The Greco-Roman Understanding of the ‘Gift’ of the Spirit in Acts

Since the start of the 20th century Pentecostalism has grown rapidly around the world
followed by a charismatic movement starting in the 1960’s within more traditional
denominations. Central to both these movements is a particular interest in the way
that the Spirit is described in Acts. Corresponding with these movements, there has
been a wave of biblical scholarship on the Spirit in Luke/Acts in the last 50 years that
has sought to explain the complexity of Luke’s pneumatology.
There are many different concepts that Acts uses to explain the arrival and function of
the Spirit within the early Christian community. The phraseology of the Spirit in Acts
is as follows:1
1. To be filled with (πίμπλημι) the Spirit in Acts 2:4, 4:8, 31, 9:17, 13:9, 52 or to
be full of (πλήρης) the Spirit in Acts 6:3, 5, 7:55, 11:24. These are two of the
most frequently used metaphors used in Acts, and has attracted most of the
attention of biblical scholarship on Lukan pneumatology.
2. The Spirit is also described to as falling on (πίπτω) or coming upon
(ἐπέρχομαι) believers in Acts 1:8, 8:16, 10:44, 11:15, 19:6.
3. To be baptized in (βαπτίζω) the Spirit is also found twice in Acts 1:5, 11:16,
with the related phrase, Spirit being poured out (ἐκχέω) upon them in Acts
2:17, 18, 33, 10:45.
4. The Spirit is said to have worked through (διά) believers in Acts 1:2, 11:28,
21:4.
5. Lastly, the Spirit is given (δίδωμι) by (or to) Jesus in Acts 2:33, 5:32, 8:18,
15:8, received (λαμβάνω) by believers in Acts 1:8, 2:38, 8:15, 17, 19, 10:47,
19:2, and the Spirit is called a gift (δωρεά) in Acts 2:38, 10:45 11:17. This
points to the use of gift-giving language in relation to the Spirit.
These various concepts interplay throughout Acts, which means that interpreting and
systemically sorting this material into a cohesive theology is notoriously complex and
polarizing. Since the material about the Holy Spirit in Acts is so diverse and the
tension between conflicting aspects of the Spirit ever-present, the methodological
process in interpreting Acts has become paramount. Very few scholars study Acts in
isolation, but rather seek to draw parallels with, find allusions to and discern
influences from parallel sources, whether canonical or extra-canonical. Parallels have
been drawn between Acts and the Pauline corpus, the Old Testament, the literature of
Intertestamental Judaism (ITJ) and the Gospel Tradition (in particular the Gospel of
Luke). Four examples of these interpretive contexts will be given in the overview of
scholarship.

1
Max Turner, "Spirit Endowment in Luke/Acts: Some Linguistic Considerations," Vox Evangelica 12
(1981): 45.

1
Overview of Scholarship

Previous research into the Spirit in Acts has sought to draw parallels between Acts
and the Pauline corpus, the Old Testament, Intertestamental Judaism and the Gospel
Tradition (in particular the gospel of Luke). When surveying the previous literature
concerning the activity of the Spirit in Acts, four authors, with their four different
parallels, stand out.
James Dunn’s The Baptism in the Holy Spirit (1970) is a monumental work in the area
of the reception of the Spirit in Acts.2 In The Baptism in the Holy Spirit Dunn argues
that every New Testament author holds the position that the Holy Spirit is given as the
final step in conversion-initiation, and so, the gift of the Spirit primarily has a
soteriological purpose. 3 For Dunn the soteriological function of the Spirit involves
ushering the believer into the Christian life, being the “high point” of the conversion-
initiation process.4
Roger Stronstad’s The Charismatic Theology of Saint Luke (1984) was one of the first
replies to Dunn’s thesis, as well as an academic articulation of the Pentecostal
position.5 Stronstad argues that there are two points of contact between the LXX and
Acts, with the first being that “charismatic motifs from the Hebrew Bible, such as the
transfer, sign, and vocational motifs, are reflected in Luke-Acts.”6 The second point
of contact is on the basis of language, as Stronstad argues that the majority of the
language used to convey the reception of the Spirit in Acts was inspired by the LXX.7
These two points of contact lead Stronstad to conclude that the Spirit’s main purpose
is not soteriological but instead is a prophetic empowering after conversion-
initiation.8
One of the first to develop the connection between the Spirit in Acts and the Spirit of
prophecy in ITJ was Robert Menzies in Empowered for Witness (1991). 9 In his
monograph, Menzies argues that the activity of the Spirit in Acts is equivalent to that
of the Spirit of prophesy in ITJ, and so is a donum superadditum.10 Menzies offers a
narrow definition for the functions of the Spirit of prophecy, arguing that the Spirit of
prophecy was primarily for witness.11 This means that Menzies does not connect the

2
James D. G. Dunn, Baptism in the Holy Spirit: A Re-Examination of the New Testament Teaching on
the Gift of the Spirit in Relation to Pentecostalism Today, 2nd ed. (London: SCM, (1970) 2010).
3
Ibid, 4.
4
Ibid.
5
Stronstad, Charismatic Theology.
6
Ibid, 15. For Stronstad’s definition of charismatic see pg. 16.
7
Ibid, 15, 20-21, 90-91, passim.
8
Ibid, 68-9.
9
Robert P. Menzies, Empowered for Witness: The Spirit in Luke-Acts (London T & T Clark
International, 2004).
10
Ibid, 226-7
11
Ibid, 102.

2
Lukan portrayal of the Holy Spirit with miracles, exorcisms, or give it any
relationship with conversion-initiation.12
Power from on High (2000), by Max Turner, represents an effort to bring together the
recent scholarship on the historical Jesus (most notably the ‘Third Quest’) and the
book of Acts. 13 If Jesus’ main message was a return from exile (just not the way
anybody expected), then the gift of the Spirit was the method by which the return
from exile eventuated.14 The ‘promise’ of the Father was considered the salvation of
Israel, and the Spirit was fulfillment of that promise.15 Therefore, the gift of the Spirit
as described in Acts purifies, restores and witnesses to the return of Israel.16
Although this is a very brief overview of the major authors on the subject of the Spirit
in Acts (and a critique of their methods can be found in the attached Chapter 1), one
interpretive context, the Greco-Roman world, stands out as neglected.

The Greco-Roman World as an Interpretive Context

Studies with a focus on parallels between the Greco-Roman world and the concept of
the Spirit in Acts have been few and far between, with various levels of success.
Although some early 20th century German scholars had suggested some Hellenistic
influence in the Lukan portrayal of the Spirit, Hans Leisegang put forth the argument
in 1922 that the understanding of the Spirit in Luke-Acts was completely
Hellenistic.17 One example of this is Leisegang’s exegesis of the Pentecost narrative,
where he draws parallels between the glossolalia in Acts and mantic prophetism that
was present in the Greco-Roman world at that time.18 Leisegang’s arguments were
rejected by the subsequent works of Friedrich Büchsel and Hans von Baer, with the
influence of Leisegang’s arguments in modern discussions being negligible.19

John Levison’s impressive work, Filled with the Spirit (2009), has drawn parallels
between the Spirit in Acts and the Greco-Roman world in his section on the Spirit in
Acts.20 However, Levison never gives specific attention to the Spirit as a gift in Acts,
and rather seeks parallels between the activities of fire, drunkenness, filling in the
Pentecost narrative with various Greco-Roman sources.21

12
Ibid, 226-7
13
Max Turner, Power from on High: The Spirit in Israel's Restoration and Witness in Luke-Acts, ed.
John Christopher Thomas, Rickie D. Moore and Steven J. Land, vol. 9, Journal of Pentecostal
Theology Supplement Series (Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2000).
14
Ibid, 133-35
15
Ibid, 428-38
16
Ibid.
17
Hans Leisegang, Pneuma Hagion: Der Ursrung Des Geisterbegriffs Der Synoptischen Evangelien
Aus Der Griechischen Mystik (Leipzig: JC Hinrichs, 1922), 5, passim.
18
Ibid, 112-23
19
Turner, Power on High, 29.
20
John R. Levison, Filled with the Spirit (Cambridge, U.K. ; Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans
Pub. Co., 2009).
21
Ibid.

3
The ‘context group’ of the Society of Biblical Literature has noted the possible
research potential that the semantic language of gift-giving in Acts poses. In a chapter
of the collaborative The Social World of Luke-Acts (1991), Halvor Moxnes provides a
social-scientific model for interpreting patronage systems in the gospel of Luke, and
suggests in the final paragraph that further research could be done on the “gift of the
Holy Spirit in Acts”.22 Jerome Neyrey has also touched on this subject in Render to
God (2004), by noting that Jesus acts as a broker in giving the Spirit to the disciples,
and in fact that whole reception of the Spirit can be viewed through the lens of
patronage.23

Of the scholars since Dunn’s work, only two have given any significant attention in
their writings to the concept of the ‘gift’ of the Spirit: Max Turner and Gonzalo Haya-
Prats. Turner covers the language of gift-giving in his critique of the “Traditional
Position”.24 Turner’s argument seems preoccupied with the question, ‘Is the gift of the
Spirit the Spirit itself or the enabling that the Spirit brings?’25 Turner concludes the
latter.26 Turner does not see any difference between King Saul receiving the Spirit in
1 Samuel 10:6 and Saul of Tarsus (soon to be Paul) receiving the Spirit in Acts 9:17-
19, and concludes that the semantic language of gift-giving in Acts is no different
than that of LXX.27 However, this conclusion does have its limitations as it does not
account for the dramatic influence that the Hellenistic world had on Judaism, and
moreover, does not consider the importance of gift-giving in the Greco-Roman
world.28

Haya-Prats devotes a full chapter to the “Holy Spirit – Gift and Promise of God.”29
This chapter is divided into three parts, the first of which argues contrary to Turner,
that the gift of the Spirit is the Spirit itself.30 By examining the four times that the
Spirit is called a ‘gift’, Haya-Prats notes the centrality of the semantic language of gift
giving in Acts. The second section focuses on the verbs used for conveying the Spirit,
arguing that the Spirit is given in a permanent way, so that the Spirit is present in time
of need, with the third section concluding that the gift of the Spirit as an
eschatological gift.31 Haya-Prats summarizes that a “sense of gifting emerges from the

22
Halvor Moxnes, "Patron-Cilent Relations and the New Community in Luke-Acts," in The Social
World of Luke-Acts, ed. Jerome H. Neyrey (Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1991),
268.
23
Jerome H. Neyrey, Render to God: New Testament Understandings of the Divine (Minneapolis:
Augsburg Fortress, 2004).
24
Turner, Power on High, 39-48
25
Ibid.
26
Ibid.
27
Ibid.
28
The semantic language of gift-giving brought massive implications, expectations and obligations to
the receiver. This was not present when 1 Samuel was written. Also, it is important to note that the
verbs that Acts and LXX use for ‘receiving’ the Spirit are different.
29
Gonzalo Haya-Prats, Empowered Believers: The Holy Spirit in the Book of Acts, trans. Scott A.
Ellington (Eugene, Oregon: Cascade, 1970), 48-71.
30
Ibid, 48-54.
31
Ibid, 54-60

4
convergence of these terms.”32 These three sections of the chapter are notable for their
detail and nuance, however Haya-Prats never gives attention to the social dimensions
that exist with the presence of gift-giving language.

Proposed Topic of this Thesis

The brief literature review above has shown that the Spirit as a ‘gift’ accompanied
with semantic language of gift-giving is an underdeveloped concept in Lukan
scholarship.33 One possible reason for this is because the semantic language of gift in
relation to the Spirit is almost absent in the gospel of Luke.34 Another could be the
implied mechanics of gift-giving has been made clear through the work of the social-
sciences, which has only recently been applied to biblical exegesis. Nevertheless, the
semantic language of gift-giving is the most popular metaphor in Acts, with a proper
examination of the language and conceptual framework needed. And so my thesis
statement is as follows:
that Luke’s concept of the ‘gift’ of the Spirit in Acts draws upon the social
implications, expectations and obligations around gift-giving and reciprocity
within the Greco-Roman world.
In setting out this thesis statement I would like to focus on three words; implications,
expectations and obligations. Within the Greco-Roman world, receiving a gift implied
either that there was pre-existing relationship, or through the giving of the gift a
relationship was established. These relationships ranged from the symmetrical
friendship or slightly asymmetrical fictive friendship to the highly asymmetrical
patronage and benefaction. Looking at the implications of gift-giving becomes
important for Acts, as one source for disagreement among scholars is the relationship
between conversion-initiation and the reception of the Spirit. Does the gift of the
Spirit initiate or maintain the relationship between the God and the believer? This
question will be addressed in Chapter 4, ‘The Giving of the Spirit’.
Within the second stage of the gift-giving process, there is an obligation to receive the
gift. This obligation entails an expectation of gratitude that is placed upon the
recipient. Gifts within the Greco-Roman world had two components, the gift itself
(whether material or immaterial) and the goodwill that accompanied the gift. If a gift
was given out of distain or contempt, the gift’s worth was considered diminished,
whereas if a gift was carefully considered and given joyfully, the gift’s worth was
increased. And so, the recipient would have to repay the goodwill of the giver (which
was expressed through the gift) in the form of gratitude. This gratitude would often be
expressed in public to increase the social standing of the giver of the gift. The
relevance that this has for Acts is that the gift of the Spirit has been consistently

32
Ibid.
33
By the semantic language of gift-giving I am referring to the phrases ‘the gift of the Spirit’,
‘receiving the Spirit’ and ‘giving the Spirit’.
34
Many scholars use redaction criticism of the gospel of Luke against Mark and Matthew to discover
what is ‘Lukan’.

5
linked to the public witness of the first believers. Is there a connection between the
public gratitude that recipients of gifts were obligated to make and the witness of the
first believers? I will seek the answer this question in Chapter 5, ‘The Receiving of
the Spirit.’

Lastly, the obligations around gift-giving refer to the obligation of reciprocity laid
upon the recipient. Within the Greco-Roman world there was never a free gift.
Reciprocity was key to the circularity of gift-giving, and so with gifts, even from the
gods, there was an obligation to return. Often within the Jewish context, when
returning a gift to God it would take the form of charity to the poor. 35 In the Greco-
Roman context, the reciprocity of gift-giving with divine beings can involve charity to
the less fortunate. This becomes important as we look at the function of the gift of the
Spirit has. The gift of the Spirit among other things has been linked to power that
united the first Christian community or the extraordinary charity that the first
believers showed to the poor. How does reciprocity shape the primary function of the
Spirit? The answer to this question will be explored in Chapter 6, ‘The Reciprocity of
the Spirit.’
The social implications, expectations and obligations that surrounded gift-giving have
not been considered in the area of Lukan pneumatology, but this is not the case with
the way Paul uses gift-giving language. In recent years there have been several
scholarly studies of Paul’s use of ‘grace’,36 his understanding of conversion and his
collection for the Jerusalem church. Stephan Joubert’s Paul as Benefactor (2000),
James R. Harrison’s Paul’s Language of Grace in Its Graeco-Roman Context (2003),
Zeba Crook’s Reconceptualising Conversion (2004) and John M. G. Barclay’s Paul
and the Gift (2015) have all examined the way that the Greco-Roman world viewed
gift-giving, and the social bonds that it formed.37

Method

To answer these questions, social-scientific criticism will be used to understand the

gift-giving language. Social-scientific criticism usually involves using two sources of
information to inform interpretation.38 First, the Greco-Roman world is a high context
society 39 and so social-scientific models can provide a framework of implied or
shared knowledge. In considering social-scientific models there are three areas that
must be examined:
35
John M. G. Barclay, Paul and the Gift (Grand Rapids: WM. B. Eerdmans, 2015), 39-45.
36
In some contexts grace can be translated benefaction, and so is considered somewhat apart of the
semantic language of gift-giving.
37
Barclay, Paul and the Gift; James R. Harrison, Paul's Language of Grace in Its Graeco-Roman
Context (Germany: JCB Mohr, 2003); Zeba A. Crook, Reconceptualising Conversion: Patronage,
Loyalty, and Conversion in the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean (Berlin: Gruyter, 2004).
38
Jerome H. Neyrey, Honor and Shame in the Gospel of Matthew (Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster
John Knox Press, 1998), 6-12.
39
A high context society has much implied information, compared to our modern society which is a
low context society having to spell out everything in detail.

6
 1. The first section will explore the definition and limitations of social-
scientific models. Defining social-scientific criticism compared to
socio-historical and socio-political criticism will help gauge what is
exactly meant by the phrase social-scientific. It will also be important
to cover the limitations and critiques that social-scientific criticism
receives as it is a relatively new method within the historical-critical
process.
2. The second section will explore the various patronage models that
have been developed. The models that will be covered are personal
patronage, community patronage (or benefaction), imperial patronage,
divine patronage and brokerage.
3. Lastly, various social-scientific models have been applied to Pauline
literature to help illuminate the Pauline understanding of grace, the
language of conversion and Paul’s collection for the Jerusalem church.
Examining how various Pauline scholars have applied social-scientific
models to Pauline literature will help in determining the model that is
used for this thesis.

These three sections will be covered in Chapter 2, ‘Gift-Giving Models in Recent

Scholarship.’

The second source is ancient primary sources, who can give first-hand accounts to the
ways that these models functioned in the Greco-Roman world. There is a wealth of
material on gift-giving in the Greco-Roman world, ranging from the inscriptions on
buildings showing evidence of the benefaction system to more direct quotations from
the writings of Aristotle to Cicero.40 Of particular importance will be the 1st century
work De Beneficiis by Seneca, who directly confronts the ethics of gift-giving. 41
These two sources, social-scientific models and ancient primary sources, will form a
heuristic tool that will be used on the material of the gift of the Spirit in Acts.

Purpose

The purpose of this research proposal is twofold. First, this research seeks to explore
an underdeveloped concept, the ‘gift’ of the Spirit, in order to contribute to the
previous literature. There are still many unanswered questions around the Spirit in
Acts,42 and by exploring a interpretive context I wish to offer some possible solutions
to the underlining tensions that currently exist.

40
For instance, Aristotle’s Ethica Nicomachea and Cicero’s De officiis.
41
It will be especially important as it is written in the 1 st century, and so is contemporary with Acts
(although the dating of Acts in the 1st century is not universally accepted by Lukan Scholars).
42
For instance, scholars are still divided as to if the reception of the Spirit has a relationship with
conversion-initiation? And if so, what type of relationship?

7
Second, as there has been no major work done on the Lukan portrayal of the Spirit as
a Gift, which this proposed thesis seeks to elucidate. Through this thesis I hope to
open new avenues of research that could be explored in order to better grasp the
Lukan portrayal of the Spirit in Luke/Acts.

Proposed Table of Contents

1) Introduction: 5,000 Words

2) Recent Literature on the Spirit in Acts: 15,000 Words
a) Interpreting Acts
b) Acts and the Pauline Corpus
i) James Dunn
ii) Youngmo Cho
c) Acts and the Old Testament
i) Roger Stronstad
d) Acts and Intertestamental Judaism
i) Eduard Schweizer
ii) Robert Menzies
e) Acts and the Gospel Tradition
i) James Shelton
ii) Max Turner
f) Acts in Isolation
i) Gonzalo Haya-Prats
g) Summarising the Current Literature
h) Acts and the Greco-Roman World
i) Proposed Topic of this Thesis

3) Gift-Giving Models in Recent Scholarship: 10,000 Words

a) Social-Scientific Interpretations
i) Defining Social-Scientific Criticism
ii) The Limitations of Social-Scientific Criticism
b) Gift-Giving Models in the Greco-Roman World
i) Personal Patronage
ii) Community Patronage
iii) Imperial Patronage
iv) Divine Patronage
v) Brokerage
vi) Jewish Forms of Reciprocity
c) Gift-Giving Models in Pauline Scholarship
i) Peterson
ii) Stephan Joubert

8
 iii) James R. Harrison
iv) Zeba Crook
v) John M. G. Barclay

4) Primary Informants on Gift-Giving: 15,000 words.

a) Gift-Giving across the Greco-Roman world
b) Gift-Giving in Asia Minor
c) Gift-Giving in Intertestamental Judaism
i) Pseudepigrapha
ii) Josephus
iii) Philo

5) The Giving of the Spirit in Acts: 15,000 words

a) The Spirit and Conversion-Initiation

6) The Receiving of the Spirit in Acts: 15,000 words

a) Public Gratitude and Witness

7) The Reciprocity of the Spirit in Acts: 15,000 words

a) Dimensions Community of the Gift of the Spirit

8) Conclusion: 10,000 words

Total words: 100,000

Projected Timeline (Depending on Scholarship)

July 2016-Jan 2017

 Literature review
 Research Proposal
 Apply for Scholarships

Jan 2017-July 2017

 Write Chapter 2 - Social-Scientific Models of Gift-Giving

July 2017-Jan 2018

9
  Write Chapter 3 - Ancient Primary Sources on Gift-Giving

Jan 2018-July 2018

 Write Chapter 4 - The Giving of the Spirit in Acts

July 2018-Jan 2019

 Write Chapter 5 - The Receiving of the Spirit in Acts.

Jan 2019-July 2019

 Write Chapter 6 - The Reciprocity of the Spirit in Acts

July 2019-Dec 2019

 Write Conclusion and Introduction

Bibliography

Barclay, John M. G. Paul and the Gift. Grand Rapids: WM. B. Eerdmans, 2015.
Crook, Zeba A. Reconceptualising Conversion: Patronage, Loyalty, and Conversion
in the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean. Berlin: Gruyter, 2004.
Dunn, James D. G. Baptism in the Holy Spirit: A Re-Examination of the New
Testament Teaching on the Gift of the Spirit in Relation to Pentecostalism
Today. 2nd ed. London: SCM, (1970) 2010.
Harrison, James R. Paul's Language of Grace in Its Graeco-Roman Context.
Germany: JCB Mohr, 2003.
Haya-Prats, Gonzalo. Empowered Believers: The Holy Spirit in the Book of Acts.
Translated by Scott A. Ellington. Eugene, Oregon: Cascade, 1970.
Leisegang, Hans. Pneuma Hagion: Der Ursrung Des Geisterbegriffs Der
Synoptischen Evangelien Aus Der Griechischen Mystik. Leipzig: JC Hinrichs,
1922.
Levison, John R. Filled with the Spirit. Cambridge, U.K. ; Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B.
Eerdmans Pub. Co., 2009.
Menzies, Robert P. Empowered for Witness: The Spirit in Luke-Acts. London T & T
Clark International, 2004.
Moxnes, Halvor. "Patron-Cilent Relations and the New Community in Luke-Acts." In
The Social World of Luke-Acts, edited by Jerome H. Neyrey. Peabody,
Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1991.
Neyrey, Jerome H. Honor and Shame in the Gospel of Matthew. Louisville,
Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998.
———. Render to God: New Testament Understandings of the Divine. Minneapolis:
Augsburg Fortress, 2004.
Turner, Max. Power from on High: The Spirit in Israel's Restoration and Witness in
Luke-Acts. Journal of Pentecostal Theology Supplement Series. Edited by
John Christopher Thomas, Rickie D. Moore and Steven J. Land Vol. 9,
Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2000.

10
———. "Spirit Endowment in Luke/Acts: Some Linguistic Considerations." Vox
Evangelica 12 (1981): 45-63.

11