Chapter I, Introduction to the theory of

poro-elasticity
and two applications.

Lecture 2

27 March 2009
The main results of lecture 1

Application to subsidence and compaction

Complement on the theory of poro-elasticity

Who is Maurice Biot ?

References
Part I : The main results of lecture 1
Drained conditions

• Initial stress σ 0

• Stress changes for drained conditions

∆σ = (3K JI + 2GIK) :  − αδ∆pf , (1)

Compressibility modulus K drained conditions

Fluid mass has to change.
K
α is Biot’s constant = 1 − Ks with Ks skeleton compressibility
Part I : The main results of lecture 1
Undrained conditions
• Initial stress σ 0

• The stress change for undrained conditions

No time for fluid migration

∆σ = (3Ku JI + 2GIK) :  (2)

Ku is the compressibility modulus, undrained (Ku > K )
The pressure change :

B Ku − K
∆pf = −tr(∆σ) with B = , (3)
3 αKu
B is Skempton’s coefficient

• G remains identical for the two descriptions

• Simple extension of Hooke’s law with 2 new parameters (Ku and

Ks ).
Part I : The main results of lecture 1
Reciprocity or Maxwell-Betti theorem extended to poro-elasticity

T 1d T d2

b b2
∆ pf 1
1
∆ pf
2

• The first problem : T d1 on ∂ΩT , body forces b1 , change in fluid

pressure : the field ∆pf 1 .
• The second problem : T d2 on same ∂ΩT , body forces b2 and change
in fluid pressure : ∆pf 2 .
• Theorem
T d1 · u 2 dS +
R R
∂ΩT Ω
b1 · u 2 + α∆p1 tr(2 )dV =
T d2
R R
∂ΩT
· u 1 dS + Ω
b2 · u 1 + α∆p2 tr(1 )dV . (4)
Part II : Compaction and subsidence
Example of Ekofisk

Position of the field in the North Sea (Lewis et al., 2003)

Part II : Compaction and subsidence
Reservoir, compaction et subsidence
Part II : Compaction and subsidence
Top view of the Ekofisk reservoir
Part II : Compaction and subsidence
Subsidence below the platform
Part II : Compaction and subsidence
The Finite-Element method

(Lewis et al., 2003)

Part II : Compaction and subsidence
The Finite-Element method

• First mechanical problem : initial equilibrium, σ 0 , ρb, T d , conditions

often unknown.

• Second mechanical problem : the stress changes ∆σ in response

to  due to ∆pf and ∆T d ; no changes in body forces.

• Superposition principle : solve pb 2 without knowing pb 1 (small

perturbation assumption).

• The pressure drop is assumed to be known over the whole domain.

Part II : Compaction and subsidence
The Finite-Element method : 2D

• Start from the TVW :

Z Z
∆T d · ûdS = ∆σ : (û)dV .
∂ΩT Ω

û is a kinematically admissible displacement field.

• Material response : ∆σ = C
I :  − δ´pf where distribution of ∆pf is
known.

• Introduce classical discretization and interpolation for displacement

(same for virtual and real)

{u h }2 = [N]2×2nel {U}
with N the shape functions and {U} the nodal displacement
unknowns (nel nodes)
Part II : Compaction and subsidence
The Finite-Element method : 2D

• Strain operator :
{h }4 = [B]4×2nel {U}
with t {h } = (11 , 22 , 33 , 212 )

• Material response : {∆σ} = [C

I]{} − {δ}´pf

• The finite-element set of equations (single element)

Z Z Z
t t
[B][C][B]dV {U} = [N]{∆T d }dS + t
[B]{δ}∆pf dV .
Ω ∂ΩT Ω

• Application : ∆pf known and non-zero in the reservoir only.

Part II : Compaction and subsidence
Geometry and boundary conditions

3 km

300 m

15 km
Part II : Compaction and subsidence
FE results, plane-strain
Displacement : u1
Part II : Compaction and subsidence
FE results, plane-strain
Displacement : u2
Part II : Compaction and subsidence
FE results, plane-strain
Strain : 11
Part II : Compaction and subsidence
FE results, plane-strain
Strain : 12
Part II : Compaction and subsidence
BAD NEWS ! !

• The competition is protesting to the local government that your

company is changing the stress state at 50 km from the reservoir you
are producing, arguing that the official building will be soon damaged
by large cracks.

• Your computer with the FE program is stolen, you can only use the
one inherited from your grand-mother.

• The library was burnt down.

• The only good news : a copy of Timoshenko and Goodier, The

theory of linear elasticity (1934) has been saved.
Part II : Compaction and subsidence
Application of reciprocity theorem

F1 Problem no 2
Problem no 1

y
M M
l D
x

w ∆ p f2

2L

The two problems considered for the subsidence analysis.

Problem 1 : vertical point force on the top surface, ∆pf = 0
everywhere.
Problem 2 : ∆pf = 1 in the reservoir, 0 outside.
Part II : Compaction and subsidence
Flamant’s problem is our pb no 1

2F1 r 1−ν
ur = − cos θ log − Pθ sin θ , (5)
πE d πE
2νF1 2P r (1 − ν)P
uθ = sin θ + sin θ log + (sin θ − θ cos θ) ,
πE πE d πE

F1
y

r
θ
u
θ

ur
x

The constant d corresponds to the coordinate of a point on the

vertical axis where the displacement is set arbitrarily to zero.
Part II : Compaction and subsidence
Application of reciprocity theorem

1 • Maxwell-Betti for our two problems

Z Z
T d1 · u 2 = α∆p2 tr(1 )dV (6)
∂ΩT ΩR

R +oo
2 • Recall generalized Dirac function : −oo f (x 0 )δ(x − x 0 )dx 0 = f (x)
Consequently : ∂ΩT T d1 · u 2 is −u 2 · e2 at the point of application of
R

the force.
The vertical displacement is thus minus the integral over the reservoir
on the rhs of (6).
3 • Move the load wrt the reservoir to get the vertical displacement
profile : the subsidence.
Part II : Compaction and subsidence
Application of reciprocity theorem
• Simplifying assumptions : the pressure drop is constant over the
domain of homogenenous properties
Z
−u 2 |δ · e2 = α∆p2 tr(1 )dV (7)
ΩR

• If the reservoir width is small compared to its depth :

−u 2 |δ · e2 ' α∆p2 tr(1 )|Rc VΩR (8)

where Rc geometrical center of reservoir, VΩR volume of reservoir
Nice since this result is often aR good approximation
R and analytical !
• Apply divergence theorem : ΩR fi,i dV = ∂ΩR fi ni with n unit external
normal.
Z
−u 2 |δ · e2 = α∆p2 u 1 · ndV (9)
∂ΩR

Use the computer for the numerical quadrature on the reservoir

boundary of arbitrary shape.
Part II : Compaction and subsidence
Application of reciprocity theorem

• What should be done to get the horizontal displacement on

surface ?

• What should be done to get the displacement, strain and stress

around the reservoir ?
Part II : Compaction and subsidence
The micro-structure of Ekofish’s chalk
Part II : Compaction and subsidence
Isotropic compression test (Lixhe chalk)
Part III : Complement on the theory of poro-elasticity
Biot-Gassman equation

• Fluid mass and porosity variation (drained conditions)

m = VMof mass of fluid phase in the current configuration normalized by
the specimen volume in reference configuration ( = 0).
Vf
φ= Vo where Vf is the volume of fluid (pore) in current configuration.
Note that m = ρf φ with ρf the current fluid mass density (fct of ∆pf ).

• Free energy of the specimen : ϕ(, φ) = U − φ∆pf Legendre

transform of the internal energy U
Stress and porosity are found by taking partial derivative :
∂ϕ
σ= ,
∂
and
∂ϕ
φ=− .
∂∆pf
Part III : Complement on the theory of poro-elasticity
Fluid mass variation
Since there is a potential, cross second-order partial derivative
(Maxwell relations)

∂φ ∂σ
|pf = − | .
∂ ∂∆pf
First partial derivative replaced by :
1 ∂m
|p .
ρof ∂ f
Also, we know that
∂σ
| = −αδ .
∂∆pf
Conclude :
∂m
|p = αρof δ ⇒ ∆m|pf = αρof tr()
∂ f
Missing part is variation of ∆m wrt ∆pf . Consider for linear theory :

∆m = αρof tr() + β∆pf

and search for missing scalar β.
Part III : Complement on the theory of poro-elasticity
Fluid mass variation

• Searching for β :

∆m = αρof tr() + β∆pf

For undrained conditions ∆m = 0 and we know that
B 1
∆pf = −tr(∆σ) and tr() = tr(∆σ)
3 3Ku
This information is used to find the scalar β and to conclude
h 1 i
∆m = αρof tr() + ∆pf (10)
Ku B
αρof 1
(Note that Ku B = M0 where M 0 is Biot-Willis coefficient.)
Part III : Complement on the theory of poro-elasticity
The porosity change

• Fluid mass and porosity change : ∆m = ∆ρf φ0 + ρ0f ∆φ

Fluid mass conservation :

dVf 1
ρf dVf = ρ0f dVf0 and Jf = 0
= 1 + tr(f ) = 1 − ∆pf
dVf Kf

∆ρf ∆pf
to conclude : ρ0f
= Kf with Kf fluid compressibility.

Conclude for the porosity change (with (10)) :

 φ0 
∆φ = αtr() + α − ∆pf (11)
Kf
Part III : Complement on the theory of poro-elasticity
Biot Gassmann relations

• A relation between K , Ku , Kf , Ks , α and φ0

• Consider an experiment with T d = −Pn on the boundary and a fluid

pressure change ∆pf = −P.
Same experiment to determine α in terms of Ks and K .

The deformation is homogeneous, spherical in the solid phase : − KPs δ.

Change in geometry of the pore walls consistent, so deformation in
the fluid phase unknown, but specimen deformation equal to solid
phase.
Change in porosity : ∆φ = φ0 tr()

Use the relation for ∆φ in (11) to conclude

 2
1 1
1 1 K − Ks
− =  
K Ku 1
− 1
+ φ0 1
− 1
K Ks Kf Ks
Part III : Complement on the theory of poro-elasticity
Biot-Gassmann relation

• Other expression

α2
Ku = K + φ0 α−φ0
K + Ks

• Special case of Ks  K so α ' 1

1 φ0 1 − φ0
' + ,
Ku Kf Ks
harmonic average.

• Check also the expected results K = Ku , if highly compressible fluid.

Part IV : Who is Maurice Biot ?
(1905-1985)
Part V : References

• Guéguen Y. and Boutéca M., Mechanics of fluid saturated rocks,

Elsevier, 2004.
• Rice J.R and Cleary M.P. Some basic stress-diffusion solutions for
fluid-saturated elastic porous media with compressible constituents,
Review of Geophysics and Space Physics, 14, 227-241, 1976.
• Lewis W., Makurat A., Pao WKS, Fully coupled modeling of seabed
subsidence and reservoir compaction of North Sea Oil fields,
Hydrogeology Journal, 2003.
• Mandl G., Faulting in brittle rocks, Springer 2000.
• Schroeder C., Du coccolithe au réservoir pétrolier, Doctoral thesis,
University of Liege, 2002.