
How to become an active listener:
1. Pay Attention. Give the speaker your undivided attention, and acknowledge the message. ...
2. Show That You're Listening. Use your own body language and gestures to convey your attention.
...Only when the person is can see you, if you are communicating with ATC or other aviation traffic,
nodding your head is not going to relay the message.
3. Provide Feedback. ...
4. Defer Judgment. ...
5. Respond Appropriately.
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8 Principles of Flight
8.1 Introduction
The mechanics of flight are highly complex, encompassing principles such as the four forces
and axes, as well as technical terms such as control surfaces, adverse yaw and coordinated
flight. While this lesson covers all of these topics, its purpose is to provide just a very basic
insight into the true mechanics of flight and body-axis systems.
8.2 Newton’s Three Laws
Newton’s 1st Law (Law of Inertia)

Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion unless an
external force is applied to it.
Newton’s 2nd Law (Law of Acceleration)

Acceleration is produced when a force acts on a mass. The greater the mass (of the object
being accelerated) the greater the amount of force needed (to accelerate the object).
Newton’s 3rd Law (Law Action and reaction)

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
8.3 The Forces of Flight for Airplanes
Every aircraft, whether an airplane, helicopter or rocket, is affected by four opposing forces:
Thrust, Lift, Drag and Weight. Control surfaces, such as the rudder or ailerons, adjust the
direction of these forces, allowing the pilot to use them in the most advantageous way
possible. A force can be thought of as a push or pull in a specific direction. It is a vector
quantity, which means a force has both a magnitude (amount) and a direction. For this lesson
we will deal specifically with fixed-wing airplanes. Other aircraft, such as hot air balloons
and helicopters, use the same basic principles but the physics are very different.
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8.3.1 Lift
LIFT IS A AERODYNAMICALLY GENERATED FORCE AND IS GENERATED BY AIR MOVING OVER
THE WINGS OF AN AIRCRAFT
LIFT FORMULA
CL - The Co-Efficient of Lift
Angle of Attack of the wing, and the Shape of the wing.

Can you, as the pilot have an effect on the Angle of Attack of the wing? Can you change it in
any way?
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1
/2 p – Rho
Rho relates to the density of the air at the level and in the conditions in which you are
currently flying.
Can you, as the pilot change the density of the air that you are busy flying in?
2
V – Velocity Squared
Velocity relates to the speed at which you are flying. Notice its effect is squared, so it has a
very significant impact on the creation of lift.
Can you as the pilot change the speed of the aircraft in any way?
S - the Surface Area of a Wing
This is the square foot / meter of the wing.

Can you, as the pilot, change the surface area of your light training aircraft?
8.3.2 Drag
DRAG IS THE RESISTANCE TO MOTION OF AIRCRAFT THROUGH THE AIR & ACTS PARALLEL AND IN
THE SAME DIRECTION AS THE RELATIVE AIRFLOW.
8.3.3 Weight
Weight always acts vertically down towards the Centre of the earth through a single point
known as the Centre of gravity.
While aircraft is on the ground, weight balanced by a reacting force of the ground through the
wheels, but during flight weight must be balanced by another force, known as LIFT.
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8.3.4 Thrust
Thrust Is a Force That Counteracts Drag & Pulls or pushes an aircraft through the air
thrust is provided by a propeller – engine combination or jets
8.3.5 Controlling the Motion of Flight
In order for an aircraft to reach its destination, the forces of flight have to be precisely
manipulated. To do this, the aircraft has control surfaces which can direct airflow in very
specific ways.
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8.3.5.1 Elevator | Pitch
As the name implies, the elevator helps “elevate” the aircraft. It is usually located on the tail
of the aircraft and serves two purposes. The first is to provide stability by producing a
downward force on the tail. Airplanes are traditionally nose-heavy and this downward force
is required to compensate for that. The second is to direct the nose of the aircraft either
upwards or downwards, known as pitch, in order to make the airplane climb and descend.
8.3.5.2 Ailerons | Roll
The ailerons are located at the rear of the wing, one on each side. They work opposite to each
other, so when one is raised, the other is lowered. Their job is to increase the lift on one wing,
while reducing the lift on the other. By doing this, they roll the aircraft sideways, which
allows the aircraft to turn. This is the primary method of steering a fixed-wing aircraft
8.3.5.3 Rudder | Yaw
The rudder is located on the tail of the aircraft. It works identically to a rudder on a boat,
steering the nose of the aircraft left and right. Unlike the boat however, it is not the primary
method of steering. Its main purpose is to counteract the drag caused by the lowered aileron
during a turn. This adverse yaw, as it is known, causes the nose of the airplane to point away,
or outwards, from the direction of the turn. The rudder helps to correct this by pushing the
nose in the correct direction, maintaining what is known as coordinated flight.
8.3.6 The Axes of Flight
Each axis of flight is an imaginary line around which an airplane can turn. Think of an
airplane rotating around an axis like a wheel rotates around an axle. Regardless of the type of
aircraft, there are three axes upon which it can move: Left and Right, Forwards and
Backwards, Up and Down. In aviation though, their technical names are the lateral axis,
longitudinal axis and vertical axis.
8.3.6.1 The Lateral Axis (Pitch)
The lateral axis runs from wing tip to wing tip. The aircraft pitches around this axis.
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8.3.6.2 The Longitudinal Axis (Roll)
The longitudinal axis runs from the nose of the aircraft to the tail. This is the axis around
which the aircraft rolls.
8.3.6.3 The Vertical Axis (Yaw)
The vertical axis is slightly different to the others, running vertically through the centre of the
aircraft. The aircraft yaws around this axis.
8.3.7 The Centre of Gravity
The centre of gravity, also known as CG, is the effective point whereby all weight is
considered to be. The CG is also the same point where the axes of flight meet. This point isn’t
fixed on any aircraft, but moves forwards or backwards along the longitudinal axis,
depending on how the aircraft is loaded. It is vital that its centre of gravity remain within
certain limits however, as an aircraft that is too nose- or tail-heavy will either not fly, or be so
difficult to control that it becomes too dangerous to try. These limits are referred to as its
operational envelope.
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8.4 Basic Controls of an Airplane
For an airplane to fly in a controlled manner, control surfaces are necessary. The 4 main
surfaces are ailerons, elevator, rudder and flaps as shown below:
To understand how each works upon the airplane, imagine 3 lines (axis - the blue dashed
lines in the picture above) running through the plane. One runs through the centre of the
fuselage from nose to tail (longitudinal axis), one runs from side to side (lateral axis) and the
other runs vertically (vertical axis). All 3 axis pass through the Centre of Gravity (CG), the
airplane's crucial point of balance.
When the airplane is in forward flight it will rotate around each axis when movement to any
control surface is made by the pilot. The table below shows the appropriate actions...
Action: Axis: Controlled by:

Roll Longitudinal Ailerons
Pitch Lateral Elevators
Yaw Vertical Rudder
The following sections explain how each control surface effects the airplane. It's important to
understand that all control surfaces work in the same way, in that they alter the camber (air
foil shape) of the complete flying surface. This, in turn, changes the forces acting on the
surfaces and so that surface reacts in accordance with the change in force. The force in
question is best known to us as lift, but this particular force occurs in any direction - not just
upwards.
Incidentally, if you're completely new to the radio control flying, a controllable function of
any model is referred to as a channel so an airplane with control to, say, four functions will
be called a 4 channel plane, sometimes abbreviated to just 4 ch..
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Remote airplane controls are, of course, the same as those found on real airplanes and they
control the model in exactly the same way.
8.4.1 Throttle
Throttle controls the speed of the engine and hence how fast or slow the propeller turns.
On a glow plug (or petrol) airplane engine the throttle works the same as any internal
combustion engine throttle, by changing the amount of fuel and air that enters the combustion
chamber of the engine. The carburettor is operated by a single servo connected to the venturi
of the carb, which opens and closes (thus changing the fuel/air mixture) in response to your
throttle stick movements on the transmitter.
On an electric airplane the throttle is usually referred to as motor power rather than throttle.
Very basic electric planes (i.e. toy ones) might not have proportional control to motor power
but just a simple on/off switch instead.
Electric airplanes that do have control to motor power have an electronic speed control,
or ESC, that controls power to the motor in direct response to your Tx stick movements.
In the air throttle/motor power not only controls the forward speed of the airplane but also,
more importantly, the rate of climb and descent, because different amounts of lift are
generated at different airspeeds. For example, if your landing approach path is too low you
can make the airplane rise slightly without changing speed much, simply by opening the
throttle instead of using up elevator. Conversely, closing the throttle will cause the airplane to
sink before the speed reduces.
Using throttle/motor power in this way is the correct way to fly your rc airplane, but many
pilots use the elevator to control altitude and rates of climb and descent.
8.4.2 Elevators
The elevators are the hinged section of the tailplane, or horizontal stabiliser, at the very rear
of the airplane and are the single most important control surface.
Elevators control the horizontal pitch attitude of the airplane, in other words whether the
nose of the plane points upwards or downwards.
When elevators are in the up position (upward deflection) the nose of the airplane is forced to
point upwards, and with the elevators deflected downwards then the nose is forced
downwards. This resulting nose up/nose down pitch attitude comes about as the
upward/downward deflection of the elevators changes the amount of down force being
generated by the tailplane.
It's worth noting that a plane can still fly level, or even be descending, with a very nose-up
attitude but a nose-down pitch attitude will almost always result in the plane entering a dive,
thanks to our friend gravity!
Elevators directly affect the plane's airspeed more than the need to climb or dive.
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Elevators should be used in conjunction with rudder and/or ailerons when making a turn.
8.4.3 Ailerons
Not all airplane controls include ailerons, in fact the majority of 3 channel radio control
airplanes use rudder instead. But where fitted, ailerons control the roll of the airplane about
its longitudinal axis (imagine a straight line running through the centre of the fuselage, from
nose to tail).
Ailerons work in pairs and are found on the trailing (rear) edge of the wing, and they work
opposite to each other i.e. when one aileron moves up, the other one moves down and vice
versa.
Ailerons work by changing the amount of lift generation over the wing. As an aileron moves
upwards so it disrupts the smooth airflow over the wing surface and so lift is reduced slightly
on that wing. Over on the other wing the aileron moves downwards and increases lift slightly.
As a result, the airplane tilts and hence rolls towards the side that's experiencing less lift.
When up elevator is applied at the same time as ailerons, the airplane is pulled round in to a
banked turn; the ailerons cause the plane to roll and the up elevator causes the nose to pitch
round in that direction.
Ailerons are used in all aerobatic manoeuvres that involve a rolling motion.
8.4.4 Rudder
The rudder is the hinged section of the fin, or vertical stabiliser, at the rear of the airplane.
It's used for directional control by changing the yaw of the airplane and works in the correct
sense i.e. moving the rudder to the left causes the airplane to turn left and vice versa.
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Applying rudder makes the nose of the airplane point to the left or right, but rudder alone
does not make the airplane roll like ailerons do. It's actually the dihedral, or the upward 'V'
angle of the wing when viewed from the front, that makes the plane roll when rudder is
applied; a plane with very little or no dihedral will have a much flatter turn when rudder is
applied.
Rudder is also very important on the ground, it's the one control that will keep your airplane
tracking straight during a take-off run or landing roll if your plane isn't fitted with a steerable
nose or tail wheel.
8.4.5 Control Surface Mixing
Some airplanes are designed in such a way that they cannot have separate ailerons and
elevators - delta-wing planes, for example. When this is the case control surface 'mixing' is
necessary and this is only possible on computerised radios that offer a mixing capability.
When elevators and ailerons are combined together, or mixed, they become elevons. They
look just like elevators but move together, as elevators do, and individually, as ailerons do. In
short, one pair of elevons does the job of elevators and ailerons.
Flaperons are control surfaces that mix the actions of ailerons with flaps. In other words, one
pair of control surfaces along the trailing edge of the wing take on the job of aileron
control and flap control, when needed.
Spoilerons are, in effect, the inverted version of flaperons. Spoilers are often found on large
gliders and operate by the control surfaces moving upwards as opposed to flaps that drop
down. When spoilerons are deflected, the amount of lift is drastically reduced and so the
glider's rate of descent quickly increases, enabling the pilot to land it in a smaller space.
There are other types of airplane control mixing too, but those listed above are by far the
most common that you'll encounter.
Channel mixing is another type of mixing supported by most modern computer radios. I this
case two separate channels can be mixed to operate together.
A common example of channel mixing is an aileron and rudder mix; a small amount of
rudder is automatically applied when you operate the ailerons. The purpose of this is to
produce a cleaner turn and can prevent the effects of adverse yaw, a common situation
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whereby the tail drops during a turn due to increased drag over the higher wing. Aileron
Differential is the 'mechanical' answer to this issue.
8.4.5.1 Aileron Differential
Aileron differential simply means that the ailerons move more in one direction than the other, with the greater
deflection being upwards. Ailerons that are set up this way are called differential ailerons.
8.4.5.2 Adverse Yaw
The reason why ailerons are sometimes set up this way is to counteract any adverse yaw when the airplane is
turning.
Adverse yaw is a term used when the nose of the plane isn't quite pointing in the direction it should be pointing
in, as the plane turns. A more visually obvious sign of adverse yaw is the tail end of the plane dropping (side-
slipping) during the turn.
This adverse yaw occurs because a downward deflected aileron (i.e. the aileron on the outer wing during the
turn) causes more drag than the upward deflected aileron, and this drag tries to pull the airplane in the opposite
direction of the turn.
For example, if the plane is in a banked turn to the right, there's increased drag on the left hand wing (because of
the down aileron) which causes an unwanted yaw to the left, even though the plane is turning to the right.
The correct fix for this common issue is to apply a small amount of rudder during the turn in
co-ordination with the aileron deflection. It's how real planes are flown and is known as 'co-
ordinated flying'. The deflected rudder forces the nose of the plane round in the direction its
turning, thus acting against the drag and so no tail-drop is seen.
Rudder can be applied manually during the turn, but a very easy and convenient fix if you
have a computer-based transmitter with channel mixing capability is to mix rudder with
aileron, so a small amount of rudder is automatically applied when you move the aileron
stick.
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8.5 Principles of flight of a Helicopter
While a helicopter is a far more complex machine than an aeroplane, the fundamental
principles of flight are the same. The rotor blades of a helicopter are identical to the wings of
an aeroplane –when air is blown over them, lift is produced. The crucial difference is that the
flow of air is produced by rotating the wings – or rotor blades – rather than by moving the
whole aircraft. When the rotor blades start to spin, the air flowing over them produces lift,
and this can cause the helicopter to rise into the air. So, the engine is used to turn the blades,
and the turning blades produce the required lift.
8.5.1 Controlling the Helicopter
In the case of an aeroplane, flight

can start as soon as the aircraft is
moving fast enough. But in a
helicopter, for all sorts of reasons,
the blades need to turn at the same
speed all the time. So you need a
different way to control the amount
of lift produced.
Helicopter, Lift is obtained by means
of one or more power driven
horizontal propellers which called
Main Rotor. When the main rotor of
helicopter turns it produces lift and
reaction torque. Reaction torque
tends to make helicopter spin. On
most helicopters, a small rotor near
the tail which called tail rotor compensates for this torque. On twin rotor helicopter the rotors
rotate in opposite directions, their reactions cancel each other.
8.5.1.1 Main Rotor
The lifting force is produced by the main rotor. As they spin in the air and produced the lift.
Each blade produces an equal share of the
lifting force. The weight of a helicopter is
divided evenly between the rotor blades
on the main rotor system. If a helicopter
weighs 20kg and it has two blades, then
each blade must be able to support 10kg.
In addition to the static weight of
helicopter, each blade must be accept
dynamic load as well. For example, if a
helicopter pull up in a 1.5 g manoeuvre
(1.5 time the gravity force), then the effective weight of helicopter will be 1.5 time of static
helicopter weight or 30kg, due to gravitational pull.
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If the pilot wants to create more lift to move the helicopter upwards, he/she angles the blades
so that they have a larger pitch angle. The pilot does this by simply raising the collective.
If the pilot wants to move the machine forwards, he/she angles the blades at different stages
on their way around the mast, producing more lift on one quadrant of the rotor disc than the
other. If this lift is greater at the back, the rotor disc will tilt forward which will pull the
helicopter forward. The pilot does this by bushing forward on the cyclic.
8.5.1.2 Tail Rotor
The tail rotor is very important. If you spin a rotor with an engine, the rotor will rotate, but
the engine and helicopter body will tend to rotate in opposite direction to the rotor. This is
called Torque reaction. Newton's third law of motion states, “To every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction”. The tail rotor is used to compensate for this torque and hold the
helicopter straight. On twin-rotors helicopter, the rotors spin in opposite directions, so their
reactions cancel each other.
They do this by incorporating a drive shaft from the main rotor mast all the way to the tail of
the aircraft which powers the anti-torque tail rotor. Just like the main rotor disc, the tail rotor
blades can change pitch with input from the pilot to increase or decrease thrust. This has the
added benefit of allowing the pilot to turn the helicopter around the vertical axis.
8.6 Principles of Flight for a Multi-Rotor
Unlike most helicopters, quadcopters use two sets of identical fixed pitched propellers; two
clockwise (CW) and two counter-clockwise (CCW). These use variation of RPM to control
lift and torque. Control of vehicle motion is achieved by altering the rotation rate of one or
more rotor discs, thereby changing its torque load and thrust/lift characteristics.
Each rotor produces both a thrust and torque about its
centre of rotation, as well as a drag force opposite to the
vehicle's direction of flight. If all rotors are spinning at
the same angular velocity, with rotors one and three
rotating clockwise and rotors two and four counter
clockwise, the net aerodynamic torque, and hence the
angular acceleration about the yaw axis, is exactly zero,
which implies that the yaw stabilizing rotor of
conventional helicopters is not needed. Yaw is induced
by mismatching the balance in aerodynamic torques
(i.e., by offsetting the cumulative thrust commands
between the counter-rotating blade pairs).
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A Multi-Rotor hovers or vertically takes off/lands by applying equal thrust to each of the four
rotors. In this diagram, the thickness of the arrows indicate the relative amount of thrust
applied.
A Multi-Rotor yaws in the anticlockwise direction by applying more thrust to the two
clockwise rotors than the two anticlockwise rotors. A conservation of angular momentum
causes the Multi-Rotor to rotate as desired. In this diagram, the thickness of the arrows
indicate the relative amount of thrust applied.
A Multi-Rotor adjusts its Aircraft principal axes by increasing thrust in one of the rotors and
decreasing thrust in its diametrically opposite rotor. In this diagram, the thickness of the
arrows indicate the relative amount of thrust applied.
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9 Controls of the RPA
9.1 Radio Control Gear & Parts
Radio control gear has been used for model aircraft for many years and the development of
the new more reliable systems have become a big part of RPAS guidance.
So let's now take a brief and uncomplicated look at each of the main components that your
typical radio control system consists of...
9.1.1 Transmitter (Tx)
The transmitter, commonly just called the radio, is the main box that you hold and use to
control your rc aircraft.
In this manual we will look at a typical 2.4GHz

as this is the most common system used in RPAS for guidance control.
Spread spectrum radios as the name suggest are not bound by narrow band frequencies; they
spread their radio signals out over a large range of the radio spectrum. They also use a much
higher frequency range 2.4 GHz. That is a frequency of 2.4 billion cycles per second.
9.1.2 Transmitter Modes
When talking about transmitter modes it is referring to how the transmitter is configured to
control the airplane i.e. which sticks operate which controls on the plane.
Four different modes are possible but only modes 1 and 2 are commonly used.
Mode selection is dependent on pilots preference and can be changed as the pilot or operator
sees fit.
MODE CHANGES SHOULD BE DONE BY A REGISTERED RMT OR QUALIFIED

TECHNICIAN AS THE REQUIRE DELECATE AND SKILLED WORK.
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9.1.3 Receiver (Rx)
In the same way as a normal radio or TV receives the signal from the broadcasting station, so a radio control RX
receives the signal that is emitted by the transmitter when you move a stick or flick a switch. These signals are
then passed through to the servos, or ESC, which respond appropriately.
9.1.4 Servos
What is a servo?
A Servo is a small device that incorporates a three wire DC motor, a gear train, a
potentiometer, an integrated circuit, and an output shaft bearing. Of the three wires that stick
out from the motor casing, one is for power, one is for ground, and one is a control input line.
Servos are controlled by sending them a pulse of variable width. The control wire is used to
send this pulse. The parameters for this pulse are that it has a minimum pulse, a maximum
pulse, and a repetition rate.
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9.1.5 Speed Controllers
An electronic speed control or ESC is an electronic circuit with the purpose to vary an
electric motor's speed, its direction and possibly also to act as a dynamic brake. ESCs are
often used on electrically powered radio controlled models, with the variety most often used
for brushless motors essentially providing an electronically generated three-phase electric
power low voltage source of energy for the motor.
Regardless of the type used, an ESC interprets control information not as mechanical motion
as would be the case of a servo, but rather in a way that varies the switching rate of a network
of field effect transistors. The rapid switching of the transistors is what causes the motor itself
to emit its characteristic high-pitched whine, especially noticeable at lower speeds. It also
allows much smoother and more precise variation of motor speed in a far more efficient
manner than the mechanical type with a resistive coil and moving arm once in common use.
Most modern ESCs incorporate a battery eliminator circuit (or BEC) to regulate voltage for
the receiver, removing the need for separate receiver batteries. BECs are usually either linear
or switched mode voltage regulators.
ESC systems for brushed motors are very different by design; as a result brushed ESC's are
not compatible with brushless motors. Brushless ESC systems basically drive tri-phase
brushless motors by sending a sequence of signals for rotation.
ESCs are normally rated according to maximum current, for example, 25 amperes or 25 A.
9.2 Data Link
The Data Link is small size, lightweight, and low power bi-directional, digital, wireless video
link. Compliant with the Small Unmanned Airborne Systems waveform, it can also be used to
enable enhanced command and control of small RPAs. The Data Link enables maximum
flexibility and interoperability between small airborne and ground systems with limited
power availability, and bandwidth to maximize the number of systems that can operate within
an area.
Watch the video on YouTube on Communications and Data Links Sample
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iWOVts2eYIQ
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9.3 Flight Controller Autopilot
There are many types of flight controller systems,the main purpose of flight controller or
autopilot is to help the pilot in manipulating the flight path of the aircraft.
Functions of most flight control include-
• GPS flying ability to assist the pilot in maintaining a smooth flight path.
• Waypoint control
• Pre programed point of interest
• Re turn home
• Automatic take off and landing
• Follow me
• Sense and avoid
• Manual
• Stabilise
• Auto
• Acro
• Loiter
• Circle
Flight controllers and autopilots do not replace the pilot but assist them.
Flight controllers include a IMU(inertial measurement unit) that measures
• Velocity
• Orientation
• Gravitational forces
The IMU use a combination of accelerometers and gyroscopes to get these measurements.
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10 TECHNICAL
10.1.1 Power Units
With the exception of gliders, all airplanes need a motor of some kind to generate
the thrust to pull (or push) the model through the air.
The two primary power types are internal combustion (IC) and electric power (EP). IC is a
collective term that covers all engine types that run on fuel; these are petrol (gasoline), glow
plug, diesel and turbine. Glow plug is often referred to as 'nitro' but is exactly the same thing.
To confuse things even more IC powered airplanes, particularly glow plug ones, are often just
referred to as 'gas' planes even though this name suggests that they're gasoline powered when
in fact they use a different type of fuel.
There are many different choices of both IC and EP airplanes available and the size of the
engine or motor used depends on the size and weight of the model, as well as the desired
performance.
10.1.1.1.1 Ringed and ABC Glow Plug Engines
There are two common types of glow plug engine; ringed and ABC.
The primary difference is in the method of the compression seal; a traditional ringed engine
uses an iron ring inserted around the aluminium piston that presses against the steel cylinder
wall to keep the fuel/air mixture inside the compression chamber and oil out of it, whereas a
more modern ABC engine does not have a ring but instead features a tapered sleeve inside
the cylinder.
The letters ABC refer to the materials used; the piston is aluminium, the cylinder
is brass and the inside of the cylinder (sleeve) is chrome plated.
The sleeve is tapered inwards towards the top of the compression chamber and expands
outwards as the engine heats up. The tolerances between sleeve and piston are such that a
perfect seal is created when the engine is at running temperature.
The downside is that when the engine is cold, there is not a good seal between sleeve and
piston away from the top of the combustion chamber and this can make starting a cold ABC
more tricky.
Instead of a spark ignition glow engines use a glow plug that is ignited with an external
battery(1.5v).When the battery/glow driver is removed the glow plug continues to burn due to
heat from the compression and the catlytic effect of the platinum with in the glow plug.
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10.1.1.1.2 Other Engines
Gasoline (petrol) engines are often found in larger airplanes and these differ to glow engines
in terms of physical appearance, design, size and power output.
However they are not limited to large scale airplanes; as time passes so smaller petrol
engines for model aircraft are becoming available, and many fliers are even converting their
glow plug engines over to petrol with several manufacturers now supplying conversion kits.
Both 2-stroke and 4-stroke gasoline airplane engines are available and they vary in levels of
complexity. For example, some use a traditional magneto ignition system while others might
have electronic ignition, and there are even liquid cooled engines available.
The main advantages of a gasoline powered model plane engine are the running costs (petrol
is much cheaper than glow fuel) and the cleanliness; petrol burns cleaner than glow fuel and
doesn't leave behind the oily residue.
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10.1.1.1.3 Engine Carburation
Model airplane engines have a very simple carburettor, generally speaking. It's typically
located on the top front of the engine crankcase, although newer engines have the carb
located at the rear for safer adjusting (to keep fingers well clear of the prop).
The carb consists of a venturi where the fuel and air mix, idle screw to adjust the idle speed
of the engine, mixture screw, or 'needle valve', to allow fine tuning of the fuel/air mixture
and hence the high-end RPM and a rotating barrel.
This rotating barrel features an external servo arm that is connected to the throttle servo
linkage, and the barrel rotates in response to your input at the transmitter. As you push up the
throttle stick on the Tx, the barrel turns opening the venturi to let more air and fuel into the
combustion chamber. As you shut down the throttle, so the barrel rotates back again and the
mixture is reduced by the closing of the venturi.
A 2-stroke glow plug engine works thus... As the fuel passes in to the carburettor it mixes
with air being sucked in through the open venturi, this fuel/air mixture then passes through
transfer ports that run vertically up the outside of the piston chamber. These ports exit in to
the combustion chamber above the piston. The mixture gets forced up in to the combustion
chamber every time the piston completes a downward stroke.
Once inside the combustion chamber the fuel/air mixture gets compressed by the piston rising
back up. This rapid compression greatly increases both the pressure and temperature of the
fuel/air mixture, and the red hot filament of the glow plug ignites the mixture when the piston
reaches Top Dead Centre (TDC), assuming that the ignition timing is correct (ignition timing
can be advanced or retarded if necessary by fitting a different length glow plug, or altering
the height of the current plug by using shims or washers).
The resulting explosion forces the piston back down again. As the piston moves downwards,
the burned gases are expelled through the exhaust ports, and the cycle begins again.
10.1.1.2 Brushless Motors
In order to make the operation more reliable, more efficient, and less noisy the recent trend
has been to use brushless D.C (BLDC) motors. They are also lighter compared to brushed
motors with the same power output.
Motor operation is based on the attraction or repulsion between magnetic poles. Using the
three-phase motor shown in Figure 7, the process starts when current flows through one of
the three stator windings and generates a magnetic pole that attracts the closest permanent
magnet of the opposite pole.
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10.2 Batteries
10.2.1 Introduction to Batteries
There are four types to choose from:

• NiCd (Nickel-Cadmium)
• NiMH (Nickel-Metal-Hydride)
• Li-Ion (Lithium-Ion)
• Li-Po (Lithium-Polymer).
The first two we will talk about are NiCd and NiMH batteries. These are quite similar, so let's
go over them together. Basically the 'cells' look similar to your standard C battery. These
individual cells are wired together to increase the total voltage for the battery. Each cell is
rated at 1.2V. So, you will see '6 cell 7.2V NiMH battery. You can picture 6 batteries each
one wired to the next one encased in a cover.
The more voltage a battery has, the faster your car will go. Battery voltage is determined by
the number of cells in the battery. As we just mentioned, NiMH cells deliver 1.2 volts each; a
6-cell pack has 7.2 volts, a 7-cell pack has 8.4 volts, and an 8-cell pack has 9.6 volts.
Obviously 8 cell batteries take more room than 6 cell batteries, so you may not have room to
increase your voltage. Also, if you upgrade to a higher voltage pack, you need to make sure
your ESC can handle the increased voltage.
10.2.2 NiCd Batteries
• Are the cheapest batteries to buy.

• They don't hold a charge well, and after a few seconds of racing, they start
discharging. So, your 7.2V battery will only produce 6V right after you start running
your vehicle.
• NiCd batteries generally have a capacity of 2400mAh or less.
• You cannot run them several times a day because their performance will deteriorate.
• The biggest negative is they are made of toxic materials, and are banned in many
countries today.
CAUTION: You have to take care of these batteries. Overcharging or misuse can cause them
to explode. One of the cells can shoot off and embed in a wall. Always be sure to discharge
your NiCd battery completely after each usage. You don't have to completely discharge
NiMH or LiPo batteries, but you do with NiCd batteries.
10.2.3 NiMH Batteries
• Can hold their charge longer than NiCds

• Capable of holding more voltage (capacity). Capacity is measured in Milliamps per
hour. NiMH batteries can have a capacity of around 5100 mAh.(See below for more
info on mAh)
• Are NOT made of the toxic materials that are a problem with NiCd batteries
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Above: Ni-MH Battery Comparison
10.2.4 Li-Ion Batteries
• Can hold twice the charge of NiCd batteries

• Can adjust the rate of discharge of energy while also avoiding possible overcharges
• The added efficiency comes with greater cost
10.2.5 Li-Po Batteries
• More powerful than Li-ion batteries with twice the power

• LiPo batteries have great performance. You can recharge them multiple times in a day
and it won't hurt their performance.
• They are also lighter than other battery types.
o 3.7 volt battery = 1 cell x 3.7 volts (1S)

o 7.4 volt battery = 2 cells x 3.7 volts (2S)
o Packs or cells can be hooked up in parallel to increase the capacity. This is

indicated by a number followed by a "P". Example: 2S2P would indicate that
you have 2, 2-celled packs hooked up in parallel to double the capacity!
o NOTE: LiPo Batteries should be used with LiPo compatible ESCs. LiPo
batteries are more powerful than other battery types and can generate more
heat, which can cause damage to ESCs built for brushed motors. Generally,
ESCs built for brushed motors do not have a warning signal to let you know
when your battery is low and you should stop using it. LiPo batteries will be
damaged if you run them too low. Brushless ESCs normally come with a
warning signal or a low voltage cut-off, which can save an expensive LiPo
battery.
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o Always use a LiPo bag when charging them as they can burst into flames if
charged incorrectly. Using LiPo bags makes them safer to use than NiCd or
NiMh batteries, as the bag's purpose is to contain any fire that may erupt.
Most LiPo batteries come with a 'balance' plug. This plug keeps each cell charged evenly;
this way none of the cells can become overcharged. You will want to purchase a battery
charger that is LiPo compatible. Many LiPo compatible battery chargers come with a LiPo
balancer feature. If your battery charger doesn't have a 'balancer' feature, you can actually
purchase a LiPo battery 'balancer' separately.
You don't want to discharge a LiPo battery below 3V per cell. For example, on a two cell
pack you will have 7.4 V. You don't want to go below 6V. Speed controls will often have a
LiPo cut-off on them. This prevents the LiPo battery from running too low. If your speed
control doesn't have a built in LiPo cut off, you can purchase an external one. Always
remember to unplug the battery pack from the Speed Control when you are done racing for
the day. Usually the on/off switch on the speed control stops the communication from the
receiver to the speed control; but doesn't stop the drain on the battery. Always remove your
battery from your vehicle when you are finished. Store it inside where the temperate isn't
frigid or super-hot. Extreme temperatures are hard on LiPo batteries.
The following is good operational voltages for Lipo batteries
• Fully charged- 4.2 volts per cell

• Storage voltage- 3.8 volts per cell
• 80%(recommended discharge)- 3.7 volts per cell under no load
• Minimum voltage under load- 3volts per cell
10.2.5.1 How to balance your Li-Po Battery
Obviously a single Li-Po cell (1S) can't be balanced against itself, but any pack with two or
more cells should be balanced - if not with every charge then certainly on a regular basis.
Balancing Li-Po battery packs ensures that each cell matches the voltage of the other one, or
as closely as possible, to prevent irregular current flow and hence give your aircraft optimum
performance, as well as preserving the longevity of the pack by protecting it against possible
damage.
It's generally accepted that a difference of 30 - 50mV (.03 - .05v) between cells is acceptable,
but different manufacturers might state different amounts and the specifications for your
particular pack should be read and followed.
A multi-cell pack should have two sets of leads coming out of it; one set connects to the ESC
and is made up of a red (positive) and black (negative) lead and the other set will be made up
of thinner wires that all go into a single white connector,
with each separate wire coming from each cell. This is
the balancing connector and the number of leads going in
to it will be determined by how many cells the battery
pack has. A 2S pack will have 3 leads - one for each cell
plus a negative; a 3S pack will have four leads - one for
each cell and a negative, a 4S pack five leads etc.
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To balance the pack you need a balancing charger, or a separate Li-Po balancer used in
conjunction with a charger. The charger needs to be specific for lithium polymer batteries,
you cannot use a NiMH or NiCd charger on Li-Po packs because the charging algorithms are
different between the chemicals.
Above: a quality charger with separate balancing board and a cheap & simple Li-Po specific
charger (top right)
There are a couple of ways to check whether your Li-Po pack is balanced.
Use a Li-Po voltage checker, such as the one pictured right. You simply plug it in to the white
balance connector of the pack. It will cycle through each cell in turn
and tell you the voltage of each one.
The second method requires the use of a voltmeter / multi meter and
a bit of simple arithmetic...
With the negative lead of the voltmeter touching the negative
terminal of the white balance connector of the pack, touch the
positive lead of the meter on
to each of the other terminals
of the connector, one at a
time. Determine the highest
reading (i.e. the total voltage
of the pack) and then move
the meter lead to the next
terminal, this will give you a
lower reading. Calculate the
difference between the two
readings, this gives you the
voltage of the first cell. Now
touch the meter lead on the
next terminal and subtract this voltage from the second terminal reading - this will give you
the voltage of the second cell. Work your way through each terminal until you arrive at the
last one, the reading of which will be the voltage of the last cell in the pack.
By calculating the voltage differences between each cell, you'll be able to see how well the
pack is balanced.
Above: step 1, get the battery pack total voltage - here it's 12.79V
Left: step 2, get the next

voltage level down and
subtract
from the first - here its 12.79 -
8.53 = 4.26V
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Right: step 3, repeat for each cell

of the pack - 8.53 - 4.27 = 4.26V
For the above example we have
three cells nicely balanced at
4.26v, 4.26, and 4.27v
Balancing Li-Po battery packs

should be done regularly and you
should get in to the habit of checking the balance often. A poorly balanced pack will give
poor performance, and in the worst case scenario will be damaged beyond repair over time.
It's also important to understand that lithium polymer battery packs vary greatly in quality
between brands, and it stands to reason that a better quality pack will probably balance better
and stay balanced longer than a cheaper, lower quality one. Similarly, better chargers will
balance better than cheaper ones.
10.2.6 Discharge of Batteries
• For NiCd packs: discharge down to 0.9v per cell, before you store them.
• NiMH packs: discharge down to about a 50% charge. Before you charge a NiMH
pack for the first time in the day, drain the pack completely on a discharger or in the
model and you are then ready to charge the pack for use throughout the day.
• LiPo: Discharge your pack no lower than 3V for cell. 2 cell (2S or 2 Series) = 6V, 3
cells = 9V, etc... LiPo storage of 2 weeks or more: LiPo packs should be stored at
around 3.8v per cell.
• Always remove any battery from the vehicle when you are done running it.
10.2.7 Discharge Rate of Batteries
This is simply how fast a battery can be discharged safely. It is called the C-rating. A battery
with a discharge rating of 10C means you could safely discharge it at a rate 10 times more
than the capacity of the pack, a 15C pack = 15 times more, a 20C pack = 20 times more, and
so on.
On a 20C rating on a 2000 mAh battery: 20 x 2000 = 40,000 milliamps or 40 amps. Time
wise, a 40 amp draw on this pack would exhaust it in about 3 minutes (2000/60min = 33.3
per min. multiplied by 20c = 666 mAh per minute - divided into the packs capacity of 2000
mA = 3 minutes). Now that’s a lot of math!
LiPo Battery packs will show the continuous C rating and some are now indicating a burst
rating as well. A burst rating indicates the battery discharge rate for short bursts of extended
power. An example might be something like *Discharge rate = 20C Continuous/40C Bursts*
The higher the C rating, usually the more expensive the battery. This is where you can save
some money. Getting an extremely high discharge rated pack when there is no way you could
possibly pull the full amount of power is not required but it won't hurt either. The most
important thing is you can't go with too low a discharge C rating or you will damage your
battery and possibly your ESC (electronic speed control).
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10.2.8 The Basics of Series and Parallel
Series
Individual Lithium Polymer cells have a nominal voltage of 3.7 volts (vs. 1.2 volts per cell
for Ni-Cods). Cells are wired in series to give the following pack voltages:
1 cell = 3.7 volts
2 cells in series = 7.4 volts
3 cells in series = 11.1 volts
Parallel
Unlike Ni-Cd and Ni-MH cells that self-discharge when wired in parallel, LiPo cells can be
hooked up, charged and discharged in parallel with no detrimental effect. Wiring two LiPo
cells in parallel doubles the capacity (more run time), plus an important advantage of wiring
in parallel is that each cell only sees half the total current. With 3 cells in parallel, each cell
sees one third the current.
3S 2P
A battery pack that has three cells in series (giving 11.1 volts) and 2 of these 3-cell packs are
wired in parallel is commonly referred to as a 3S, 2P (3 series, 2 parallel). So if you want to
go faster run them in series, if you want longer run times then run them in parallel.
10.2.9 Milliamps per Hour (MAh)
Milliamps Hour (mAh) is important because it's the easiest way to distinguish the strength or capacity
of a battery. The higher the mAh, the longer the battery will last. Batteries with different mAh ratings
are interchangeable. If your battery is rechargeable then the mAh rating is how long the battery will
last per charge.
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Milliamps Hour is 1/1000th of a Amp Hour, so a 1000mAh = 1.0Ah

Think of a cars gas tank. Voltage is how much gas is being used, and mAh is the size of the gas tank.
The bigger the gas tank (mAh) rating the longer the device will run. If your battery is rechargeable,
then think of the gas tank as refillable (rechargeable).
10.2.10 Battery resistance
Internal resistance testing is a relatively simple way of measuring the health of your LiPo
batteries. Internal resistance is the electrical resistance that occurs inside the battery cells themselves
as the battery creates electricity. The higher the internal resistance the less current can flow from the
battery to your ESC and motor.
Older, abused, puffed, crashed, and lower quality batteries have a higher internal resistance and
therefore cannot maintain voltage to your ESC and motor when you apply power. Because the battery
itself creates current, you cannot simply hook up an ohmmeter and measure resistance. Instead you
must measure the voltage, then apply a known electrical load (halogen light bulbs in this
demonstration), re-measure the voltage and also measure the amperage. The internal resistance is the
voltage drop divided by the amperage.
Measuring this occasionally will give you a good idea of the "health" of your battery packs. If you
have a battery that doesn't give the "juice" or "oomph" like it used to, this is a good way to actually
quantify the loss in power and determine whether the battery should be reassigned to bench work or
the garbage.
10.3 Gyroscopes
A gyroscope is a device that uses Earth's gravity to help determine orientation. Its
design consists of a freely-rotating disk called a rotor, mounted onto a spinning axis
in the center of a larger and more stable wheel.
How a Gyro Works
When things rotate around an axis they have what’s called angular velocity. A spinning
wheel can be measured in revolutions per second (RPS) or degrees per second (°/s).
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Note that the z axis of the gyro below aligns with the axis of rotation on the wheel.
If you attach the sensor to the wheel shown above, you can measure the angular velocity of
the z axis of the gyro. The other two axes would not measure any rotation.
Imagine if the wheel spins once per second. It would have an angular velocity of 360
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degrees per second. The spinning direction of the wheel is also important. Is it clockwise
around the axis, or is it counter-clockwise?
A triple axis MEMS gyroscope, similar to the one pictured above (ITG-3200), can measure
rotation around three axes: x, y, and z. Some gyros come in single and dual axis varieties,
but the triple axis gyro in a single chip is becoming smaller, less expensive, and more
popular.
Gyros are often used on objects that are not spinning very fast at all. Aircrafts (hopefully) do
not spin. Instead they rotate a few degrees on each axis. By detecting these small changes
gyros help stabilize the flight of the aircraft. Also, note that the acceleration or linear velocity
of the aircraft does not affect the measurement of the gyro. Gyros only measure angular
velocity.
10.4 Accelerometer
There are many different ways to make an accelerometer! Some accelerometers use the
piezoelectric effect - they contain microscopic crystal structures that get stressed by
accelerative forces, which causes a voltage to be generated.
In some accelerometers, piezoelectric crystals such as quartz do the clever work. You have
a crystal attached to a mass, so when the accelerometer moves, the mass squeezes the
crystal and generates a tiny electric voltage.
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145
10.5 Helicopter Parts
There are many parts to a Remote Helicopter. As a rule of thumb your time will be split into
3 equal parts dependant on the size and functionality the helicopter has to offer.
10.5.1 Main Rotor blades
The main rotor blades generate lift by spinning in a clockwise motion and pushing air
downward. They move anywhere from +/-10 degrees pitch. For basic flying, we'll
keep these numbers conservative. The higher in pitch the blades travel, the more lively
the helicopter will fly. You don't need to know the exact degrees of pitch your blades
are angled. Once you become more competent at flying, you will get a sense for the
aircraft and know the sounds and feel for it. Keep in mind that the steeper the pitch,
the harder the motor has to work, and the more lift it will generate.
10.5.2 Tail Rotor
The tail rotor counteracts the torque of the blades. It pushes air against that torque in a
counter clockwise motion to stabilize the aircraft. The change in pitch of the tail rotor
blades determines how fast the helicopter turns left and right. The pitch changes
through servo movement inputs. The gyro also controls the pitch of the tail, but that's
an automatic adjustment, and doesn't need your input.
Check to make sure the belt that drives the tail rotor is taught before every flight. It
seems to loosen in the warmer weather and humidity changes.
10.5.3 Body
The body or frame of the helicopter holds everything together. All of the electronics are
attached to it and it's important to make sure that it doesn't get damaged whether in storage or
in flight. In-flight damage is called a crash. In-storage damage is called "hangar rash" and it is
very common. Considering that the helicopter will spend most of its life on a shelf choose a
safe place for it to rest.
10.5.4 Landing Gear
The landing gear is better known as the skids, and will not be used directly until you can
competently hover the aircraft. It is however, used to attach the training gear, and provides
clearance for the motor battery. The landing gear “gives” to provide a soft landing for the
helicopter. It will eventually break after multiple hard landings.
10.5.5 Motors
Helicopters are available with many types engine\motor options,the main options are.
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146
• Electric
• Petrol
• Glow
• Turbine
The details of the types of engines will be discussed under the General technical section
The selection of motor type will depend on the application that the helicopter will be used
for.
10.5.6 Swashplate
A swashplate is a device that translates input via the helicopter flight controls into motion of
the main rotor blades. Because the main rotor blades are spinning, the swashplate is used to
transmit three of the pilot's commands from the non-rotating fuselage to the rotating rotor hub
and mainblades.
The swashplate consists of two main parts: a stationary swashplate and a rotating swashplate.
The stationary (outer) swashplate is mounted on the main rotor mast and is connected to the
cyclic and collective controls by a series of pushrods. It is able to tilt in all directions and
move vertically. The rotating (inner) swashplate is mounted to the stationary swashplate by
means of a bearing and is allowed to
rotate with the main rotor mast. An anti-
rotation link prevents the inner swash
from rotating independently of the
blades, which would apply torque to the
actuators. The outer swashplate
typically has an anti-rotation slider as
well to prevent it from rotating. Both
swashplates tilt up and down as one
unit. The rotating swashplate is
connected to the pitch horns by the pitch
links. Alternative mechanics to the
stationary (outer) swashplate are the
hexapod and the universal joint.
Swashplates for helicopters having two
rotors mounted on the same shaft are
much more complex than the single
rotor helicopters.
Swashplate on a radio-controlled
helicopter 1 Non-rotating outer ring
(blue) 2 Turning inner ring (silver) 3
Ball joint 4 Control (pitch) preventing
turning of outer ring 5 Control (roll) 6 Linkages (silver) to the rotor blade
Collective Blade Control
Cyclic controls are used to change a helicopter's roll and pitch. Push rods or hydraulic
actuators tilt the outer swashplate in response to the pilot's commands. The swashplate moves
Rev. 1
147
in the intuitively expected direction, tilting forwards to respond to a forward input, for
instance. However "pitch links" on the blades transmit the pitch information way ahead of the
blade's actual position, giving the blades time to "fly up" or "fly down" to reach the desired
position, in addition to a 90 degrees advance to account for the gyroscopic precession. That
is, to tilt the helicopter forward, the difference of lift around the blades should be maximum
along the left-right plane, creating a torque that, due to the gyroscopic effect, will tilt the rotor
disc forward and not sideways.
Collective Blade Control
To control the collective pitch of the main rotor blades, the entire swashplate must be moved
up or down along its axis without changing the orientation of the cyclic controls.
Conventionally, the entire swashplate is moved along the mainshaft by a separate actuator.
However, some newer model helicopters remove this mechanically complex separation of
functionalities by using three interdependent actuators that can each move the entire
swashplate. This is called cyclic/collective pitch mixing.
10.6 Multi-Rotor Parts
Multi-Rotors all basically uses the same parts, however the number of ESCs and motors will
depend on the number of arms your Multi-Rotor have. In the section to follow we will go
through the various parts used in Multi-Rotors.
10.6.1 Frame
Every quadcopter or other multirotor

aircraft needs a frame to house all the
other components. Things to consider
when building or replacing your frame
are weight, size, and materials.
10.6.2 Gimbal
A gimbal is a pivoted support that allows the rotation of an

object about a single axis. A set of three gimbals, one mounted on
the other with orthogonal pivot axes, may be used to allow an object
mounted on the innermost gimbal to remain independent of the
rotation of its support. A mechanism for keeping an instrument or
your external load (camera, FLIR, Lidar etc.) level and stable in a moving aircraft.
Rev. 1
148
10.6.3 Motor
Multi-Rotors uses brushless motors as they are seen as the most advanced technology and
very low in maintenance. The motors have an obvious purpose: to spin the propellers.
Motors are rated by kilovolts, and the higher the kV rating, the faster the motor spins at a
constant voltage. When replacing your motors, most websites or manufacturers will indicate
how many amps the ESC you pair it with should be and the size of propeller you should use.
10.6.4 Flight Control Board
The flight control board is the ‘brain’ of the Multi-Rotor. It houses the sensors such as
gyroscopes and accelerometers that determine how fast each of the quadcopter’s motors spin.
Flight control boards range from simple to highly complex.
10.6.4.1 Telemetry
A telemetry GPS is a highly advanced sensor that is connected to the Flight Controller, it
allows you to measure the position (longitude & latitude), distance, speed, rate of climb /
decent and altitude of you aircraft using live GPS data and the inbuilt atmospheric pressure
sensor for accurate altitude readings. These readings will be accessible via the Flight
Application; if your Multi-Rotor is equipped with one and your Ground Station is connected
to some form of displaying device.
10.6.5 Propeller
A quadcopter has four propellers, two “normal” propellers that spin counter-clockwise, and
two “pusher” propellers that spin clockwise. The pusher propellers will usually be labelled
with an ‘R’ after the size. The propeller size is determined by the size of the motor in
conjunction with the amps allowed by the ESC. Also see Principles of flight for Multi-Rotors.
Rev. 1
149
11 Risk Management - Identification of the Hazards, Risk Assessment,

Mitigating Procedures.
The PIC should perform this assessment.

The Risk Assessment should be performed during the feasibility planning phase to determine
if the flight is viable. Any assumptions made during the initial Risk Assessment (such as
forecast weather/wind, location of persons etc.) should be confirmed. The initial risk
assessment will be presented to UAVI along with the flight operation request. The updated
risk assessment will be submitted to UAVI along with the post flight administration and data.
Ideally the flight area should be visited for the risk assessment, however for night flights it is
compulsory for site visit during daylight hours for a risk assessment.
The Risk Assessment involves calculating a risk factor based on both the severity of any
undesired outcome and the likelihood of that outcome. Where the risk factor is unacceptably
high a mitigating factor or control measure is needed to reduce the likelihood or consequence
to manage the risk back to an acceptable level/factor. Even if the risk is acceptable you
should consider any factor that could be applied to reduce the risk further.
Determining the Risk

A detailed diagram of the site (Google or other maps/chart may also be used) and the Risk
Assessment Tool Prompt Sheet are used to identify possible risks. These risks are recorded
on the Risk Calculation Sheet.
Next the score for both the likelihood and consequence is determined using the Risk Score
Table below and the scores are entered on the Risk Calculation Sheet. The Risk factor is then
calculated by multiplying these two scores.
Note - other elements such as local by Laws etc. which may prevent the flight should also be
considered.
Risk Management
The calculated Risk Factor for each identified risk is then reviewed
Where the risk factor is unacceptably high (level 6 or above) a mitigating factor or control
measure is needed to reduce the likelihood or consequence to manage the risk to an
acceptable level/factor. Multiple control measures may be needed to reduce the risk to an
acceptable level. Even if the risk is acceptable you should consider any factor that could be
applied to reduce the risk further.
The control measure is recorded on the Risk Calculation Sheet and a new Risk Factor
calculated.
Note – The risk assessment should also include any risk to the Controller, Observer and
anyone else involved in the operation of the RPA and/or project.
Where the residual risk is unacceptable the flight and/or project will not proceed.
Validation of Risk Assessment

Once “on site” the Risk Assessment must be validated prior to the flight proceeding. Any
assumptions made during the initial Risk Assessment (such as forecast weather/wind,
location of persons etc.) should be confirmed. Where there are differences a new Risk factor
must be calculated and/or control measures adjusted to manage the risk to an acceptable level
prior to the flight.
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150
Other Factors
As this is a generic Risk Assessment process it cannot consider all possible areas of risk for
every situation. There may be other areas that need consideration in addition to the Risk
Assessment Sheet prompts. Therefore this risk assessment process should be considered a
guide as to the minimum areas for inclusion in your Risk Assessment.
Rev. 1
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Left Blank Intentionally
Rev. 1
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12 Forms and Annexures

12.1 Risk Assessment Matrix – Level of Risk
Consequence
>7: Extreme risk Injuries or ailments Minor injury or First Serious injury causing Life threatening injury or Multiple life threatening Multiple fatalities, 10
People not requiring Aid Treatment Case. hospitalisation or multiple serious injuries injuries. Less than 10 or more
– detailed treatment plan medical treatment. multiple medical causing hospitalisation. fatalities.
required treatment cases.
6,7: High risk Internal Review Scrutiny required by Scrutiny required by Intense public, political Government inquiry or Government inquiry
Reputation internal committees external committees or and media scrutiny. E.g.: Commission of inquiry or and ongoing adverse
– needs senior management or internal audit to Auditor General’s inquest, front page adverse national media in international exposure
attention and treatment plan as prevent escalation. Office, etc. headlines, TV, etc. excess of 1 week.
appropriate Small delay, internal May threaten an Considerable remedial Significant loss of Permanent loss of critical Threatens ongoing
4,5: Medium risk inconvenience only. element of the service action required with critical information. information, substantial existence of CASA.
delivery function. disruption to a Group Disruption to one or disruption to CASA or
– manager level attention and Organisational / Business objective for period up to 1 more Groups for up to 3 external intervention for
monitoring as appropriate Client impact delayed. Easily month. Some business months. Some major over 3 months. Threatens
remedied, some impact objectives not objectives not achieved. existence of a Group
<4: Low risk on external achieved. within CASA. Major
– manage by local level stakeholders. objectives not achieved
procedures
Extreme and High risks must be reported to Insignificant Minor Moderate Major Severe Catastrophic
Numerical Historical 0 1 2 3 4 5
Is expected to occur in most
>1 in 10 circumstances Almost Certain (5) 5 6 7 8 9 10
Will probably occur

1 in 10 – 100 Likely (4) 4 5 6 7 8 9
Probability
1 in 100 – Might occur at some time in

1000 the future Possible (3) 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 in 1000 – Could occur but considered

10000 unlikely or doubtful Unlikely (2) 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 in 10000 - May occur in exceptional

100000 circumstances Rare (1) 1 2 3 4 5 6
< 1 in Could only occur under Extremely

100000 specific conditions and
Rare
(0) 0 1 2 3 4 5
extraordinary circumstances
Rev. 1
153
How to Prioritise the Risk Rating

Once the level of risk has been determined the following table may be of use in
determining when to act to institute the control measures.
Remove the hazard at the source. An
identified extreme risk does not allow
Act immediately to mitigate the risk. Either scope for the use of administrative controls
eliminate, substitute or implement or PPE, even in the short term. If an
Extreme engineering control measures. Extreme risk cannot be reduced within 24
hours, the flight should not proceed.
Act immediately to mitigate the risk. An achievable timeframe must be

Eliminate, substitute or implement control established to ensure that elimination,
measures. substitution or controls are implemented.
If these controls are not immediately NOTE: Risk (and not cost) must be the
accessible, set a timeframe for their primary consideration in determining the
High implementation and establish interim risk timeframe. A timeframe of greater than 14
reduction strategies for the period of the set days would generally not be acceptable for
timeframe. any hazard identified as high risk.
Take reasonable steps to mitigate the risk. Interim measures until permanent
Until elimination, substitution or solutions can be implemented:
engineering controls can be implemented,
institute administrative or personal • Develop administrative controls to
protective equipment controls. These limit the use or access.
“lower level” controls must not be • Provide supervision and specific
Medium considered permanent solutions. The time training related to the issue of concern.
for which they are established must be A timeframe of up to 30 days is
based on risk. At the end of the time, if allowable to reduce risk to an
the risk has not been addressed by acceptable level before proceeding with
elimination, substitution or engineering the flight or operation.
controls a further risk assessment must be
undertaken.
Take reasonable steps to mitigate and
monitor the risk. Institute permanent
controls in the long term. Permanent
controls may be administrative in nature if
Low the hazard has low frequency, rare
likelihood and insignificant consequence.
Hierarchy of Control Controls identified may be a mixture of the hierarchy

in order to provide minimum operator exposure.
Rev. 1
154
Elimination Eliminate the hazard.

Substitution Provide an alternative that is capable of performing the same task
and is safer to use.
Engineering Provide or construct a physical barrier or guard.
Controls
Administrative Develop policies, procedures practices and guidelines, in
Controls consultation with employees, to mitigate the risk. Provide
training, instruction and supervision about the hazard.
Personal Protective Personal equipment designed to protect the individual or RPAS
Equipment from the hazard.
Rev. 1
155
12.2 Risk Calculation Sheet
Risk Calculation Sheet

Undesired Outcome Severity Likelihood Risk
Factor
#1
E.g. Members of the public encroaching area of
operation 0 4 4
Control Measure or comment on risk
Customer to be observer and briefed in accordance with

check sheet 0 1 1
Control Measure or comment on risk Final Final Final
Control Measure or comment on risk Final Final Final
Delete example before submission
Rev. 1
156
12.3 Security Incident Report Form
UAVI
Security Incident Report
Report Date
Date of Incident
Time of Incident
Location of Incident
Nearest Town
Department Area
Select Category (Mark with a X)
Aviation Security Emergency Damage to Security System Suspicious Activity
Disruptive Person Procedural Failures Laser Light
Interference with Aviation Prohibited Item / Weapon in Technical Failure to Security
Operations a Secure Area System
Suspicious Item/s Threats Unauthorised Access
Unscreened Access Other
Other Details -
Did the Incident involve an RPA? If Yes, complete Section

A
Did the Incident involve cargo? If Yes, Complete Section B
Information leading up to the Incident:
Description of Incident
Action
Prevention Actions
Section A
RPA Type
RPA Registration
Place of Departure
Place of Arrival
Rev. 1
157
Designated Pilot
Designated Observer
Section B
Who was the Cargo received from?
What was the intended destination of the
Cargo?
Had the Cargo previously examined?
If yes, by whom?
Description of Cargo
People Involved in the Incident

Full Name
Company
Full Name
Company
Full Name
Company
Full Name
Company
Which other Organisations have been notified?
Organisation
Person Notified
Date
Time
Organisation
Person Notified
Date
Time
Organisation
Person Notified
Date
Time
Organisation
Person Notified
Date
Time
Responsible Persons
Form Completed by
Signed
Form Received by (Security Manager)

Signed
Prevention Actions Approved by CEO

Signed
Rev. 1
158
12.4 Risk Assessment Tool Prompt Sheet

Risk Assessment Tool Prompt Sheet
Date
Location
RPA Registration
Pilot
Observer
Type of Flight
Consideration Possible Impact on Risk Remarks
Time of Day Possible Low Sun, fading light,
orientation, ability to maintain visual
LOS
Weather Check Forecast, Temperature, wind
direction, wind strength, impact on
battery life (cold battery, flying into
wind), aircraft wind limit, Fire ban,
Public Person moving into landing area
during flight, footpath, right of way,
Suitable take-off and landing areas,
ability to maintain 50m separation,
Property Permission from land owner, privacy,
buildings, antennas, trees,
obstructions, ability to maintain visual
line of sight, controllers ability
matches location, local restrictions, by
laws,
Other aircraft Likelihood of other aircraft in area
Equipment Likely failure modes, alternate landing
failure site, emergency procedures, Battery
fire following crash (dry grass),
Environment Noise, ability to communicate with
participants, distractions, possible
distraction of public (drivers)
Add items relevant to your operation
Rev. 1
159
12.5 Job Safety Assessment
Company ABC Aerial Photography Date Thursday, 18 August 2013

Task Location Check the following and address as needed
Real Estate Shots Glass Street, Bishops Court, Cape Town
üSketch of area (if necessary) Maps and charts available and checked ü
Weather, within limits for machine and operation ü
NOTAMs, AIPs, AIP Summaries, AICs ü
Possibility of public moving into area ü
Footpath/right of way ü
Landing area including alternate ü
Ability to maintain 50M of public ü
Obstructions (buildings Trees) ü
Possible interference (Power lines /antennas) ü
Ability to maintain visual line of sight ü
Controllers ability matches location/task ü
Permission of any landowners ü
Privacy ü
Local restrictions, by laws ü
Need for signage ü
Area to add any additional
Pilot Biggles Signature
Crew Customer as observer
Comments- No Public access to site, customer was observer
Rev. 1
07 March 2016 © UAVI Part 101 Ground School ManualDoc Ref: CD-2
12.6 Accident / Incident / Hazard Form
Registered Log Number: (For Office use only)

Bird Strike Hazard Incident: Accident
Date of Occurrence: Time of (z)
Occurrence
Wind Wind Cloudy? Day Dusk Night
Direction Speed
Date Time Reported By Who?
Reported
Aircraft Registration Aircraft Type
Name of Pilot in Command
Total Flying Hours: Total Hours on Type:
Current RPL Yes No
Last Point of Departure:
Next Point of intended Landing:
Number of People Injured Number of People Killed
Damage to the aircraft: None Minimal
Damaged Written Off
Explain what happened:
Photographs attached: (If available) Yes No

Reported to SACAA: Yes No
(If required)
Reported to SAPS (If Yes No
required)
Submitted Name: Signature: Date:
By
Submitted ASO Name: ASO Signature: Date: Actioned:

To:
ASO
CEO Action: Signature: Date:
Rev. 1
12.7 Annexure A – RPA Sales or Re-Sales Labelling (SA-CATS 101.01.7)
Operations as a hobbyist are subject to the terms of Part 94, whereas private use is restricted in terms of Part 101 of
the Civil Aviation Regulations.
For private use –
1. The RPAS may only be used for an individual's personal and private purposes where there is no commercial
outcome, interest or gain;
2. The RPA may only be operated over property for which the operator has ownership or permission;
3. The RPAS can only be used in Restricted Visual Line of Sight which means within 500m of the pilot, and
never to exceed the height of the highest obstacle within 300m of the pilot, during which the pilot can maintain
direct unaided visual contact with the device to manage its flight and collision avoidance; and
4. The pilot must observe all statutory requirements relating to liability, privacy and any other laws enforceable
by any other authorities.
For all other use –
1. the RPA must first be approved by the South African Civil Aviation Authority for use by way of an RPA Letter
of Authority (RLA);
2. all RPAs must be registered by the South African Civil Aviation Authority prior to use;
3. an RPA may only be operated in terms of Part 101 of the South African Civil Aviation Regulations which
includes specific requirements that the operator shall hold an RPA Pilot License;
Go to Private Operations for more information regarding private operations.
Rev. 1
12.8 Annexure B – VLOS and E-VLOS Diagram
Rev. 1
13 Aircraft and Support Material
Attached the following support documents for the various parts of the RPA used for training:
a) Parkzone Radian Pro 5480
b) 3D Robotics APM 2.6 Autopilot
c) 3D Robotics uBlox GPS with Compass
d) 3D Robotics Antenna 433 MHz RP-SMA 2dBi
e) 3D Robotics APM Airspeed Sensor
f) 3D Robotics APM Power Module with XT60 Connectors
g) Spektrum DX8
Rev. 1
14 Reference Materials
Additional Reference Materials to be used by the Instructors oh UAVI:

a) The beginners guide to flying RC helicopters - 2nd edition, by Pete Carpenter & John Salt, 2015
b) The Beginner's Guide to Flying R/C Airplanes, by Pete Carpenter, 2013
c) Flight Instructors Manual of Training, by Wouter Gous, Bob Ewing and Lee-Anne Dixon, 2009
d) Skybrary - http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Main_Page
Additional References used in this manual:

a) Wikipedia - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page
b) http://www.rc-airplane-world.com/
c) www.caa.co.za
Rev. 1
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PART 101:

UAV Industries (Pty) Ltd, Company Registration: 2015/119229/07

Part 1: Administration & Control

1.1 Company Details

UAV Industries (Pty) Ltd

Revision Number Date Applicable Date Entered Entered By:

Part 1: Administration & Control 1

1.1 Company Details 1

1.2 Record of Amendments 2

1.5 List of Effective Pages 14

1.6 Definitions and Acronyms 15

1.7 Distribution List 19

1.8 Operator’s Manual System 20

1.9 Amendments, Revisions and Distribution 20

1.9.2 Record of Amendments to this Manual 21

1.9.3 Handwritten Amendments 22

1.9.4 Review of This Manual 22

2.1.1 The Anatomy of the Eye 23

The Anatomical Blind Spot 24

The Night Blind Spot 25

2.1.2 Type of Vision 25

2.1.3 Empty Field Myopia 25

2.1.4 Night Vision 26

2.1.4.1 Colour Vision 27

2.1.4.2 Optical Illusion 27

2.1.6 Types of stress 28

2.1.7 Categories of stress: 28

2.1.8 STIMULATION AND STRESS 29

2.1.9 Stages of Stress 30

2.1.10 Managing Stress 32

2.1.10.1 Recognizing a stressful condition 32

2.1.10.2 Dealing with Stress during Flight 32

2.1.10.3 Dealing with Long-Term and Chronic Stress 33

2.2.3 Sleeping Problems 36

2.2.4 Sleep Management 36

3 Self health assessment 37

4 Air Law and Procedures 38

4.1 Part 101 Civil Aviation Regulations 38

4.1.1 Grouping and Classifications 38

4.1.3 RPA sales or re-sales labelling 39

4.1.4 RPAS Letter of Approval 39

4.1.5 RPAS system safety 39

4.1.7 Registration and marking 39

4.2 SUBPART 3: PERSONNEL LICENSING 41

4.2.2 Requirements for the issue of an RPL 41

4.2.3 Theoretical knowledge examination 42

4.2.4 Flight training 42

4.2.5 Skill test 42

4.2.6 Revalidation check 42

4.2.7 Pilot logbook 43

4.3 SUBPART 4: RPAS OPERATOR CERTIFICATE 44

4.3.1 General requirements 44

4.3.2 Duties of the holder of an ROC 44

4.3.3 Documentation and records 44

4.3.4 Safety management 45

4.4 SUBPART 5: RPA OPERATIONS 46

4.4.1 Weather conditions 46

4.4.2 Landing on roads 46

4.4.3 Controlled airspace 46

4.4.4 Releasing object or substance 46

4.4.5 Dangerous goods 46

4.4.6 Accidents and incidents 47

4.4.7 Consumption of alcohol and drugs 47