Optimum and Heuristic Data Path Scheduling
Under Resource Constraints?
Cheng-Tsung Hwang
Department of Computer Science, Tsing HIMUniversity
Hsinchu, Taiwan 30043, R.O.C.
ABSTRACT
This paper presents an integer linear programming model
for the scheduling problem in high level synthesis under
resource constraints. Extensive consideration is given to the
following applications:
Multicycle operations with
non-pipelined function units,
pipelined function units;
Mutually exclusive operations;
Functional pipelining;
Loop folding;
Scheduling under bus constraint.
Using this model, we are able to solve all the bench-
marks in the literature optimally in a few seconds. Besides the
model, a new technique. called Zone scheduling (ZS). is pro-
posed to solve large size problems. ZS partitions the distribu-
tion graph into several zones and solves sequentially the prob-
lems contained. A novel feature of this technique is that it
schedules more than one control step at a time, allowing us to
take a more global view of a scheduling problem.
1. INTRODUCTION
Operation scheduling and hardware allocation are the two
major subtasks in data path synthesis. Operations are assigned
to the appropriate control ste@ in the scheduling phase. ( This
is referred to as state binding in [l].) Function units, registers
and interconnections are allocated for the data path in the allo-
cation phase. These two subtasks are tightly interdependent
Roughly speaking, operation scheduling determines the
cost-speed trade-offs of a design Once the operations are
scheduled, the number and types of function units, the lifetimes
of variables and the timing constraints are fixed. Thus. a good
scheduler is very important to an automated data path synthesis
system. We address in this paper the scheduling problem under
various resource constraints such as the number of multipliers.
adders and busses. We also take into account what will happen
in the real world, including multi-cycle operations, mutually
exclusive operations, pipelining. etc.
An integer linear programming model has been formu-
lated to solve the above problems. Besides the model. a new
technique, called zone scheduling (a), is proposed to solve
large size problems. ZS partitions the distribution graph [2] into
several zones and solves their problems sequentially. A novel
+This work was supported in pan by the National Science Coun-
cil, R.O.C. under grant no. Nsc19-0404-EOO7-24.
27th ACMllEEE Design Automation Conference@
'1990 IEEE 0738-100X19010006/0065 $1 .OO
Yu-Chin Hsu You-Long Lin
feature of ZS is that it schedules m m than one control step at a
time. As compared to list scheduling techniques [3-51. which
schedule one control step at a time, ZS solves a problem more
globally.
This paper is organized as follows: Section 2 reviews the
previous work The integer linear programming (ns) model
for a scheduling problem u n k resource constraints is described
in Section 3. The Zone Scheduling (ZS) method is introduced
in Section 4. Section 5 extends the formulations to a number of
variations. The experimental results are shown in Section 6.
Finally, concluding remarks are made in Section 7.
2. PREVIOUS WORKS
The simplest scheduling technique is av soon arparsjble
(ASAP) scheduling [6] where the operations in control and data
flow graph (CDFG) are scheduled into control steps from the
first control step to the last. An operation is scheduled to the
next control step only if all its predecessors have been
scheduled.
List scheduling has been adapted in many systems [3-51
In this scheme, ready operations are kept in an ordered list
according to a heuristic priority function and are scheduled in
order into the next control step until the number of scheduled
operations e x d the number of resources.
In forcedirected scheduling [2]. "forct" values are calcu-
lated for all omations at all feasible con~101 steps. The pairing
of operation and control stq~that has the most attractive force is
selected and assigned. A force-directed list scheduling (FDLS)
[7] has been proposed recently for scheduling under resource
constraints. It employs "force" value to detennine its priority
functions.
Since the above methods assign operations to control
steps one at a time, their results depend strongly on the order of
the assignments. An integer linear programming formulation is
able to solve the problem globally. The following systems are
examples of this approach.
An integer programming model to formulate a digital
logic is found in [8]. The model gives detailed spedications
for a data path. However, since too much complexity is
involved in digital logic synthesis, only a small problem can be
solved.
An integer linear programming approach is proposed for
microcode scheduling in CATHEDRAL-II [9].The model con-
tains data precedence, resource conflict and controller pipelhhg
constraints. Since excessive CPU time is required to solve large
problems, the model have been replaced by a graph-based
Paper 5.2
65
heuristic scheduling algorithm.
Spaid [lo] incorporates a linear programming formulation
to group the operations into clusters. Operations are then
s c h d e d into control steps by a heuristic method.
ALPS [ll]. which is the prototype for our present
research, is the first realistic integer linear programming
approach for data path scheduling. Because of its efficient con-
straint equations, this method obtains optimal solutions for mid-
dle size problems in acceptable run time.
Among the above approaches, list scheduling and FDLS
are resourceconstrained schedulers. while the FDS and ILP
approaches in [111 are timeconstrained schedulers.
3. AN ILP FORMULATION UNDER RESOURCE CON-
STRAINTS
A r e s o ~ c o n s t r a i n e dscheduling problem is to find a
fastest schedule under a given set of resources. In general, the
resources given are the number of function units, such as
adders, multipliers, ALUs and busses.
Our proposed scheduling approach includes list schedul-
ing, ASAP, ALAP and ILP. List scheduling determines the
upper limit on the number of control step for the optimal solu-
ASAP and
t i o ~ ALAP determine the minimum and maximum
start times of each operation; while ILP minimizes the number
of control steps in solving an integer linear programming formu-
lation
The ILP formulation is presented here in detail. For sim-
plicity of explanation. two assumptions are made :
(1) each operation is assumed to have a onecycle propaga-
tion delay; and
(2) only non-pipelined data paths are considered.
Orher general considerations will be discussed in the later sec-
tions.
Suppose the data flow graph (DFG) contains n operations
and is going to be scheduled into s steps which is obtained by
list scheduling. Each of the operations is labeled oi, where
1 5 i I n . A precedence relation between two operations oi and
01 is denoted as oi + oj. where oi is the immedute predeces-
sor of oj. The minimum start time (ASAP) and the maximum
start time (ALAP)of or are Si and Li; respectively. There are
m types of function units available. A function unit for type tk
is named FUlk and the number of function units of type tk is
M,k. A relation between an operation 0; and a function unit
FUlk is denoted by oi E FUlk. if FUlk can perform the function
of oi.
The variables used in the formulation are :
(1) x i j are 0-1 integer variables associated with oi , where
x i j = 1, if oi is scheduled into step j ;
x i j = 0, otherwise.
(2) Ti are integer variables which denote the control step
where oi is scheduled.
(3) C,,, is an integer variable which equals the total number
of control steps required.
The problem can now be formulated:
Minimize CIW, (1)
subject to
Paper 5.2
66
Li
(3)
Ti - C, S 0. for all oi without successors. (6)
The objective function in (1) states that we are going to
"ize the total number of control steps. Constraint (2)
states that no schedule should have a control step containing
more than M,, function units of type t k . It is clear that oi can
only be scheduled into a step between Si and b ; this is
reflected in (3). The time variables are defined at constraint (4)
Constraint ( 5 ) ensures that the precedence relations of the DFG
be preserved. No operations should be scheduled after . ,
C as
described in constraint (6).
The number of variables and equations in our formulation
grows as 0 (s.a) and 0(s .m + n ), respectively. The nm time is
more sensitive to the number of variables than to the number of
eCp3tiOnS.
4. ZONE SCHEDULING METHOD
In this section we present a new scheduling method,
called Zone Scheduling (ZS).to solve the ILP formulation of
large size problem. Suppose we divide the distribution graph
into n zones, zl, z2, .... z,. ZS will solve the first zone followed
by an updating of the distribution graph, then solve the second
zone, and so on until all the operations are solved. The idea
behind ZS is that if the range of the minimum and maximum
start times of an operation falls completely inside a zone, this
operation must be scheduled within the zone. If it crosses
zones. it can either be scheduled immediately or delayed to a
subsequent zone.
For an operation whose time frame crosses a zone boun-
dary, a new 0-1 variable, called delay-variable, is introduced to
represent the possibility that it will be scheduled in the next
zone. Given resource constraints, our goal is to minimize the
summation of weighted delay variables.
Let's assume the zone considered extends from control
step C,,, to Ced. Before we introduce the formulation, the
following variables are defined:
(1) di: a delay variable introduced for oi if its time frame
crosses a zone boundary: i.e. Si 5 C,, c Li.
di = 1 , if oi is delayed to the next zone.
di = 0 , otherwise.
(2) C, : the set of operations whose time fiames cross the
zone boundary; i.e. C , = ( oi I Si 5 C,, < Li ).
(3) wi: a weight given to 0; if oi E C,.
(4) R,, : the set of operations whose time frame falls com-
pletely inside the zone:
i.e. R,. = [ oi I C,,, I Li I C,, ).
( 5 ) q : a constant.
ci = 1. ifoi E c,.
ci = 0, if oi E R,. .
(6)S'i = ma^( C- , Si ).
(7)L'j = min( c,, ,L; 1.
(8) T:i : the control step if oi is scheduled in the zone;
T i = 0, otherwise.
The problem can now be formulated:
Minimize wi * di,
ai ‘C,

subject to
xij - Mlk I 0. for C, I j I C,,,,, 1 SkS m;
oicm (7) Fig.1 Data Flow Gnph
‘k
L’i

x,
j=S.
xij= 1, for all ~i ER-; (8) step1
--
x l x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9 x10 x l l
8
c
8
-
8

L’i

E,x i j +di= 1 , for all oi EC,,; (9) step 3 I

L..
lr’
I
I 11 I I I 1 I 1 I 1 I
L.1 I 1 11 I 1 I1 I
j=Si
step 4 ;- 1;. I I 1 I I I 1 11 I
L; L a b 1 1

7 j.xij-T:, , for all oi ER- C,; and (10) step 5 I; 1 1

L I
I I
b.

j s
Fig.2 Distribution Graph of b e 1 Scheduling
T’i + c~.(C,, + 1)di - T ; - ~ j * ( C =+d2).dj I -1 ,
for all oi +oj. (11) x l d x3x4 xS x6x7 x8 x 9 x l O x l l

The objective function in (6) states that we are going to

“ize the summation of weighted delayed variables. Weights
is determined by the importance of the delayed operations. It
can be calculated by using urgency or mobility as in list
scheduling. It is clear that no schedule should have a control Fig3 Distributicm Gnph of b e 2 Scheduling
step containing more than MIk function units of type t k ; this is
reflected in (7). Constraint (8) states that oi in ,R should be
scheduled within [S: ,L’il. Constraint (9)states that oi in C,
can either be scheduled in the range of [S‘i , L’i] or delayed to
the next wne. The time variables are defined in constraint (10). 11
Constraint (1 1) ensures the data dependencies.
Consider the data flow graph [2] in Fig. 1. The available
function units are two multipliers (FU,l) and two ALUs (FU12;
i.e.. Mtl = MIz = 2. The ALU is capable of performing addi- Fig.4 The Result
tion, subtraction and comparison. Also suppose the list schedul-
ing requires five steps to finish the scheduling under these con-
straints. The time kame of each operation, after the ASAP and T i - T3 + 4 d 3 I-1; Tz - T3 + U 3 5 -1;
ALAP schedulings are performed, is shown in Fig. 2. Suppose T6 + 3d6 - T7 - 4d7 I -1;
we divide the distribution graphs into two zones. z 1 and zz. z 1 T I + 3ds - Tg - 4 d g 5-1; and
contains control steps 1 and 2; z z contains steps from 3 to 5. Ti0 + 3dlo - Ti1 - 4dll I-1.
Consider now the first zone (Fig. 2). The set of operations By solving this formulation, we have ~ 1 . 1 ,x ~ 1 x3.s
. 142
crossing the zone are C,,, = ( 0 3 , 0 6 , 0 7 , os. 0 9 ~ o 1 0 . 0 1 11. dg and dg equal to 1. After we solve the formu-
x10,l. ~ 1 1 2 d7.
,
Delay variables, di, and weights, w i, are introduced for them. In lation for zone 1. ALAP scheduling is applied to the remaining
this example, the weight used is a function of the mobility after nodes in the DFG. Fig. 3 shows the distribution graphs for 2 2
the cut. The following is the integer programming formulation Since z z is the last zone, the objective function must be to
for the zl: “he the total n u m k of steps. The formulation for zz
1 1 1 1 1 1
Minimize -d3+ T d 6 + T d , + T d g t ydg+ -dlo+ ydll ,
1 becomes:
1 2
subject to Minimize C
.,
x1.1 + X Z l + X6.l + X8.l I 2; subject to
X1,z + x u + x32 + x u + x72 + xs2 5 2; x73 + XS.3 5 2; x1.4 + *8,4 5 2;
x10.1 I 2; x9.2 + x1o.z + x112 5 2; x43 I 2; x4.4 + x5.4 + Xg.4 5 2; x53 + xg3 I 2;
~ 1 . 1+xi2 = 1; xZ.1 +XU= 1; + d3 = 1;
~3.2 3~4.3 + 4 ~ 4 . 4- T4 = 0; 4~5.4 + 5x55 - T5 = 0;
X6.1 + x62 + d6 = 1; = 1;
X72 d7 + 3.~7.3 + 4x7.4 - T7 = 0; 3x83 + 4Xg,4 - T s = 0;
X S , J + xg2 + d s = 1; xg2 + dg = 1; 4~9.4 + 5x93 - Tg = 0;
~ 1 0 . 1 + xi02 + dio = 1; x i i j + dii = 1;
T4 - T5 I -1; T7 - T5 I -1; T s - Tg I-1;
~1.1 + 2x12 - T i = 0; +
X Z ~ 2, - Tz = 0; T5-C-50; and T g - C - 5 0 .
2x32 - T3 = 0; X6.1 2 x 6 2 - T6 = 0;
By solving this formulation, we have x 43 x 5.4 x 7,3 x 8.3
2x72 - T7 = 0; +
X ~ J 2 8 , - Ts = 0;
xg,4equal to 1 and C, = 4. The solution is optimal (Fig. 4).
2 x 9 2 - Tg = 0; ~ 1 0 . 1 + b 1 0 2 - Ti0 = 0;
2x112 - T11 = 0;

Paper 5.2
67
 The number of variables m the formulation grows as
0 (d en'). where d is the number of control steps considered in
each zone and n' is the number of operations whose time frame
inmsects the zone.
5. GENERALIZATIONS
We have generalis the ILP formulations to the follow-
ing variations:
(1) Scheduling with
a) Chaining
b) Multi-cycle operations by non-pipelined function units
c) Multicycle operations by pipelined function units
(2) Functional p i p e l i i g
(3) Loop folding
(4) Mutually exclusive operations
( 5 ) Scheduling under bus constraint
(6) Minimizing lifetimes of variables
The formulations for scheduling with chaining, multi-
cycle operations by m-pipelined function units and minimizing
lifetimes of variables have been discussed in [ll]. We concen-
trate on the other variations.
5.1. Multi-Cycle Operatlons with Plpehed Implementa-
tlon
In a pipelined function unit. new input data can be ini-
tiated while previous data are still being computed. The time
between two successive initiations is called latency. A pipe-
lined function unit with a delay d and a fixed latency 1 can per-
form a new operation every f cycles, whae 1 5 d .
Since a pipelined function unit can be shared by the
operations of any two steps si. sj. where lsi-sj I is an integer
multiple of 1, we can group the control steps into clusters. Here
a function unit can be shared by the operations of different steps
within a clusta but can not be shared by those in different clus-
ters. Therefore, the number of function units needed is the total
of the function units required by the clustas; the number of
function units required by a cluster is the maximum number of
function units of the steps within this cluster. The range of the
control steps to be considered is within [st - d + 1. st].
Therefore. for a pipelined function unit of type f k . with a
prO&" delay dk and a fixed latency lk, COnSWaht (2)
modified as
d 1-p
1-C- 1
'k - A loop folding problem is closely related to a retiming
for 1 Ij Is. 1 Ik Im. (2.1)
The number of function units required by all the clusters is
determined by the outer summation, while h e maximum func-
tion and the inner summation determine the function units
required by each cluster. Note that constraint (2.1) is not linear,
but it can be transformed into a set of linear equations.
To ensure the data dependencies, constraints (5) and (6)
are changed to
Ti - T i I-di for oi + o j , and (5.1)
Ti - C,* I1 - di , for all oi without successors; (6.1)
respectively.
For ZS formulation, constraint (11) is changed to
Paper 5.2
60
T'J + cJ.(C,, + l)d,-T'j-Cj.(C,, + 1 + di)-dj 5 1 4 , .
for all oi + oj. (11.1)
If an operation cannot be finished within the zone. it may still
occupy some resources. Therefore, the formulation of the next
zone must be take into account the cross mne operations both
in resource utilization and precedence relations.
53. Functional Pipellnlng (Plpellned Data Path)
A pipelined data path allows the execution of multiple
tasks concurrently. Two consecutive tasks can be initiated with
a certain interval, which is called the latency of the pipelined
data path.
For a given latency 1. the operations in c o d steps
j + p f ( p = 0, 1.2. . . . ) are executed simultaneously and can-
not share the same function units. Consequently, constraint (2)
is modified as
LYJ
I:
p = o OiEFU
x i i w 5 MIk, for 1 5 j 5 1. 1 5 A 5 m. (2.2)
k'
53. Loop Foldlng
The ideas of loop folding [12] (or loop winding in 1131)
and functional pipelining are v a y similar. The differ- is
that in loop folding there are data dependencies between loop
iterations, while in functional pipelining there is no data depen-
dency between different instances.
Let of & y o , denote a d-degree [12] data &pendency
) oj and Tid be the time where oj is
between oi ( o i ~ F U I kand
executed at d iterations lata. Suppose the loop length aftex
folding is known to be 1 ; we have Tid = Ti + d d . Therefore, a
new set of constraints
Ti -Ti" 5 - 4 , for all oi & y o j (12)
or equivalently
is introduced into the previous formulations to enforce the data
dependency between different loop iterations. The remaining
constraints are the same as those for functional pipelining.
problem in synchronous circuits[l4]. Retiming relocates the
positions of the separating registers in the CDFG to obtain a
shorter critical path and, hence, higher throughput. Algorithms
[14]for retiming have been proposed to optimize synchronous
circuits. In [12], after a retiming on the CDFG. scheduling is
performed on the modified data flow graph. The separation of
retiming and scheduling will produce sub-optimal design. Our
formulation for loop folding performs retiming while schedul-
ing. Experiments show that not only is a minimum number of
resources required, but the delay time and lifetimes of variables
are also reduced (see section 6.3).
5.4. Mutually Exclusive Operations
As in the case of structured programming. the relation-
ships among a set of operations, 8, can be represented as a tree
where the internal nodes are of two types. XOR and AND, and
the leaves are the operations. Let a node have n sub-trees and
the number of function units needed for each sub-tree be N F U :
N m 2 , .... N m ' . etc. N m can be defined as follows:
1:
FI =1~ ~ N F ifUthe
~ node is an XOR no&
Nm= NFUi if the node is an AND node
I =l
qj if the node is a leaf
Let Nm
'k
,,(e)be the number of function units of type
ftrequired at control step j . as illustrated in the above function.
constraint (2) is changed to
N F u l k J ( e ) S Mlk . for 15 j 5 s , 15 t~ m . (23)
5 5 . Scheduling under Bus Constraint
In a bussed architecture, when more than one operation
which share a common input variable are scheduled into the
same control step, the number of busses needed for that variable
is only one ( via broadcasting ). Thus. the n u m k of busses
required at a control step equals the number of distinct input
variables of all the operations assigned to this step. (The
hypothesis is that the read/wTite phases are interleaved and the
number of reads is more than that of mites at any step.) Sup-
pose the input variables at control step j are VI. va ..., v .1. I .
We introduce a 0-1 integer variable y r j for v, (1 Ir I Iv I ) at
step j . where y r j is 1 if v, is accessed at this step and 0 if not
accessed. We have the constraint that the number of y r J which
are assigned to be 1 is less than the number of busses, i.e.
Iv I
~ y , j I N ~f o: r l I j I s .
r=l
Since the transfer of variables during a control step (y,~) is
directly related to the assignment of operations to a control step
( x i j ) . we have to define the relationship between them. Let v,
be a shared input of a group of r, operations, o , ~ .o ,..... ~ and
or,. The value of y r j is defined as follows: If
+lj=.5.2j= . . . =.5.1j=0,then y, is given a value 0; otherwise,
it is given a value of 1: i.e.. y r j = O R ( ~ , ~ j , l r ,, ~. j. . J r , j ) .
The following constraint is included to satisfy the definition of
Y rj :
'I
+,j - r,.y,j 0 . for 11 r I iv I , 11 j Is.
i =1
Note that when r, = 1. y r j in (14) can be directly replaced by
xij. The correspondent equation in (15) is omitted.
6. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The system called ALPS has been implemented and
tested. The programs for list scheduling, ASAP, ALAP, and
ILP formulations are wriuen in C on a VAX 11/8550 running
ULTRIX operating system, and the ILP formulation is solved
using the LINDO [15] package on a VAX 11/8800 running
VMS operating system. LINDO starts with an optimal linear
programming solution and produces an optimal integer solution
using the branch-and-bound method. The fifth order wave filter
which was borrowed from [16] is given to illustrate various
requirements. It contains 26 additions and 8 multiplications. As
most systems do, we suppose a multiplication takes 2 cycles
while an addition takes 1 cycle to complete. The critical path
length is 17 cycles. The run time for the various experiments of
the example depends on the number of 0-1 variables and is
within tens of seconds.
6.1. Non-plpelined data path
Tables 1 and 2 show the results with a non-pipelined data
path. The multiplier can be non-pipelined (Table 1) or pipe
lined (Table 2). We also take into account the cost of busses
All the results are optimal.
63. Functional plpellnlng (plpellned data path)
The data flow graph of the fifth order filter b used to test
functional pipelining. ( T h e rre no data depmdenciea between
iterations; i.e. the outpts of the data flow grlrph will not feed
back into the inputs. ) We have achieved the minimal numbex
~ ~each latency and we have also minimized the
of r e s o u r ~for
delay time. The results are shown in the first and second parts
of Table 3 for non-pipelined and pipelined multiplies; nspec-
tively. The third paxt of Table 3 shows the results of [17]
where the maximum delay is set at 10 cycles. Note that in their
implementation, the cycle time is longer so that a multiplication
or two additions can be executed within a single control step.
63. Loop folding
The critical path length of the fifth filter can be reduced
to 16 cycles after loop folding or retiming while preseaving the
inter-iteration data precedences. Tables 4 and 5 show the
minimal sample period (= loop length) and delays using a non-
pipelined multiplier and a pipelined multiplier. Here, delay
means the number of control steps required for the entire DFG
(14) to be executed. Although delay time is ignored by other sys-
tems, we are wncemed with it and try to minimize it for two
reasons: First, with respect to the sample period, which
corresponds to the throughput of the system. the delay h e is
directly related to the tum around time, which is one of the
most important performance criteria Second, a longer delay
increases the lifetimes of the variables. Thus, " i z i n g the
delay time will potentially reduce the register cost. Note that
Spaid first retimed the DFG, then, pexformed a scheduling to
find the loop length (called clock cycle in Spaid). Our loop
Table 1: Non-pipelined Data Path
I Non-Dimlined Multidier I
(15)
Table 2: Non-pipelined Data Path
Paper 5.2
69
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