1.1a.

The particle model of a GAS

 WHAT IS THE GASEOUS STATE OF MATTER?

 WHAT ARE THE PROPERTIES OF A GAS?
 HOW DO GASEOUS PARTICLES BEHAVE?
 How does the kinetic particle theory of gases explain the properties of
gases?
 A gas has no fixed shape or volume, but always spreads out to fill any
container.
 There are almost no forces of attraction between the particles so they are
completely free of each other.
 The particles are widely spaced and scattered at moving rapidly at random
throughout the container so there is no order in the system.
 The particles move linearly and rapidly in all directions, and frequently
collide with each other and the side of the container.
 The collision of gas particles with the surface of a container causes gas
pressure, on bouncing off a surface they exert a force in doing so.
 With increase in temperature, the particles move faster as they gain kinetic
energy, this increases gas pressure and/or the volume of the container.

Using the particle model to explain the properties of a Gas

 Gases have a very low density (‘light’) because the particles are so spaced out
in the container (density = mass / volume).
o Density order: solid > liquid >>> gases
 Gases flow freely because there are no effective forces of attraction between
the gaseous particles – molecules.
o Ease of flow order: gases > liquids >>> solids (no real flow in solid
unless you powder it!)
o Because of this gases and liquids are described as fluids.
 Gases have no surface, and no fixed shape or volume, and because of lack
of particle attraction, they always spread out and fill any container (so gas
volume = container volume).
 Gases are readily compressed because of the ‘empty’ space between the
particles.
o Ease of compression order: gases >>> liquids > solids (almost
impossible to compress a solid)
 Gas pressure
o When a gas is confined in a container the particles will cause and exert a
gas pressure which is measured in atmospheres (atm) or Pascals (1.0
Pa = 1.0 N/m2), pressure is force/area i.e. the effect of all the collisions on
the surface of the container.
 The gas pressure is caused by the force created by millions of
impacts of the tiny individual gas particles on the sides of a
container.
  For example – if the number of gaseous particles in a container
is doubled, the gas pressure is doubled because doubling the
number of molecules doubles the number of impacts on the side of
the container so the total impact force per unit area is also doubled.
 This doubling of the particle impacts doubling the pressure is
pictured in the two diagrams below.

2x
particles

===>

Px2

For gas volume–pressure calculations see Part 2 Boyle's Law

 If the volume of a sealed container is kept constant and the

gas inside is heated to a higher temperature, the gas
pressure increases.
o The reason for this is that as the particles are heated they gain kinetic
energy and on average move faster.
o Therefore they will collide with the sides of the container with a
greater force of impact, so increasing the pressure.
 There is also a greater frequency of collision with the sides of the
container BUT this is a minor factor compared to the effect of
increased kinetic energy and the increase in the average force of
impact.
o Therefore a fixed amount of gas in a sealed container of constant volume,
the higher the temperature the greater the pressure and the lower the
temperature the lesser the pressure.
o For gas pressure–temperature calculations see Part 2 Charles's/Gay–
Lussac's Law

 If the ‘container’ volume can change, gases readily expand* on heating

because of the lack of particle attraction, and readily contract on cooling.
o On heating, gas particles gain kinetic energy, move faster and hit the
sides of the container more frequently, and significantly, they hit with a
greater force.
o Depending on the container situation, either or both of the pressure or
volume will increase (reverse on cooling).
o Note: * It is the gas volume that expands NOT the molecules, they stay
the same size!
o If there is no volume restriction the expansion on heating is much
greater for gases than liquids or solids because there is no significant
attraction between gaseous particles. The increased average kinetic
 energy will make the gas pressure rise and so the gas will try to expand in
volume if allowed to e.g. balloons in a warm room are significantly bigger
than the same balloon in a cold room!
o For gas volume–temperature calculations see Part 2 Charles's/Gay–
Lussac's Law
 DIFFUSION in Gases:
o The natural rapid and random movement of the particles in all directions
means that gases readily ‘spread’ or diffuse.
 The net movement of a particular gas will be in the direction from
lower concentration to a higher concentration, down the so–called
diffusion gradient.
 Diffusion continues until the concentrations are uniform throughout
the container of gases, but ALL the particles keep moving with their
ever present kinetic energy!
 Diffusion is faster in gases than liquids where there is more space for them to
move (experiment illustrated below) and diffusion is negligible in solids due to
the close packing of the particles.
o Diffusion is responsible for the spread of odours even without any air
disturbance e.g. use of perfume, opening a jar of coffee or the smell of
petrol around a garage.
o The rate of diffusion increases with increase in temperature as the
particles gain kinetic energy and move faster.
o Other evidence for random particle movement including diffusion:
 When smoke particles are viewed under a microscope they
appear to 'dance around' when illuminated with a light beam at 90 o
to the viewing direction. This is because the smoke particles show
up by reflected light and 'dance' due to the millions of random hits
from the fast moving air molecules. This is called 'Brownian
motion' (see below in liquids). At any given instant of time, the
hits will not be even, so the smoke particle get a greater bashing in
a random direction.


 A two gaseous molecule diffusion experiment is illustrated
above and explained below!
 A long glass tube (2–4 cm diameter) is filled at one end with a plug
of cotton wool soaked in conc. hydrochloric acid sealed in with a
rubber bung (for health and safety!) and the tube is kept perfectly
still, clamped in a horizontal position. A similar plug of conc.
ammonia solution is placed at the other end. The soaked cotton
wool plugs will give off fumes of HCl and NH3 respectively, and if
the tube is left undisturbed and horizontal, despite the lack of tube
movement, e.g. NO shaking to mix and the absence of convection,
 a white cloud forms about 1/3rd along from the conc.
hydrochloric acid tube end.
 Explanation: What happens is the colourless gases,
ammonia and hydrogen chloride, diffuse down the tube
and react to form fine white crystals of the salt ammonium
chloride.
 ammonia + hydrogen chloride ==> ammonium chloride
 NH3(g) + HCl(g) ==> NH4Cl(s)
 Note the rule: The smaller the molecular
mass, the greater the average speed of
the molecules (but all gases have the same average kinetic
energy at the same temperature).
 Therefore the smaller the molecular mass, the faster
the gas diffuses.
 e.g. Mr(NH3) = 14 + 1x3 = 17, moves faster than
Mr(HCl) = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5
 AND that's why they meet nearer the HCl end of the
tube!
 So the experiment is not only evidence for molecule
movement, it is also evidence that molecules of
different molecular masses move/diffuse at
different speeds.
 For a mathematical treatment see Graham's Law
of Diffusion

A coloured gas, heavier than air

(greater density), is put into the
bottom gas jar and a second gas jar
of lower density colourless air is
placed over it separated with a glass
cover.

If the glass cover is removed then (i)

the colourless air gases diffuses
down into the coloured brown gas
and (ii) bromine diffuses up into the
air. The particle movement leading to
mixing cannot be due to
convection because the more
dense gas starts at the bottom!

No 'shaking' or other means of mixing

is required. The random movement
of both lots of particles is enough to ensure that both gases eventually become
completely mixed by diffusion.
This is clear evidence for diffusion due to the random continuous movement of all the
gas particles and, initially, the net movement of one type of particle from a higher to a
lower concentration ('down a diffusion gradient'). When fully mixed, no further colour
change distribution is observed BUT the random particle movement continues! See also
other evidence in the liquid section below.

 Heat conduction in gases

o All gases are very poor conductors of heat energy, energy which is due to
the kinetic energy of the moving particles.
o Heat energy is transferred by 'hotter' higher kinetic energy gas particles
colliding with 'cooler' lower kinetic energy particles so raising their kinetic
energy and spreading the heat energy.
o However, the density of gases is very low, so the density or rate of
'collision transfer' is quite low.
o Therefore gases are very good insulators e.g. think of their used in house
insulation where air is trapped in various ways like foam or fibre glass loft
insulation.
 Electrical conduction in gases
o Electrical conduction requires the presence of free IONS or free
ELECTRONS i.e. particles that can carry an electrical charge.
o Gases are poor conductors of electricity because they are usually not in
an ionic or ionised form.
o However, applying a very high potential difference of thousands of volts,
especially with a low gas pressure, can cause the formation of free ions
and electrons and electrical conduction can happen.
o Strip lighting and neon signs use this effect.

A note on 'forces'

 Forces between particles are mentioned on this page and some ideas will seem
more abstract than others – but think about it ...
o A gas spreads everywhere in a given space, so there can't be much
attraction between the molecules/particles.
o Something must hold liquid molecules together or how can a liquid form
from a gas?
o In fact between liquid molecules there are actually weak electrical forces
of attraction called intermolecular forces, but they can't be strong enough
to create a rigid solid structure.
o However, in solids, these forces must be stronger to create the rigid
structure.
o Intermolecular forces are also called 'intermolecular bonds' BUT these are
not the same as covalent, ionic or metallic bonds and they are much
weaker than these true chemical bonds.