Bedrock is the hard, solid rock beneath surface materials such as soil and gravel.

Bedrock also
underlies sand and other sediments on the ocean floor. Bedrock is consolidated rock, meaning it is
solid and tightly bound. Overlying material is often unconsolidated rock, which is made up of
loose particles.

Bedrock can extend hundreds of meters below the surface of the Earth, toward the base of
Earth's crust. The upper boundary of bedrock is called its rockhead.

Above the rockhead, bedrock may be overlain with saprolite. Saprolite is bedrock that has
undergone intenseweathering, or wearing away. Saprolite has actually undergone the process
of chemical weathering. This means saprolite is not just less-consolidated bedrock, it has a different
chemical composition. Flowing water or ice has interacted with minerals in the bedrock to change its
chemical make-up.

Above the saprolite may be layers of soil, sand, or sediment. These are usually ofter, younger, and
unconsolidated rocks.

Exposed bedrock can be seen on some mountaintops, along rocky coastlines, in stone quarries, and
on plateaus. Often, these visible exposures of bedrock are calledoutcroppings or outcrops. Outcrops
can be exposed through natural processes such as erosion or tectonic uplift. Outcrops can also be
reached through deliberate drilling.

People and Bedrock

Identifying bedrock is an important part of geology,stratigraphy, and civil engineering.

Science
Geology is the study of rocks and minerals. Stratigraphy is the study of rock layers (stratification).
Stratigraphers study the way rocks, and their relationships to each other, change over time.

Determining the depth and type of bedrock helps geologists and stratigraphers describe the natural
history of a region.

For instance, the southern part of the U.S. state of Indiana has exposed bedrock. The northern part
of the state is covered by meters of soil and unconsolidated rock. This landscape offers geologists a
clue about how far glaciers extended during the Ice Age. The thick soil of northern Indiana was in
part created as giant glaciers carved across the region's rockhead, grinding it into unconsolidated
gravel. The bedrock of the southern part of the state experienced less weathering and erosion, and
was left with less glacial till as the glaciers retreated.

Bedrock also helps geologists identify rock formations. Rock formations, sometimes called
geological or lithostratigraphic units, are sections of rock that share a common origin and range.
Rock formations help geologists create geologic maps. Geologic maps often display bedrock
formations, usually in bright colors. Sandstone bedrock may be colored orange,
while granite bedrock may be purple.

Geologic maps help scientists identify sites of orogenic events (mountain-building), for instance. A
geologic map of the United States reveals a continuous bedrock formation, more than 400 million
years old, stretching from northern Georgia all the way through Maine. This helps geologists identify
the extent of the ancient Appalachian Mountain range.

Engineering
Civil engineers rely on accurate measurements and assessments of bedrock to build safe, stable
buildings, bridges, and wells.

Aquifers, underground pockets of water, exist in porous bedrock formations, such as sandstone.
Deposits ofpetroleum and natural gas can also be found and accessed by drilling through bedrock.

Building foundations are sometimes secured by drilling to the rockhead. Soil and unconsolidated
rock often cannot support the weight of a building, and the building may sag or sink.

Engineers also rely on bedrock to make sure bridges are safe and secure. To erect the Brooklyn
Bridge, for instance, engineers created airtight cylinders to transport workers deep below the bed of
the East River in New York, New York. These workers could then secure the bridge's towers directly
to the bedrock. (One tower, at least! The Brooklyn tower is anchored in bedrock, while the
Manhattan tower is anchored in the sand of the riverbed.)