Pir;l.

r: nloor'ur€

,un;,
stainlesssteelventilation stack:\MEp,sellafield
D. A. Bloomer, BEng, MSc, CEng, FIShuctE, MICE
Building & Civil Design Ofhce, British NuclearFuels plc

Synopsis up a shalt throughthree RC floors and a lightweight roof. It is a free_

The paper describes the construction of the ventilation stackfor
standingcantilever,51.7 m high with a 3.9 m diametermultiflue windshield
the Wastes Encapsulation plant at BNFL Seltaftetd, sening
ho*, fitted with helicel scrakesand containing two flues. The thickness of the
the reasons for selecting stainless steel instead'of ,itryooia windshield decreases from 16 mm at is baseto g mm at the top. The wind_
concrete- Detailed aspects of the design and analys;sby tne
shield and both flues irc manufacturcdfrom austenidc stainlesssteel. The
yiydshield andflues are give4 along-with flues arc supportedverticaily by the windshield, at the 17.5 m level, and
fabrication and installation issues. "ontrirnol,
restrainedhorizontallyby accessplatforms above this level. Overall details
In buiding a stack of this size, with the requirement
for a 50- arc shownin Fig l.
year.design life, the current uK standard.foi the desigi
of steet The stackis designedto satisfy r-in-10 00Gyear exrremeenvironmental
stacks (Le. BS a07.6: lgTs) gave insfficiint guidanci in regard performancerequircmenB,i.e. rcsistanceto wind, seismic and extreme
to tle use of stainlss sye! fatigue, hot
flue desiln, the need.fo"r and cold weather-
preloading of the base holding-down bolts, ind the.rrresr
In view of the stack size, and in order to maximise off-site fabricarion,
implications of vonex shedding and wind. ovalisation. an early decision was raken to design the suck such that it would
be
deliveredro site in threefuily prefabricatedtransportablelengthscomplere
rtroduction wiOrflues.
-newasresEncapsulation plant (wEp) projectis BririshNuclearFuels
plc's For constructionreasons,a sLackof theseproportionswould normally be
(BNFL) secondplant at sellafield for the encapsulationof intermediate
located away from its building. However, stack foundations *"uiy
level wastein sealedstainresssteeldrumsfilled with cemenritiousgrours. u
considerableareaon plan, and the amountof available land adjacentto u/Ep
An essentialfeature of the prant is the stainresssteer ventilation stack was extremely limited. The decision was thereforemade to locate the
requiied for the dischargeof the plant's ventilationextracL It is the design, stack
within rhe ServiceBuilding, even rhoughthis made the project much less
fabrication and consrnrctionof the wEp stackwhich forms the basisof this straighdorward.
PaPer.
The stack is located within the service Building of the wEp project, Factors influencing the choice of construction material
emanating from a concretepedestalat the ground-floor revel and p^riing The combined capital cost for the foundations and superstructurefor
a
slipformedreinforcedconcreteor stainlesssteelstack wasbroadty the same.
55.0m lvl. Too of f tues
The stainlesssreeloption was,however,chosenfor the following reasons:
(l) It providedprogrammeadvanragesto the wEp service Building project.
A concretesrackwourdhavehad to be completedbeforc the building'ssteel
Access plotforms frame erectioncould start, whercasthe steel stack altowed the unimpeoeo
constnrctionof the ServiceBuilding in parallel with offsite fabrication
of
the stack.The early presenceof a stackwoutd also have restrictedsteelwork
erection.
Helicol strqkes
(2) The steelsrack,being much righter in weight, could be founded
more
economicallyby using a common raft foundation with the building.
A
concrctestackwould have neededmassconcretedown to rockheadtevel _
35.6m lvl.
I
35.0m lvl. Sitc joint in stock hrst, to avoid any possible'differential settlement under operational
Ioads;secondly,to preventunacceptable levelsof soil-structurcinteraction
3.8m l/ dio-windshicld under seismic loading; and thirdly, to sustain the grcater seismic mass
Eost goblctomoin
h-rilding enlalopc
inertial forcesincurred.
l.5m dio.ftlc nol
(3) The surroundingsitecourd accommodateboth the onsite asembly
of the
0.5m dio. fluc no.l stack from largeprcfabricatedstack sectionsand the large crane neededto
ercct the stack-
\tleothcr hood 2 t . 8 mM . The choice of stainlesssteel rather than carbon steel is to minimise
corrosionand mainrenance(i.e. painting) during the 50-year design life.
16.5m lvl. F.EL :5 m lvt.Fkrc support
plottorm Grade3o4L is uscdinternally,while 3l6L stainlessstccl is providedat all
F-xtroct drrt external locationsto reduce pitting corrosion associatedwith airborne
ond be|lows 5m tvl. chlorides arising from the nearby coastal environment. Both grades of
Sitc roirn stainlesssteelarcreadilyweldablewith high strengrh,exceltentductility and
instocl
subzerotempenrurcproperties,coupledwith good fatigue resistance.

Wind-induced oscillatory phenomenon

Most unlinedlighrweightsteelstackshave a first-mo<Jenaturalfrequency
-O5m lvl.
lessthan l.2Hz(irrespectiveof theirheight),and,having minimal dampinj,
they arc highly susceptibleto osci[ation under wind ioading. As wcll
as
Cornpoctcd hordcorc
designingfor the normalcF[]' qur"i-static wind load, sr^irckiesigners are
T_ adviscd to investigarcthe stressimplications of wind-induced
oscill_
-O.7m lvl.
__^-_r^_1^jT:, r-

-0.9m lvl.
ations- i.e. oscillationsacring 'wirh wind' and perpendicularto the wind
dircction on plan, rhesebeingdue to wind buffeting and vortex shedding,
8cd rock rcspectively.
12.8m 15.5m The 'critical wind spced'is defined as the wincl spccd at which vortcx
sheddingoscillarion@curs and is a function of the srack diamercr
an<l
0m 5m lOm
natumlfrequency. Thisphenomenon @curswhenthc frerlrcncyof sherlding
l r t
*11 *",l"rural frequency. of rlrc.srack,giuiug rise ro
FiC I, North elcwtlion on WI,lP.Scrvire llttil,lino ,l' Venrilttrittn lt,rt ::.::::1-:"f":,.*r
 is rninirrutl.
Stlcks ltrc llcttcrllly lrttcd with lrclicalstrakcsto Inrnrmisc
vortcx shctldingrcsponscby prornotingrandornratherthan regularpcricxl
voricxshcddingbchaviour.Sltoulda stackhavea significantwind oscill-
ationproblcrn,its life might bc govcrnedby tatigucconsidcrations.
Wind and scismic dynamic analyses
Becauseof thepotentialfor aerodynamicosciltatoryproblemsthedesignof
all nujor steelstacksshouldincludea vibrarionanalysis.Furthermore,the
structurrlmodelsusedfor a stackvibrationanalysisdueto wind etTectsmay
needto representthe stack foundations(or supportingstructurcs).This is
beanuse wherefbundationsoffer relatively low rotationalsdftressto rhebase
of a stack,foundation'rocking' can occur, which would affect the stack's
frequencyand rcsponse,thus making a fixed-baseanalysis inappropriate.
However,in rhecaseof wEp, becauseof is relatively massivefoundation,
it waspossibleto adopta fixed-baseapproachwith considerablec.onfidence
for the wind dynamic analysis.This analysisalso assumeda relatively low
valueof criticaldamping,i.e. 0.5 %. Taking a srrouhalnumbel of 0.2. with
the resultingfirst modefrcquency(1.15 Hz), gavea critical wind speedof
72m/s,whereasthesecondmode(6.19Hz) gavea criticatwind speedof I l g
m/s.Becausethe lanerwas more than50 % abovethe ESDU, l-in-5Gyear
meanhourly wind speedat 34 m/s, the secondand higher modeswere not
considercdin rclarionto vortexshedding.
The scismicperformanceof the wEp stackwas investigated.For this load
case,higher thannormal stresseswere allowed, which resultedin increased
energy absorption(this being a consequenceof the ductiliry and work-
hxrthlcvcls.rvlrcreasrbr trrc crnckcdsolutiontherc will lrc a signilicant
changein theprsirionof thc ncurralaxis.without prcload.a substantialpart
of the stackb:rsering is subjectto downwardtensionfrom thc anchorbolts
and, diametricatlyopposite,concentratedupward comprcssionfrom the
grout.Consequently,the stackbasering hasto carry significant additional
stressesto maintainequilibrium. (NB. This effect is morc significant in
stacksbecauseof their light weight and high momentcomparedto stanchion
bases,which generallyhavesmallernet tensions.)
(3) Without prestrcss. a tensileseparationcanoccurat the stack/foundation
interfacesuchthat, when the cycle rcverses,the grout would be subjected
to an impactforceas the crackcloses.This cyclic impact processcanrover
a period of time, give rise to 'grinding' of the grout lea<lingto the stack
becomingunstable.
(4) The effect of preload on rhe bolts substantiallyreduces the range and
magnitudeof the tensile srrcsscyclesexperiencedby the bolts due to stack
oscillation and wind fluctuationvchangesin direction. This avoids the
possibilityof long-termfatigueof the bola.
(5) Therc is the potenrial for the non-prestressedHD bolts progressively to
debonddown to anchor-platelevel and,asa result,inadvertentlyto strctch
under load within the RC foundation.This would give rise to stack base
'rocking'effects,
making the dynamicbehaviourvery complex, thus intro-
ducing considerable uncerrainryconcerningthe validity of a simplified
analysis.
(o) Stroin protika

hardeningeffectsassociatedwith the non-linearstress-strain behaviourof

stainlesssteel),andtherefore1.0 vodampingwasadopted.To takeaccount
of the mannerin which the subsoilmodified the seismicmotion, soil-
E. ond E5 ore Youngs G .E
o
u-,
lloduli fq concrete & O
structureinteraction effects were evaluated.It was found that the stack's steel respectively.
c
(Es = mEc) o
secondmode frcquency had a resonanceeffect with the responseof the t.1
massiveRC foundationto subsoilmovement(modelledas equivalentsoil
CorresparaQ Ec
springsin thedynamicanalysis).This analysiswas,however,conservative moxinwn ,/
as it did not exploit thepotentialfor high levelsof radiationdampingin the cotnr*e -/
surroundingsoil. Norwithstandingthis, it was found thar the l-in-10 000- conprc:dw

t itft,"#j$'o")
strcss f"
year wind performancerequirementgenerallygovemedthe stack'sdesign
andnot theusuallyonerouso.TgZPA seismicqualification.(NB. This has
,T* { *1,.-,j:liil+'
d;"1
twice thedynamicprcssureof the normal I -in-5Gyear wind" sinces3= I .4.) Ncutrol sris
(SeeFig a.)
(b) H0boft |f,os.1,2 & 3 etc
Holdingdown bolt design rith tensiors Tt ,Ir & Tr
Areo h b.ori.rg & individtrct bolt dreos 16
Cyclic loading,dueto wind oscillatoryeffects,conrribures to thedesirability (NB Fc ig thc co.r6pon
cernpneeion - cfingrcsul,ont concntr
of usingpreloadedHD bolts.The wEp stackwasprestressed to its concrete
foundationby preloadingthe HD bolts with a 600 kN tensileholding-down cernprerdon force.)
force in eachof the 24 No- ?:1in diameterborts(8uN rolled threads).
Fig 2(a) showsa typical strainprofile for a stackbaseresultingfrom a (o) Shorr thc stroir profrlc occording to moduhr rotio theory duc to o wind
wind-inducedmoment,wheretlreHD bortshavenot beenpreloaded(i.e. it monrcnt U;1 ;ithout prclood in the H D bolts

behaveslike a 'cracked' RC secrion).Fig 3(b) shows,for the samestack (b) Shorr o plon of thc bssr of-tho corrcrponding stock
in fig 2(o)
base,a typicalbearingstressprofile which would occurif theHD boltshave
beenpreloaded,causingthe interfacebetweenthe baseof the steelstackand ilotc lhc cffcci of thc ctock solf-rcight (nogligiblc) b igrrcrcd in Figs 2 ond 3
the top of the RC foundation to behave rike a prestressed(uncracked) oso thrfthz
interfacein resistingwind moments.Apart from making it very mrrcheasier
to calculatethe bearingstressdisrriburionand bolt forces(seethe equations Fig 2- 'Cracked'basecondition
in Figs 2 and 3, respectively,for t}re cracked and uncrackedconditions), (o)
therc aresignificanrbenefirsin using preloadedtID bolts,which include rhe
following: b - rt;Uot Prudrcss
(l) For a given bendingmomentthe peak bearingsftss on the grout will
be considerablyrcduced.Hence the grout wiil, in general,be much less
liable to crushingfailurc. To illustratethis with rcfercnceto Figs 2 and3,
f min
y=+=,_-_-_f,=
(b)
supposethat (a) M'v1is equal to MwzNrd (b) therc is the limiting prcstrcssed
l*, fr - Ecndhg rtress
conditionwherc/-n. is zero.Then, for the prestressed base,./^,.andp6 will c9mpofr€fit
bc muchlessthantheircrackedbaseequivalen6/" andrl,rcspectively.(The
rcasonfor this can be readily appreciatedif borh solutionsare considered Neutrotoxis
in relationto their sectionmoduli. The sectionmodulusfor the prestressed |.-
(uncracked)sectionwitl be much greaterthan that for the sameconnection
intcrfaccwhenit bchaveslike a conventionalRC crackedsectionbasedon (o)& (b)
modular ratio transformedbolt areasin tension.) shor:. conrprotiw b.orirlg rtrerr dbtrihr&xr lor thc romo ctock bqrc o, h Frg2,
(2) For thc prcstressedcase,thcrc are consistentload parhsat, and above, but ;ith th. odttm ot ycro"d.h h. th. H 0 bon!" rry
{o) *r-,
bcoriDs ilnr dbtribuU<n*rcn thlc b m mornml -J /ril[t"jr"J,
u,"
thc grout interface.This resuls in the transmissionof (a) shear by shear- "o.r,p.r.iii
u," na
comprorrhr b€rng drco r,nder fr. octJonol o rind ,r-fft [j2_"-
friction and (b) tensilebendingstressby a rcductionin the comprcssive
bearingstresson rhe grout.This simplicity of load parhsdoesnot occur in r{o'te-* o"dri -
the cascof the crackedsolution.To appreciatcwhy this is, considerthe # *'*l*ffii'ffiHf;"HdT*"
positionson planof the neutralaxesfor purc bcndingabovethc srackbase ffocr : lnw- - lo + fr t dlorde grwl cornpreriw rtrtsr
ring and at thc grour./stack f rnir - fi - L> 0 (i.r. m rrt tcndh rtrrrr)
baseinterfacefor a given appliedbascmoment.
For the prestressed solurion,the position of the neutralaxis is the sarnear Fig 3. 'Uncracked' base/preloadedHD bolt condirion

29o Tlro structural [ngincer/Volumc 7 " t/ N o 1 6 / 1 7 A r r g u s t 1 9 g 3


(6) As wcll as lnlt strcsscycling, a further consequcnce of stack base
'rocking' is thatit givesriseto anenhanced
top of stacklateraldisplacement
due to the magnifying levereffectof the stack.This is perhapsa visual rarher
than a technicalconsideration,and would be most noticeablewhere very
long (flexible) HD bols are pnovidedin combinationwirh a rall. slender
stack.
(7) Prestressingthe stackbaseto its foundationresultsin the stackbehaving
in a morc linear fashionwhen subjectto dynarnicloading.Consequenrly,
the difficulties and uncertaintiesof a non-linearanalysiscan, with con-
fidence, be avoided.
It is suggestedthat theamountof appliedprestressshouldbe designedto
avoid the potential for tensile separationof the stack basefrom rhe grour
under maximum momentconditions.Although it is desirableto maximise
the amount of inherentdampingwithin a sutck,the prestressing of its base
to the foundationwill tendto reducethe damping,which is a disadvanrage.
In the caseof WEP, this disadvantagewas considercdto be outweighed by
the advantagesas alreadylisted.
For prcloadingto work mosteffectively,relatively long bols arerequircd.
each fined with paircd sphericalwashersunder the 'lock off nuts. In the
caseof the WEP stack,thesebolts were 5.5 m long overall, the need for
which was governed,first, by shearconepull-out requiremensin the RC
foundarion,and, secondly,by practicalconsiderationsassociatedwith the
heightof the RC pedestal.As with conventionalpost-tensioningwork, long
bols provide a flexible stressingup lengthin relationto the axial stiffness
of the elementsundercompression(i.e. the combinedstiffrressof rhe stack
base,grout and concreteshearcones). This flexibility in the bols also has
the double'benefitof ensuringthat they will be relarively insensitivero
'lock-off' lossesand,very importantly,
largechangesin the bendingstress
component(i.e."f- in Fig 3 (b)) will not be accompaniedby significant
changesin preloadforcePp,in thebolts.Consequently,theprestress,f will
ftmain reasonablyconstantand,therefore,theextremebearingstresses,/,...
and-f-r^.will be proportionalto moment-
The encastarrchor-platesat tlrc bonom end of the bolts were designedto have
an ultimare pull-out capacityin excessof the ultimate tensilestrengttrof the
bols- The srud-bolts(to BS 4882) werc manufacturedfrom I % chromium-
molyMenum alloy steel to material specificationBS 150G63G8@LT-75
and preloadedto 33 Voof their guaranteedminimum yield strength.
Design of the windshield
Openings in the windshield
Wherethe windshieldwaspenetrated by openingsfor the ventilationducrs
feeding the flues, and the personnelentrancedoor, care was taken to:
- avoid sharpcornerswhich could act as fatigueinitiators
- restrain the ventilationengineer'senthusiasm(particularly during the
conceptuaidesignphase)for excessivelylarge holesand adjacenthole
provisionsthatstmcrurallywerepotentiallyin the wrong relationshipto
each other
- minimisetheeffectof theseopeningsin termsof the resultingreductions
:q j and discontinuitiesin the windshieldshell sectionmodulusand inertia-
(This requiredengineeringjudgment in the design of shell sriffening
platesaroundthe perimeterof the openingsto sarisfythe generalstabiliry
requiremensof chimneyCodes)
Meridional stressesdue to wind loading
The CP!i' basic wind speed(i.e. l-in-50-year, 3 s gust) for the site was 47
m/s.Thecantileverbcndingstressesdueto l-in-5Gyear wind werc designed
using the criteria in BS 4076t. This factored strcssCode docs nor provide
permissiblestrcssesfor stainlesssteel.Thesewere computed,thercforc, on
a pro rata basisfrom the carbonsteel permissiblestresscsand the ratio of
the BS l50l-guaranteed 0.2 Vo proof stress for stainless steel to the
BS 436Gguaranteedyield stressfor mild steel. For analysispurpos€s,a
meanvalue of Young'smoduluswas used.
Helical srakes were provided for the top 17.0 m of the WEP stack.
However;it is not utrcomrnonfor stacksto experienceoscillatoryproblems
cven when fitted with srrakes.The WEP stack,being lightweight and of an
clastic design incorporatingweldedconnections(basedon rclatively low
stressesto minimisc fatigue) and having preloaded HD bolts, was
consideredto havea very low valueof critical damping (OS % assunrcd).
As a rcsult, it wasdecidedthat the srackshouldbc designedagainstpotencial
aerodynamicoscillationsdueto vortexsheddingand along-windbuffeting.
Vortex sheddingcalculationswere carried out in accordancewith the
meth<xlscon[ainedin the ESDU Wind EngineeringSubseries]r.When
voncx shedclingforccsoccur with a frcquencyctosc to one of the natural
frequcnciesof a stack, large amplitude oscillations can occur. The
magnitudeof theselbrcesis degrndenton the displacement, until equili-
[ ) : 1 1 l cB
r :l o o m c r
brium is achievedbetweenthe wind energyimpartcd(i.c. doing thc exciting)
and the eneryy dissipatedby the stack's natunl damping. Thc maximum
nmplitudest which thescarc in equilibrium is a function of thc damping and
involves solving a transccndentalequation.
In thc ESDU analysist,this maximum amplitude is dcrived by making an
initial guessat the amplitude,calculatingthe correspondingvalue of damp
ing, and tlrcn iterating until the correct damping is obrained. This peak
amplitude,and its rcspectivemodeshape,is then usedto detcrmine the dis-
tribution of maximum moment and she.rroroughout the stack for design
purposcs.
ESDIJ6was usedto calculatethe shesscsdue to the effecs of along-wind
buffeting. This involved evaluatingthe along-wind oscillatory rcsponse
causedby fluctuationsin thc wind specdrelative to is mean value and/or
vortices arriving from upwind strucnrrcs.
An alternativc approachto providing helical strakcs for the purpose of
minimising oscillatoryeffecs could have beento incorporatcsome form of
passivedampingdevicein the stack(i.e. a dynamic vibration absorberT).
Vortex sheddingand along-windbuffeting oscillationswerc each founc.
significantlyto increasethecantilevermomentsin the windshield.The cor-
respondingresultantpeakbasemomens were, resp€ctively,32 % and42 *
grcater than the l-in-50-year CP3 pseudo-staticwind momenr. (NB.
OrttrogonalmomenswerecombinedusingSRSSmethods.)Both the wind-
induced shearstressesand the self-weight direct stresseswerc found to be
very low.
Wind ovalisation efects
Wind aerodynamiceffecs give rise to variationsin pressure/suction around
the circumferenceof a windshield.This variation in pressurcgenerates
stresseswhich tend to distort the shell slightly into an elliptical shapeon
plan-The designpressuredistributionwasdeterminedfrom information by
Roshko8.The resultingshellstresses wereinvestigared,asw:ls th9 potential
for oval oscillation-In this context"the roof plate and accessplatforms
provided circumferentialstiffening.
Faigue
Basedon theSGyeardesignlife, an assessment wasmadeof thecumulative
effect of the total number and range of tensile stresscycles at the crirical
locations.This involvedadaptingZLyear farigueIife equationsto suit 5O.
year requirementse.Fatiguedid not presenta problem, since the welds had
beencarefully laid down, with smoothprofiles,thercbyminimising stress
concentrationeffects-Additionally, as part of the shell design,the tensile
stressesat critical locationsincorporateda reservemargin to allow for
fatigueconsiderations (seeFig 4).
Installation stresses
The windshieldwas locally stiffenedup to withstandtemporaryreactions
appliedby the lifting cradleduring the craneinstallationof the stack.This
involved considerationof the possibility of radial buckling of the shell as
well as the meridional and circumferential stressesand overall stack
deflecrions.
l*-
Utirnote copooty boscd
on lhe OOt 0 codc
I
8 rnm s}lcl
I
E
;JO
(t
I
@
g I l0 nm shell
o
D
z
SJI Shercd
b rird
L_1
.9
a,
!
Ito ,r-, ria
0 5000 t0000 t5000 20000 25000
WhdsficU toagituclirrclBcnding Moment (lNm)
Fig 4. Comparison of I-in- 10 Ooo-yearwirul and seisnricmoments with
capocity

r - i r l ) ( ) :t t ) l ( ) o u l ( ) l '
Fig 5- view insidewindshieUrookingupwards,showingfluesand access
provisions
I-in-10 Ooo-yearwindand seismicevenrs
These'extremeenvironmental'conditionsmay, more correctly,be thcrurir
of ashavinga probabilityof exceedance of l&o p.a.The associatedrlesisas
were undertakenusing elasric analyses.The resulting momen,, oile
checkedagainstultimatevaluesbasedon clcINDe. cIcI-ND is an ulrim:ie
limit state code, and hence panial safety factors on load of unirr, ,*.ere
adoptedfor theseextremeenvironmentalconditions.Fig 4 shou.si:e
extremeenvironmentaldesignmomentsasa functionof stackheighr-a.lcng
with the ultimatemomentcapacityof the windshield(basedon CICI\D,.
I-in-lp 0&-year hot and cold weather
A beneficialproperryof stainlesssteetis is excellentductiliry ar sutr_z-o
temperatures. consequently,the effectof Iow temperatureson the exposed
areas of the srack (-22"c for l-in-10 Ooo-yearextreme cold u,eet}reo
requiredlittle considerarion.
Although not exposedto oursideweatherconditions,the stackHD bclirs
were rcquired to sustaina low temperamrecondition (-12"c). This nc-
essitatedthe selectionof an appropriatequality of steelfor the manur-rcre
of the HD bolts to avoid embrittlement,as well as precaurionsro clrad
againstcorrosion.
compliance with the extreme hot weather temperaturerequire:::*::r
(43"c) was easily demonstrared as the stack maririal propeniesxrre
relatively unaffectedand additionally,becausethermal expansron.ra5
unrestrained, stressimplicationswereavoided.
Foundation design
Dividing the maximumstackbasemomentresultingfrom rhe l-in- i 0 olf,r-
yearwind (i-e.the 'extremewind') by rhesrack'sself-wcightto obrrin
- BS 4870and BS 487l, andinspectionplayeda major role in achievingthe
most onerousvalue of eccentricityfor an equivalentvertica.lload
s:rq 1
value of about 17 m. The severiryof such ovenurning effecrs oa :=e
foundation and the needfor preroadin the HD bolrs can be appreciarc<iir
this eccentricityis consideredin reladon to the suck diamererof _r-ga-
Furthermore,the service Building 1.0 m-deep RC raft foundadoo uas
'thickened-up'
underthe stack to 3.0 m (Fig l) to provide botr su6ckrr
weight locally to resist overturning effects and stiffncss to avoid -,
introduction of unacceptableflexural effects and minirnise .rocl::2.
behaviourin the raft.
Flue design
The stackhousedtwo fluesof 50o mm and 15@ mm dianrerer.wrrh *arl
thicknesses of 4.8mm and6.4 mm, respecrively (Fig 5). Bellou.slse
incorporatedin theductsjusr beforetheyenrercdrhewindshicld(sccFg _
r assemblyas the welding
to allow the stackand flues to move frcely and avoid rhc inrro<Jucumrf
significantaxial forcesin the ducs. The flues werc supponed'enicail- g
the 17.5m level by rheflue supportplatform,which compnsctla plate:icrr
on a grillage of steelbeamsdesignedro Bs 5950. The flucs werc tw,i.1
stiffencdat this level and,in the caseof the largerfluc, rhc suppon s.\sdr
incorporatedproprieury bearingsto accorr'nodatcroration. Abor.e =rc
levcl, lateralresrraintto the flueswasprovidedby tlrc inremul laridcr*r:-s
platforms.
The flue^design was in accordancewirh rhe ASCE flue cic;er
publication'0and was relativelysrraighrforwarrj in rhat ir rlid nor hert a
contendwith explosionsor hot and/orcorrosivegascs.'['lrc site assc=rr.,
connectionsinvolvedboltedflangesfor the small flue antl inrcrnallr -an
292
.4
cltL*tlltllcrcItti:tl
htrttrvcld.sin c<ln;trrrction
rvrtlrcxtcrn:rlcrrculnlcrcnlial
b:rcking-bnrstbr rhc lrrge llue.
Constnrction
Trial ossemhlyand,specifications
hior ro dispatchof the threesectionsof srackto site, lhey werc fuily
trial
assembled in the fabricationshop to demonstratecomplianccwith the
specifiedtolerancerequirementsfor overall axial straightness, circularity
and 'fit-up' of the siteweld preps.The specificationplaJedrnuchemphasis
on theserequirementsand other related aspecs, incrurJingthe weld
acceptance criteria and the allowable local post-wcldinggeometrical
toleranoes in relationto the propensityof stainlisssteelweldsto give rise
to considerable weld distortion(e.g..peaking').
Windshieldsite joints
The three fabricated sections of stack were sire wercredto form the
completedstack. This was undertakenwith the whole assemblylaid
horizontaland supportedon rollers.An alternativeform of siteconnection
couldhaveemployeda borteddoubreflangesystem.However,this rype of
joint would have beenvulnerableto significantprying forces.
This could
potentiallyhavegivenriseto fatiguecyclingeffects.It would.nevertheless,
havebeenpossibleto rakeaccountof this in thedesignby usingpreloaded
flangebolts-other problemshad flangesbeenproviJed,lnctude:
- theinability of pairedflangefacesto 'mare-up'in
a satisfacrorymanner
due to their being 'out-of-true' (NB srainlesssteel,havinggreaterthan
normalweld distortion,increasesthis risk) (while gasketsmight appear
ro be ablero solvethis problem,their characteristiclow stiffness.iour
acceleratethe processof bolt fatigue)
- the need,during rhe fabricationprocess,to ensure
that pairedflanges,
whensubsequenrly boltedtogetheron site,providecoaxiajflue holes in
eachof the accessplatforms at eachside of a joint
Moreover,the bolted constructionalternativeconrrastsvisually with the
morecorosion-resistantand aestheticallysuperiorsite-weldedsotution ttrat
wasprovided.Further,by adoptingappropriateweld acceptance criteria and
using relarively low weld design stresses,the potentiil for fatigue was
avoided.However,theoptionof progressivelyerectingthesuck asa series
of lighter secrionswas precluded.
Weldfabricarion
The offsire weld fabricationemproyedmainly manual flux-cored metal
inen gas-weldingtechniques.All welds were subjectto l0o zo visual
examinationbetweenruns,followedby 100vo dyepenetration
examination
at cutbackandon completion. Additionatty,themorehighlystressed welds
weresubjected to a minimum l0 vox-ray radiography.Th. *. inspection
requirementswere applied to the onsite welds which, owing to practical
limitarions,were laid usingMMA techniques.welding r.n,r-*"r"
erected
at siteto prorectagainstadversewearherconditions(Fig 6(b)).
All welding proceduresand welder approvalswere in accordancewith
final quality standard.Becauseof the potentialfor stresscycling, the welc
accepr.ance criteria (i.e. defect size) were consideredin relation to th,
requiredlife of the stack.
Rolator requirementsduring siteassembly
During tlrc siteasscmblyphasethe rhreeprcfabricatedsectionsof
srqckwerc
each supponedon two scts of roLators(fitted with rclatively soft
rubber
rollen). The configurarion of theserocatorscompriscd singie{rivc
units
(rotatingin tandem)po,sirionedat rhe top and bonom
endsof the stack with
four setsof idter unis positionedat the rcmaining intermediatesupport
poina- The support locations of these rotators and their
rcquireo
displacement @paciryneededto ensurethatthey would notdamagethe thin
shellof rhewindshieldin termsot
- tbcir combinedability ro rorarethe whole
prcr,e*td
- the requiredcapacityof the rotators
to articulareand thercbyaccom-
modatcoverall site assemblyaxial alignment defecs (i.e. within
tolcranceccntrelinekjnks), which inevitably would bc prescnt(this
might otherwisc have bccn a major probtem oncc thc threc scctions
bccamca single rigid unit, i.e. whcn the initial circumfcrentialroot
weldswerccompletcdfor rhc two sitcjoints: conscquently,in acting as
a whole, tlrc stack was able to rotatc frecly (on all six scu of rorarors)
suchtharall weld runscould bc applieddownhand)
- the largereacion forccsappliedby the rorarorsro rhc windshicldwhich
might causcbuckling(in vulnerablelocations,this was prcvenrcdby
providinginternalcircumferential stiffencrsin the windshicld)
'fhc
Stnrctrrr;rE
l n p i n r , ' r l r / V o l t r r n7o1 l N o 7 6 / 1 7 A r t p t r s t I { ) $ 3

FiS 6(a). Bottom section of stack leaving NEI-ICL Derby
FiS 6(b). Site assembly to the south of WEP using welding tents
Temporary works
The contractor was required to design and supply severai irems of tempora-ry
works. These included the lifting cradle (9.5 r weighr) and railing beam,each
of which was proof load tested prior to dispatch to sire. In order to ensure
uniform support during the lift, the cradle was positioned on rhe windshield
in tlre fabrication shop to serve as a template to guaranteeaccuratefitting
of the erecLionshearpadsas they were being welded in place.
Installation
A high load route was required for the delivery of the three prefabricared
stack sections to Sellafield. (See Fig 6(a)). The programme allowed 7 weeks
FiS 6 (c). View looking west at lift commencemenl,showing 850 t muin crane
and 180l tailing crane
l ' ; r p r : r 'I:! l o o r r r t l r '
pnor to crccrron tor rhc sitc ilsscrnbly(ltig otb)). [;igs (r(c) ilnd 6(d) show
stagcs of thc cranc crccrion. rvhich took placc on 26 octobcr 199o. lrr
setting a trrget stack crccriun darc during the front end planning phase.
consideration was also given to the seasonal variation in wind speed.
A two-phasc grouting rcchnique was provided to the stack basc/
foundation interface at HD bolt lcvel- This involved dividing the stack base
into eight 45' sectors providing manageable grouting arcas around rhc
circumfercnce. Such an approech accommodated setting the stack to tevel
and plumb. and also. by ensunng adequare stability immediarely after
erection. it catered for the risk of early high winds. This techniquc facilirated
the pmgressive removll of all temporary packers. The contract documents
'suggesred
included a work schedule'which gave step-by-step details
concerning how the designers envisaged the installation should be
undertaken, including all the prepamtory work and the sequence of grouting
and prcload application to the HD bols.
Immediately after stack erection. the lightning protection system was
connected to the earth system of the WEP building. Similarly, the stack's
power and light were connected to the supply. These had becn wircd-up
inside the stack prior to erection as part of the stack contract.
After the stack ercction, a rveatherhoodcomprising a number of prefab-
ricaed panels, was fitted to the stack to cover the gaps between the roof
opening, which had a perimeterupstand,and the stack as it passed through.
This was then made weathertight by the provision of a flexible flashing
system supplied and installed by the civil contractor (Fig 7). Similarly, ro
maintain fire compartmentation inside the building, flexible fire barriers
were installed around the circumferenceof the stack at each floor level-
Preloading the holding-down bolts
The HD bols were encast ngid (i.e. without sleeves) in ttre foundation
using a template to ensure that the stack base was drilled correctly, Further-
more, and of primary imponance, the encast bolt shanks were debonded
from the foundation concrete, to accommodate elastic stretching of the
entirc shank length of the encast bolts during preloading. Debonding also
avoids the possibility of loss of preload with the passage of time because of
progressive bond failure of the encast bolt shanks.
In practice, the normal methods of torquing up bols (i.e- long rommy-
bars or a torque-multiplier) will introduce a measure of preload. However,
these processes are somewhat imprecise and, where large diameter bolts
and./or high tensile bolts are involved, it will generally be possible to
introduce only a small proportion of the bolt capacity. The 60O kNlbolt
preload was applied to WEP's HD bolts using hydraulic bolt tensioners.
These tensionersmade it possibleto introduce high levels of force into the
bolts with considerableaccuracy,the magnitude of which was computed for
each bolt by two independentmethods. First, from measuremenr of the
elastic extension (using ultrasonics,i.e. pulse-echo timing techniques) and,
secondly, by measurementof hydraulic fluid pressure. Both sets of results
Fig 6(d). View looking wesrduringfinal sragesof stack insrallation ( usinga
lifting cradle and lifting beam)
l)iriltlr:IJloomcr
Fig 7. View of stack and weatherhood at building roof level
showedclose correspondence at all stages,providing confidencethat the
bolts had been successfullydebondedfrom the foundationconcrete.Bolt
tensionersalso avoidedthe dangerof generatingadditionaltorsionalshear
stressesin the bolts due to the processof torquingthem up. The preloadin
the HD bolts was appliedprogressivelyover a periodof 4 weeksto suit the
crushing srrengthof the grout, which was a function of its age. This
approachalso minimised relaxation and creep losses.Furthermore,the
'locked off' beforethejacks werereleased(similar to
apptiedpreloadwas
the anchoringof prestressing strandsin post-tensioning work). The final 'as
lockedoff' bolt forceswere measuredaccuratelyby ultrasonictechniques
and recordedto facilitate the long-termmonitoringof the preloadforce in
eachof the bolts.
Baseconnectiongrout
The grout gap was nominally 70mm. Armorex L2 high flow grout was
used,which combinednon-shrinkand high flow characteristicswith both
rapidearly strengthgain (approx26 N/mm2at 24 h) and,in the longerterm,
high compressivestrength0t = 78.5 N/mm2).
Maintenance requirements
To facilitateexternalwindshield maintenance, the roof plate incorporates
an accesshatch and is fitted with steeplejackanchorages.Internally, the
windshieldhaspermanentladderswith illuminatedaccessplatformsevery
7.0 m.
To enable maintenanceto be undertakenefficiently, a list of safety
requirementswas preparedfor personnelgoing inside the stack with l4
inspectionactivities to be carried out periodically to ensurethe stack's
continuing long-term serviceabilityand perforrnance.Following the first
anniversaryinspection,further inspectionactivitieswerc scheduledto be
done at 3-and Gyearly intervals. The schedulegave the rclevant general
arrangementand fabrication drawing numbersand the criteria to be applied
for each of the inspectionactivities.Included in this was a table which
'lock off' for eachof
recordedthe 'as built', measuredpreloadforce after
the HD bolts. This table madeprovisionfor future preloadmeasuremens
to be recordedso that any long-termrelaxationtrendscould be monitored.
Quality assurance
Structureson nuclearsites are requiredby the licensingauthority (the
Nuclear InstallationsInspectorate(NII)) to bc designedand constructed
underrigorousquaJityassurance(QA) procedures. Prior to commencement
of thestructuraldesign,a safetycascdocumentis compiledandagreedwith
the NII. The designand analysisis thencompletedin accordancewith this
safetycase.Furtherrnorcrafrcr the designshavebcencheckedand appmved,
they are submitted to an inhousc spccialistscction for an indepcndent
strucoral assessment. This processinvolves a documentcdappraisalof the
philosophy and selective checking of derail calculations for validity/
correctnessand compliance with the saferycasc.
A n i m p o r t a n tl i c e n s i n gr e q u i r e m e nits t h a t t h e o n s i t ee r e c t i o n /
constructioncannotcomrnenceuntil theAsscssment Enginccrhasformally
issueda certificateto confirm that he is fully satisfiedwith the dcsign. In
the caseof the WEP stack, the aim was to provide firm tenderdrawings
suitablcfor a lumpsunl contrxct.Design effort was thereforeput into
ensunngthc tchicvcnrcntol'full ccrutlcationprior to invitirrgtcndcrs.
The contrrctorbcganby prorlucingdctailedfabricationdrawings.Thesc
definedall weld locationsnndcorresponding weldingprocedurcsto be usetl
for both offsite fabricationand onsite asscmbly.These drawings, along
with quality plans and method statements.were submittedto BNFL for
commentandapproval.Under the contractQA procedures,xny subsequent
modifications (including variations to the specificarion) rcquircd or
'Concession'forms.
suggestedby the contnctor were submittedon QA
Wherc BNFL grantedtheseconcessions.the contractorwas rcquircd to
'as
modify therelevantfabricationdrawingsaccordingly.Thus,a full setof
built' detaildrawingswas avaihble on contractcompletionfor recordin6/
archivingpurposes.
Contractual approach and considerations
The stackfabricationand installation was provided under a direct contract.
basedon GOWorkVl Conditions of ContracL a traditional, QS prepared,
bill of siteprcliminariescombinedwith a comprchensiveactivity schedule.
An importantfearurcof this activity schedulewas that it was prcpared by
the design engineers,and, when priced by the contractor, it provided a
seriesof lumpsums(i.e. one for eachitem of work both on - and offsite).
This approachmadethe evaluationof interim paymentsrelarivelystraight-
'percentage complete'for eachitem. The con-
forward,i.e. proportionalto
tract was let in November 1989,on the basisof high de{inition tender
drawingsand comprehensivespecificationswhich gave a lump sum
contract.
The overall programme was extremely tight and, because of the
procurcmentlead-timesfor stainlesssteelplate,BNFL advanceordera
bulk of this marcrialfrom British SteelStainlessunder a contractwhich w.s
subsequentlyassignedto the contractor.
The provisionof the cranefor the stackerectionwas included in the stack
contract,togetherwitha requirementthat the stackhad to be fully assembled
on the ground beforc erection. This resulted in a single lift of 95 t. The
contractwascompletedby mid-December1990.(Details of theparticipating
contractorswith their respectiveinvolvement in the stack procurement
procqssarc !o be found in the 'cover story' of The Strucrural Engineer, 16
April 1991.)
Project conclusions
(l) The introductionof preloadinto the HD bolts provided a number of
importantbenefits.Theseincluded,inter alia, a significantreductionin the
potentialfor fatigue in the HD bolts, lower peak grout bearingstrcsses,the
avoidanceof stackbase'rocking' effecs, more reliable stresscalculations
for the stack'sHD bolt anchorageassembly,and greaterconfidencein the
validity of the lineardynamicanalysison which the designwas based-
(2) BS 4O76:1989 is an improvedadvancement on the 1978editionn,which
was usedin part for the designof the WEP stack.However,in the author's
opinion,thereremainsomedesignconsiderations which merit clarification,
particularlywith regardto the provisionof a 50-yeardesignlife and/or the
useof stainlesssteel.
(3) The ESDU methodsof estimatingthe resultantmaximum st
momentsat lower wind speedsdue to (a) vortex sheddingsand (b) along-
wind buffetingt gave momentsthat were, respectively,327o and 42 Vo
Ereatarthan for the l-in-SO-yeardesign wind moment based on the
conventionalCP3' approach.Consequently, similar sucks fitted with
helical srakes, and possessingminimal damping, may be vulnerable to
oscillatoryproblemsin service.Suchdesignsshould take due cognisance
of thesc phenomena.(The resulting stresseswere checked against the
allowablesgiven in BS 4076 1978' which were modified to suit the
propertiesof stainlesssteel.)
(4) Windshieldovalisationeffecs were investigatedin relation to the
circumferential pressuredistributiongiven in ref. 8. The meridionalstresses
due to the l-in-10 00Gyear wind were checkedagainstthe criteria in the
CICIND Codee.A fatigue assessment. was also made using CICIND.
Finally,ref. lO was uscdfor the designof the flues.
(5) The designersspccified someintemal parts from galvaniscdmild stcel,
ratherthan stainlessstecl as pcr the rcmainderof the stack. This approach
providcd linle net benefit owing to thc inconvenienceit causedand the
precautionsrrcedcdo guardagainstcontActof mild steeland stainlessstccl.
(6) The 'suggcstcdwork schedule'for the site installationand thc 'priccd
activiry schedule', which was a fundamentalcontract document,proved
highly succcssfulstmtegies.
(7) All aspectsof thc srackproject werc completcdsatisfactorily(sec Fig
8). The contractor,NEI InternationalCombustionLtd, achievedhigh
standardsof workmanshipin completingthe fabricationand meeting the
reguirements of the specification.
 '[itV
l)alttrr: Blotlttttlr l ) l r' g r ' : lor'

Paper:Taylor
continuedfrom Pagc 288

Acknowledgement
The author is pleasedto acknowledgethe assistanceof his colleagueJohn
Surtecsfor his gift of historicaland technicalknowledgeesscntialto the
paperand also his now rctired colleagueJohn Snasdellwho taught him
much aboutsleepers.The helpful comentsof Dr D. Cope.of British Rail.
arc also gratefullYacknowledged.

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-75
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Acknowledgements
on
The authorexpresseshis appreciationto all his colleagues who worked
project- He is panicularly grareful for the suPPort of George
the stack
Maddison(M) (Allott & Lomax).

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