CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Generator

Generators are very handy to have in the event the power goes out because of a storm or

other natural event. They are a good backup system for heaters, freezers, well pumps and lights

(Consumers Power Incorporated, 2016).

An electrical generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy,

generally using electromagnetic induction. The source of mechanical energy may be a

reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal

combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, or any other source of mechanical energy

(Lakshmi, 2008).

A generator is a machine by which mechanical energy is transformed into electrical

energy. Generators can be sub-divided into two major categories depending on whether the

electric current produced is alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC). The basic principle on

which both types of generator works is the same, although the details of construction of the two

may differ somewhat. Generators can also be classified according to the source of the mechanical

power (or prime mover) by which they are driven, such as water or steam power.

The energy conversion in generator is based on the principle of the production of

dynamically induced e.m.f. Whenever a conductor cuts magneticic flux , dynamically induced

e.m.f is produced in it according to Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic induction.This e.m.f causes

a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed. Hence, two basic essential parts of an electrical

generator are (i) a magnetic field and (ii) a conductor or conductors which can so move as to cut

the flux (Lakshmi, 2008).

Portable Generator

Portable generators come in handy during long-term power outages. However, if you do

not know how to use them properly, they can be dangerous (Safe Electricity Organization, 2011).

A portable generator is a gas or diesel-powered device which provides temporary

electrical power. The engine turns a small turbine, which in turn creates usable electricity up to a

certain level of wattage. Users can plug electrical appliance or tools directly into the generator's

sockets or the generator can be professionally wired into the sub-panel of a home. Many

construction teams use a portable generator to power tools and lights at a remote site. Sports

officials may also bring in one to aid in night play or to run an electronic timer/scoreboard. Most

commonly, residents and businesses left without power after a weather event will use a portable

generator to keep vital appliances operating. These devices usually have enough power to keep

a freezer, refrigerator, television and some lights working (WiseGeek, 2016).

Because a portable generator uses a combustion engine to generate electricity, it must

have several regulators on board. The engine must turn at 3600 rpm in order to generate the

standard 60hz of alternating current in North American homes. In order to control engine speed,

a generator uses a 'governor' which mechanically keeps the engine from spinning too fast. A

voltage regulator also keeps the output at 120 volts, which keeps electric motors from burning out

(WiseGeek, 2016).

Electric Generators

An electric generator is a device or machine that is used to convert mechanical energy

into electrical energy. It is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction, a scientific law that

was discovered by British scientist Michael Faraday and American scientist Joseph Henry in
1831. The principle states that when an electric conductor, such as a copper wire, is moved

through a magnetic field, electric current will flow through the conductor. The mechanical energy

of the moving wire is converted into the electric energy. Faraday and Henry also found that when

you move a magnet in a coil of wire, electric current is generated (Holt, 2009).

Electric Generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy to electric energy. The

mechanical energy can be supplied by the prime mover which combustion engine, steam engine,

can water falling through turbine or even an electric motor or any such mechanism that can be a

source of mechanical energy. Usually this energy is obtained from a rotating shaft that is also

called the armature of the generator. The electric energy then produced can be used for power

transmission to commercial, industrial or even domestic level.

An electrical generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy,

generally using electromagnetic induction. The source of mechanical energy may be a

reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal

combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, or any other source of mechanical energy

(MediaWiki, 2013).

Energy

Energy is defined as the capacity of a physical system to perform work. However, it's

important to keep in mind that just because energy exists, it doesn't means it's necessarily

available to do work (Jones, 2016).

According to California Energy Commission (2012), energy is one of the most fundamental

parts of our universe. We use energy to do work. Energy lights our cities. Energy powers our

vehicles, trains, planes and rockets. Energy warms our homes, cooks our food, plays our music,
and gives us pictures on television. Energy powers machinery in factories and tractors on a farm.

Energy from the sun gives us light during the day. It dries our clothes when they're hanging outside

on a clothes line. It helps plants grow. Energy stored in plants is eaten by animals, giving them

energy.

Based on Encyclopedia Britannica – energy (in physics) the capacity for doing work. It

may exist in potential, kinetic, thermal, electrical, chemical, nuclear, or other various forms. There

are, moreover, heat and work—i.e., energy in the process of transfer from one body to another.

After it has been transferred, energy is always designated according to its nature. Hence, heat

transferred may become thermal energy, while work done may manifest itself in the form of

mechanical energy.

Energy can be converted from one form to another in various ways. Usable mechanical

or electrical energy is, for instance, produced by many kinds of devices, including fuel-burning

heat engines, generators, batteries, fuel cells, and magnetohydrodynamic systems (Encyclopedia

Britannica, 2016).

Energy is treated in a number of articles. For the development of the concept of energy

and the principle of energy conservation, see physical science, principles of; mechanics;

thermodynamics. For the major sources of energy and the mechanisms by which the transition of

energy from one form to another occurs, see coal; nuclear fission; oil shale; petroleum;

electromagnetism; energy conversion (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2016).

Potential Energy is stored energy. Examples of potential energy are oil sitting in a barrel,

or water in a lake in the mountains. This energy is referred to as potential energy, because if it

were released, it would do a lot of work. There are other types of energy as well: Mechanical

Energy is the energy of motion that does the work. An example of mechanical energy is the wind

as it turns a windmill. Heat energy is energy that is pushed into motion by using heat. An example
is a fire in your fireplace. Chemical Energy is energy caused by chemical reactions. A good

example of chemical energy is food when it is cooked. Electrical Energy is when electricity creates

motion, light or heat. An example of electrical energy is the electric coils on your stove.

Gravitational Energy is motion that is caused by gravity. An example of gravitational energy is

water flowing down a waterfall (EnWin, 2007).

Electricity

Humans have an intimate relationship with electricity, to the point that it's virtually

impossible to separate your life from it. Sure, you can flee from the world of crisscrossing power

lines and live your life completely off the grid, but even at the loneliest corners of the world,

electricity exists. If it's not lighting up the storm clouds overhead or crackling in a static spark at

your fingertips, then it's moving through the human nervous system, animating the brain's will in

every flourish, breath and unthinking heartbeat (Brain, Harris & Lamb, 2004).

If you've ever sat watching a thunderstorm, with mighty lightning bolts darting down from

the sky, you'll have some idea of the power of electricity. A bolt of lightning is a sudden, massive

surge of electricity between the sky and the ground beneath. The energy in a single lightning bolt

is enough to light 100 powerful lamps for a whole day or to make a couple of hundred thousand

slices of toast! (Woodford, 2016)

Electricity is the most versatile energy source that we have; it is also one of the newest:

homes and businesses have been using it for not much more than a hundred years. Electricity

has played a vital part of our past. But it could play a different role in our future, with many more

buildings generating their own renewable electric power using solar cells and wind turbines

(Woodford, 2016).

Electricity is all around us–powering technology like our cell phones, computers, lights,

soldering irons, and air conditioners. It’s tough to escape it in our modern world. Even when you
try to escape electricity, it’s still at work through electricity is a natural phenomenon that occurs

throughout nature and takes many different forms. In this tutorial we’ll focus on current electricity:

the stuff that powers our electronic gadgets. Our goal is to understand how electricity flows from

a power source through wires, lighting up LEDs, spinning motors, and powering our

communication devices, out nature, from the lightning in a thunderstorm to the synapses inside

our body (Jimbo, 2009).

Electricity is a type of energy that can build up in one place or flow from one place to

another. When electricity gathers in one place it is known as static electricity (the word static

means something that does not move); electricity that moves from one place to another is called

current electricity (Woodford, 2016).

According to the Department of Energy (2016), electricity is the flow of electrical power or

charge. Electricity is both a basic part of nature and one of the most widely used forms of energy.

Electricity is a secondary energy source, and it is also referred to as an energy carrier. That means

that consumers use energy in the form of electricity, which is produced from the conversion of

other sources of energy, such as coal, natural gas, nuclear, solar, or wind energy. These sources

of energy are called primary energy sources. The energy sources used to make electricity can be

renewable or nonrenewable, but electricity itself is not renewable or nonrenewable.

In Electricity Forum (2016), there are two types of Electricity, Static Electricity and Current

Electricity. Static Electricity is made by rubbing together two or more objects and making friction

while Current electricity is the flow of electric charge across an electrical field. Static electricity is

when electrical charges build up on the surface of a material. It is usually caused by rubbing

materials together. The result of a build-up of static electricity is that objects may be attracted to

each other or may even cause a spark to jump from one to the other. For Example rub a balloon

on a wool and hold it up to the wall. Current is the rate of flow of electrons. It is produced by
moving electrons and it is measured in amperes. Unlike static electricity, current electricity must

flow through a conductor, usually copper wire. Current with electricity is just like current when you

think of a river. The river flows from one spot to another, and the speed it moves is the speed of

the current. With electricity, current is a measure of the amount of energy transferred over a period

of time. That energy is called a flow of electrons. One of the results of current is the heating of the

conductor. When an electric stove heats up, it's because of the flow of current.

The electric generators used in power plants work in exactly the same way, only on a

much bigger scale. Instead of being powered by someone's legs, pedaling furiously, these large

generators are driven by steam. The steam is made by burning fuels or by nuclear reactions.

Power plants can make enormous amounts of electricity, but they waste quite a lot of the energy

they produce. The energy has to flow from the plant, where it is made, to the homes, offices, and

factories where it is used down many miles of electric power cable. Delivering electricity this way

can waste up to two thirds of the power originally produced! (Woodford, 2016).

Another problem with power plants is that they make electricity by burning "fossil fuels"

such as coal, gas, or oil. This creates pollution and adds to the problem known as global warming

(the way Earth is steadily heating up because of the energy people are using). Another problem

with fossil fuels is that supplies are limited and they are steadily running out (Woodford, 2016).

Transformer
 A transformer is a device that changes (transforms) and alternating potential difference

(voltage) from one value to another value be it smaller or greater using the principle of

electromagnetic induction (Pass My Exams, 2016).

Transformers are used for the transmission of electrical energy. Transformer works on the

principle of mutual induction. At a different voltage level, transformers can change electrical

energy of a given voltage. A transformer is based on a very simple fact about electricity: when a

fluctuating electric current flows through a wire, it generates a magnetic field (an invisible pattern

of magnetism) or "magnetic flux" all around it. The strength of the magnetism (which has the

rather technical name of magnetic flux density) is directly related to the size of the electric current,

so the bigger the current, the stronger the magnetic field. Now there's another interesting fact

about electricity too. When a magnetic field fluctuates around a piece of wire, it generates an

electric current in the wire. So if we put a second coil of wire next to the first one, and send a

fluctuating electric current into the first coil, we will create an electric current in the second wire.

The current in the first coil is usually called the primary current and the current in the second wire

is (surprise, surprise) the secondary current. What we've done here is pass an electric current

through empty space from one coil of wire to another this is called electromagnetic induction. One

important thing to note is that this trick works only if the electric current is fluctuating in some way.

In other words, you have to use a type of constantly reversing electricity called alternating current

(AC) with a transformer. Transformers do not work with direct current (DC), where a steady

current constantly flows in the same direction.

From the generator, the current goes through a series of transformers, where it is stepped

up to a much higher voltage for transmission. The reason for this is that the diameter of the wires

determines the amount of current, or amperage, they can carry without overheating and losing

energy, but the voltage is limited only by how well the lines are insulated from the ground. It is

interesting to note that the current is carried by only one wire and not two. The two sides of direct
current are designated as positive and negative. However, because the polarity of AC changes

60 times per second, the two sides of alternating current are designated as hot and ground. In

long-distance power transmission lines, the wires carry the hot side, and the ground side travels

through the Earth to complete the circuit (Lucas, 2016).

Light

Light is everywhere in our world. We need it to see: it carries information from the world

to our eyes and brains. Seeing colors and shapes is second nature to us, yet light is a perplexing

phenomenon when we study it more closely (Anneberg, 2016).

Light is at once both obvious and mysterious. We are bathed in yellow warmth every day

and stave off the darkness with incandescent and fluorescent bulbs.Light is electromagnetic

radiation that has properties of waves. The electromagnetic spectrum can be divided into several

bands based on the wavelength. As we have discussed before, visible light represents a narrow

group of wavelengths between about 380 nm and 730 nm (Nelson, 2014).

Light is remarkable. It is something we take for granted every day, but it's not something

we stop and think about very often or even try and define. Let's take a few minutes and try and

understand some things about light. Simply stated, light is nature's way of transferring energy

through space. We can complicate it by talking about interacting electric and magnetic fields,

quantum mechanics, and all of that, but just remember--light is energy (Blair, 2016).

Light is a transverse, electromagnetic wave that can be seen by humans. The wave nature

of light was first illustrated through experiments on diffraction and interference. Like all

electromagnetic waves, light can travel through a vacuum. The transverse nature of light can be

demonstrated through polarization (Elert, 2016).

 Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which ranges from radio waves to gamma

rays. Electromagnetic radiation waves, as their names suggest are fluctuations of electric and

magnetic fields, which can transport energy from one location to another. Visible light is not

inherently different from the other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum with the exception that

the human eye can detect visible waves. Electromagnetic radiation can also be described in terms

of a stream of photons which are massless particles each travelling with wavelike properties at

the speed of light. A photon is the smallest quantity (quantum) of energy which can be transported

and it was the realization that light travelled in discrete quanta that was the origins of Quantum

Theory (Andor, 2016).

It is no accident that humans can ‘see’ light. The detection of light is a very powerful tool

for probing the universe around us. As light interacts with matter it can be become altered and by

studying light that has originated or interacted with matter, many of the properties of that matter

can be determined. It is through the study of light that for example we can understand the

composition of the stars light years away or watch the processes that occur in the living cell as

they happen. Matter is composed of atoms, ions or molecules and it is light’s interaction with

matter which gives rise to the various phenomena which can help us understand the nature of

matter. The atoms, ions or molecules have defined energy levels usually associated with energy

levels that electrons in the matter can hold. Light can be generated by the matter or a photon of

light can interact with the energy levels in a number of ways (Andor, 2016).

Light Bulb

In Highlights for Children (2016) it is stated that the simplest light bulb, the one that

screws into a lighting fixture, is called the incandescent lamp. If you can find one with a

clear glass bulb, you will be able to see the parts inside. Two rather heavy and stiff wires

lead up from the base. These are made of an alloy, a mixture of iron and nickel. They are
called the leads. Stretched between them near the center of the bulb is a coil of smaller

wire made of tungsten. This is the filament, the working part of the lamp.The bulb is

designed to be screwed into a fixture that carries electricity at 120 volts. (That is standard

for the wiring of homes in the United States and Canada.) When electricity to the lamp is

turned on, the greatest resistance is in the tungsten filament. So the filament gets hot —

hot enough that it glows and gives off light. In order to keep the filament from burning up,

the air has been pumped out of the bulb and replaced with a mixture of argon and nitrogen.

Before the invention of the light bulb, illuminating the world after the sun went down

was a messy, arduous, hazardous task. It took a bunch of candles or torches to fully light

up a good-sized room, and oil lamps, while fairly effective, tended to leave a residue of

soot on anything in their general vicinity. When the science of electricity really got going

in the mid1800s, inventors everywhere were clamoring to devise a practical, affordable

electrical home lighting device. Englishman Sir Joseph Swan and American Thomas

Edison both got it right around the same time (in 1878 and 1879, respectively), and within

25 years, millions of people around the world had installed electrical lighting in their homes.

The easy-to-use technology was such an improvement over the old ways that the world

never looked back (Harris, 2002).

Light is a form of energy that can be released by an atom. It is made up of many

small particle-like packets that have energy and momentum but no mass. These particles,

called light photons, are the most basic units of light.Light bulbs have a very simple

structure. At the base, they have two metal contacts, which connect to the ends of an

electrical circuit. The metal contacts are attached to two stiff wires, which are attached to

a thin metal filament. The filament sits in the middle of the bulb, held up by a glass mount.

The wires and the filament are housed in a glass bulb, which is filled with an inert gas,

such as argon.When the bulb is hooked up to a power supply, an electric current flows
from one contact to the other, through the wires and the filament. Electric current in a solid

conductor is the mass movement of free electrons (electrons that are not tightly bound to

an atom) from a negatively charged area to a positively charged area (Harris, 2002).

LED lights

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits visible light when

an electric current passes through it. The light is not particularly bright, but in most LEDs

it is monochromatic, occurring at a single wavelength. The output from an LED can range

from red (at a wavelength of approximately 700 nanometers) to blue-violet (about 400

nanometers). Some LEDs emit infrared (IR) energy (830 nanometers or longer); such a

device is known as an infrared-emitting diode (IRED) (Techtarget, 2016).

An LED light bulb is a solid-state lighting (SSL) device that fits in standard screw-

in connections but uses LEDs (light-emitting diodes) to produce light.LED light bulbs are

a more environmentally-friendly alternative to incandescent bulbs. LED bulbs use a

semiconductor device that emits visible light when an electric current passes through it.

That property is known as elecroluminescence. Compact fluorescents, the most common

alternative to incandescent bulbs, use electricity to excite mercury gas until it emits

ultraviolet (UV) light. That light is then passed through a phosphor, which causes it to emit

more visible light. LEDs themselves have been around for some time, but only recently

have improvements in efficiency, cost and output made them viable for the larger-scale

lighting used in households, businesses and other environments. Due to the rapid

progress in LED technologies, products exist with wide ranges of efficiencies and life

spans. The bulbs can work for 50000 hours, if not run outside of the specified temperature

range. They use about 8-11 watts of power to replace a 60-watt incandescent with at least
 806 lumen and 9.5 watts for a 75-watt equivalent. This capacity provides an efficiency

gain of up to 80% over incandescent bulbs (Techtarget, 2016).

Cellular Phones

With worldwide mobile subscriptions estimated to be around 7 billion in 2014, cell phones

have become a universal and indispensable tool for modern life. With a cell phone, you can talk

to anybody on the planet from almost anywhere (Wang, 2014).

In the most basic form, a cell phone is essentially a two-way radio, consisting of a radio

transmitter and a radio receiver. When you chat with your friend on your cell phone, your phone

converts your voice into an electrical signal, which is then transmitted via radio waves to the

nearest cell tower. The network of cell towers then relays the radio wave to your friend’s cell

phone, which converts it to an electrical signal and then back to sound again. In the basic form, a

cell phone works just like a walkie-talkie.In additional to the basic function of voice calls, most

modern cell phones come with additional functions such as web surfing, taking pictures, playing

games, sending text messages and playing music. More sophisticated smart phones can perform

similar functions of a portable computer (Wang, 2014).

Cell phones use radio waves to communicate. Radio waves transport digitized voice or

data in the form of oscillating electric and magnetic fields, called the electromagnetic field (EMF).

The rate of oscillation is called frequency. Radio waves carry the information and travel in air at

the speed of light. Cell phones transmit radio waves in all directions. The waves can be absorbed

and reflected by surrounding objects before they reach the nearest cell tower. For example, when

the phone is placed next to your head during a call, a significant portion (over half in many cases)

of the emitted energy is absorbed into your head and body. In this event, much of the cell phone’s

EMF energy is wasted and no longer available for communication (Wang, 2014).
 Cell phones contain at least one radio antenna in order to transmit or receive radio signals.

An antenna converts an electric signal to the radio wave (transmitter) and vice versa (receiver).

Some cell phones use one antenna as the transmitter and receiver while others, such as the

iPhone 5, have multiple transmitting or receiving antennas (Wang, 2014).

An antenna is a metallic element (such as copper) engineered to be a specific size and

shape for transmitting and receiving specific frequencies of radio waves. While older generation

cell phones have external or extractable antennas, modern cell phones contain more compact

antennas inside the device thanks to advanced antenna technologies. It’s important to understand

that any metallic components in the device (such as the circuit board and the metal frame for the

iPhone) can interact with the transmission antenna(s) and contribute to the pattern of the

transmitted signal. Many modern smart phones also contain more than one type of antenna. In

addition to the cellular antenna, they may also have Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and/or GPS antennas

(Wang, 2014).

As mentioned earlier, a cell phone is a two-way wireless communication device and needs

both the inbound signal (reception) and the outbound signal (transmission) to work. The

magnitude of the received signal from the cell tower is called the “signal strength”, which is

commonly indicated by the “bars” on your phone. The connectivity between a cell phone and its

cellular network depends on both signals and is affected by many factors, such as the distance

between the phone and the nearest cell tower, the number of impediments between them and the

wireless technology (e.g. GSM vs. CDMA). A poor reception (fewer bars) normally indicates a

long distance and/or much signal interruption between the cell phone and the cell tower. In order

to conserve battery life, a cell phone will vary the strength of its transmitted signal and use only

the minimum necessary to communicate with the nearest cell tower. When your cell phone has

poor connectivity, it transmits a stronger signal in order to connect to the tower, and as a result
your battery drains faster. That’s why good connectivity not only reduces dropped calls, but also

saves battery life (Wang, 2014).

A cellular phone is a telecommunication device that uses radio waves over a networked

area (cells) and is served through a cell site or base station at a fixed location, enabling calls to

transmit wirelessly over a wide range, to a fixed landline or via the Internet. In this networked

system, the cellular phone is identified as a mobile system consisting of the equipment and SIM

card that actually assigns the mobile telephone number. A cellular phone is also known as a

cellphone or mobile phone (Techopedia, 2016).

Derived from the mobile communication concept of two-way radio technology, the cellular

phone has steadily evolved and advanced. In the infancy of cellular phones, service was very

rudimentary, and phones were extremely heavy--much like heavy battery packs. Today’s

handheld cellular phones are smaller and pocket-sized. The seamless quality experienced in

contemporary society is the result of many years of research and development. Modern cellular

phones now meet market demands need with greater efficiency, while communicating without the

bonds of wire-limiting mobility. The cellular phone has evolved from voice telephony to an

instrument supporting many services other than voice calls, i.e., short message services and

Internet access (Techopedia, 2016).

Charge

One property of matter is the electrical charge. Most subatomic particles have either a

positive (+) or negative (−) electrical charge. Those that don't are considered neutral. The most

common charged particles are the electron and proton. Atoms with an excess of electrons are

called negative ions. Those with missing electrons are called positive ions. There is an electric
field that flows between opposite charges, causing an electric force. This results in an attractive

force between the opposite charges and a repelling force between like charges (Kurtus, 2016).

Electric charge is a component of atoms. In other words, after we have broken an object

into molecules, and broken the molecules into atoms, when we break the atoms apart we discover

particles of electric charge. Charge is material, it is like atoms but it is one step lower than atoms.

Most science textbooks tell us that solid objects are made of atoms. It is also valid to state that

solid objects are made of electric charge. Objects are made of equal quantities of positive and

negative charge, and objects stay together because of the attraction between the quantities of

opposite charge inside themIn physics, charge, also known as electric charge, electrical charge,

or electrostatic charge and symbolized q, is a characteristic of a unit of matter that expresses the

extent to which it has more or fewer electrons than protons. In atoms, the electron carries a

negative elementary or unit charge; the proton carries a positive charge. The two types of charge

are equal and opposite (Techtarget, 2016).

In an atom of matter, an electrical charge occurs whenever the number of protons in the

nucleus differs from the number of electrons surrounding that nucleus. If there are more electrons

than protons, the atom has a negative charge. If there are fewer electrons than protons, the atom

has a positive charge. The amount of charge carried by an atom is always a multiple of the

elementary charge, that is, the charge carried by a single electron or a single proton. A particle,

atom, or object with negative charge is said to have negative electric polarity; a particle, atom, or

object with positive charge is said to have positive electric polarity (Techtarget, 2016).

In an object comprised of many atoms, the net charge is equal to the arithmetic sum,

taking polarity into account, of the charges of all the atoms taken together. In a massive sample,

this can amount to a considerable quantity of elementary charges. The unit of electrical charge in

the International System of Units is the coulomb (symbolized C), where 1 C is equal to
approximately 6.24 x 1018 elementary charges. It is not unusual for real-world objects to hold

charges of many coulombs (Techtarget, 2016).

An electric field, also called an electrical field or an electrostatic field, surrounds any object

that has charge. The electric field strength at any given distance from an object is directly

proportional to the amount of charge on the object. Near any object having a fixed electric charge,

the electric field strength diminishes in proportion to the square of the distance from the object

(that is, it obeys the inverse square law).. Chemical bonds are electrical in nature (Beaty, 1999).

Battery Charging

The circuitry to recharge the batteries in a portable product is an important part of

any power supply design. The complexity (and cost) of the charging system is primarily

dependent on the type of battery and the recharge time (Simpson, 2011).

There are two stages of battery charging. The first stage, the fast charge, is when

the voltage drastically rises. It shows full but in actuality, is only about 70%. The second

stage, the trickle charge, takes much longer. It’s when the voltage peaks, and the

remaining battery is slowly charged from 70% to 100% (Aleksandar, 2016).

Based on Woodbank Communications (2005), the battery charging process thus

has at least three characteristic time constants associated with achieving complete

conversion of the active chemicals which depend on both the chemicals employed and on

the cell construction. The time constant associated with the charge transfer could be one

minute or less, whereas the mass transport time constant can be as high as several hours

or more in a large high capacity cell. This is one of the reasons why cells can deliver or

accept very high pulse currents, but much lower continuous currents.
 As vehicle technology continues to develop, increasing strain in being placed on

the battery and as a result, battery charging has become an essential part of car

maintenance and should be considered as important as checking tyre pressures and oil

levels. There are various types of battery charger currently available, most predominantly

smart chargers and trickle chargers. However, smart chargers present a much safer and

efficient way maintaining and prolonging the life of the battery. Once a battery has reached

its optimum charge levels, a trickle charger will simply send in a level of charge for a certain

amount of time and then switch itself off, continually repeating the process until it is

removed from the battery. This way of battery charging can potentially over charge the

battery, causing it to dry out, or even start to gas, and ultimately kill the battery (CTEK,

2016).

Rotational Motion

Rotational motion deals only with rigid bodies. A rigid body is an object that retains its

overall shape, meaning that the particles that make up the rigid body remain in the same position

relative to one another. A wheel and rotor of a motor are common examples of rigid bodies that

commonly appear in questions involving rotational motion.The analysis of linear motion which we

have just completed has application in the movement of every organism in the animal kingdom.

By contrast, there seems to be little use for rotation: very few animals revolve. But every animal

with articulated joints participates in some measure in rotational motion: the movement of one

bone relative to another to which it is joined is a partial rotation about the axis located at the joint.

Whenever you walk, swing your arms, throw a ball or turn your head, you are moving rotationally

(Koehler, 2008).
 Rotation about a fixed axis is a special case of rotational motion. It is very common to

analyze problems that involve this type of rotation — for example, a wheel.Rotational motion is

the motion of a rigid body which takes place in such a way that all of its particles move in circles

about an axis with a common angular velocity; also, the rotation of a particle about a fixed point

in space. Rotational motion is illustrated by (1) the fixed speed of rotation of the Earth about its

axis; (2) the varying speed of rotation of the flywheel of a sewing machine; (3) the rotation of a

satellite about a planet; (4) the motion of an ion in a cyclotron; and (5) the motion of a pendulum.

Circular motion is a rotational motion in which each particle of the rotating body moves in a circular

path about an axis. Such motion is exhibited by the first and second examples (McGraw, 2003).

Based on Physics Tutorials (2016), rotational motion or we can say circular motion can be

analyzed in the same way of linear motion. In this unit we will examine the motion of the objects

having circular motion. For example, we will find the velocity, acceleration and other concepts

related to the circular motion in this section. Uniform circular motion is one of the examples of this

subject. In uniform circular motion speed of the object is always constant and direct rotational

motion imagetion is changing. Thus, velocity of the object is changing and as a result object has

acceleration. Some concepts will be covered in this units; rotational speed (angular speed),

tangential speed (linear speed), frequency, period, rotational inertia of the objects, torque, angular

momentum and its conservation.

Voltage

V = I × R = P / I = √ (P × R) in volts V

Voltage is electric potential energy per unit charge, measured in joules per coulomb ( =

volts). It is often referred to as "electric potential", which then must be distinguished from electric

potential energy by noting that the "potential" is a "per-unit-charge" quantity. Like mechanical
potential energy, the zero of potential can be chosen at any point, so the difference in voltage is

the quantity which is physically meaningful. The difference in voltage measured when moving

from point A to point B is equal to the work which would have to be done, per unit charge, against

the electric field to move the charge from A to B. When a voltage is generated, it is sometimes

called an "electromotive force" or emf (Nave, n.d.).

We define voltage as the amount of potential energy between two points on a circuit. One

point has more charge than another. This difference in charge between the two points is called

voltage. It is measured in volts, which, technically, is the potential energy difference between two

points that will impart one joule of energy per coulomb of charge that passes through it (don’t

panic if this makes no sense, all will be explained). The unit “volt” is named after the Italian

physicist Alessandro Volta who invented what is considered the first chemical battery. Voltage is

represented in equations and schematics by the letter “V” (Taylor, 2016).

Voltage is the pressure from an electrical circuit’s power source that pushes charged

electrons (current) through a conducting loop, enabling them to do work such as illuminating a

light. In brief, voltage = pressure, and it is measured in volts (V). The term recognizes Italian

physicist Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), inventor of the voltaic pile—the forerunner of today’s

household battery. In electricity’s early days, voltage was known as electromotive force (emf).

This is why in equations such as Ohm’s Law, voltage is represented by the symbol E (Fluke,

2016).

Electric Current

I = V / R = P / V = √ (P / R) in amperes A

Voltage does not, itself, go anywhere: it's quite wrong to talk about voltage "flowing

through" things. What moves through the wire in a circuit is electrical current: a steady flow of

electrons, measured in amperes (or amps) (Woodford, 2016).

 Electric current is the rate of charge flow past a given point in an electric circuit, measured

in Coulombs/second which is named Amperes. In most DC electric circuits, it can be assumed

that the resistance to current flow is a constant so that the current in the circuit is related to voltage

and resistance by Ohm's law. The standard abbreviations for the units are 1 A = 1C/s (Nave, n.d.).

If the two requirements of an electric circuit are met, then charge will flow through the

external circuit. It is said that there is a current - a flow of charge. Using the word current in this

context is to simply use it to say that something is happening in the wires - charge is moving. Yet

current is a physical quantity that can be measured and expressed numerically. As a physical

quantity, current is the rate at which charge flows past a point on a circuit. As depicted in the

diagram below, the current in a circuit can be determined if the quantity of charge Q passing

through a cross section of a wire in a time t can be measured. The current is simply the ratio of

the quantity of charge and time (Physics Classroom, 2016).

Electric current is electric charge in motion. It can take the form of a sudden discharge of

static electricity, such as a lightning bolt or a spark between your finger and a ground light switch

plate. More commonly, though, when we speak of electric current, we mean the more controlled

form of electricity from generators, batteries, solar cells or fuel cells (Lucas, 2016).

Electric current is defined as the rate at which charge flows through a surface (the cross

section of a wire, for example). Despite referring to many different things, the word current is often

used by itself instead of the longer, more formal "electric current". The adjective "electrical" is

implied by the context of the situation being described. The phrase "current through a toaster"

surely refers to the flow of electrons through the heating element and not the flow of slices of

bread through the slots.

Current is a rate quantity. There are several rate quantities in physics. For instance,

velocity is a rate quantity - the rate at which an object changes its position. Mathematically,
velocity is the position change per time ratio. Acceleration is a rate quantity - the rate at which an

object changes its velocity. Mathematically, acceleration is the velocity change per time ratio. And

power is a rate quantity - the rate at which work is done on an object. Mathematically, power is

the work per time ratio. In every case of a rate quantity, the mathematical equation involves some

quantity over time (Physics Classroom, 2016).

Related Studies

According to Kashyap, Amshumaan (2013) a direct drive permanent magnet syncrhonous

generator design for hydrokinetic energy extraction. Hydro kinetic turbines deliver lower shaft

speeds when compared to both steam and wind turbines. A permanent magnet synchronous

generator (PMSG) that was designed, built, and tested to serve a low speed hydrokinetic turbine.

These are torque, speed, power and start-up requirements. This generator was built to operate

without a speed increaser, implying very low speeds. The hardware test result demonstrate taht

the generator performs satisfactory while redus=cing the cogging torque to the greatest possible

extent.

In the study conducted by Alexandrova, Yulia (2014) a wind turbine direct-drive permanent

magnet generator with liquid cooling for mass reduction. A rotor-surface-magnet syncronous

generator with a fractional slot non overlapping stator winding made of hallow conductors, through

which liquid coolant can be passed directly during the application of current in order to increase

convective heat transfer capabilities and reduce the generator mass. This focuses on the

electromagnetic design of liquid-cooled direct-drive permanent magnet syncronous generator for

a direct-drive wint turbine application. The analytical calculation of the magnetic field distribution

is carried out with the ambiton of fast and accurate predicting of the main dimensions of the

machine and esspecially the thickness of the permanent magnets; the generator electromagnetic
parameters as well as the design optimization. The focus is on the generator design with a

fractional slot non-overllaping winding placed into open stator slots.

Barre, O. and Bellemain N. (2016) Concentrated windings in compact permanent magnet

synchronous generators: managing efficiency. Permanent magnet generators are suitable

generators where standalone operations are required. Their high efficiencies are generally

considered as the main advantage. We focus on the efficiency of machines using

fractional-slot concentrated-windings. A large number of manufactured machines is using a

conventional winding structure: distributed windings. Thia structure fits well with high-power

machines, such as multi-megawatt generators.

Xu, Zhuxian (2010) The structure of a permanent magnet generator (PMG) connected

with an active front-end rectifier is very popular in the AC-DC architecture. Especially for certain

applications like aircraft and vehicles, power density and efficiency is critical. Since the generator

and the rectifier can be controlled simultaneously, it would be very desirable to develop a unified

control. With this unified control, the boost inductors between the PMG and rectifier is eliminated,

which significantly reduce the volume and the weight of the whole system and improve the system

power density. Also the system efficiency can be improved with appropriate control strategy.

Aleksashkin, A. and Aki M. (2008) literature review on permanent magnet generators

design and dynamic behavior. Which describe the construction of state of art of permanent

magnet generators and motors constructing and discusses the current and possible application

of these machine insdustry. Permanent magnet machines are a well-know class of rotating and

linear electric machines used for many years in industrial application. A particular interest for

permanent magnet generators is connected with wind mills, which seem to be becoming

increasingly popular nowadays.

Rippee, Michael R. (2012) testing, analysis, and model verification of miniature linear

permanent magnet generators. The military has become increasingly dependent on mobile
electronic equipment to ensure success and safety of soldiers in remote locations. To operate the

electronics, soldiers must carry batteries that can weigh up to 12kg (26.5lb). To decrease the load

soldiers must carry, a backpack with an internal linear electric generator has been proposed to

provide portable power for soldiers on foot. In designing a generator for this purpose, a simulation

was developed to predict the power generation capacity of linear permanent magnet generators.

Salles, Maurício B. C. and Cardoso Jose R. (2011) daynamic modeling of transverse flux

permanent magnet generator for wind turbines. The transverse flux permanent magnet

machines have become an interesting possibility for offshore wind turbines. These machines

have the highest relation between electrical torque and weight of active materials. The

pole pair modular construction could eliminate or lower the gear ratio used in conventional

wind turbines. a dynamic model of a wind turbine equipped with a transverse flux

permanent magnet generator connected to a direct-current power system using a combination

of 3D finite element generator model and an aerodynamic model. The results indicate that the

model can give accurate response for steady-state operation and for wind speed variations.

Bearden, Thomas E. Ph.D et al. (2002) An electromagnetic generator without moving

parts includes a permanent magnet and a magnetic core including first and second magnetic

paths. A first input coil and a first output coil extend around portions of the first magnetic path,

while a second input coil and a second output coil extend around portions of the second magnetic

path. The input coils are alternatively pulsed to provide induced current pulses in the output coils.

Driving electrical current through each of the input coils reduces a level of flux from the permanent

magnet within the magnet path around which the input coil extends. In an alternative embodiment

of an electromagnetic generator, the magnetic core includes annular spaced-apart plates, with

posts and permanent magnets extending in an alternating fashion between the plates. An output

coil extends around each of these posts. Input coils extending around portions of the plates are

pulsed to cause the induction of current within the output coils.

 Bearden, Thomas E. Ph.D et al. (2002) An electromagnetic generator without moving

parts includes a permanent magnet and a magnetic core including first and second magnetic

paths. A first input coil and a first output coil extend around portions of the first magnetic path,

while a second input coil and a second output coil extend around portions of the second magnetic

path. The input coils are alternatively pulsed to provide induced current pulses in the output coils.

Driving electrical current through each of the input coils reduces a level of flux from the permanent

magnet within the magnet path around which the input coil extends. In an alternative embodiment

of an electromagnetic generator, the magnetic core includes annular spaced-apart plates, with

posts and permanent magnets extending in an alternating fashion between the plates. An output

coil extends around each of these posts. Input coils extending around portions of the plates are

pulsed to cause the induction of current within the output coils.

Kurtos, Ron (2012) Electrical current can be generated by moving a metal wire through a

magnetic field. This applies both to alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) electricity.

This is a different method than where DC is created by a battery, which uses chemical reactions.

It is also different than static electricity, which is the accumulation of charges on a surface.

Electrical generators rotate a coil of wires through a magnetic field. The difference between an

AC and a DC generator is that the AC generator uses slip rings to transfer the current to the

electrical circuit, while the DC generator uses a split-ring commutator. Generators can be very

small or quite huge. Very large ones create electricity for the community. An electric motor is very

similar to a generator, except that power is provided to turn the rotors.

Andrada, P. (2013) considers the implementation and application of a small direct

drive fractional-slot permanent magnet synchronous generator for low voltages applications

in distributed generation. Finite element analysis of the generator is performed and the

results are compared with those obtained by test.

 Jiang, Guanming (2010) Direct-driven permanent-magnet generator design method for

small-scale maglev bearing system wind turbine. There are quiet a lot of problems as fossile fuel

are becoming gradually exhausted since 1980s. It is important and necessary tofind an alternative

renewable resource. Wind power becomes one option, beacase it has many advatages

comparing with others. This thesis developed a design method of the vertical wind turbine

generator with a maglev bearing, permanent-magnets direct-driven (PMDD) structure. This study

analyzed advantages and disadvantages of topology types and gear structures and investigated

the features of low starting speed and maglev bearing structure. The axial flux direct-driven

structure is slightly larger than conventional type (with gear box) but it had higher efficiency than

the latter one. In additional, there are many features of maglev bearing system such as lower

starting torque and lower average losses. The numerical values of average torque, starting torque,

diameter, volume and height were calculated by certain equations. The magnets intensity,

inductance and resistance were simu1ated by the software Ansys which were compared with the

therotical value. Matlab was used to simulate the power output and the losses considering the

inductance and resistance which were achieved by the software Ansys and equation calculations.

The power losses should be controlled at the lower level to enhence the efficiency. This thesis

emphasized to the starting torque, average torque, weight and power losses which should be

balanced by the equations and software simulation results. In other word, the power losses and

torque value could optimize the diameter which could be slightly diminished as possible.

According to the results and figures it gives that the torque and losses could be decreased when

the diameter and total weight were diminished. In general, according to this method of design, the

performance of Maglev-Bearing system wind turbine was maximized, the cut-in wind speed of

system was contolled in a lower level.

Carroll, Damien (2012) Miniaturised Electromagnetic Generators for Portable

Applications. With the advent of wearable electronics, the demands on power sources for portable
electronic equipment are ever-increasing. Requirements include increased functionality and

decreased size, with power sources (e.g. batteries) providing at least the same lifetime as the

device. In this project, the possibility of unobtrusively capturing some of the energy expended by

a person while walking / running and converting it into electrical energy is investigated. The

development of such alternative or complementary power sources would significantly reduce the

demands on conventional power sources. Modelling and analysis of an electromagnetic generator

designed for harvesting power produced during walking is presented. The generator is designed

to be inconspicuous to the user by embedding it within the thickness of a normal shoe sole, and

by applying a passive generation principle which requires minimal additional force over that

normally exerted by the user during walking. In this way, a portion of

the power used in walking is harvested for potential use in powering portable electronic devices.

The main outcome of the work is specification and comparison of the power levels available from

the electromagnetic generators designed for integration into shoes. Circuit models are applied to

predict maximum voltage and power levels produced during walking. Analytical and Finite

Element Analysis (FEA) models are applied to design the generator winding and core structures.

Furthermore, analysis of different geometrical and material properties is applied to identify the

conditions for optimised generator designs. The nature of the generator output necessitated the

development of AC/DC conversion methods which are modelled to predict the maximum DC

power available within the given structure. DC power levels of up to 10 mW are demonstrated

within a volume of 15 × 15 × 100 mm3 at a walking speed of 2 steps per second. At least two of

these volumes can be easily accommodated within a standard shoe heel to provide up to 40 mW

of DC power per user, with higher power levels achieved for faster walking or running speeds. A

microprocessor/transceiver system integrated into the shoe is demonstrated to identify the

possible commercial use of such generator designs.

 Gargov, Nikola (2013) permanent magnet linear generators for marine wave energy

converters. Direct drive Permanent Magnet Linear Generators (PMLGs) are used in energy

converters for energy harvesting from marine waves. Greater reliability and simplicity can be

achieved for Wave Energy Converters (WECs), by using direct drive machines linked to the power

take-off device, in comparison with WECs using rotational generators combined with hydraulic or

mechanical interfaces to convert linear to rotational torque. However, owing to the relatively low

velocities of marine waves and the desire for significant energy harvesting by each individual unit,

direct drive PMLGs share large permanent magnet volumes and hence, high magnetic forces.

Such forces can generate vibrations and reduce the lifetime of the bearings significantly, which is

leading to an increase in maintenance costs of WECs. Additionally, a power electronics converter

is required to integrate the generator‘s electrical output to meet the requirements for connection

to the national grid. This thesis is concerned mainly with the fundamental investigation into the

use PMLGs for direct drive WECs. Attention is focused on developing several new designs based

on tubular long stator windings topologies and optimisation for flat PMLGs. The designs are

simulated as air- and iron-cored machines by means of Finite Element Analysis (FEA).

Furthermore, a new power electronics control system is proposed to convert the electrical output

of the long stator generators. Various wave energy-harvesting technologies have been reviewed

and it has been found that permanent magnet linear machines demonstrate great potential for

integration in WECs. The main reason is the strong exaltation flux provided by the high number

of permanent magnets. Such flux, combined with design simplicity, can deliver high induced

voltage as well as structural integrity. A flat single and double structured iron-cored PMLG is

studied and optimised. Several magnetic force mitigation techniques are investigated and an

optimisation is conducted. The optimisation is concerned mainly with increasing electrical output

power and reducing the magnetic forces in the generators. As a result, an optimal design

introducing the idea of separated magnetic cores has been proposed. The FEA simulations reveal

that magnetic separation in the yoke can increase significantly the energy-harvesting capability
of PMLGs. Furthermore, the concept of the design of long stator windings for tubular PMLGs is

studied. Two long stator generators having different magnetisation topologies and similar sizes to

existing machine are modelled and compared to the existing machine. The similar-sized existing

and proposed PMLGs are simulated by FEA. In this way, settings such as different boundary

conditions, symmetry boundaries and material properties are used to gain confidence in the

simulated results of the proposed machines. Moreover, the simulated results for the existing

PMLG are verified against previously performed numerical simulations and practical tests

delivered and published as part of other research. The outcome for the proposed PMLGs reveals

several advantages for the long stator design, such as lower cogging forces and higher energy

harvesting and a lower price of the raw structural materials. Additionally, the thesis proposes and

simulates a new design for an air-cored PMLG. To boost the output power, the proposed design

is based on a long stator topology adopting two sets of permanent magnet rings sandwiching

copper windings in a tubular structure. The design is compared with a current machine in FEA

and the results show significant reduction in radial forces and an increase in energy harvesting.

Finally, a novel power electronics control system, bypassing inactive coils is suggested and

simulated as part of the grid integration system for the long stator PMLGs. The new system

achieves a reduction in the thermal losses in the power electronics switches in comparison with

existing systems. The power electronics system and the generator have been simulated in Matlab

coupled externally with FEA (JMAG Designer).

Chedot, L. and Friedrich, PR. G.(2003) a dynamic model for interior permanent magnet

synchronous machine application to a starter-generator. A dynamic model for interior permanent

magnet synchronous machine (IPMSM) applied to a starter-generator. The whole dynamic

system in modelled and each part (machine. control. inverter. DC bus) is detailed. The model is

first used to simulate a torque step response at constant speed in generator mode (power step

requirement). Results are then compared to measurements. Finally, a global starting sequence
of an associatated Internal Combustion Engine (ICE). Followed by the beginning of the DC link

voltage regulation is simulated. The application of a real time optimal control strategy leads us to

excellent results. The inverter is never saturated and currents regulators are precise and fast.

Stroupe, Nicholas (2012) real-time high speed generator system emulation with

hardware-in the-loop application The emerging emphasis and benefits of distributed generation

on smaller scale networks has prompted much attention and focus to research in this field. Much

of the research that has grown in distributed generation has also stimulated the development of

simulation software and techniques. Testing and verification of these distributed power networks

is a complex task and real hardware testing is often desired. This is where simulation methods

such as hardware-in-the-loop become important in which an actual hardware unit can be

interfaced with a software simulated environment to verify proper functionality. In this thesis, a

simulation technique is taken one step further by utilizing a hardware-in-the-loop technique to

emulate the output voltage of a generator system interfaced to a scaled hardware distributed

power system for testing. The purpose of this thesis is to demonstrate a new method of

testing a virtually simulated generation system supplying a scaled distributed po

wer system in hardware. This task is performed by using the Non-Linear Loads Test Bed

developed by the Energy Conversion and Integration Thrust at the Center for Advanced Power

Systems. This test bed consists of a series of real hardware developed converters consistent

with the Navy’s All-Electric-Ship proposed power system to perform various tests on controls

and stability under the expected non-linear load environment of the Navy weaponry. This test

bed can also explore other distributed power system research topics and serves as a flexible

hardware unit for a variety of tests. In this thesis,the test bed will be utilized to perform and

validate this newly developed method of generator system emulation. the dynamics of a

high speed permanent magnet generator directly coupled with a micro turbine are virtually

simulated on an FPGA in real-time. The calculated output stator voltage will then serve as
a reference for a controllable three phase inverter at the input of the test bed that will emulate and

reproduce these voltages on real hardware. The output of the inverter is then connected with the

rest of the test bed and can consist of a variety of distributed system topologies for many testing

scenarios. The idea is that the distributed power system under test in hardware can also

integrate real generator system dynamics without physically involving an actual generator

system. The benefits of successful generator system emulation are vast and lead to much more

detailed system studies without the draw backs of needing physical generator units. Some of

these advantages are safety, reduced costs, and the ability of scaling while still preserving

the appropriate system dynamics. This thesis will introduce the ideas behind generator

emulation and explain the process and necessary steps to obtaining such an objective. It

will also demonstrate real results and verification of numerical values in real-time. The final

goal of this thesis is to introduce this new idea and show that it is in fact obtainable and can

prove to be a highly useful tool in the

simulation and verification of distributed power systems.

Paulsamy, Sivachandran (2014) In wind energy systems employing permanent magnet

generator, there is an imperative need to reduce the cogging torque for smooth and reliable cut

in operation. In a permanent magnet generator, cogging torque is produced due to interaction of

the rotor magnets with slots and teeth of the stator. This paper is a result of an ongoing research

work that deals with various methods to reduce cogging torque in dual rotor radial flux permanent

magnet generator (DRFPMG) for direct coupled stand alone wind energy systems (SAWES).

Three methods were applied to reduce the cogging torque in DRFPMG. The methods were

changing slot opening width, changing magnet pole arc width and shifting of slot openings. A

combination of these three methods was applied to reduce the cogging torque to a level suitable

for direct coupled SAWES. Both determination and reduction of cogging torque were carried out

by finite element analysis (FEA) using MagNet Software. The cogging torque of DRFPMG has
been reduced without major change in induced emf. A prototype of 1 kW, 120 rpm DRFPMG was

fabricated and tested to validate the simulation results. The test results have good agreement

with the simulation predictions.

This dissertation addresses the design, simulation, prototype, and test of a new

energy generation system, which transforms rotational motion into electricity by the use of an

innovative turbine-generator. The system is divided in two assembled subsystems that interact to

finally transform kinetic energy into electricity. The first subsystem is a miniaturized notched

impulse turbine system, and the second one is a millimeter permanent magnet generator (PMG)

assembled into the turbine.

The conversion of biomechanical energy to electric energy, using clean and free energy

produced by a living organism, is being increasingly researched. These are all viable options, but

advantages and disadvantages of each type of energy conversions should be evaluated

individually to determine key factors such as efficiency as an energy harvesting method, the

implementation cost, size, and the final applications where they will be used. Through this

dissertation, a new option of green energy conversion is made available; focusing on the use of

turbines to extract energy from microfluidics, with diverse application in biomedical,

military/aerospace, and home areas. These systems have the potential of converting mechanical

movement energy, and hydraulic energy into electric energy that may be sufficient for self-

powering nano/micro devices and nano/micro systems. A flow, with constant pressure, a magnetic

generator, and a novel impulse turbine design are combined to form a self-contained miniaturized

generator system. The turbine consists of two main parts: a bearingless rotor and the enclosure

or casing; while the miniaturized magnetic generator is a permanent magnet brushless machine,

consisting of permanent magnets in a ring configuration and radial coils. A permanent pressure,

from microfluidic pressure system, is the force used to move the blades. This rotational motion of

the turbine is transformed into electricity using magnetic induction, formed by permanent magnets
on the rotor and nine coils fixed in the holder of the turbine. The electricity is generated when the

magnetic field rotates and moves past the conductor, which induces a current according to

Faraday's Law [1-3]. The system has potential uses not only in medical equipment, but in

automotive applications, home appliances, and aquatic and ventilation systems.

The below studies were conducted by different authors and was published on the internet:

Induction Generator

The induction generator is nothing more than an induction motor driven above its

synchronous speed by an amount not exceeding the full load slip the unit would have as a motor.

Assuming a full load slip of 3%, a motor with a synchronous speed of 1200 rpm would have a full

load speed of 1164 rpm. This unit could also be driven by an external prime mover at 1236 rpm

for use as an induction generator.

The induction generator requires one additional item before it can produce power – it

requires a source of leading VAR’s for excitation. The VAR’s may be supplied by capacitors (this

requires complex control) or from the utility grid. Induction generators are inexpensive and simple

machines, however, they offer little control over their output. The induction generator requires no

separate DC excitation, regulator controls.

AC Generators

Alternating current generators produce most electric power used today. AC generators

are also used in aircrafts and automobiles. Ac generators come in different sizes depending on

their intended use. Regarding of their size, all generatorsoperate on the samebasic principle a

magnetic field cutting through conductorspassing through a magnetic field.

 All generators have at least two distinct sets of connected through transformers to the

main bus of each conductors. 1.The armature winding, which consists of a three-phase system.

To check for a ground, turn switch group of conductors in which the output voltage Son and

observe the brilliancy of the three lights, and is generated. 2.The field winding, which consists of

a group of conductors through which dc is passed to obtain an electromagnetic field of fixed

polarity. Since relative motion is needed between the armature and field flux, ac generators are

built in two major assemblies-the stator and the rotor. The rotor rotates inside the stator. It is

driven by several commonly used power sources, such as gas or steam turbines, electric motors,

and internal-combustion engines.

AC generators are classified as single-phase or polyphase. A single-phase generator is

usually limited to 25 kW or less and generates AC power at a specific utilization voltage.

Polyphase generators produce two or more alternating voltages (usually two, three, or six

phases).

Alternating-current generators are used instead of direct-current (dc) generators because

ac power can easily be stepped up in voltage, by using transformers, for more efficient

transmission of power over long distances and in larger amounts. Similar transformers step the

voltage down again at the utilization site to levels that are safer and more convenient for general

use.

Alternating-current generators are used instead of direct-current (dc) generators because

ac power can easily be stepped up in voltage, by using transformers, for more efficient

transmission of power over long distances and in larger amounts. Similar transformers step the

voltage down again at the utilization site to levels that are safer and more convenient for general

use.
 Induction generators, based on the principle of the induction motor, have been used in a

few remote applications where maintenance of the excitation system is a problem. These units

are essentially like induction motors, but are driven by a prime mover at speeds slightly above

synchronous speed, forcing the unit to generate power due to the reverse slip. The units draw

reactive power from the system and are not as efficient as synchronous generators.

Revolving Armature

In the revolving-armature ac generator, the stator provides a stationary electromagnetic

field. The rotor, acting as the armature, revolves in the field, cutting the lines of force, thereby

producing the desired output voltage. In this generator, the armature output is taken from slip

rings, retaining its alternating characteristic.

The used of the revolving armature ac generator is limited to low-power, low voltage

applications. The primary reason for this limitation is its output power is conducted through sliding

contacts (slip rings and volt-amperes. brushes). These contacts are subject to frictional wearand

sparking. In addition, they are exposed and liableRegardless of their size, all generators operate

onto arc-over at high voltages.

Electric generator

A electric motor is a device for transforming electrical energy into mechanical energy; an

electric generator does the reverse, using mechanical energy to generate electricity. At the heart

of both motors and generators is a wire coil in a magnetic field. In fact, the same device can be

used as a motor or a generator.

 When the device is used as a motor, a current is passed through the coil. The interaction

of the magnetic field with the current causes the coil to spin. To use the device as a generator,

the coil can be spun, inducing a current in the coil.

An AC (alternating current) generator utilizes Faraday's law of induction, spinning a coil at

a constant rate in a magnetic field to induce an oscillating emf. The combination represents the

maximum value of the generated voltage (i.e., emf) and can be shortened to. In other words, a

coil of wire spun in a magnetic field at a constant rate will produce AC electricity. In North America,

AC electricity from a wall socket has a frequency of 60 Hz.

Electric rotating machinery

Any form of apparatus, having a rotating member, which generates, converts, transforms,

or modifies electric power. Essentially all of the world's electric power is produced by rotating

electrical generators, and about 70% of this energy is consumed in driving electric motors. Electric

machines are electromechanical energy converters; generators convert mechanical energy into

electrical energy and motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.

An electric machine can be constructed on the principle that a magnet will attract a piece

of permeable magnetic material such as iron or magnetic steel. In illus. a, a pole structure is

shown along with a magnetic block that is allowed to rotate. The magnetic block will experience

a torque tending to rotate it counterclockwise to the vertical direction. This torque called a

reluctance or saliency torque, will be in the direction to minimize the reluctance of the magnetic

circuit. In illus. b, a winding is added to the rotor (the part which is allowed to rotate). In this case

there is an additional torque on the rotor in the counterclockwise direction produced by the

attraction of opposite poles. This torque will be approximately proportional to the sine of the angle

Θ. While the magnets in the illustration are electromagnets, permanent magnets could be used

with the same effect.

 Since most applications require continuous motion and constant torque, it is necessary to

keep the angle between the rotor magnetic field and the stator magnetic field constant. Thus, in

the above examples, the stator magnetic field must rotate ahead of the rotor.

Although there are many variations, the three basic machine types are synchronous,

induction, and direct-current machines. These machines may be used as motors or as generators,

but the basic principles of operation remain the same. The synchronous machine runs at a

constant speed determined by the line frequency. There is an alternating-current winding

(normally on the stator) and a direct-current winding (normally on the rotor).

The induction machine is another alternating-current machine which runs close to

synchronous speed. The alternating-current winding of the stator is similar to that of the

synchronous machine. The rotor may have an insulated winding (wound rotor) but more

commonly consists of uninsulated bars embedded in a laminated structure and short-circuited at

the end (squirrel cage). There is normally no voltage applied to the rotor. The voltages are

produced by means of Faraday's law of induction. In an induction motor the stator-produced flux-

density wave rotates slightly faster than the rotor during normal operation, and the flux linkages

on the rotor therefore vary at low frequency. The rotor currents induced by these time-varying flux

linkages produce a magnetic field distribution that rotates at the same speed as the stator-

produced flux wave.

In a direct-current motor, direct current is applied to both the rotor and the stator. The

stationary poles on the stator produce a stationary magnetic field distribution. Since the angle

between the stator-produced poles and rotor-produced poles must remain constant, the direct-

current machine uses a device known as a commutator which switches the current from one rotor

circuit to another so that the resulting field is stationary.

Transformer

An electrical device used to transfer an alternating current or voltage from one electric

circuit to another by means of electromagnetic induction. The simplest type of transformer

consists of two coils of wire, electrically insulated from one another and arranged so that a change

in the current in one coil (the primary) will produce a change in voltage in the other (the

secondary). In many transformers the coils are wound on a core made of a material with high

magnetic permeability; this intensifies the magnetic field induced by the current in the primary,

increasing the transformer's efficiency. Neglecting power losses (which are made small by careful

design), the ratio of primary voltage to secondary voltage is the same as the ratio of the number

of turns in the primary coil to the number of turns in the secondary coil. The primary and secondary

currents are in inverse proportion to the number of turns in the coils. The primary and secondary

impedances are in the same ratio as the squares of the numbers of turns in the primary and

secondary coils. For example, if a 10-volt, 2-ampere alternating current were to flow through a

10-turn primary of a transformer, theoretically a 20-turn secondary would exhibit a 20-volt, 1-

ampere alternating current, with the output impedance four times as great as the input impedance.

Transformers are frequently classified according to their uses; the details of construction depend

on the intended application. Power transformers are generally used to transmit power at a

constant frequency. Audio transformers are designed to operate over a wide range of frequencies

with a nearly flat response, i.e., a nearly constant ratio of input to output voltage. Radio frequency

(RF) transformers are designed to operate efficiently within a narrow range of high frequencies.

Electric power systems

 A complex assemblage of equipment and circuits for generating, transmitting,

transforming, and distributing electrical energy.Electricity in the large quantities required to supply

electric power systems is produced in generating stations, commonly called power plants. Such

generating stations, however, should be considered as conversion facilities in which the heat

energy of fuel (coal, oil, gas, or uranium) or the hydraulic energy of falling water is converted to

electricity.

The transmission system carries electric power efficiently and in large amounts from

generating stations to consumption areas. Such transmission is also used to interconnect

adjacent power systems for mutual assistance in case of emergency and to gain for the

interconnected power systems the economies possible in regional operation.

Another approach to high-voltage long-distance transmission is high-voltage direct current

(HVDC), which offers the advantages of less costly lines, lower transmission losses, and

insensitivity to many system problems that restrict alternating-current systems. Its greatest

disadvantage is the need for costly equipment for converting the sending-end power to direct

current, and for converting the receiving-end direct-current power to alternating current for

distribution to consumers.

As systems grow and the number and size of generating units increase, and as

transmission networks expand, higher levels of bulk-power-system reliability are attained through

properly coordinated interconnections among separate systems. Most of the electric utilities in the

contiguous United States and a large part of Canada now operate as members of power pools,

and these pools in turn are interconnected into one gigantic power grid known as the North

American Power Systems Interconnection. The operation of this interconnection, in turn, is

coordinated by the North American Electric Reliability Council (NERC). Each individual utility in

such pools operates independently, but has contractual arrangements with other members in
respect to generation additions and scheduling of operation. Their participation in a power pool

affords a higher level of service reliability and important economic advantages. Power delivered

by transmission circuits must be stepped down in facilities called substations to voltages more

suitable for use in industrial and residential areas. That part of the electric power system that

takes power from a bulk-power substation to customers' switches, commonly about 35% of the

total plant investment, is called distribution.

The operation and control of the generation-transmission-distribution grid is quite complex

because this large system has to operate in synchronism and because many different

organizations are responsible for different portions of the grid. In North America and Europe, many

public and private electric power companies are interconnected, often across national boundaries.

Thus, many organizations have to coordinate to operate the grid, and this coordination can take

many forms, from a loose agreement of operational principles to a strong pooling arrangement of

operating together.

Power-system operations can be divided into three stages: operations planning, real-time

control, and after-the-fact accounting. The main goal is to minimize operations cost while

maintaining the reliability (security) of power delivery to customers. Operations planning is the

optimal scheduling of generation resources to meet anticipated demand in the next few hours,

weeks, or months. This includes the scheduling of water, fossil fuels, and equipment maintenance

over many weeks, and the commitment (start-up and shutdown) of generating units over many

hours. Real-time control of the system is required to respond to the actual demand of electricity

and any unforeseen contingencies (equipment outages). Maintaining security of the system so

that a possible contingency cannot disrupt power supply is an integral part of real-time control.

After-the-fact accounting is the tracking of purchases and sales of energy between organizations

so that billing can be generated.

 For loosely coordinated operation of the grid, each utility takes responsibility for the

operation of its own portion while exchanging all relevant information. For pool-type operations, a

hierarchy is set up where the operational decisions may be made centrally and then implemented

by each utility. For a large utility, there may be another level in the hierarchy where the decisions

are further distributed to different geographical areas of the same utility. All of this requires

significant data communication as well as engineering computation within a utility as well as

between utilities. The use of modern computers and communications makes this possible, and

the heart of system operations in a utility is the energy control center.