CHLORIDES IN CONCRETE
CTI TECHNICAL NOTE C2
INTRODUCTION
When steel reinforcement is encased in sound
dense concrete, the entire surface of the steel is
covered by a stable protective oxide film that
forms in the alkaline environment created by the
hydration of the cement in the concrete. Under
these circumstances no corrosion of the
reinforcement can occur.
However, if the protective oxide film is locally
destroyed, for example by the ingress of chloride
ions, areas of different potential can be set up
on the surface. Steel encased in concrete with
its protective film intact will have a more noble
potential than steel without the protection of the
alkaline environment.
This difference in potential can result in
electrochemical corrosion cells forming between
areas on the reinforcement where the protective
film has been destroyed and the remainder of
the surface where the film is still intact. Such
cells create minute electric currents which flow
through the reinforcement in one direction and
return through the concrete by electrolytic
conduction.
The areas where the electrons leaves the
reinforcement to enter the concrete are called
anodes and they corrode, whereas the areas
where the current re-enters the reinforcement do
not corrode and are called cathodes. Corrosion
takes place at the anode with metal ions going
into solution (refer Eqn. 1)
++ - free state. Some chlorides can become bound
Fe Æ Fe + 2e (1)
No corrosion occurs at the cathode, the cathode
simply provides the mechanism for the removal
of electrons left in the reinforcement by the
corrosion process (refer Eqn. 2).
O2 + 2H2O + 4e- Æ 4OH- (2)
The concrete must be wet enough to provide an
electrolytic path for the transport of ions and
therefore the corrosion of reinforcement in dry
concrete is minimal even if areas of different
potential exist.
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There are two ways that the protective oxide film
that forms on steel reinforcement in sound
concrete might be destroyed. These are the
reduction of the pH of the concrete by
carbonation, and the ingress of chloride ions.
UNITS FOR EXPRESSING CHLORIDE
CONTENT OF CONCRETE
PART PER MILLION (ON CONCRETE)
The fundamental unit for chloride content of
concrete as determined by analysis is a
concentration by weight of the sample analysed
(ie. concrete). This is usually expressed as a
percentage of the weight of the concrete or as
“parts per million” (ppm) by weight of concrete,
hereafter shown as ppmconc. 1,000 ppmconc is
equal to 0.1% chlorides by weight of concrete.
KILOGRAM PER CUBIC METRE OF CONCRETE
The units for chloride content of concrete used
in AS 1379 and AS 3600 are weight of chlorides
in kilograms per cubic metre of concrete,
expressed as kg/m3.
To convert ppmconc to these units, the density of
the concrete needs to be known or assumed. If
a concrete density of 2,400 kg/m3 is assumed,
then 1,000 ppmconc equals 2.4 kg/m3.
CHLORIDES AS A PERCENTAGE BY WEIGHT OF
CEMENT
Not all of the chloride ions in concrete exist in a
in the cement (principally in the C3A phase),
especially if present in the original mix. As a
result, higher cement contents often impart a
higher tolerance to total chlorides. When
considering the durability of concrete or the
likelihood of chloride-induced corrosion of the
reinforcing steel, the most relevant way of
expressing chloride concentrations is as a
proportion of the cement.
Therefore for durability investigations or
specifications, the chloride content is most
commonly expressed as a concentration of
chlorides in the binder, and is usually expressed
as a percentage by weight of the cement, or
“%bwoc”.
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 CHLORIDES IN CONCRETE
CTI TECHNICAL NOTE C2
JANUARY 04 - PAGE 2.

However to convert analytical results to %bwoc,
the cement content must be known. If the mix
design is known, the theoretical cement content
can be calculated. Otherwise the cement
content may be determined by analysis (also as
weight percent on the concrete).
For example, if the cement content is 350 kg/m3
and the density of the concrete is 2,400 kg/m3,
the cement content will be:
350
x 100 = 14.6%
2,400
To convert an analytical result for the chloride
content of ppmconc to %bwoc, divide it by the
cement content as a percentage, and divide
again by 100.
For example if the analytical result for the
chloride content is 1000 ppmconc, and if the
cement content is 14.6%:
1,000
1,000ppm conc → = 0.69% bwoc
14.6 x 100
THRESHOLD CONCENTRATIONS
Thresholds for chlorides in new concrete
normally refer to total or acid soluble chlorides.
The 1998 revision of AS 2758.1 does not
contain these thresholds. In Europe, BS 8110:
Part 1-1997 and BS EN 206-1:2000 both have a
limit of 0.4% bwoc for all reinforced concrete.
These thresholds are also used by those
assessing the condition of existing concrete
structures, and the usual interpretation is that
when these are exceeded, the reinforcing steel
is in danger of succumbing to chloride-induced
corrosion.
However whether or not corrosion actually
commences above the chloride threshold, and
the rate at which corrosion progresses, will both
depend on other factors, including the moisture
content of the concrete and its resistivity (which
are also related to each other) and the degree of
alkalinity of the concrete.
If the pH (a measure of alkalinity) remains above
13, and if the concrete has a relatively high
resistivity (> ~15 kΩcm), then chloride induced
corrosion is not likely to be a problem even at
twice the threshold level.
On the other hand, moderately carbonated
concrete (ie. medium alkalinity) in a moist
environment will create ideal conditions for
chloride-induced corrosion to commence at or
above the threshold levels.

AS 1379 and AS 3600 specify a limit of METHODS FOR DETERMINING

0.8 kg/m3. This is approximately equal to CHLORIDE CONTENT OF CONCRETE
330 ppmconc. (assuming a density of
2400 kg/m3). CHLORIDE CONTENT OF HARDENED
CONCRETE
If the cement content is then assumed to be of
350 kg/m3, a chloride content of 0.8 kg/m3 would The chloride content of hardened concrete can
equal 0.23 %bwoc. be determined by chemical analysis, using
AS 1012.20-1992, ASTM C 1152-97 or BS 1881
AS 2758.1-1985 gave upper chloride limits of Part 124-1988. The latter involves a more
0.2 and 0.4% bwoc for reinforced concrete in simple extraction procedure.
severe and moderate exposure environments All three of these standards are for the
respectively, and 0.1% bwoc for pre-stressed determination of total or “acid soluble” chlorides.
structures. These equate as follows:- Essentially the powder sample is digested in
nitric acid to dissolve the cement matrix and
ppmconc liberate all the chlorides present. The extract is
kg/m3 then analysed for chloride ion content using a
(assuming
%bwoc (assuming Volhard titration, a chloride ion selective
14.6% cement
350kg cement) electrode or similar technique.
content)
0.1 0.35 146 In addition to the free chlorides present in the
0.2 0.7 292 pore water or capillaries of the concrete, any
0.4 1.40 584 chlorides added to the mix and “bound” in the
cement phase will also be detected by these
methods.
 CHLORIDES IN CONCRETE
CTI TECHNICAL NOTE C2
JANUARY 04 - PAGE 3.

For water-soluble or "free" chloride

determination, the concrete sample is extracted
by refluxing with boiling water. This is not
however a common procedure except in the US.

All of the above analytical methods first require

the concrete to be sampled. Powder samples
extracted by hammer drill are suitable, as are
crushed samples from core sections.

The sampling procedure should avoid wet

methods which might wash out chlorides from
the concrete and lead to an ambiguous or lower
result. If cores are taken for chloride analysis
using wet coring, the diameter should be at least
40 mm.

CHLORIDE CONTENT OF FRESH CONCRETE

The chloride content of fresh concrete can be
determined from its constituent ingredients. The
chloride content of the cement (if not provided
by the manufacturer) can be determined using
the same methods as for hardened concrete.

For the aggregates and make-up water, the

chloride content can be determined using
standard analytical procedures. Additives
should have a known (and low) chloride content;
if testing is required suitable methods may be
found in the literature or by consulting the
suppliers.
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