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The ongoing legacy of R.L. Katz: An updated typology of

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Article  in  Management Decision · December 2004

DOI: 10.1108/00251740410568980

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The ongoing
The ongoing legacy of R.L. Katz legacy of
An updated typology of management skills R.L. Katz
Tim O. Peterson
Department of Management, Oklahoma State University, Tulsa, 1297
Oklahoma, USA, and
David D. Van Fleet
School of Management, Arizona State University West, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
Keywords Management skills, Management history
Abstract Robert L. Katz first called attention to the problem of identifying those skills necessary
for successful performance in managerial roles. This paper identifies the impact of Katz’s classic
1955 work on managerial skills and notes the continuing legacy of his work. Modifications and
additions appearing in the management literature, particularly introductory or principles
textbooks, are noted with a suggested expansion of Katz’s work that would subsume the dominant
ones of those. The importance of managerial skills to the carrying out of managerial functions is
also discussed.

Most people are hired by organizations initially to perform some specialized set of
tasks such as accounting, computer programming, or electrical engineering involving
technical skills. Technical skills provide an individual with expertise to perform
specialized tasks within a specific work domain. Quite often, individuals are later
promoted to managerial positions because they have shown themselves to be
technically competent (Byrd et al., 2004; Maimon, 1986). In fact, it has been posited that
establishing some level of technical competence by an individual is a prerequisite for
promotion to a managerial position. Thus, managers frequently acquire their
managerial positions because of technical knowledge and competencies rather than
managerial knowledge and competencies (Hill, 2003; Rosen et al., 1976; Stumpf and
London, 1981). Whereas technical skills provide knowledge on specialized tasks,
managerial skills provide expertise on managerial activities.
Advancing from a technical position to a managerial one is difficult because, not
only does one have to retain one’s technical knowledge and competence, but one must
also develop new, managerial knowledge and skills (Koen and Crow, 1995; Mainiero,
1986; Tosi and Tosi, 1986; Winch and McDonald, 1999). Many management scholars
(Bigelow, 1991; Carroll and Gillen, 1987; Katz, 1955; Kotter, 1982; Mintzberg, 1973;
Whetten and Cameron, 1983) firmly believe that it is this set of managerial skills,
coupled with technical skills, which enables managers to manage effectively. O’Neal
(1985, p. 51) stated that without these fundamental skills, “managers cannot effectively
plan, direct, control, or assess work activities”. Empirical work confirms the
importance of managerial skills (Analoui et al., 2000; Boyatzis, 1982; Mintzberg, 1973).
Many managers are promoted predominantly for their technical skills, and so they
may not have the managerial skills necessary to perform their tasks effectively. Management Decision
Vol. 42 No. 10, 2004
pp. 1297-1308
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Management History Division meetings of 0025-1747
the Academy of Management, New Orleans, August 2004. DOI 10.1108/00251740410568980
MD Bandura and Schunk (1981) found that people will not attempt tasks if they believe that
42,10 they do not have the abilities and skills essential to perform them effectively. This
means that at least some managers will tend to avoid the managerial aspects of their
jobs preferring instead the technical aspects, because they feel that they have the
necessary skills to perform the technical, but not the managerial, aspects of their jobs.
This type of situation seems to be exactly what Peter and Hull (1969) had in mind when
1298 he coined the Peter Principle that states “In a hierarchy, every employee tends to rise to
his level of incompetence.”
This situation should be a major concern of organizations. They should ensure that
managers have the necessary managerial skills for at least three reasons. First,
managers require these skills to discharge the functions of management necessary to
their jobs effectively. Organizations achieve their objectives when managers apply
managerial knowledge to managerial functions. When they possess the managerial
skills they need, managers can perform their roles correctly; they become more
managerial self-efficacious. That is, when they are faced with a specific managerial
task, they are more likely to attempt to perform the task than avoid it. Finally, the
acquisition of managerial skills in turn, increases the likelihood that managers will
perform effectively in the future. But just what are “managerial skills”?

Katz’s managerial skills

In 1955, Harvard Business Review (HBR) published an article by Katz entitled “Skills of
an effective administrator”. In this article Katz (1955) wrote that what is important is
not an executive’s traits or personality characteristics, but what the executive can
accomplish. More specifically, Katz argued that it is a set of core skills, which are
employed by managers in pursuit of organizational objectives, that is important. Katz
argued that what a manager can accomplish is based on the skills that the manager
possesses.
A skill is the ability either to perform some specific behavioral task or the ability to
perform some specific cognitive process that is functionally related to some particular
task. Operating a computer, conducting a sales presentation, or demonstrating the use
of a drill press are all examples of behavioral tasks that require specific motor
activities. On the other hand, problem representation, solution implementation, and
performance evaluation are all cognitive processes that require specific cognitive
activities. In both illustrations, a skill is conceived as comprising three components:
(1) the existence of a domain specific knowledge base;
(2) a method for accessing this knowledge base; and
(3) the ability to enact a set of behaviors or cognitions using the retrieved
knowledge to perform the given task.
Actually, the first two components are indispensable prerequisites to the actual
execution of the observable actions. The third component is what people observe and
label as a skill. For example, without a set of rules and facts about a drill press (a drill
press knowledge base), an individual could not demonstrate the observable behaviors,
which would allow an independent observer to infer that the individual had a specific
skill. Likewise, an individual may possess the knowledge, but not be able to access that
knowledge, so an independent observer could not infer that the individual had a
specific skill. For example, an individual may know that the master circuit breaker
provides the power for the lights and the drill press in the building, but the individual The ongoing
may be unable to recall where the master circuit breaker is located in the building. legacy of
Having a domain specific knowledge base and a method for accessing it are critical to
skill development. R.L. Katz
Katz (1955) believed that the core managerial skills were not inborn personality
traits. He felt that these skills could and should be developed in managers by providing
them with a set of managerial knowledge bases and methods for accessing this 1299
information. He believed that if managers were to perform effectively in their
managerial roles, they needed specific managerial knowledge.
Based on these assumptions, Katz proposed a three-category typology of skills:
technical, human, and conceptual. These are very broad, general categories. Within
each category, numerous more narrowly focused abilities could be identified, but
Katz’s observations of practicing managers suggested that these three broad
categories were the essential set of managerial skills.
Technical skills are defined as the understanding of, or proficiency in, specific
activities that require the use of specialized tools, methods, processes, procedures,
techniques, or knowledge. Generally, technical skills are thought of as the specific
skills an individual needs to perform some specialized task. For example, firemen,
computer programmers, lawyers, and data base administrators all need specific
technical skills to perform their precise jobs. Likewise, a plant manager involved in the
hiring of a tool and die maker is exercising his/her managerial technical skills during
the hiring process. According to Katz (1955) technical skills primarily meant working
with things not people. Whereas this may be true, “things” must be interpreted very
broadly when discussing managerial work. Analoui (1997, 1998) has extended
technical skills to specific task-related managerial skills, but he still defines these
specific task-related skills as Katz defined technical skills.
It seems that as individuals move away from their technical specialization and into
managerial positions, they also move away from the use of specialized tools and
toward the use of specialized knowledge bases and cognitive processes. This type of
work is now being referred to as knowledge-based work (Bowen and Siehl, 1997; Cross,
2000; Davenport and Prusak, 1998; Tosi and Tosi, 1986). The work performed by
managers clearly fits this type of work.
One reason managers must have technical skills is that these skills allow the
manager to train, direct, and evaluate subordinates performing specialized tasks. An
early definition of supervision was as an educational process in which a person with
certain equipment of knowledge and skill takes responsibility for training a person
with less equipment (Robinson, 1936, p. 53). The point seems to be that managers must
understand the procedure or method well enough that they can train their
subordinates. From the previous discussion, it seems that managers must possess
two types of technical skills: those technical skills that deal with the specific task being
performed in the work unit and technical skills that deal with the role of being a
manager.
Human skills are defined as the ability to work cooperatively with others, to
communicate effectively, to resolve conflict, and to be a team player. Human skills are
primarily concerned with people (Katz, 1955). More recently, Analoui (1997, 1998) has
labeled these people-related skills. However, the cluster consists of teamwork, dealing
with conflict, communications, and creating organizational climate. All of these
MD specific skills are very similar to Katz’s original concept. For example, a manager
42,10 communicating performance information to a subordinate uses human skills.
According to Mann (1965), human skills include an understanding of behavioral
principles, interpersonal relations, motivation, and communication. If managers are
going to provide performance feedback, coach and counsel subordinates, and
otherwise provide productive work climate, human skills are essential. Some
1300 researchers (Coulson, 1989; Holt and Holt, 1983; Jenkins et al., 1984; McConnell, 2004)
have argued that human skills are those which managers most lack and thus need the
most development. For this reason, whole books have been published to address this
issue. Many of the roles of managers (e.g. interpersonal, informational) identified by
Mintzberg (1973) may be broadly categorized as human skills.
Finally, conceptual skills are defined as the ability to see the organization as a whole
or to have a systemic viewpoint. More recently, terms such as entrepreneurial
(Mintzberg, 1973), futuring (Mackinnon, 1984), visioning (Collins and Porras, 1996),
and systems thinking (Senge, 1990) have been used to describe the conceptual skill
category. While technical skills focus on things and human skills focus on people,
conceptual skills focus on ideas and concepts (Yukl, 2002). They are considered mental
abilities that allow the manager to understand the interaction between the different
work units within the organization, the effect of changes on any one part of the system,
and how the organization fits into the suprasystem. According to Katz, these skills
extend to visualizing the relationship of the firm to the external environment. Katz
(1955, p. 36). argues that these skills have been referred to as the executive’s creative
ability, and that they are similar to Barnard’s idea of “sensing the organization as a
whole, and the total situation around it”.
Katz acknowledged that, while he discussed each skill category independently, the
skills are interrelated when applied to managerial problems. He further posits that
there is some ideal, but different mix of these skills which is required at each
managerial level within the organization.
Katz’s article has had a solid impact on the management field. According to the ISI
Web of Knowledge Index as of July 2004 (http://isi10.newisiknowledge.com/portal.cgi),
the 1955 article has been cited 44 times while the 1974 reprint has been cited 96 times.
For comparison, other articles which appeared in the 1955 volume of the HBR have
been cited as follows – Gardner and Levy (1955) 46 times, Dean (1955) ten, Flanagan
(1955) 14, and the rest four or fewer times over the last nearly 50 years. In addition,
none of the other articles in the 1955 issue have been reprinted by the journal.

Updating
Mann (1965) conducted a series of studies to test Katz’s (1955) categories. He
summarizes these findings and argues for the importance of the three broad skill
categories of technical, human, and conceptual skills for managers. He provides
empirical support for Katz’s earlier notion that different amounts of the three skill
categories are required at different levels within the organization. Finally, Mann (1965)
provides evidence that the three skills are interrelated and that all levels of
management need some mix of the three skills.
In 1974, HBR republished the Katz article as an “HBR classic”. In introductory
comments to the article, the HBR editorial staff say: “The soundness of this approach is
shown by the enduring popularity of the article – nearly 4,000 reprints were sold in the
first six months of 1974” (Katz, 1974). Since that time, many articles and books (e.g. The ongoing
Analoui et al., 2000; Bigelow, 1991; Hill, 2003; McLennan, 1967; Brush, 1979; Krembs, legacy of
1983; O’Neal, 1985) have appeared discussing the importance of managerial skills to
organizational achievement. Many organizations feel that a major obstacle to their R.L. Katz
growth and success is a lack of managers with the necessary skills to move their
organization past current challenges.
Guglielmino (1978) conducted an empirical study of managerial skills. He surveyed 1301
a random sample of midlevel managers from Fortune 500 companies, management
professors in business schools, and training and development directors from Fortune
500 companies. All three groups identified technical, human, and conceptual skills as
being important for managers of the future. Also, as Katz had predicted, a mix of all
three skills was reported as necessary at each level of management. Peterson and
Peterson (2004) have also survey a group of senior managers using a critical incidents
technique (Flanagan, 1954). The managers were asked to first write about a successful
managerial performance situation they had observed. Next they were asked to
document an unsuccessful managerial situation. All of the critical incidents were given
to three independent raters. The raters were asked to read each incident and determine
which if any of the skill categories the incident fit. All successful and unsuccessful
incidents were categories by the raters as exhibiting either the presents of or lack of
technical, human, or conceptual skills.
In the years since the appearance of Katz’s original article in HBR and its reprinting,
numerous articles and books have been published on the topic of managerial skills.
Each publication has attempted to do one of two things:
(1) add to the fundamental core managerial skills; or
(2) more clearly delineate the specific tasks which make up each of the core skills.
The reason for this effort seems to be clear; management scholars and practitioners
alike understand that managers must possess a mix of fundamental skills to perform
their roles effectively.
Examining principles of management textbooks can demonstrate another example
of Katz’s profound impact on the management field. A total of 15 principles books
published in the mid-1980s and another 15textbooks published more recently were
examined (some are actually more recent editions of the earlier texts). Table I shows
the results of this examination.
Textbooks and their authors seem to come and go. However, Katz seems to remain.
Over this 20-year period, ten of the 15 books have gone out of print and been replaced
by new books and new authors. However, Katz still appears in 80 percent of the books.
When Katz is not mentioned, the importance of managerial skills is still discussed but
in a more generic manner. Katz’s work was specifically referenced by almost all of the
early works and by most of the more recent books. Over the 20-year period, the space
dedicated to Katz seems to have been reduced from 15 percent of a chapter to 7.5
percent. However, the chapters in the more recent books are longer, which reflects the
additional knowledge gained over the 20-year period. In addition, there are more boxed
inserts in the recent books reflecting the current publishing trend in management
textbooks. When adjusting for these phenomena, the space dedicated to Katz is closer
to 12 percent in the more current textbooks, which is very close to the 1980s
percentage. In addition, both sets of books included, on average, one figure usually
showing how skills varied across organizational levels.
 MD
42,10

Table I.
1302

textbooks
The impact of Katz on
principle of management
1980s textbooks 2000s textbooks
Textbooks Ref. No. pages % chapter Figures Ref. No. pages % chapter Figures

Aldag and Stearns (1987) Yes 2.0 15 1 Out of print

Bateman and Snell (2004) Yes 2 11 0
Boone and Kurtz (1987) Yes 0.5 5 0 Out of print
Certo (1985, 2003) Yes 0.75 15 1 Yes 1 6 1
Daft (2005) Yes 1.75 7 1
Dessler (2004) Yes 1 5 0
Gomez-Mejia et al. (2005) No – – –
Griffin (1987, 2005) Yes 5.5 30 1 Yes 2 8 0
Hampton (1986) No – – – Out of print
Hellriegel and Slocum (1986) Hellriegel et al. (2005) Yes 2.5 15 1 No – – –
Hitt et al. (1986) Yes 2.5 14 0 Out of print
Hitt et al. (2005) Yes 1.5 8 2
Ivancevich et al. (1986) Yes 2.0 11 1 Out of print
Jones and George (2003) Yes 2 7 1
Kreitner (1986, 2004) No – – – No – – –
Koontz et al. (1984) Yes 2.0 11 1 Out of print
Megginson et al. (1986) Yes 2.0 17 1 Out of print
Mescon et al. (1985) No – – – Out of print
Pierce and Gardner (2002) No – – –
Plunkett et al. (2005) Yes 1.5 5 2
Robbins and Coulter (2005) Yes 2 17 2
Schermerhorn (1986, 2005) Yes 1.0 11 2 Yes 1 4 1
Stoner and Wankel (1986) Yes 1.5 9 1 Out of print
Szilagi and Wallace (1984) Yes 4.0 21 2 Out of print
Williams (2005) Yes 1 4 1
Averages 2.4 15 1 1 7.5 1
Notes: Ref. ¼ referenced in the chapter; No. pages ¼ number of page in the chapter; % chapter ¼ percent of chapter about Katz; Figures ¼ charts or
diagrams included in the chapter
All of the management textbooks that included a discussion about managerial skills The ongoing
listed technical, human, and conceptual skills as three categories of skills required by legacy of
managers. However, a number of the books included additional skills. Table II
provides a list of the managerial skills identified in the textbooks along with a R.L. Katz
definition for each skill.
The 23 textbooks, some of which are new editions of the original 15 textbooks,
identified a total of ten core skills. 1303
An examination of the seven additional skill categories reveals that each category
attempts to capture a group of specific tasks the manager must perform to be effective.
Conceptually these skill categories could be represented as shown in Figure 1.
While technical, human, and conceptual skills still dominate, new skill categories
have appeared in the management literature. At present, the new skill categories seem
to be subsets of the old categories, but in time they may develop into distinct categories
of their own. The administrative skill category identified by Megginson et al. (1986)
and Mosley et al. (1996) seems to act as an integrator for the other skill groups.
Analoui’s (1997, 1998) more recent work while labeling managerial skills as
task-related skills (technical), people-related skills (human), and analytical and
self-related skills (conceptual) generally seems to follow the three broad categorizes set
forth by Katz in 1955. Although the exact skill set managers need to perform their jobs
is still being debated, clearly managers must possess a core set of skills to achieve the
organization’s goals effectively.
Katz (1955, 1974), Mann (1965), Mintzberg (1973), Guglielmino (1978), Boyatzis
(1982), Whetten and Cameron (1983), Bigelow (1991), Analoui (1997, 1998), and
Peterson and Peterson (2004) have all asserted that managerial skills allow managers
to enact the functions of management. Through these functions organizations achieve
their objectives. O’Neal (1985, p. 51) stated that without these fundamental skills,

Skill Definition

Technical Ability to use methods, procedures, processes, tools, techniques, and specialized
knowledge to perform specific tasks
Analytic Ability to identify key variables, see how they are interrelated, and decide which
ones should receive the most attention
Decision making Ability to choose effective solutions from among alternatives
Human Ability to work cooperatively with others, to communicate effectively, to motivate
and train others, to resolve conflicts, and to be a team player
Communication Ability to send and receive information, thoughts, and feelings, which create
common understanding and meaning
Interpersonal Ability to develop and maintain a trusting and open relationship with superiors,
subordinates and peers to facilitate the free exchange of information and provide a
productive work setting
Conceptual Ability to see the organization as a whole and to solve problems from a systemic
point of view
Diagnostic Ability to determine the probable cause of a problem from examining the
symptoms which are observed by the manager
Flexible Ability to deal with ambiguous and complex situations and rapidly changing
demands Table II.
Administrative Ability to follow policies and procedures, process paper work in an orderly manner, A compilation of
and manage expenditures within the limits set by budgets managerial skills
MD
42,10

1304

Figure 1.
Managerial skills model

“managers cannot effectively plan, direct, control, or assess work activities”. Skills then
are necessary for effectively carrying out managerial functions that are in turn
necessary for the effective and efficient functioning of organizations. Thus managerial
skills are propaedeutic to the implementation of management functions.

Summary
Robert L. Katz’s 1955 classic work on managerial skills called our attention to the
problem of identifying the skills necessary for successful performance in managerial
roles. That work was so influential that it was reprinted in 1974. In 1986 the HBR once
again reprinted excerpts from the Katz’s article because of its popularity and last
impact on the management field. Katz’s work continues to be influential although
modifications and additions have appeared in the management literature, particularly
introductory or principles textbooks. A suggested expansion of Katz’s work that
subsumes the dominant ones of those was presented and the importance of managerial
skills to the carrying out of managerial functions was discussed.

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Further reading
1308 Bartol, K.M. and Martin, D.C. (1998), Management, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill Irwin, New York, NY.
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report”, Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 150-64.
Shipper, F. and Davy, J. (2002), “A model and investigation of managerial skills, employees’
attitudes, and managerial performance”, The Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 13 No. 2, pp. 95-120.
Worrall, L. and Cooper, C. (2001), “Management skills development: a perspective on current
issues and setting the future agenda”, Leadership & Organization Development Journal,
Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 34-9.

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