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DESALINATION PLANT
School of Technology
Leo B. Besa
Reinald B. Panganiban
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Rationale
The major reservoir of the earth is the ocean which accounts to about 97% of the
earth’s water having the remaining 2% locked in icecaps and glaciers and about 0.5% -
1% available fresh water for plants, animal and human needs. Vast reserves underlie
the earth’s surface but costs greater due to its difficulty of exploration and depth
(Khawaji et al., 2007). On the other hand, seawater is unsuitable for human
consumption, industrial and agricultural resources unless subjected to process of
desalination (Oyoh, 2016).
Desalination is the process of removing salt from water to produce fresh water
that contains less than 1000 mg/L of salts or total dissolved solids (TDS) (Linares et
al., 2014). In seawater desalination process, saline seawater is separated into two
streams. One is the fresh water stream with a low concentration of dissolved salts and
a concentrated brine stream (Khawaji et al., 2007). More than 12,000 desalination
plants have already operated as of 2006 producing about 40 million cubic meters of
water per day and is predicted to grow by 12% per year to 2010 reaching an expectancy
of 94 million m3/day capacity by 2015 (World Health Organization, 2007). This process
requires energy and utilizes different technologies for separation which tends to
improve over the years as several techniques are used in making it cost and energy
efficient. Several technologies were developed on the basis of thermal distillation,
membrane separation, freezing and electrodialysis, highlighting the reliable and
established processes such as multi-stage flash (MSF) distillation and reverse osmosis
(RO) processes (Park et al., 2011; Khawaji et al., 2007).
1.2 Objectives
With the world’s increasing population and the water consumption per person,
the water demand in also arising considerably. According to the World Health
Organization, less than 1% of the planet’s water resources are fresh water and
accessible for humans, varying on the area we study, the climate and the time of the
year. Access to fresh water is limited and contamination is a great problem. To avoid
such crisis arising from the lack of water supply, some countries need to preserve their
sources of water, reduce its contamination, regulate the supply and demand, and lastly
hold the growth of population (Martinez, 2010).
The World Health Organization in 2010 states that thirty-one countries, inhabited
by less than 8% of the world’s population, face chronicle fresh water deficit. At the
same year The World Health Organization also states that by 2030 it is foreseen that
forty-eight countries will face this deficit, affecting more than 2,800 million inhabitants.
Human life depends upon the existence of fresh water. According to the World
Health Organization, fifty liters per person and day is the minimum quantity of water
needed to maintain a certain level of hygiene and avoid the transmission of infectious
diseases. From the fifty liters just 0.75 are for drinking and the rest would be for self-
cleaning, cooking, washing and others.
In our planet, the hydrosphere has around 1,386 million km2, of this area the most
is covered by the oceans, near three out of four parts of land surface to be more precise,
which have a salinity of 3% in weight, which make it completely useless for any kind
of usage. The rest is fresh water, but about 69% is present as ice and snow covering
polar and mountain areas. The leftover is present as groundwater in a 29.9% and as
lakes, rivers and reservoirs in a 0.3% (Martinez, 2010).
Due to the increasing demand and the depletion of the freshwater sources, over
the centuries there have been references of efforts to obtain freshwater from salt water
and one method of doing so is by desalination. At present, only 0.7% of the drinking
water produced stems from saltwater. 60% of the world’s population lives than 100 km
away from a maritime coast (Cluster Maritime, 2009) making desalination an
undeniable alternative resource.
1.4 Scope and Limitations
The study is limited by the available resources and literature in seawater desalination
to produce safe water for household use. All the data will be limited to the available
resources found in Philippine agencies and departments, especially in the use of water
for household.
CHAPTER 2
The plant will be located at Miag-ao, Iloilo. It is located in the southwestern part
of the Province of Iloilo in the island of Panay. Miag-ao is one of the seven towns
compromising the First District of Iloilo Province. It is situated 40 kilometers
Southwest of Iloilo City and 58 kilometers from San Jose, the capital town of Antique
(Municipal Profile of Miag-ao, 2018).
The municipality has a land area of 15,680 hectares or 156.80 square kilometers.
The urban area composed of 22 barangays has an area of 2055.16 hectares or 20.5516
square kilometers while the remaining 97 barangays have a total area of 13,624.84
hectares or 136.2484 square kilometers. The municipal waters serving as fishing ground
for both migratory and endemic fish has an area of 48 square kilometers. Miag-ao’s
coastline stretches for 16 kilometers spanning 22 barangays (Municipal Profile of
Miag-ao, 2018).
The climate in Miag-ao has two pronounced seasons: dry from November to
April and wet during the rest of the year. The maximum temperature stands at 32.2
degree Celsius and the minimum is 22.9 degree Celsius (Municipal Profile of
Miag-ao, 2018).
One way to classify water is according to its salinity taking into account the
total dissolved salts it contains.
2.3 Desalination
Desalination technologies have been used rapidly over the past few decades
throughout the globe to produce clean drinking water from groundwater, seawater and
brackish, to improve the quality of already existing supplies of fresh water for human
consumption, commercial applications or to treat industrial and municipal wastewater
prior to reuse or discharge (Oyoh, 2016).
Desalination is growing so fast globally that it is more than certain that it will
play a significant role in water supply in the years to come. Desalination is growing
particularly in parts of the world where water availability is low. Annual desalination
capacity seems to increase rapidly as years go by (Zotalis et al., 2014).
Desalination can be defined as any process that removes salts from water. A
desalination process essentially separates saline water into two parts - one that has a
low concentration of salt (treated water or product water), and the other with a much
higher concentration than the original feed water, usually referred to as brine
concentrate or simply as ‘concentrate’ (Krishna, 1989).
The Mactan desalination plant was found feasible by Japanese consultants who
conducted the study in 2005 (Berrondo, 2005). The plant is the largest desalination
plant that utilizes RO technology in the Visayas and Mindanao, it became operational
in 2013 and initially supplied 22,000 cubic meters (cu.m.) of water per day to South
Road Properties locators and mainly to SM Seaside City Cebu Mall but is expandable
up to 50,000 cu.m. per day. Its current capacity is 25,000 cu.m. per day (Sun Star Cebu,
2013).
The company is selling water at P47 per cu.m. to SRP locators, which they said
is cheaper than Metropolitan Cebu Water District’s commercial rate of P57 per cu.m.
(Sun Star Cebu, 2013).
Moreover, in 2017, Mactan Rock Industries Inc. (MRII) received a P500-
million expansion project to provide desalinated water to Mactan Island. The multi-
million expansion was the company’s response to the increasing demand for water
supply, especially in industries. When fully run, the desalination plant could supply a
total of 25,000 cu.m. of water per day (Mosqueda, 2017).
Furthermore, the Regional Development Council (RDC-7) in Bohol endorsed
the seawater desalination project of the municipality of Dauis for China funding to
finally solve the water source problem in Panglao Island. The proposed project can have
a daily capacity of 840 cu.m. per day. The plant will employ a photovoltaic power of
electricity generation which will be matched with micro-grid system to desalinate water
through RO membrane technology (Bohol Chronicle, 2017).
On the other hand, Ilijan Plant developed by KEILCO-KEPCO Ilijan
Corporation, the largest power plant in the Philippines with a combined cycle power of
1,200 MW generating capacity utilizes membrane technology to produce purified
water. The plant consists of two power blocks, which share a common membrane based
Seawater Desalination system for their make-up water requirements. The desalination
system sources water from the Luzon Sea and has a total installed capacity of 17,000
cu.m. per day (Aquatech International, 2017).
MSF produces water by boiling and condensing the saline water. The feedwater
is preheated before entering the brine heater by passing through a series of tubes then
it is introduced into a vessel with a lower pressure resulting to a sudden boiling
(flashing) of the saline water. The condensed liquid drops into trays as hot distilled
water. The remaining water is then introduced to the next stage with an even lower
pressure until the saline water is cooled down and discharged. MSF plants usually
comprise of 18 to 25 stages. MSF has been the oldest and proven to be most reliable
thermal desalination technology however since it was claimed to have already reach its
maximum potential and maturity therefore having no margin for further improvement,
the installation of MSF plants is on a downward trend with 25% worldwide capacity
share. Also, MSF plants require relatively high energy consumption and massive
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Mezher et al., 2010; Hajeeh and Al-Othman, 2004;
Khawaji et al., 2007).
MED has been the oldest desalination method used in 1950s and 1960s that is
deemed to be very efficient thermodynamically. Multi-effect distillation occurs in a
series of vessels and uses the principles of evaporation and condensation at reduced
ambient pressure. In MED, a series of evaporator effects produce water at progressively
lower pressures. Water boils at lower temperatures as pressure decreases, so the water
vapor of the first vessel or effect serves as the heating medium for the second, and so
on. The more vessels or effects there are, the higher the performance ratio. MED has
been used in process industries such as sugarcane and salt production; however, it failed
to compete in the field of desalination due to its scaling problem and larger capital and
operating expenses. In terms of the amount of TDS in the output brine stream and outlet
water, MED has a similar product as to that of MSF but it requires lesser energy
therefore producing lesser emissions (Mezher et al., 2010; Krishna, 1989; Khawaji et
al., 2007).
VCD process is used either in combination with other processes such as the MED,
or by itself. The heat for evaporating the water comes from the compression of vapor,
rather than the direct exchange of heat from steam produced in a boiler (Buros, 2000).
Compression can be aided with the use of a mechanical compressor or a steam jet. This
type of technology is often used in small-scale establishments such as resorts and
drilling sites where fresh water is not readily available. They are usually built to the
range of 3000 m3/day (Krishna, 1989; Khawaji et al., 2007).
Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a relatively new process that was commercialized in the
1970s (Buros, 2000). It is currently the most widely used method for desalination in the
United States. The Reverse Osmosis process uses pressure as the driving force to push
saline water through a semi-permeable membrane into a product water stream and a
concentrated brine stream (Krishna, 1989.). An RO system is made up of a pretreatment
process, high-pressure pump, membrane assembly and post-treatment process having
the brine discharge at a very high pressure and freshwater at a low pressure. RO has the
lowest energy consumption among the other commercial technologies therefore having
the lowest emission of gases. The developments in RO such as having low-cost but
efficient membranes lead to reduction of its operating cost which made it popular
recently (Mezher et al., 2010).
Colloidal fouling, biofouling, organic fouling, and inorganic fouling are the main
fouling mechanisms of RO membranes. Particulate or colloidal fouling are suspended
solids and some metal-based hydroxides which accumulate on the surface of the
membrane over time and form cake fouling (Pontié, 2005). Biofilms from
microorganisms such as bacteria, fungus or algae can secrete polymers that anchor
themselves on the surfaces of the membrane, resulting to a thick layer of film clogging
membrane surfaces which may result to chemical decomposition of RO membranes
(Chua et.al, 2003). Asif et. al. suggested that biofilm behaves as a second membrane,
thus promoting high concentration polarization, high salt passage and low permeate
flux.
Scaling results from supersaturation of the RO brine relative to the low solubility
salts. With modern effective anti-scalants, scaling is a much smaller problem than
colloidal fouling through coagulation. (Ning and Tarquin, 2010).
2.7 Anti-fouling strategies
2.8 Pretreatment
2.8.1.2 Coagulation
Coagulation is the most popular treatment process used for the removal of
potential foulants such as aqueous particulate and colloidal matter. The role of
coagulation is to combine small particles into larger aggregates by neutralizing the
charges of the particles (Sinha et al., 2004). Coagulants are added to the source seawater
to enhance removal of particulate and colloidal foulants in seawater pretreatment
facilities applying granular media filtration (Schneider et al., 2013). Coagulation may
enhance the removal of natural organic matter (Jacangelo et al., 2018).
2.8.1.3 Flocculation
2.8.1.4 Ozonation
A study conducted by Al-Sofi et al. (2000), concluded that the total hardness of
seawater feed was reduced by 86.5% while chloride ion falls down from 22,780 ppm
to 16,692 ppm in an NF permeate (Jamaly et al., 2014). NF pretreatment of seawater
can prevent scaling through preferential removal of scale-forming ions. Rejection of
scale-forming ions can vary considerably depending on the membrane (Llenas et al.,
2011). Moreover, incorporation of NF as pretreatment to RO systems results to
improved desalination efficiency, reduced fouling and less frequent cleaning of RO
membrane. Furthermore, the fabrication of nanostructured materials such as size-
selective membranes with pore sizes in the sub-nanometer range allows water
molecules to pass through while preventing the ions and operates similarly to a
molecular sieve (Jamaly et al., 2014). An example of nanostructured materials are
zeolites which are aluminosilicate minerals with microstructure composed of 3-8oA
pores. In summary, NF membrane offers reduction in treatment cost with high RO
design reflux and recovery, reduced RO membrane replacement, treatment of poor
quality surface water and reduced RO disinfection and cleaning (Jamaly et al., 2014).
The use of chemicals is prevalent and inevitable most especially for cleaning the
fouling or scaling from RO membranes. Several cleaning methods such as the use of
alkaline, acids, chlorine, detergents and surfactants are done in order to remove the
natural organic matter (NOM) acids, inorganic scales, scalants (CaSO 4), bio-fouling
and colloids. Membranes can either be cleaned in place and offline and the optimum
membrane CIP cleaning rate can be determined through the interactions between the
foulants/scalants and the membrane along with the optimum cleaning agent
concentration at which removal efficiency is high. The preferential cleaning principle
for foulants was suggested as: silica colloids > adsorbed organic compounds >
particulate matter > iron and aluminum colloids > microorganisms > metallic oxides
(Kim et al., 2008). Another membrane cleaning method proposed is cleaning each
membrane individually in another pressure level, reversed speed flow, same chemicals,
but higher feed flow or also known as hydrodynamic cleaning. This requires increase
in the flow rate. With this, membrane replacement could be avoided wherein the amount
varies in relation to capacity and actual operation of the plant. The higher the capacity
and operation time, the lower the specific membrane cost. For example, the cost of
membrane replacement in Oia plant in Santorini costs €1500 to €6000 per element
(Avlonitis et al., 2003).
Liming materials with the addition of carbon dioxide are used to remineralize
product water before distribution network and the pH is adjusted from 6.8 to 8.1 to meet
potability specifications (Kim et al., 2008).
2.10.2 Disinfection
This process should reduce the boron concentration close to zero in a cost
efficient manner. Ion exchange technology using boron selective resins is the treatment
used to remove boron from permeate water since it has high selectivity and is not
affected by operating conditions such as pH, temperature and salinity. Recently, the
boron rejection of newly developed membranes ranges from 92% to 94% (Kim et al.,
2008).
3.2.2 Electricity
Electricity will enable the operation of the plant and water desalination
requires large amount of energy. To have lower energy costs, optimization and
minimization of energy consumption along with use of alternative energy
sources is recommended. The plant will primarily obtain its power source from
Panay Energy Development Corporation and modification in traditional
processes were made by using pressure exchange system or energy recovery
system (Van der Bruggen and Vandecasteele, 2002).
3.4.2.3 Pathogens
3.4.4 Concentrate
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