RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Dr. Wesley K. Kirui Ph.D.

 Introduction
• Research methodology is the study of conducting research. May be understood as a
science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various steps
that are generally adopted by researcher in studying his research problem along with the
logic behind them.
• Research Methods:- Refers to the methods/ techniques researchers use in
performing research operations.
• Definition of Research – Research comprises of two terms ‘Re’ meaning to do again and
‘Search’ meaning examine closely and carefully.
• Webster Dictionary
• Careful or diligent search
• Studious inquiry or examination; especially: investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery
and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical
application of such new or revised theories or laws
• The collecting of information about a particular subject
• Research is a process carried out to acquire new knowledge.
• To research is to carry out diligent inquiry or a critical examination of a given
phenomenon.
 Introduction
• Research involves critical analysis of existing conclusions with regard to newly
discovered facts. This is very important in the changing world with advances in
technology continually creating new possibilities.
• Research is search for knowledge.
• Research is scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic or subject.
• Research is a movement from known to unknown.
• Research comprises defining and redefining a problem, formulating hypothesis or
suggesting a solution; collecting, analysing and evaluating; making deductions
and reaching conclusions and at last carefully testing the conclusion to determine
whether they fit the formulated hypothesis.
• Research is an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for
its advancement.
• Pursuit of truth with help of study, observation, comparison and experiment.
 Introduction
• Research is search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding a solution to a problem.
 Objectives of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application
of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is
hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has
its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a
number of following broad groupings:
• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies
with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies).
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies).
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies)
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are
known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
 MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental
importance. The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of
the following:
• Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
• Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems initiates research;
• Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
• Desire to be of service to society;
• Desire to get respectability.
This is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to carry out research.
Government directives, employment conditions, curiosity to explore new findings
etc.
 Types of Research
• Pure Research (Basic or Fundamental Research) - Gathering, knowledge is
termed as ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research. Just to gather knowledge in order to
formulate or generalize theories or policies. Example - Research on mathematics
or some natural phenomenon. This type of research adds knowledge to the
already existing organized body.
• Applied Research: Aims at finding solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industry/ business organizations or to discover a solution for some
pressing practical problem. The researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
• Descriptive Research: Means description of the state of affairs as it exists at
present. Researcher only reports what has happened or what is happening. It
includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose
of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over
the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
• Analytical Research: - Researcher has to use facts on information already
available and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
 Types of Research
• Quantitative Research: Based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
Applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
• Qualitative research: Based on qualitative phenomenon i.e. phenomena relating
to or involving quality or kind. Qualitative research is important in the
behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of
human behaviour.
• Conceptual Research: Related to some abstract ideas or theory. Used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or re-interpret existing ones.
• Empirical Research: Relies on experience or observations alone, often without
due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with
conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.
We can also call it as experimental type of research.
 Sources of Knowledge
Methods of Knowledge acquisition
• Research is an important source of knowledge
• Experience – Common mode of obtaining knowledge. Human beings learned
through experiences in life.
• Tradition is another source of knowledge- All human inherit a culture. Culture is a
reflection of an adopted system of rules, norms, standards and values.
• Tenacity - Accepted because the idea has been accepted for so long
• Intuition – Is perception or explanation or insight into phenomena by instinct. In
other words it is the ability to gain knowledge without conscious reasoning or
rational process. Acceptance based on no process of interpretation or
assessment. A “gut feeling”; intuition.
• Authority – Takes the form of an expert in a given area giving his opinion.
Accepted due to the high standing of the source.
• Rationalism
Empiricism - Reaching a conclusion through logic. This is acceptable, only if the
resulting question/interpretation is treated as a hypothesis and tested.

Examples with your field????

• Empiricism - Knowledge gained by observation.
Examples within your field????
Naïve empiricism - , “I will not believe it until I see it”.
Sophisticated empiricism - , When indirect measures are used as evidence for
the intended observation.
 Purpose of Research
• To discover new knowledge. Involves discovery of new facts, their correct
interpretation and practical application.
• To describe a phenomenon. Accurate identification of any event involves thorough
description, for example size, shape, age, weight, colour, height, change over time.
• To enable prediction. Prediction is the ability to estimate phenomenon A, given
phenomenon B.
• To enable control. In scientific research, control is concerned with the ability of
regulate phenomenon under study. Scientific experiment are designed to achieve
this objective.
• To enable explanation of phenomena. Explanation involves accurate observation
and measurement of a given phenomenon. In order to explain a phenomenon one
should be able to describe it, predict its occurrence and observe factors that cause
its occurrence with certainly and accuracy.
• To enable theory development. Theory development involves formulating
concepts, laws and generalisations about a given phenomenon.
 Research Terminologies
• Population – Refers to an entire group of individuals, events or objects having a
common observable characteristic. Example all standard three pupils in a county.
First a researcher has to define the population to which generalization of results
will be done. To get the whole population might be costly, therefore an accessible
population is set from the absolute population.

• Sample – Small group obtained from the accessible population. Each member in
the accessible population is referred to as a subject.

• Sampling – Is the process of selecting a number of individuals for the study in

such a way that the individuals selected represent the large group from which they
were selected. The individuals selected form the sample and the large group from
which they were selected is the population. The purpose of sampling is to secure a
representative
 Terms
• Variables – measurable characteristics that assumes different values among the
subjects. It is a logical way of expressing a particular attribute in a subject. Some
variables are expressed quantitatively e.g age or weight. Others are put in
categories e.g farmer, teacher
Operational Definition of Variables
• Data – All information a researcher gathers for his or her study. Primary data –
Refers to information a researcher gets from the field i.e from the subjects in the
field
Secondary data – information a researcher refers from books, research articles,
casual interviews, data is classified into quantitative or qualitative
Parameter – A characteristic that is measurable and can assume different values in
the population
Statistics – Science of organizing, describing and analyzing quantitative data. It also
refers to indices derived through statistical procedures.
 Terms
• Descriptive statistics – Indices that describe a given sample. Examples descriptive
statistics are: measures of central tendency – mean, mode, median), measure of
dispersion (range, standard deviation, variance), distributions (percentages,
frequencies), relationships (correlations).
• Inferential statistics – A branch of statistics which researchers use to draw
inferences about a given phenomenon in the population. The purpose of
inferential statistics is to test hypotheses and enable the researcher generalize
the results from the sample to the population.
• Objectives – Any kind of the desired end or condition. Refers to the specific
aspects of the phenomenon under study that the researcher desires to bring out
at the end of the research study.
 Terms
• Literature review - This involves the locating, reading and evaluating reports of
previous studies, observations and opinions related to the planned study
• Problem statement- A specific statement that clearly conveys the purpose of the
research study
• Units of analysis – refers to those units that we initially describe for the purpose of
aggregating their characteristics in order to describe some larger group or abstract
phenomenon.
• Units of observation – is the subject, object, item or entity from which we measure
the characteristic or obtain the data required in the research study
• Hypothesis is the researcher’s anticipated explanation or opinion regarding the
result of the study.
• Theory – set of concepts or constructs and interrelations that are assumed to exist
among those concepts. Theory provides the basis for establishing hypotheses to be
tested in the study.
• Deductive logic – Process of developing hypotheses from theories and then
testing these hypotheses through observations or experiments.
• Inductive logic – Process of constructing hypotheses and then theory from
repeated observation.
 Research Problem
• Research problem - Refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in
the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a
solution for the same. Usually we say that a research problem does exist if the
following conditions are met with:
• There must be an individual (or a group or an organisation), let us call it ‘I,’ to
whom the problem can be attributed. The individual or the organisation, as the
case may be, occupies an environment, say ‘N’, which is defined by values of the
uncontrolled variables, Yj.
• There must be at least two courses of action, say C1 and C2, to be pursued. A
course of action is defined by one or more values of the controlled variables. For
example, the number of items purchased at a specified time is said to be one
course of action.
• There must be at least two possible outcomes, say O1 and O2, of the course of
action, of which one should be preferable to the other. In other words, this
means that there must be at least one outcome that the researcher wants, i.e.,
an objective.
 Research Problem
• The courses of action available must provide some chance of obtaining the
objective, but they cannot provide the same chance, otherwise the choice would
not matter. Thus, if P (Oj / I, Cj, N) represents the probability that an outcome Oj
will occur, if I select Cj in N, then P (O1 /I, C1, N) ≠ P (O1/ I C2 N). In simple
words, we can say that the choices must have unequal efficiencies for the desired
outcomes.
• Over and above these conditions, the individual or the organisation can be said to
have the problem only if ‘I’ does not know what course of action is best, i.e., ‘I’,
must be in doubt about the solution. Thus, an individual or a group of persons can
be said to have a problem which can be technically described as a research
problem, if they (individual or the group), having one or more desired outcomes,
are confronted with two or more courses of action that have some but not equal
efficiency for the desired objective(s) and are in doubt about which course of
action is best. We can, thus, state the components of a research problem as under:
 Research Problem
• There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
• There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one
cannot have a problem.
• There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the
objective(s) one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means
available to a researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a
problem.
• There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the
selection of alternatives. This means that research must answer the question
concerning the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives.
• There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.
 Research Problem
• Thus, a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best
solution for the given problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the
objective can be attained optimally in the context of a given environment. There
are several factors which may result in making the problem complicated. For
instance, the environment may change affecting the efficiencies of the courses of
action or the values of the outcomes; the number of alternative courses of action
may be very large; persons not involved in making the decision may be affected
by it and react to it favourably or unfavourably, and similar other factors.
 Selecting a Research Problem
• The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task
is a difficult one, although it may not appear to be so. Help may be taken from a
research guide in this connection. Nevertheless, every researcher must find out
his own salvation for research problems cannot be borrowed. A problem must
spring from the researcher’s mind like a plant springing from its own seed. If our
eyes need glasses, it is not the optician alone who decides about the number of
the lens we require. We have to see ourselves and enable him to prescribe for us
the right number by cooperating with him. Thus, a research guide can at the most
only help a researcher choose a subject. However, the following points may be
observed by a researcher in selecting a research problem or a subject for
research:
• Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult
task to throw any new light in such a case.
• Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
• Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
 Selecting a Research Problem
• The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related
research material or sources of research are within one’s reach. Even then it is quite
difficult to supply definitive ideas concerning how a researcher should obtain ideas for
his research. For this purpose, a researcher should contact an expert or a professor in
the University who is already engaged in research. He may as well read articles
published in current literature available on the subject and may think how the
techniques and ideas discussed therein might be applied to the solution of other
problems. He may discuss with others what he has in mind concerning a problem. In
this way he should make all possible efforts in selecting a problem.
• The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the
costs involved, the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in
selecting a problem. In other words, before the final selection of a problem is done, a
researcher must ask himself the following questions:
• Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research?
• Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?
• Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must participate in research
as subjects? If the answers to all these questions are in the affirmative, one may become sure so far
as the practicability of the study is concerned.
 Selecting a Research Problem
• The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study. This may not
be necessary when the problem requires the conduct of a research closely similar
to one that has already been done. But when the field of inquiry is relatively new
and does not have available a set of well-developed techniques, a brief feasibility
study must always be undertaken
• If the subject for research is selected properly by observing the above mentioned
points, the research will not be a boring drudgery, rather it will be love’s labour. In
fact, zest for work is a must. The subject or the problem selected must involve the
researcher and must have an upper most place in his mind so that he may
undertake all pains needed for the study.
Techniques of identifying Specific Research Problems
• Existing theories – Theory is a good source of a research problem
• Existing literature – systemic reading program in the general area of interest in
perhaps the best way of locating specific research problems. Text books and
articles
• Discussion with experts – discussions on general topics are a source of current
problems that could be researched.
• Previous research studies – Reports on research show area of further research.
• Replication – this involves carrying out a research that has been previously.
Procedure and the problem of the research are identical to a study that had
previously been done. Usually done to find out whether findings hold over time
and across regions.
• Media – Issues reported may form the basis of research problem. Such issues are
usually discussed in public for a and are therefore important to the majority of
the people.
Techniques of identifying Specific Research Problems
• Personal experiences
First hand observations and reflection on experiences could be a source of
research problem.
 Problem Identification
Identifying a Research Problem
• Select the broad area that one is interested
• Identify a specific problem within it that will form the basis of the study.
• Research problem should be an important one - an important one
• Lead to findings that have widespread implications in a particular area
• Challenge some commonly held truism
• Review the inadequacies of existing laws, views or policies
• Cover a researchable scope e.g not too narrow or too general
 Defining a Research Problem
• Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research
study and must in no case be accomplished hurriedly. However, in practice this a
frequently overlooked which causes a lot of problems later on. Hence, the research
problem should be defined in a systematic manner, giving due weightage to all
relating points. The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the
following steps generally one after the other:
• Statement of the problem in a general way - First of all the problem should be
stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or
some scientific or intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher must
immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to
pose a problem.
• Understanding the nature of the problem - The next step in defining the problem is
to understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the
problem is to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how the
problem originally came about and with what objectives in view.
 Defining a Research Problem
• If the researcher has stated the problem himself, he should consider once again
all those points that induced him to make a general statement concerning the
problem. For a better understanding of the nature of the problem involved, he
can enter into discussion with those who have a good knowledge of the problem
concerned or similar other problems. The researcher should also keep in view the
environment within which the problem is to be studied and understood.
• Surveying the available literature - All available literature concerning the problem
at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the
research problem is given. This means that the researcher must be well-
conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all
other relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research
already undertaken on related problems. This is done to find out what data and
other materials, if any, are available for operational purposes.
 Defining a Research Problem
• Developing the ideas through discussions - Discussion concerning a problem often
produces useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an
exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and
others who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar
problems. This is quite often known as an experience survey. People with rich
experience are in a position to enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his
proposed study and their advice and comments are usually invaluable to the
researcher. They help him sharpen his focus of attention on specific aspects within
the field.
• Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition - Finally, the
researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition.
Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, then environment has
been defined, discussions over the problem have taken place and the available
literature has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical
or operational terms is not a difficult task. Through rephrasing, the researcher puts
the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may become
operationally viable and may help in the development of working hypotheses.
 Defining a Research Problem
• Other points to be observed:
• Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement
of the problem, should be clearly defined.
• Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be
clearly stated.
• A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for
the selection of the problem) should be provided.
• The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be
considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
• The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be
studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.
 Research Scope
Factors that determine the scope of the research study:
• Time available for research to be carried out
• Cost of doing the research study
• Equipment available - if needed
• Availability of subjects or units of study
 Stating the Problem
• Research study starts with a brief introductory section – General introduction of
the study area. Through intuition
• Generally a good problem statement has the following characteristic:
• Written clearly and captures reader’s interest immediately
• Specific problem identified is researchable
• Specific problem is indicated
• Importance of the study is clearly stated
• Must give the purpose of study
 Stating the purpose
• Researcher introduces the general area then narrows down to a specific problem.
• The researcher conveys the focus of the research study in one or two sentences.
This is the purpose of the study.
• Purpose crystallizes the researcher’s inquiry into a particular area knowledge in a
given field.
• Well stated purpose enables research to be carried with
 Literature Search (Review)
• The phrase ‘review of literature’ consists of two words: Review and Literature.
The word ‘literature’ has conveyed different meaning from the traditional
meaning. In research methodology the term literature refers to the knowledge of a
particular area of investigation of any discipline which includes theoretical,
practical and its research studies.
• The term ‘review’ means to organize the knowledge of the specific area of
research to evolve an edifice of knowledge to show the study would be an addition
to this field. The task of review of literature is highly creative and tedious because
researcher has to synthesize the available knowledge of the field in a unique way
to provide the rationale for his study. The term ‘review of literature’ has been
defined in the following ways:
• According to W.R. Borg
• “The literature in any field forms the foundation upon which all future work will
be built. If we fail to build the foundation of knowledge provided by the review of
literature our work is likely to be shallow and naive and will often duplicate work
that has already been done better by some one else.”
 Literature Search (Review)
• According to Charter V. Good
• “The keys to the vast storehouse of published literature may open doors to sources
of significant problems and explanatory hypotheses and provide helpful
orientation for definition of the problem, background for selection of procedure,
and comparative data for interpretation of results. In order to be creative and
original, one must read extensively and critically as a stimulus to thinking.”
• According to John W. Best
• “Practically all human knowledge can be found in books and libraries. Unlike
other animals that must start a new with each generation, man builds upon the
accumulated and recorded knowledge of the past. His constant adding to the vast
store of knowledge makes possible progress in all areas of human endeavour.”
 Literature Search (Review)
Literature review takes two phases:
• First phase - Identifying all the relevant published material in the problem area
and reading that part of it with which we are not thoroughly familiar. We develop
the foundation of ideas and results on which our own study will be built.
• Second phase - Review of literature involves writing this foundation of ideas into
a section of the research report. This section is for the joint benefit of the
researchers and readers. For the researcher, it establishes the background in the
field. For the readers it provides a summary of the thinking and research
necessary for them to understand the study.
 Literature Search (Review)
• A literature review is an objective and thorough summary and critical analysis of
the relevant, available research and non-research literature on the topic being
studied (Hart, 1998). It involves the systematic identification, location and
analysis of documents containing information related to the research problem
being investigated. Undertaking a literature is a key feature in many courses
of study.
• It is an essential step in the research process and is fundamental in the
development of engineering practice and policy
• A good literature review gathers information about a particular subject from many
sources.
 Purpose of Literature Search (Review)
• Main purpose is to determine what has been done already related to the research
problem being studied. Detailed knowledge of what has been done helps to:
Avoid unnecessary and unintentional duplication
Form the frame work within which results (findings) are to be interpreted
Demonstrate the familiarity or understanding of the existing knowledge
• Literature review reveals strategies, procedures and measuring instruments that
have been found useful in investigating the problem in question
• Literature review will suggest other procedures and approaches
• Makes the researcher familiar with previous studies and thus facilitate
interpretation of study results
• Helps the researcher to narrow and focus the study on the research problem
• Helps determine new approaches and stimulates new ideas. Researcher may also
be alerted to research possibilities which may have been overlooked in the past
• Approaches that have been futile will be revealed through literature review
 Purpose of Literature Search (Review)
• In most cases authors of articles include suggests and recommendations for those
planning for future studies. These suggestions and recommendations need to be
thoroughly considered.
• Literature review pulls together, integrates and summarizes what is known in an
area under study.
• Helps to give direction of study
• Makes the researcher to be up-to-date in information related to the research
problem already done by others
• Enables the researcher to justify the research work
• Enables identification of problem and hypothesis formulation.
• It helps in developing experts and general scholarship of the investigator in the
area investigated.
 Purpose of Literature Search (Review)
• Secondary purposes of this part of the report are to provide readers with guidelines
regarding where they can look to find more information and to establish the
author’s credential by letting readers know that the researcher is aware of what has
been going on with regard to the current and related topics.
• The review of literature provides some insight regarding strong points and
limitations of the previous studies. It enables him to improve his own
investigation.
 PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES -REVIEW OF LITERATURE
• It is generally advisable to get first and over all view by consulting a general source,
such as a text-book which is more likely to provide the meaning and nature of the
concepts and variables or theoretical framework of the field. The logical starting point is
to get a clear picture of the problem to be solved. A text-book usually provides the
theoretical aspects of the problem. It is very essential to develop deep understanding
about the variables and the field
• Review the empirical researches of the area. The best reference for this phase is the
handbook of research.
• The research for library material must be systematic and thorough. Remember to write
down your references because precision is required.
• The researcher should take note systematically in the light of such criteria as uniformity,
accuracy and ease of assembly. The notes should be taken on the card. Each entry
should be
made separately; references should be recorded with complete bibliographic data.
 PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES -REVIEW OF LITERATURE
• The researcher should take as complete notes as he might need. On the other
hand, taking unnecessary notes is wasteful. The useful and necessary material
should be recorded precisely. It would be better that similar sources are gathered
• A major pre-requisite for effective library work is the ability to read at high speed.
This can only be developed through practice. He must learn to skim material to
see what it has to contribute to the study, only after its reference has been
established, it should be read in detail. Surveying the literature for the purpose of
conducting research is not just ‘a pleasant excursion in the wonderful world of
books’, it is a precise and exacting task of locating specific information for the
specific purpose.
• The actual note-taking process is always a difficult task for the researcher. He has
to spend long hours in the library taking notes by hand. It is a very tedious job
and leads to importance to carelessness and illegibility. Researcher should make
use of the facilities available in the library for this purpose.
 Steps in Carrying out Literature Review
• Be very familiar with the library before beginning the literature review
• Make a list of key words or phrases to guide your literature review
• With the key words and phrases related to the study then go to the source of
literature
• Summarise the references on cards for easy organisation of the literature
• Once collected the literature should analysed, organised and reported in an
orderly manner
• Prepare an outline of the main topics or themes in order of presentation. Decide
on number of headlines, sub-headlines required depending on how detailed the
review is.
• Analyse each reference in terms of the outline made and establish where it will
be most relevant
• Studies contrary to received wisdom should not be ignored but rather should
studied and possible explanation to the differences given.
 Steps in Carrying out Literature Review
• Literature should start from general then narrow down to the that which is most
specific to the research problem.
• May provide a brief summary of the literature and its implication.
 Scope of Literature Review
Common questions, are:
• When should one stop from review?
• How do I know the relevant literature?
• These are good questions and are answered with experience. There is no formula
for arriving at a decision. Though the following gives useful hints:
• For well research area one could only read literature close to one’s topic of study
• Narrowly researched area one may need to study any relevant available material
to help in developing a logical framework and appropriate hypotheses for the
study
• Researcher should avoid the temptation to include all available material
• Another indicator to abandon literature review is to constantly re-encounter
material already reviewed.
 Sources of Literature
• Primary sources – Is a direct description of any occurrence by an individual who
actually observed or witnessed the occurrence. In research this is the actual
report by the individual who carried out the study. Literature review should be
solely from the primary sources because the secondary sources may have been
altered.
• Secondary sources – this include any publication written by an author who was
not a direct participant in the described event.
 Sources of Literature in Engineering
• Scholarly Journals – In the recent past was found mostly in libraries. Due to the
advent of computers and internet facility many of the journal place the article in it
for public access. Some are placed as open source which can be accessed by
anyone interested, however, other need subscription. University Libraries
subscribe to quite a number.
• Theses and Dissertations – MScs and PhDs student wishing to receive a degree
undertake original research and report on the findings in form of thesis or
dissertation. Such manuscript is very valuable to a researcher.
• Books in Engineering – subject bibliographies are available in the libraries. This
give a list of books generally. One can still check it up in online portal of various
universities, if you have rights of access. For students can such to ascertained the
availability before visiting to collect the same in the library. The most useful list of
books published in the English language is the Cumulative Book Index and Book
Review Index, Books Review Digest, Subject Guide to Books indicates that books
are in print or press or forthcoming books.
 Sources of Literature in Engineering
• Government documents – Include policy papers, research reports owned by
government.
• Papers presented at conferences - Research papers presented at conferences are
also good sources of literature. Such papers are later published as conference
proceedings or in refereed journal.
• International indices - Important sources which list theses and dissertations which
have been written in a particular area of specialisation eg USA “Dissertation
Abstract International”
• Abstracts - Give list of journal articles with summaries. Abstract will give the
name, volume and issue number of the journal where the full article can be found.
• Periodicals - these include journals, magazines or local newspapers which are
published periodically. In many libraries there a section indicated periodicals this
section lists all available journal by subject.
 Sources of Literature in Engineering
• The Africana section of the library - Special section of the library where any
material on Kenya by Kenyans is kept.
• Grey literature - Refers to anything written but not published. Examples are
lecture notes.
• Interlibrary loan - This is a facility that allows one to borrow a book from another
library if such a book is not available at one’s library.
• Computer search - in computerised libraries one can search for book through
keying in subject of study.
• The internet - the access to internet enables one to search for current articles from
different journals. In some of the university students have access to internet
subscribed journal where they can download articles for research or literature
review.
 Sources of Literature in Engineering
Tips on Good Reviewing of Literature
• Do not conduct a hurried review for you may overlook important studies
• Do not rely too much on secondary sources
• Do not concentrate solely on the findings from articles also read on methods and
materials to get the procedure used.
• Check daily newspapers for they contain very educative current information.
• Important to first copy references correctly to avoid frustration of trying to trace
a reference later.
 Referencing Literature
Referencing within Text
• Referencing in the text acknowledges the source of information. There are two
ways of referencing:
Method one
• Author’s last name and year of article’s publication are put in a paraphrased
statement in the text. Name and year are put in a bracket. Example, After
treatment, the aerated and unaerated wetlands significantly reduced NB
concentrations to be less than 2 mg/L with a reduction efficiency of 98% (Kirui et
al., 2016). Sometimes the name and year come at the beginning of a sentence,
example: Kirui and Mutua (2014) indicated that below 48% forest cover there will
be low soil erosion degradation in Upper Molo Catchment.
• Ravi P Agrahari and G N Tiwari et al (2013) compared different ratios of Kitchen
Waste under Aluminium Made Biogas Plant. This is a wrong citation in the text.
 Sources of Literature in Engineering
• Method Two
• In this method of referencing within text numbers representing names of authors are
used. Example After treatment, the aerated and unaerated wetlands significantly reduced
NB concentrations to be less than 2 mg/L with a reduction efficiency of 98%[1].
• In the example above [1] indicates a particular article numbered 1 in the reference list
(list of cited articles).
Cited References
• Cited reference list refers to list of reference which the author (researcher) actually read
and cited in the text.
Examples
• Journal article
• Kirui, W. K., Wu, S., Kizito, S., Carvalho, N. P. and Dong, R. (2016). Pathways of
nitrobenzene degradation in horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands: Effect of
intermittent aeration and glucose addition. Journal of Environmental Management, 166,
38-44.
 Sources of Published Materials in Engineering
Book
• Douglas J. F. (2005). Fluid Mechanics. Pearson Education.
Newspaper
• Omondi, T. (2016, August). Cane for the hearth. Daily Nation, pp 6.
 Methods and Material Section
• Methods and material section of the research study describes the procedures
that have been followed in conducting the study. Techniques are developed and
data is collected. Steps involved in the study should be describe clearly and in
detail.
• Populations and Samples
• Population is a complete set of individuals, cases or objects with common
observable characteristics while sample is a subset of the population.
• Target population - the population to which a researcher wants to generalise
results or findings.
• Accessible population - population identified by the researcher from the target
population that consistent and meets the researchers objectives. This should be
represented of the target population.
 Methods Section
• Sample size – this is restricted by resources available and time needed for the
study. Sample should as big as possible so that findings from two samples would
be similar to a higher degree.
• Sampling error – discrepancy between the sample characteristics and the
population characteristics. The smaller the sample the larger the sampling error.
Equation 1 can be used to estimate the sample size if the target population is
greater than 10,000. 2
Z pq
• n 2
………………………(1)
d
• Where n is the desired sample size, z the standard normal deviation at the
desired confidence level; p proportion in the target population estimated to have
characteristics being measured; q = 1 – p; d is the level of statistics significance
set.
• If the target population is less than 10000 the required size sample
will be smaller, in such a case the equation (2) will be used.
n
• 
nf
1  n  …….………………………….(2)
N

• Where nf is the estimated sample size, n is the desired sample size

when the population is more than 10000, N the estimate of the
population size.
 Sampling Procedure
• After the sample size is decided upon, there need to formulate a procedure of
selecting the subjects or cases to be included in the sample. Develop a sampling
frame. Techniques which can be used are:
• Probability sampling – Select a reasonable number of subjects or cases that
represent the target population. Such method is random sampling. Another of
random sampling methods have been applied such as:
• Simple random sampling
• Systematic random sampling
• Stratified random sampling - Goal is to achieve desired representation from
various subgroups in the population.
• Cluster sampling – Used in cases where a sampling frame is not possible because
the target population is very large or scattered over a large geographical area. In
this method the groups are selected randomly but not individuals.
 Data Analysis
• Analysis of data means studying the tabulated material in order to determine
inherent facts or meanings. It involves breaking down existing complex factors
into simpler parts and putting the parts together in new arrangements for the
purpose of interpretation. The analysis and interpretation of data represent the
application of deductive and inductive logic to the research process. The final
result may be a new principle or generalization. Data are examined in terms of
comparison between the more homogeneous segments within the group and by
comparison with some outside criteria.
• Analysis of data includes comparison of the outcomes of the various treatments
upon the several groups and the making of a decision as to the achievement of the
goals of research. Usually the analysis develops as a comparison between groups
however, sometimes the type of data obtainable tends itself better to the existing
differences by contrast or by summing up.
• It is virtually impossible to complete a scientific analysis without using some form
of statistical processing. This may involve depicting differences by complicated
inferential statistics such as the analysis of variance, and analysis of covariance
technique.
 Data Analysis
• Each statistical method is based upon its own or specific assumptions regarding
the sample, population and research conditions. Unless these factors are
considered in advance the researcher may find that it is impossible to make valid
comparison for purpose of inferences.
• A plan of analysis can and should be prepared in advance before the actual
collection of material. A preliminary analysis on the skeleton plan should as the
investigation proceeds, develop into a complete final analysis enlarged and
reworked as and when necessary. This process requires an alert, flexible and open
mind. Caution is necessary at every step. In case where a plan of analysis has not
been made beforehand. Four helpful modes to get started on analysing the
gathered data:
• To think in terms of significant tables that the data permit.
• To examine carefully the statement of the problem and the earlier analysis and to
study the original records of the data.
• To get away from the data and to think about the problem in layman’s terms.
• To attack the data by making various simple statistical calculations.
 Need for Analysis of Data or Treatment of Data
• The collected data are known as ‘raw data.’ The raw data are meaningless unless
certain statistical treatment is given to them. Analysis of data means to make the
raw data meaningful or to draw some results from the data after the proper
treatment. The ‘null hypotheses’ are tested with the help of analysis data so to
obtain some significant results.
Analysis of data serves the following main functions:
• To make the raw data meaningful,
• To test null hypothesis,
• To obtain the significant results,
• To draw some inferences or make generalization
• To estimate parameters.
 Need for Analysis of Data or Treatment of Data
• There are two approaches which are employed in analysis of data: Parametric
analysis of data and non-parametric analysis of data. The details of these
approaches have been discussed.
• Parametric statistics is a branch of statistics which assumes that sample data
comes from a population that follows a probability distribution based on a fixed
set of parameters. Most well-known elementary statistical methods are
parametric.
• Nonparametric statistics refer to a statistical method wherein the data is not
required to fit a normal distribution. Nonparametric statistics uses data that is
often ordinal, meaning it does not rely on numbers, but rather a ranking or order of
sorts.
 Data Analysis
After the data have been collected coded and keyed in then analysis is done using
various statistical methods. In engineering most of the data is quantitative therefore
we use quantitative analysis techniques.
Descriptive statistics
• Step 1 in analysis is to describe or summarise the data using descriptive statistics.
This is to enable a researcher to describe a distribution of scores or measurement
statistics. Each statistic used has a role or purpose. Descriptive statistics are used
to describe the basic features of the data in a study. They provide simple
summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with simple graphics
analysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of data.
Types of Descriptive statistics
• Mode – Most commonly attained measurement of value
 Data Analysis
• Median – The 50th percentile in a group of scores. The score that divides ranked
scores into two equal parts. The characteristic of median is does not take into
account the extreme values in distribution since it is only a score in the middle of
the distribution.
• Mean – Average of a set of scores or measurements. Most used measure of central
tendency. Calculated by adding up all the score and dividing by the number of
scores.
• Mean takes into account each score or measurement in the distribution. Example
1: A researcher takes pH measurement of water. The data are: 5, 6, 8, 7, 10, 11, 5,
3, 3, 2. calculate the mean pH. The mean = 6.0
 Data Analysis
_

 X
X n
_

• Where X is mean, Σ sum of pH values , n is number of measured values

• Properties of Mean
• When equal sized samples are randomly selected from the same population the
mean of these samples will tend to be more similar to each other than either modes
or medians. Thus, they are stable.
• Takes into account each measured value in the distribution. Therefore it is an
important property in computing complex statistical indices.
• Mean is pull towards outliers in sampled values. Outliers are extreme values.
Example for most values that lie between 20 and 40, a value of 90 would be an
outlier, this would rise the mean.
 Data Analysis
• Distribution - The distribution is a summary of the frequency of individual values
or ranges of values for a variable. One of the most common ways to describe a
single variable is with a frequency distribution.
 Data Analysis
• Example of frequency distribution curve

Wind speed frequency distribution graph (m/s)

 Measure of Variability
• Variability –the distribution of values around central value. In statistics the central
value is the mean of the values. Thus variability is the dispersion of scores around
the mean of the distribution.
Purpose of measure of variability
• Help to show how spread out the values for each variable are.
• Give information regarding the extent of individual differences on a given
variable.
• Common used measures of variability
• Range – Difference between the highest value and the lowest in a distribution.
Determine by subtracting the lowest from the highest. Small range signifies the
score are not spread out. Range involves only two values.
• Standard deviation – The extent to which the values in a distribution deviate from
their mean or average. Therefore it involves subtracting the mean from each
score to obtain deviation.
 Measure of Variability
• If each deviation is squared and summed up then divided by the degrees of
freedom then we get the variance. If the value is small then the values are close
together but if large the values are more spread.
• Taking the square root of variance we have the standard deviation. Large value
denotes greater variability in the distribution.
2
 _

  i X 
 X 
S2 
n 1

2
 _

  i X 
 X 
S 
n 1

• Where S2 is sample variance, S sample standard deviation, Xi each value, n is the

sample size, n-1 is degrees of freedom.
Properties of Standard Deviation
• Takes into account all values and responds into the exact position of every value
relative to the average of that distribution.
• Very sensitive to extreme values
 Statistical Data Analysis
• Statistics is the body of mathematical techniques or processes for gathering,
describing orgainising and interpreting numerical data. Since research often yields
such quantitative data, statistics is a basic tool of measurement and research. The
research worker who uses statistics is concerned with more than the manipulation
of data, statistical methods goes back to fundamental purposes of analysis.
 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA
• Statistics is the body of mathematical techniques or processes for gathering,
describing orgainising and interpreting numerical data. Since research often yields
such quantitative data, statistics is a basic tool of measurement and research. The
research worker who uses statistics is concerned with more than the manipulation
of data, statistical methods goes back to fundamental purposes of analysis.
Descriptive Statistical Analysis
• Descriptive statistical analysis is concerned with numerical description of a
particular group observed and any similarity to those outside the group cannot be
taken for granted. The data describe one group and that one group only. Much
simple educational research involves descriptive statistics and provides valuable
information about the nature of a particular group or class.
• Data collected from tests and experiments often have little meaning or
significance until they have been classified or rearranged in a systematic way. This
procedure leads to the organisation of materials into few heads.
 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA
Inferential Statistical Analysis
• Inferential statistical analysis involves the process of sampling, the selection for
study of a small group that is assumed to be related to the large group from which
it is drawn. The small group is known as the sample; the large group, the
population or universe, A statistics is a measure based on a sample. A statistic
computed from a sample may be used to estimate a parameter, the corresponding
value in the population which it is selected.
• Most commonly used methods of analysis data statistically are:
• Calculating frequency distribution usually in percentages of items under study.
• Testing data for normality of distribution skewness and kurtosis.
• Calculating percentiles and percentile ranks.
• Calculating measures of central tendency-mean, median and mode and
establishing norms.
 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA
• Calculating measures of dispersion-standard deviation mean deviation, quartile
deviation and range.
• Calculating measures of relationship-coefficient of correlation, Reliability and
validity by the Rank-difference and Product moment methods.
• Graphical presentation of data-Frequency polygon curve, Histogram, Cumulative
frequency polygon and Ogive etc
 SKEWNESS
• In statistics, skewness is a measure of the asymmetry of the probability
distribution of a random variable about its mean. In other words, skewness tells
you the amount and direction of skew (departure from horizontal symmetry). The
skewness value can be positive or negative, or even undefined. If skewness is 0,
the data are perfectly symmetrical, although it is quite unlikely for real-world data.
As a general rule of thumb:
 Research Proposal
• Research Proposal - Sets out the broad topic you would like to research
(substance), what the research would set out to achieve (aims and objectives),
how you would go about researching it (methodology), how you would undertake
it within the time available (outline plan) and what the results might be in
relation to knowledge and understanding in the subject (potential outcomes).
• A good proposal should consists of the first three chapters of the project
• The chapters are:
• A statement of the problem/background information (Chapter 1)
• A review of the literature (Chapter 2)
• The research methodology (Chapter 3) – Materials and methods
• A well thought proposal would help a Researcher (student) to undertake
research in an orderly manner. No confusion-proper outline
 Purpose of Research Proposal
• To make the reader to understand :-
• What you are going to do
• Rationale of the research
• Objectives of the research
• Methodology
• Expected output
• Research proposal is intended to convince others that you have a worthwhile
research project and that you have the competence and the work-plan to complete
it.
• The purpose of a proposal is to sell your idea to the funding agency. This means
that the investigator must convince the funding agency that:
• The problem is significant and worthy of study
• The technical approach is novel and likely to yield results
• The investigator and his/her research team is/are the right group of individuals to carry out
and accomplish the work described in the research proposal.
 Preparation
• Think about it
• Generate ideas
• Background reading
• Ask yourself
• Am I familiar with other research that has been conducted in areas related to my research
project?
• Do I have a clear understanding of the steps that I will use in conducting my research?
• Do I have the ability to go through each step?
 Contents of a Proposal
• Title
• Background to the problem or study
• Problem statement
• Objectives of research
• Scope and limitation of study
• Literature review
• Methodology
• Proposed schedule
• Proposed Budget
• References
 Tittle
• A good proposal has a good title
• It is the first thing that help the reader begin to understand the nature of work
• Focused
• Highlighting the main contribution of the research work
• Use the keywords
• Avoid ambiguous or confusing word
Your title is crucial for two main reasons:
• This sets the scene for your proposed research study.
• It is the first part of your research proposal that is seen by the relevant R&D committees,
and it is essential to give a good impression from the very beginning.
• Be clear and concise. You want everyone to know exactly what your paper
is about simply by reading the title.
• Write the title, abstract (and introduction) last. This may seem a little strange
to a lot of people but it makes the most sense to write them once you
understand what you studied, what your results were, and what you want your
audience to take away from reading it.
 Abstract
• Is a summary of the whole research proposal;
• Main purpose is to summarize the research proposal (particularly the objectives,
Problems being studied, justification), NOT to introduce the research area.
• Has a maximum word limit;
An abstract should briefly:
• Re-establish the topic of the research.
• Give the research problem and/or main objectives (this usually comes first).
• Indicate the methodology used.
• Present the expected findings.
 Introduction
• Background information
• Problem statement
• Research questions
• Statement of research objectives
• Definition of terms
 Background Information
A general review of the area of research
The introduction is the part of the research proposal that provides readers with the
background information for the problem to be studied. Its purpose is to establish a
framework for the research, so that readers can understand how it is related to other
research.

In an introduction, the researcher must:

 Create reader interest in the topic,
 Lay the broad foundation for the problem that leads to the study,
 Place the study within the larger context of the scholarly literature, and
 Reach out to a specific audience.
 Problem Statement
• Start with a general statement of the problem or issues
• Make sure the problem is restricted in scope
• Make sure the context of the problem is clear
• Cite the references from which the problem was stated previously.
• Provide justification for the research to be conducted
• Motivation to conduct the proposed research
• Highlight the problems/demerits of the available techniques
“The problem statement describes the context for the study and it also identifies
the general analysis approach” (Wiersma, 1995).
• A problem statement is a clear description of the issue(s), it includes a vision,
issue statement, and method used to solve the problem. The 5 'W's can be used
to spark the discussion about the problem.
 A strong research idea should pass the “so what” test.
Think about the potential impact of the research you are
proposing.
What is the benefit of answering your research question?
Who will it help (and how)?
 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
• The OBJECTIVES of a research project summaries what is to be achieved by the
study.
• Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem. For example,
if the problem identified is high cost of energy, the general objective of the study
could be to identify the reasons for this high cost of energy, in order to find
solutions.
• Good research objectives:-
• Involves the search for relationships between two or more variables.
• Is well defined and focused on specifics
• Should be able to tell the reader what actually you are looking for in particular.
• Should be ‘SMART’ – Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, & Time-bound
• Should be relevant, feasible, logical, observable, unequivocal (Unambiguous) & measurable
• Objective is a purpose that can be reasonably achieved within the expected timeframe &
with the available resources
 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Types of Objectives
• General Objectives - The general objective of a study states what researchers
expect to achieve by the study in general terms.

• General objectives of the study state in general terms what the researcher is
expected to achieve. It is possible (and advisable) to break down a general
objective into smaller, logically connected parts. These are normally referred to as
specific objectives.
• Specific objectives should systematically address the various aspects of the
problem as defined under ‘Statement of the Problem’ and the key factors that are
assumed to influence or cause the problem. They should specify what you will do
in your study, where and for what purpose.
Specific Objectives
• Statement which describes the trend of the learning activity
• Formulated in terms of observable behaviour
• Specific objectives are short term and narrow in focus
• General objectives can be broken into small logical connected parts to form
specific objectives
• General objectives is met through accomplishing all the specific objectives
• Specific objectives are many in number and they systematically address
various aspect of the problem as defined under ‘problem statement’
• They should specify what the researcher will do in the study, where, & for
what purpose
Examples of General and Specific objectives
• General Objective
• To assess effectiveness of constructed wetlands in industrial wastewater
treatment
• Specific objectives
 To assess the quantity and quality of industrial waste water
 To evaluate the performance of constructed wetlands in pollutant removal
from industrial wastewater
 To recommend improvement to be applied to constructed wetlands
 Procedure for stating objectives
• While stating the objectives of the study the following guidelines must be taken
care of:
 The objectives should be brief and concise
 Cover the different aspects of the problems and its contributing factors in a
coherent way & in a logical sequence
 Clearly phrased in an operational terms, specifying exactly what the
researcher is going to do, where & for what purpose
 Should be realistic considering local conditions
 Use action verbs that are specific enough to be evaluated,
 Example of action verbs to assess, to evaluate, to compare, to determine, to
calculate
 Significance of Research
• From the literature review, gap analysis can be conducted in order to see how the
proposed research would fill in the gap in the area of research.
• How does the proposed research relate to the existing knowledge in the area.
• Explicitly state the significance of your purpose or the rationale for your study. A
significant research is one that:
Develops knowledge of an existing practice
Develops theory
Expands the current knowledge or theory base
Advances current research methodology
Related to a current technological issue
Exploratory research on an unexamined issue
Indicate how your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the
area under investigation. Note that such refinements, revisions, or extensions may
have either substantive, theoretical, or methodological significance. Think
pragmatically (i.e., cash value).This can be a difficult section to write. Think about
implications—how results of the study may affect scholarly research, theory,
practice, educational interventions, curricula, counseling, policy.
 Significance of Research
When thinking about the significance of your study, ask yourself the following
questions.
• What will results mean to the theoretical framework that framed the study?
• What suggestions for subsequent research arise from the findings?
• What will the results mean to the practicing engineer?
• Will results influence programs, methods, and/or interventions?
• Will results contribute to the solution of engineering problems?
• Will results influence engineering and development policy decisions?
• What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed research?
• How will results of the study be implemented, and what innovations will
come about?
 Literature review
“The review of the literature provides the background and context for the research
problem. It should establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer is
knowledgeable about the area” (Wiersma, 1995).
• Selecting Sources
• What are sources -Term sources refer to print, electronic, or visual material
necessary for your research
• Examples:
 Primary sources - letters/correspondence, diaries, memoirs, autobiographies,
official or research reports, patents and designs, and empirical research articles
Secondary sources: academic journal articles (other than empirical research
articles or reports), conference proceedings, books (monographs or chapters’
books), documentaries
Tertiary sources: Encyclopaedias, dictionaries, handbooks, atlas
An article reporting contemporary issues at given time can be considered to a primary sources
Literature review
Select literature that is relevant or closely related to the problem and purpose
Emphasize the primary sources
Use secondary sources selectively
Concentrate on scholarly research articles
Discuss your criteria for inclusion of articles

Literature reviews uses primary and secondary sources since the purpose is to
document and analyse what has been published on any given topic through time.

• Quote from recent sources

 Literature review
The literature review accomplishes several important things:
• It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the
study being reported (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990).
• It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature about a topic,
filling in gaps and extending prior studies (Marshall & Rossman, 1989).
• It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study, as well as a
benchmark for comparing the results of a study with other findings.
• It “frames” the problem earlier identified.
• In a proposal, the literature review is generally brief and to the point. Be judicious
in your choice of exemplars—the literature selected should be pertinent and
relevant (APA, 2001). Select and reference only the more appropriate citations.
Make key points clearly and succinctly.
 Writing The Literature
• The literature should have an introduction, body and conclusion
• The introduction defines the framework of the review, the body evaluates the
literature and conclusion summarizes the current state of knowledge on the
problem
• Organize the review by topics or ideas, not by author
• Organize the review logically (least to most relevant – evolution of topic –by key
variables)
• Discuss major studies/theories individually and minor studies with similar results
or limitation as a group
• Adequately criticize the design and methodology of important studies so readers
can draw their own conclusions
• Compare and contrast studies.
• Note for conflicting and inconclusive results
• Explicitly show the relevance of each to the problem statement
• Summary including a restatement of the relationships between the important
variables under consideration and how these relationships are important to the
hypothesis proposed in the introduction
• Identify the gaps in the current techniques that would be filled in by the proposed
technique.
• Highlight the novelty of the proposed technique as compared to other existing
techniques.
 What you are expected to do?
• Place your original work in the context of existing literature.
• Interpret the major issues surrounding your topic.
• Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
• Identify new ways to interpret, and shed light on any gaps in previous research.
• Resolve conflicts among seemingly contradictory previous studies.
• Determine which literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding
of your topic.
• Point the way to further research on your topic.
 Materials and Methods
• Indicate the study site
• Materials to be used in the study
• Ways of data collection - Data collection plan
• Research design – it would be good to put it into a flow chart
• Data analysis method and justify why?
• Must be related to the research objectives
• Highlight the breadth and depth of research
• Identify variables
• Give a detailed sampling plan – the target population characteristics, specific
sampling plan, target sample size
 Instruments
• Describe the instruments to be used to gather data (tests, techniques, surveys,
etc)
• Provide reliability and information to show techniques are valid for the study
• Describe how the variables will be measured
• Provide justification for selection of instruments based on theory, research
question, subject characteristics, etc.
• Provide published reliability of instrument and plan to establish reliability
Procedure
• Describe how the study will be conducted
• When, how, where and by whom the data will be collected
• Describe the research design or statistical test in this section.
 Expected Results
• Describe your expected results based on the literature review and theory
• Write your conclusions if your research questions would be supported
• Write your tentative conclusions if your research questions would not be
supported
 Time Schedule (Work Plan)
TIME
ACTIVITY 2015 2016
OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL

Research proposal and presentation

Approval of research proposal

Sourcing of funds

Identification of sampling points

Sample collection

Laboratory tests

Data analysis

Final report compilation

Report submission
 Budget
EXPENDITURE COST (Ksh)

Field record book 500

Laboratory data sheets 200

Pens 60

3L polyethylene sample containers and labels 700

Disposable gloves 500

Field participants 1000

Internet services 2000

Computer services: printing, binding and miscellaneous 2500

TOTAL 7,460
 Proposal Writing
• Preliminaries Pages
• Cover page
• Pagination Bottom centre
• Margins: 1.00" right; 1.00" left and l.00" bottom
• Legends/Titles: tables - top
figures - bottom
• Chapter headings must be x 12 font bold capitals (upper case) and centred.
• Sub-section headings must be bold lower case.
• All text must be in Times Roman size 12.
• The spacing should be 1.5
• The first line in a new paragraph must be indented 5 spaces.
• The title page.
• The declaration and recommendation page.