Basic Equations in Elasticity 9

This chapter summarizes the results from theory of elasticity which are useful in solving the problems in
structural and continuum mechanics by the finite element method.

In theory of elasticity, usually right hand rule is used for selecting the coordinate system. Fig. 2.1 shows
various orientations of right hand rule of the coordinate systems. Equations derived for any one such orientation
hold good for all other orientations of

(b)

(a) (c)

coordinate system with right hand rule. In this Chapter orientation shown in Fig. 2.1(a) is used for the
explanation. Fig. 2.2 shows a typical three dimensional element of size dx × dy × dz. Face abcd may be called
as negative face of x and the face efgh as the positive face of x since the x value for face abcd is less than that
for the face efgh. Similarly the face aehd is negative face of y and bfgc is positive face of y. Negative and
positive faces of z are dhgc and aefb.
The direct stresses and shearing stresses acting on the negative faces are shown in the Fig. 2.3 with
suitable subscript. It may be noted that the first subscript of shearing stress is the plane and the second subscript
is the direction. Thus the xy means shearing stress on the plane where x value is constant and y is the
direction.
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10 Finite Element Analysis

In a stressed body, the values of stresses change from face to face of an element. Hence on positive face
the various stresses acting are shown in Fig. 2.4 with superscript ‘+’.
All these forces are listed in table 2.1
Note the sign convention: A stress is positive when it is on positive face in positive direction or on negative
face in negative direction. In other words the stress is + ve when it is as shown in Figs 2.3 and 2.4.

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Basic Equations in Elasticity 11

Face Stress on –ve Face Stresses on +ve Face

x
x x x x dx
x
xy
xy xy xy dx
x
xz
xz xz xz dx
x

y
y y y y dy
y
yx
yx yx yx dy
y
yz
yz yz yz dy
y

z
z z z z dz
z
zx
zx zx zx dz
z
zy
zy zy zy dz
z

Note that stress on positive face is equal to the stress on negative face plus rate of change of that stress
multiplied by the distance between the faces.

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12 Finite Element Analysis

Let the intensity of body forces acting on the element in x, y, z directions be X, Y and Z respectively as
shown in Fig 2.5. The intensity of body forces are uniform over entire body. Hence the total body force in x,
y, z direction on the element shown are given by
(i) X dx dy dz in x – direction
(ii) Y dx dy dz in y – direction and
(iii) Z dx dy dz in z – direction

Considering all the forces acting, we can write equations of equilibrium for the element.

Fx 0

x dy dz x dy dz yx dx dz yx dx dz zx dx dy zx dx dy X dx dy dz 0

x yx
i.e. x dx dy dz x dy dz yx dy dx dz yx dx dz
x y

zx
zx dz dy dx zx dx dy X dx dy dz 0 …(i)
z
Simplifying and then dividing throughout by dx dy dz, we get

x yx zx
X 0
x y z

Similarly Fy 0 and Fz 0 equilibrium conditions give,

xy y zy
Y 0 …(ii)
x y z

xz yz z
and Z 0 …(iii)
x y z

Now, moment about x-axis = 0 through the centroid of the element gives

dy dy dy dy
yz dx dz yz dx dz zy dx dz zy dx dz 0
2 2 2 2

yz dz dz yz dz dz
i.e. yz dy dx dy yz dx dy zy dz dx dy zy dx dz 0
y 2 2 z 2 2

Neglecting the small quantity of higher (4th) order and dividing throughout by dx dy dz, we get
yz zy …(iv)
Similarly the moment equilibrium conditions about y-axis and z-axis result into

xz zx …(v)

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Basic Equations in Elasticity 13

and xy yx …(vi)
Thus the stress vector is

x y z xy yz xz …(2.1)

and the equations of equilibrium are

x xy xz
X 0
x y z

xy y yz
Y 0
x y z

xz yz z
and Z 0 …(2.2)
x y z
and note that

xy yx , yz zy and xz zx …(2.3)

Corresponding to the six stress components given in equation 2.1, the state of strain at a point may be divided
into six strain components as shown below:
T
x y z xy yz yx …(2.4)

Taking displacement components in x, y, z directions as u, v and w respectively, the relations among components
of strains and components of displacements are
2 2 2
u 1 u v w
x
x 2 x x x

2 2 2
v 1 u v w
y
y 2 y y y

2 2 2
w 1 u v w
z
z 2 z z z

v u u u v v w w
xy
x y x y x y x y

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14 Finite Element Analysis

w v u u v v w w
yz …(2.5)
y z y z y z y z

u w u u v v w w
and xz
z x x z x z x z
In equation 2.5, strains are expressed upto the accuracy of second order (quadratic) changes in
displacements. These equations may be simplified to the first (linear) order accuracy only by dropping the
second order changes terms. Then linear strain – displacement relation is given by:

u u v
x xy
x x y

v w v
y yz …(2.6)
y y z

w w u
z xz
z x z
Equations 2.6 are used in small deflection theories and equations 2.5 in large deflection theories.

The constitutive law expresses the relationship among stresses and strains. In theory of elasticity, usually it is
considered as linear. In one dimensional stress analysis, the linear constitutive law is stress is proportional to
strain and the constant of proportionality is called Young’s modulus. It is very well known as Hooke’s law.
The similar relation is expressed among the six components of stresses and strains and is called ‘Generalized
Hookes Law”. This may be stated as:

x D11 D12 D13 D14 D15 D16 x

y D21 D22 D23 D24 D25 D26 y

z D31 D32 D33 D34 D35 D36 z

xy D41 D42 D43 D44 D45 D46 xy

…(2.7)
yz D51 D52 D53 D54 D55 D56 yz

xz D61 D62 D63 D64 D65 D66 xz

or in matrix form
D ,
where D is 6 × 6 matrix of constants of elasticity to be determined by experimental investigations for each
material. As D is symmetric matrix [Dij = Dji], there are 21 material properties for linear elastic Anisotropic
Materials.
Certain materials exhibit symmetry with respect to planes within the body. Such materials are called
Ortho tropic materials. Hence for orthotropic materials, the number of material constants reduce to 9 as
shown below:

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Basic Equations in Elasticity 15

x D11 D12 D13 0 0 0 x

y D22 D23 0 0 0 y

z D33 0 0 0 z
…(2.8)
xy Sym D44 0 0 xy

yz D55 0 yz

xz D66 xz

Using the Young’s Modulii and Poisons ratio terms the above relation may be expressed as:

x y z
x yx zx
Ex Ey Ez

x y z
y xy zy
Ex Ey Ez

x y z
z xz yz …(2.9)
Ex Ey Ez
xy yz zx
xy , yz , zx
G xy G yz Gzx
Note that there are 12 material properties in equations 2.9. However only nine of these are independent
because the following relations exist

Ex Ey Ey Ez Ez Ex
, , …(2.10)
xy yx yz zy zx xz

For Isotropic Materials the above set of equations are further simplified. An isotropic material is the one
that has same material property in all directions. In other word for isotropic materials,
Ex = Ey = Ez say E and

xy yx yz zy xz zx say …(2.11)
Hence for a three dimensional problem, the strain stress relation for isotropic material is,

x 1 x
0 0 0
E E E
1
y 0 0 0 y
E E
1
z 0 0 0 z
E
1 …(2.12)
0 0
xy 2 xy
1
0
yz
2 yz
1
xz 2 xz

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16 Finite Element Analysis

E
Since G and stress – strain relation is
2 (1 )

x 1 0 0 0 x
1 0 0 0
y y
1 0 0 0
z E 1 2 z
0 0 …(2.13)
1 1 2 2
xy 1 2 xy
0
yz
2 yz
1 2
xz 2 xz

In case of two dimensional elasticity, the above relations get further simplified. There are two types of
two dimensional elastic problems, namely plane stress and plane strain problems.

The thin plates subject to forces in their plane only, fall under this category of the problems. Fig. 2.6 shows a
typical plane stress problem. In this, there is

no force in the z-direction and no variation of any forces in z-direction. Hence

z xz yz 0

The conditions xz yz 0 give xz yz 0 and the condition z 0 gives,

z x y 1 z 0

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Basic Equations in Elasticity 17

i.e. z x y
1
If this is substituted in equation 2.13 the constitutive law reduces to

x 1 0 x
E
y 2
1 0 y …(2.14)
1 1
xy 0 0 xy
2

A long body subject to significant lateral forces but very little longitudinal forces falls under this category of
problems. Examples of such problems are pipes, long strip footings, retaining walls, gravity dams, tunnels,
etc. (refer Fig. 2.7). In these problems, except for a small distance at the ends, state of stress is represented by
any small longitudinal strip. The displacement in longitudinal direction (z-direction) is zero in typical strip.
Hence the strain components,

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

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18 Finite Element Analysis

(e)

z xz yz 0

xz yz 0 means xz and yz are zero.

z 0 means

z ( x y)
z 0
E E

i.e. z ( x y)

Hence equation 2.13 when applied to plane strains problems reduces to

x 1 0 x
E
y 1 0 y …(2.15)
(1 ) (1 2 ) 1 2
xy 0 0 xy
2

Axi-symmetric structures are those which can be generated by rotating a line or curve about an axis. Cylinders
(refer Fig. 2.8) are the common examples of axisymmetric structures. If such structures are subjected to
axisymmetric loadings like uniform internal or external pressures, uniform self weight or live load uniform
over the surface,
there exist symmetry about any axis. The advantage of symmetry may be made use to simplify the analysis. In
these problems cylindrical coordinates can be used advantageously. Because of symmetry, the stress components
are independent of the angular ( ) coordinate. Hence all derivatives with respect to vanish i.e. in these
cases.
v r z r z 0

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Basic Equations in Elasticity 19

, ,

, ,

(a) (b)

Hence there are only four nonzero components. The strain displacement relations for these components
are
u u w
r , , z and
r r z
u w
rz + …(2.16)
z r
In these cases stress-strain relation is

1 0
r r
1 0
z E z
(1 ) (1 2 ) 1 0 …(2.17)
1 2
rz rz
2

1. Draw a typical three dimensional element and indicate state of stress in their positive senses.
2. Derive the equations of equilibrium in case of a three dimensional stress system.

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