A. URINARY SYSTEM
NERVOUS SYSTEM STRUCTURE
The urinary system plays several major roles in
homeostasis
 Nephrons
 Functional units of the kidneys
 Extract a filtrate from the blood
 Refine the filtrate to produce urine
 Urine
 Ureters drain the kidneys
 Stored in the urinary bladder
 Expelled through the urethra
Overview: The key processes of the urinary
system are filtration, reabsorption, secretion,
and excretion
Filtration – Blood pressure forces water and
many small solutes into the nephron
Reabsorption – Valuable solutes are reclaimed
from the filtrate
Secretion – Excess H+ and toxins are added to
the filtrate
Excretion – The final product, urine, is excreted
B.
AND FUNCTION
Nervous systems receive sensory input, interpret
it, and send out appropriate commands
 The nervous system
 Obtains sensory information
 Processes sensory information
 Sends commands to effector cells
(muscles) that carry out appropriate
responses
 The central nervous system (CNS) consists
of
 Brain
 Spinal cord (vertebrates)
 Contains fluid-filled spaces
 In ventricles of the brain
 In the central canal of the spinal
cord
 Surrounding the brain
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
 Located outside the CNS
 Consists of:
 Nerves (bundles of fibers of sensory
and motor neurons) – cranial
nerves and spinal nerves
 Ganglia (clusters of cell bodies of
the neurons)
Vertebrate nervous systems are highly
centralized and cephalized
  Works with nervous system to regulate
body activities
 The nervous system also Communicates,
Regulates, and Uses electrical signals via
nerve cells
 Comparing the endocrine and nervous
systems
 Nervous system reacts faster
 Endocrine system responses last longer
Pancreatic hormones regulate blood glucose
levels

Peripheral nervous system of vertebrates is a
functional hierarchy
 Two functional components of the PNS
 Somatic nervous system – mostly
voluntary
 Autonomic nervous system (ANS) –
mostly involuntary
 The pancreas secretes two hormones that
control blood glucose
 Insulin — signals cells to use and store
glucose
 Glucagon — causes cells to release
stored glucose into the blood

C. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Chemical signals coordinate body functions

 Hormones
 Chemical signals
 Usually carried in the blood
 Cause specific changes in target cells
 Secreted by Endocrine glands and
Neurosecretory cells

 The endocrine system

 Consists of all hormone-secreting cells
D. IMMUNE SYSTEM The acquired immune response counters specific
 INNATE IMMUNITY – Set of inborn, invaders
fixed general defenses against infection
 Our immune system – responds to foreign
 ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY – Set of immune
molecules called antigens
defenses tailored to specific pathogens
 The acquired immune system
encountered by an organism during its
lifetime  reacts to antigens
 and “remembers” an invader
Both invertebrates and vertebrates have innate  Infection or vaccination triggers active
defenses against infection immunity
 We can temporarily acquire passive
 Innate defenses—first line of defense
immunity by receiving premade antibodies
 Found in all animals
 Includes
 Skin
 Mucous membranes
 Phagocytic cells
 Antimicrobial proteins

E. HUMAN REPRODUCTION
 Both sexes in humans have
 A set of gonads where gametes are
produced
 Ducts for gamete transport
 Structures for copulation
Reproductive anatomy of the human female Reproductive anatomy of the human male

 Testes (singular testis) produce sperm and

male hormones
 Epididymis stores sperm as they develop
further
 Several glands contribute to semen are
Seminal vesicles, Prostate, and
Bulbourethral