CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 HISTORY
The transformer is one of the most common devices found in electrical system that
links the circuits which are operating at different voltages .These are commonly used in
applications where there is a need of AC voltage conversion from one voltage level to
another. It is possible either to decrease or increase the voltage and currents by the use of
transformer in AC circuits based on the requirements of the electrical equipment or device
or load. Various applications use wide variety of transformers including power,
instrumentation and pulse transformers.
In a broad, transformers are categorized into two types, namely, electronic
transformers and power transformers. Electronic transformers operating voltages are very
low and are rated at low power levels. These are used in consumer electronic equipments
like televisions, personal computers, CD/DVD players, and other devices. The term
power transformer is referred to the transformers with high power and voltage ratings.
These are extensively used in power generation, transmission, distribution and utility
systems to increase or decrease the voltage levels. However, the operation involved in
these two types of transformers is same. So let us go in detail about the transformers.

1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter presents Transformer Faults including a review of general fault study in
the power systems. Also, it discusses on importance of restricted earth fault protection as
a one of power transformer protection functions. Then, different recent algorithms for
restricted earth fault protection from various companies are illustrated. The
presentedRestricted Earth Fault algorithms are from General Electric (manuals and
conferences), Siemens and ABB which are extracted from their Relay Manuals and
Schneider Electric and Areva T&D are extracted from IEEE conferences
In a power transformer the electrical windings and the magnetic core can cause
mechanical forces during operation, for example:•Expansion and contraction due to
thermal condition

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1.3 TRANSFORMER LIFE-CYCLE COST (TOTAL OWNING COST)
Life-cycle cost (or total owning cost) analysis is a method that encompasses not
only the initial purchase price but also the comparative operating costs of competing
models, equalized to present-day dollars. Since the operating cost of a transformer over
its life may be many times its initial price, the only fair comparison with competing
models must take operating costs into account.
Another benefit to owning a transformer with low life-cycle cost, results from the
fact that it runs cooler. Loss in the form of heat reduces the life of a transformer by
causing damage to the insulation over time. It can also cause transformers to fail.
Consequently, a transformer with lower life-cycle cost wouild be expected to have a
longer life and lower failure rate, as well as lower losses. A transformer with lower losses
(both core and coil) reduces the amount of power generation needed to accommodate the
losses. This in turn reduces the emission of greenhouse gases, i.e. carbon dioxide (CO2),
produced by fossil fuel generators.
Example 1: Life-cycle cost comparison of two 75-kva transformers using a and b values
An example of the TOC of a more efficient (copper-wound) 75 kVA transformer
to less efficient (aluminum wound) 75 kVA at 100% loading provided by Olsun Electrics
illustrates the lower TOC of the more-efficient copper-wound transformer: In this
example, the A value is assumed to be $1.50 per watt, and the B value is $0.35 per kWh.

TOC = Initial cost of transformer + Cost of the No-load Losses + Cost of the Load
Losses
TOC of more efficient = $2,064 + ($1.50/watt)(320 watts) + ($0.35)(1670 watts)
= $3,128.50
TOC of less efficient= $1,979 + ($1.50/watt)(350 watts) + ($0.35)(1874)
= $3,159.90
In this example, the more efficient transformer costs $85 more initially, but has 30 watts
less core loss, and 204 watts lower coil loss, so the total owning cost of the more efficient
unit is less than the cheaper first-cost unit.

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 CHAPTER-2
TRANSFORMER
2.1HISTORY:
The transformer principle was demonstrated in 1831 by Michael Faraday,
although he used it only to demonstrate the principle of electromagnetic induction and did
not foresee its practical uses. Viable designs would not appear until the 1880’s, but with in
less than a decade, the transformer was instrumental during the “War of currents” in
seeing alternating current systems triumph over their current counterparts, a position in
which they have remained dominant.
William Stanley, an engineer for Westinghouse, the first commercial device in
1885 after George Westinghouse had bought Gaulard and Gibbs’ parents. This design was
first used commercially in 1886.
Hungarian engineers zipernowsky, Blathy and Deri from the Ganz company in
Budapest created the “ZED” closed-core model in 1885 based on the design by Gaulard
and Gibbs. Their parent application made Dolivo-Dobrovolsky developed the first three-
phase transformer in 1889.

2.2 WHAT IS TRANSFORMER?

The transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical
circuit to another electrical circuit through the medium of magnetic field and without a
change in the frequency. The electric circuit which receives energy from the supply mains
is called primary winding and the other circuit which delivers electric energy to the load
is called the secondary winding.

2.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE:

A transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction between two
coupled circuits or coils. According to this principle, an e.m.f. is induced in a coil if it
links a changing flux.
In core-type transformer, half of the LV(and HV) winding is on one limb and the
other half is on the second limb. In shell-type transformer, the LV and HV windings are
sandwiched. However, for simplifying the drawing and analysis of both these types of
transformers, schematic diagram is as shown in figure. The primary winding is connected
to an alternating voltage source, therefore, an alternating current I starts flowing through

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N turns. The alternating mmf NI sets up alternating flux which is confined to the high
permeability iron path . The alternating flux induces voltage E1 in the primary P and E2
in the secondary S. if the load is connected across the secondary, a load current starts
flowing.
In addition to the secondary winding, there may be a third (or tertiary) winding on
the same iron core. The emf induced in the secondary or tertiary winding is usually
referred to as the emf due to transformer action. Thus the transformer action requires the
existence of alternating mutual flux linking the various windings on a common magnetic
core.
A transformer having primary and secondary windings is called a two-winding
transformer whereas a transformer having primary, secondary and tertiary winding is
known as a three –winding transformer. As stated before, primary is connected to source
whereas the secondary and tertiary windings feed the load.

Fig 1 – Core of Transformer

2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSFORMER:
Transformers are classified based upon:
1. Number of phases
a) Single phase

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 b) Poly phase transformer
2. Construction
a) Core type
b) Shell type
c) Berry type
3. Function
a) Power Transformers
1) Step up
2) step down
b) Distribution Transformer always step down
c) Instrument transformers
d) Welding transformer
4. Number of windings
a) Single winding transformer (Auto transformer)
b) Multi winding transformer
5. Types of cooling
a) Air cooled transformers
1. Natural air cooled transformers
2. Forced air cooled transformers
3. Induced air cooled transformers
b) Oil cooled transformer
1. Oil filled natural or self cooled transformer
2. Oil filled forced air cooled transformer
3. Oil filled water cooled transformer
6. Location
a) Indoor transformer
b)Outdoor transformer
7. Rating
a) Low rating transformer
b) Medium rating transformer
c) High rating transformer
8. Frequency
a) low frequency (50 Hz or power frequency and audio frequency)
b) High frequency transformer(HTF), pulse transformer, radio frequency etc.

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 CHAPTER 3
DESCRIPTION OF TRANSFORMERS
3.1 PARTS OF TRANSFORMER
Transformer mainly consists of:
1) Tank
2) Core
3) Bushing insulators and conductors
4) Winding
5) Conservator
6) Air cell
7) Breather
8) Cooling system
9) Oil
10) Protection devices
11) On load and off load tap changer
12) Earthing arrangement
3.2 TANK:-
The tank is of wielded mild steel plate, which is short blasted inside and outside
to remove scale before painting. The tank is painted with a coat of yellow proof oil
enamel. The outside it is applied with anticorrosive primer paint.
The is designed to withstand vacuum in line with CBIP recommendation .The
cover is either bell type of flat and remains mounted on the top and bolted to the bottom
of the tank rim.
3.3 CORE:-
In transformers core is used to provide a continuous magnetic path with a
minimum air gap included. The core is constructed of sheet steel laminations, the steel
should have high permeability and a low hysteresis losses at usual operating flux
densities.
The eddy current loss is minimized by laminating the core, the laminations
being insulated from each other by a light coat of core plate varnish or by oxide layer on
the surface. The thickness of the lamination varies from 0.35mm for a frequency of 50hz
to 0.5mm for a frequency of 25hz.

3.4 BUSHINGS INSULATORS & TERMINALS:-

Bushings are OIP condenser type or porcelain type depending upon the voltage
class the clearness in air between live conductive parts and live conductive part to earthed
structures shall be shown as above.
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Basic rated Basic insulation Phase-phase Phase-earth
system voltage level (KV) rms clearance (mm) clearance (mm)
(KV) rms
11 75 280 140
22 125 330 230
33 170 350 320
47 250 530 480
66 352 700 660
110/132 550 1220 1050
132 650 1430 1270
220 950 2000 1820
220 1050 2350 2150
400 1425 4000 3500
Table 3.1
3.5 WINDINGS:-
In transformers the wdgs are of 2 types namely primary &secondary wdgs
which are connected to Primary & secondary coils. The transformers are generally
classified in to 2 types:
1. Shell type
2. Core type
The small core type transformers consist of a simple rectangular core with
cylindrical coils which are either circular or rectangular in form. But for long –size core
transformers ,round or circular coils are used which are so wound as to fit over a
cruciform core section . Wdgs are arranged in concentric formation with lowest voltage
winding next to the core. In territory wdgs is arranged then this windings is placed next to
the core.
In shell type transformers the coils are form wounded but are multi-layer disc
type wounded in the form of pancakes. The diff layers of such multilayer discs are
insulated from each other by paper.
3.6 CONSERVATOR:-
With the variation of temperature, there us corresponding variation in the oil
volume .an expansion vessel called conservator is added to the transformer with a
connecting pipe to the main tank .in smaller transformer, this vessel is open to atmosphere
through dehydrating breathers.

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3.7 BREATHER:-
Both transformer oil and cellulouse paper are highly hygroscopic. Paper
being more hygroscopic then the mineral oil the moisture is not excluded from the oil
surface in the conservator by which to
To minimise this, the conservator is allowed to breathe only through the silica
gel column, which absorbs the moisture in the air before it enters the conservator air
surface.
3.8 PROTECTION DEVICES:-
A) BUCHHOLZ RELAY:-
If any fault occurs in the transformer oil & insulations decomposes by heat,
producing gas developing an impulse oil flow. To detect this buchholz relay is used.
It is introduced at the middle of connection pipe between tank &conservator of
transformer.
It consists of two floats, one of them with surge catching baffle and gas collecting
space at top. This is mounted in the connecting pipeline between conservator and main
tank. This is the most dependable protection for a given transformer.
Gas evolution at a slow rate that is associated whit minor faults inside the
transformers gives rise to operation top float is associated with minor faults inside the
transformers gives rise to the operation or top float whose contacts are wired for alarm
any major fault in the transformer creates a surge and the surge element in the relay trips
the of transformer, size of the relay varies with oil volume in the transformer and the
mounting angle also is specified for proper operation of the relay.

B) TEMPERATURE INDICATORS:-
There are two types of temperature indicators namely
1 .oil temperature
2 .winding temperature indicator
a) Oil temperature indicator:-
It is the distance thermometer operating operating on the principle of
liquid expansion. It provides local indication of the top oil temperature at the marshalling
box.

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 The connection between the thermometer bulb and the dia indicator is made
flexible steel capillary tube .the oil temp indicator is provided with a max pointer and two
mercury switches one from alarm and other for trip.
OTI is suitable fir 100v ac.
Alarm=85°c
Trip=90°c
b) Winding temperature indicator:-
This indicator operating on the principle of liquid expansion provides local
indication at the marshalling box of hot spot temperature of winding. The winding hot
spot to top oil temperature differential is simulated by means of heater coil fitted around
the operating bellows.
All mercury levels suitable for 250v ac or dc. The WTI pocket has to be filled
with transformer oil.
3.9 ‘ON LOAD’ TAP CHENGERE & OFF LOAD TAP CHANGER:-
In transformers the wdgs can be changed by using tap changings .These tap
changings are seasonal. The tap changings are mainly used to compensate the voltage
drops in the distributing system. The tap changings are of two types:

1) OFF LOAD TAP CHANGER TRANSFORMER:-

In off load tap changing system, whenever a tap is to be changed, the
transformer is required to disconnect from load. Hence it is used for changing the voltage
ratio slightly for diff load conditions.fig

Fig 2.1- OFF-load tap changer

2) ON LOAD TAP CHANGER TRANSFORMER:-

In order to make tap changings possible with the transformer ON load
(without change or interrupting the supply) special arrangements are to be
provided
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 Fig 2.2- ON load tap changer
3.10 EARHING ARRANGEMENT:-
A) CORE EARTHING:
Connecting leads from core and end frames are being terminated at the top of
cover. By connecting them to the tank cover, core and frame becomes earthed. The
insulation resistance between the leads from core and earth frame can be checked by 500v
merger.
B)TANK TO TANK COVER EARTHING:
Tank to tank cover earthing is done by connecting copper braid between tank rim
and tank cover with the help of bolts used to tight tank cover and tank together.
C)EARTHING TO TANK:
For earthing tank, two number studs have been provided on tank 2 nos. M-16nuts
are required to make perfect earthing between pads on tank and external strip.

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 CHAPTER 4

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE TRANSFORMER

4.1 Characteristics and parameters of insulating oil

S.NO Characteristics Unit Requirement
1. Appearance The oil shall be clear, transparent & free
from suspended matter or sediments.
2. Density at 29.5oC gm/cc 0.89
3. Kinematic viscosity at
27oC(Max.) Cst 27
4. Interfacial tension at
27oC(Min) N/m 0.04
5. Flash point (Min) C 140
6. Pour Point(Max) C -6
7. Neutralisation value (Total
acidity), (Max) mg/KOH/g 0.03
8. Corrosive sulphur Non-corrosive
9. Electric strength
(breakdown voltage), (Min)
(a) New untreated oil kV (rms) 30
(if the above value is not obtained the oil
shall be filtered in laboratory)
(b) After filtration kV (rms) 60
10. Dielectric dissipation factor
(tan δ) at 90oC(Max) 0.002
11. Water content (Max) ppm 50
12. Specific resistance (Min)
at 90oC ohm-cm 35×102
at 27oC ohm-cm 1500×102
13. Oxidation stability
(a) Neutralisation value (Max) mg/KOH/g 0.4
(b) Total sludge after oxidation
(Max) mg/KOH/g 0.10%
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14. Ageing characteristics after
accelerated ageing (open
breaker method with
copper catalyst)
(a) Resistivity (Min)
At 90oC ohm-cm 0.2×1012
At 27oC ohm-cm 2.5×1012
(b) Tan δat 90oC (Max) 0.2
(c) Total acidity (Max) mg/KOH/g 0.
(d) Sludge content by weight 0.05
(Max) 0.05%
15. Presence of oxidation Oil shall not contain oxidation inhibitor
inhibitor
Table 4.1
4.2 SUPPLY AND TESTING
The transformer oil is dispatched directly to site from oil refinery. The oil is
thoroughly inspected and tested at oil supplier’s works in presence of TESLA and / or
customer’s representative or their authorized representatives. Test certificate giving values
obtained for ball characteristics is issued.
4.3 HANDLING
The oil drums be carefully handed at site, details of which are given in clause 9.1
of IS:1866.
4.4 RECONDITIONING
Transformer oil is usually contaminated during handling, transport and storage
due to ingress of moisture and solid impurities. Hence, oil shall be vacuum filtered
separately at 50oC-70oC using filtration machine and a spare clean tank before filling in
the transformer. Details of filtration are given in clause 9.2 of Is: 1866. Oil treatment shall
be terminated when the following parameters are attained.

kV class of transformer Recommended permissible limit

Electric Strength Moisture content
(BDV) in kV (Min) ppm(Max)

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 Up to 145 60 20
245 65 15
420 70 15
TABLE:4.2
kV class of Recommended permissible limit
Electric Strength Moisture content Resistivity* Tan delta*
transformer
(BDV) in kV ppm(Max) at 90oC at 90oC
(Min)
Up to 145 60 20 1×1012 0.05
245 65 15 1×1012 0.05
420 70 15 1×1012 0.05
TABLE:4.3

CHAPTER 5

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 OIL FILLING INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONSERVATORS WITH AIR
CELL
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In all transformers specially in high voltage class, maintenance of insulating oil
notably its dielectric property forms one of the determining factors of equipment in
service. Oxidation and contamination of transformers oil can be avoided in a simple and
effective way by use of above oil preservation system. Complete system is known as
“Conservator with Air Cell”.
In this oil preservation system a flexible air cell made of oil resistant nitrile rubber
is placed inside the conservator and floats on the oil surface. The air cell inflates or
deflates as the oil level in the conservator falls or rises depending on the ambient
temperature and load on the reactor. The inside of the rubber bag (air cell) is put into
communication with atmosphere by means of a silica gel breather which ensures dry
atmosphere inside the air cell. In addition to the above this system provides following
advantages.
 It avoids saturation of absorbed gases.
 As no gas is used in this system, which operates at constant pressure, this
formation of gas bubbles at low ambient temperature and load is
eliminated.
 The system thus preserves the oil quality its dielectric properties.
The conservator with air cell is provided with a magnetic oil gauge having one
electrical contact. The indication shown on the dial physically corresponds to the oil level
in the conservator which is due to balance of static pressure between the oil of the
conservator and the atmospheric air inside the air cell. This system is also provided
sometimes with a set of pressure and vacuum valves. These valves operate to pass either
oil air or air in the event of over filling or under filling the conservator during installation.
5.2 ANALYSIS OF GAS
The gas collected in the relay will help to identify the nature of fault. It is
suggested that the following checks are made at convenient intervals or following or the
indication of accumulation of gas alarm signal.
1. Rate of gas collection – The greater the gas collection, the more severe is the
nature of the developing fault.
2. Colour of the gas helps in finding the affected materials as follows.
Colour Identification
White Gas of decomposed paper and cloth insulation.
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Yellow Gas of decomposed wood insulation.
Grey Gas of overheated oil due to burning of iron portion.
Black Gas of decomposed oil due to electric arc.
Table 5.1
3. Combustibility of gas – A small amount of gas drawn through the top pet cock if
brightens the flame, then the gas is combustible. Incombustible gas indicates air.
4. Chemical analysis of the gas – The principles of working gas analyzing equipment
is illustrated in the figure 3.1.

Two solutions are prepared as detailed below and best results are obtained with
freshly prepared solution.
Solution 1:5gms of sliver nitrate (AgNo3) dissolved in 100 ml distilled water.
Solution 2: A weak solution of ammonia in water is slowly added to 100 ml of
solution until a white curdled precipitate which forms first disappears in the
mixture.

The gas analyzer loaded with these solutions is then connected to the top pet cock.
A small quantity of gas collected in the relay is allowed to pass through the two solutions
as illustrated.
The results are identified as follows:
1. Both solution are clear : gas is air.
2. Solution 1: White precipitates
Turning brown on exposure
To sunlight : gas of oil decomposition.
3. Solution 2: Turning to dark
brown precipitates : gas of decomposed paper,
cotton or wood insulation.

5.3 GENERAL MAINTENANCE

5.3.1 DIRT/DUST
The external transformer surfaces shall be inspected regularly; and when required
cleaned from dust, insects, leaves and other airborne dirt.
5.3.2 POSSIBLE LEAKAGE

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 After energising of the transformer, a certain settling may appear in sealing joints.
This applies especially to sealing joints with plain gaskets that are not placed in grooves.
Rust damages, touch-up painting
A regular inspection of the external surface treatment of the reactor should be
carried out. Possible rust damages are removed and the surface treatment restored to
original stated by means of primer and finish paints that are dispatched with the
transformer.
5.4 OIL PRESERVATION SYSTEM, MOISTURE ABSORPTION
Transformer oil absorbs easily moisture from the surrounding air. The moisture
absorption has been prevented by means of rubber sack in conservator which acts as a
separating wall between the oil and the surrounding air.
The moisture absorption is further prevented by a breather connected to the
conservator. The active drying agent (silica gel) should be exchange or regenerated when
2/3 of the agent has red-coloured by absorpted moisture.
The breather contains also an oil-seal that prevents spontaneous air circulation
should filled with oil to the level specified.
5.5 OIL LEVEL INDICATOR FOR OIL CONSERVATOR
The transformer oil conservator is provided with an oil-level indicator. At an oil
temperature of 45oC, the conservator should be half filled. If the exceeds the value “full”,
oil must be drained off. If the value is “low”, oil must be filled in. Normal oil level should
be at 35oC mark.
5.6 GAS-OPERATED RELAY (Buchholz Relay)
The use of gas-operated relay as protection for oil-immersed transformer is based
on the fact that faults as flash over, short-circuit and local overheating normally result in
gas generation. The gas-bubbles gathering in the gas-operated relay affect a float-
controlled contact which gives an alarm signal.

5.7 MOISTUER
If the oil has been subjected to moist air, the moisture content and the electric
strength of the oil shall be checked.
5.8 TEMPERATURE SUPERVISION

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 The service life of a transformer is highly dependent on the temperature prevailing
in the core and windings under operation. It is thus important to keep the oil and winding
temperatures under observation continuously. The temperature should be read regularly
and the measured valves registered.
5.9 OVERLOAD
A transformer can normally be overloaded at low ambient temperature. However,
the permissible overload must not be judge only with regard to the oil temperature. We
must also consider that the temperature difference between winding-oil will increase with
the load. Therefore, also the winding temperature must be supervised during overloading.

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 CHAPTER-6

COOLING OF TRANSFORMERS AND TRANSFORMER LOSSES

6.1 COOLING OF TRANSFORMERS
Heat is produced in the windings due to current flowing in the conductors (I 2R)
and in the core because of eddy and hysteresis losses. In the small dry type, transformer
heat is dissipated directly to the atmosphere. In oil immersed transformer heat is
dissipated by thermo-syphon system action. The oil serves as the medium for transferring
the heat produced inside the transformer to outside atmosphere.

6.2 METHODS OF COOLING EMPLOYED IN TRANSFORMER

1. Oil immersed natural cooled transformer {ON type}

2. Oil immersed forced air-cooled transformer{OF type}
3. Oil immersed water-cooled transformer{OW type}
4. Oil immersed forced oil cooled transformer{OWF type}
5. Air blast transformer{AB type}

6.2.1 OIL IMMERSED NATURAL COOLED TRANSFORMER {ON TYPE}

In the transformer of this type, the core and winding coils are immersed in
insulating oil contained in an iron tank. The heat produce in the core and windings is
transferred to the tank surface through oil by conduction and convention method, and then
surface dissipates the heat to the surroundings.

6.2.2 OIL IMMERSED FORCED AIR-COOLED TRANSFORMER {OF TYPE}

In the transformer of this type, the core and winding coils are immersed in
insulating oil and cooling is increased by forced air over the cooling surfaces.

The air forced over external surfaces of tubes by means of fans mounted external to the
transformer. This type of transformer usually adopted in substation and generating station.

6.2.3 OIL IMMERSED WATER-COOLED TRANSFORMER {OW TYPE}

In the transformer of this type, the core and winding coils are immersed in
insulating oil and cooling is increased by circulation of cold water through the tubes
immersed in oil. The water tubes usually provided at the top of the tank, where the
temperature of the oil is highest.

6.2.4 OIL IMMERSED FORCED OIL COOLED TRANSFORMER {OWF TYPE}

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 In the transformer of this type, the core and winding coils are immersed in
insulating oil and cooled by forced oil circulation. The forced oil circulation is obtained
by use of centrifugal pump, which is located at the oil inlet or outlet. The pump motor
used for the purpose is designed operate totally immersed in the cooling liquid being
circulated.

6.2.5 AIR BLAST TRANSFORMER {AB TYPE}

It is dry transformer cooled by a forced circulation of air through core and

windings. This type of cooling transformer is limited to voltage not exceeding 25kV. It is
used in substations located in thickly populated areas where oil is considering as fire
hazard. The main disadvantage of this system is that increase in insulation strength, due to
immersion in oil is not obtained.

6.3 TRANSFORMER LOSSES:

Although transformers are very efficient they pertain some losses. The total
power losses in a transformer are a combination of three types of losses.
One is due to the dc resistance in the primary and secondary windings. These losses are
called copper losses or I²R losses.
The two other losses are due to eddy currents and hysteresis in the core of transformer.
Eddy current loss, copper loss and hysteresis loss result in undesirable conversion of
electrical energy in to heat energy.
Total transformer loss, P TOTAL at any load level can then be calculated from:
P TOTAL = P NO LOAD +(%LOAD)*P LOAD

a) COPPER LOSS:
Whenever the current flows in the conductor, the power is dissipated in the form
of heat. The amount of power dissipated is proportional to resistance of the wire, and to
the current through it. Greater the resistance or current, the greater power dissipated.
The resistance of wdg is the function of the wire and its length.

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 Fig 6.1- Graph between load and heat produced
b)EDDY-CURRENT LOSS:
The of the transformer is constructed with an type of Ferro magnetic material.
When the primary of transformer is energised by alternating source a furcating magnetic
is produced. This field cuts the conducting material hence voltage is induced.
the induced voltage causes random currents to flow through the core which dissipates
power in the form of heat these undesirable currents are called eddy-currents.
To minimise these losses transformer laminations are required.

Fig 6.2- Representation of eddy current loss

c) HYSTRESIS LOSSES:
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 When a magnetic field is passed through the core is becomes magnetised, hence to
become magnetised the domains domains must align themselves with the external field.
The energy used to turn each domain is dissipated as heat with in the iron core. This loss
is called hysteresis losses.

Fig 6.3 Representation of Hysterisis loss

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 CHAPTER-7
INTRODUCTION TO PROTECTION SYSTEMS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
If any fault occurs in the system, some necessary action is taken immediately to
rectify it after a predetermined time delay.
The elimination of fault by protection system requires correct operation of a number of
sub systems of a system. The protection system can be divided in three subsystems.
a) circuit breakers(CB)
b) instrument transformers(CT,PT)
c) Relays(R)
7.2 CIRCUIT BREAKERS
A circuit breaker is a piece of equipment which can
1) Make or break the circuit either manually or by remote control under normal
conditions.
2) Break a circuit automatically under fault conditions.
3) Make ckt either manually or by remote control.
It essentially consists of fixed & moving contacts called electrodes. Under normal
conditacts are fixed, these contact remains closed and will not open automatically until
and unless the system becomes faulty.
When the contacts of the CB are separated the arc is struck between them. The production
of arc not only delays the current interruption process but it also generates enormous heat
which may cause damage to the system or to the circuit breaker itself.
7.3 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER
The current and voltage of the protected equipment are converted in to low level for relay
operations this is done for two reasons.
1. The lower level input to the relays ensures that the physical hardware to construct
the relays will be quite small and less expensive and
2. The personnel working with the relays are in safe working environment.
It is necessary that the ct & pt reproduce the current and voltage in the secondary
delivered by these is low and consists of relays. The load on ct &pt is commonly known
as their burden.

a) Current transformers:

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 There are two types of current transformers, at ramagundam the 400 kV cts are
dead tank which consist of a single bar passing through a torrid which consists of five ct
secondary core. When the primary current enters terminal a, the current leaving the
current leaving the dotted terminal of the secondary winding is in phase with primary
current.
b)Potential transformer :
The potential transformer is similar to multi winding over transformer. For
voltages at HV and EHV levels a capacitance potential divider is used.
Capacitance c1 and c2 are so adjusted that few kilo volts is obtained across c2
when terminal is at a system potential. The voltage stepped down to low voltage
of around 63.5 volts across three coils which are used for protection and metering
circuit in the systems.

7.4 RELAYS:
A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the
operation of the circuit breaker to isolate the defective elements from the rest of the
systems. The relays detect the abnormal conditions in the electrical circuits by constantly
measuring the electrical quantities which are different under the normal and fault
conditions.
The majority of relays fall in five categories.
1. Magnitude relays
2. Directional relays
3. Ratio relays
4. Differential relays
5. Pilot relays

a) Magnitude relays :
The most for these type relays responds to the magnitude of the input that is current or
voltage and operate to trip whenever the magnitude exceeds a certain value, which
adjustable. If the value of current in the healthy system is [ip] and exceeds the fault
current magnitude the following will be produced.
[If] > [Ip]-trip
[If] <[Ip]-block

b) Differential relays:

Page | 23
 A differential relay is one that operates when the phase differences of two or more
similar electrical quantities exceeds a pre-determined value.
Thus the current differential relay is one that compares the current entering a section of
the system with the current leaving the section. Under normal operating conditions, the
two currents are equal but as soon as a fault occurs, this condition no longer applies. The
difference protection the incoming and outgoing currents is arranged to flow through the
operating coil of the relay. If this current is equal to or greater than the pickup value , the
relay will operate and open the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty section.
There are two fundamental system of differential or balanced protection viz:
1) Current balance protection
2) Voltage balance protection

c)Pilot relays:
These relays are similar to relays discussed above but are applied for the transmission
lines, which are far apart. The method applied is to compare the current signal of local
and remote by power line carrier of the same transmission line by injecting the signal
through high frequency.

Fig 7.1- Circuit for controlling an AC or other high current

Device from a micro controller by using a relay

7.5 PROTECTION OF GT
The ramagundam super thermal power station (rstps) with installed capacity of
2600MW having 3*500 MW and 1*500 MW units in three stages. These is the biggest

Page | 24
power generating station in south region. In this region only RSTPS is having 500MW
TG set, 4nos. The generator units are connected to the 400 KV , 220KV and 132 KV
feeders connected to switch yard. The electrical protection philosophy adopted at RSTPS
is classified into following categories where duplicated protections are without
duplication equipments:-
1. Generator protection.
2. Transformer protection.
3. Switchyard protection.
4. Feeder protection.

Transformer protection:-
a) Winding earth fault.
b) Winding inter turn faults.
c) Over fluxing.
d) Buchholz protection.
e) Rapid pressure rise.
f) Winding temperature high.
g) Oil temperature high.
h) Fire protection etc.

Detective devices and their functions

Sl. Detective Description
no. device
1. Buchholz This relay detects the gas evolution due to internal trouble any gives alarm, and is
relay (1st suited to the detection of minor or slowly developing faults. The nature of the detected
stage) fault can be judged to an extent by analysing the gas and oil. In case of nitrogen gas
comes out due to the sudden temperature drop, which sometimes results in the
actuation of this relay.
2. Buchholz When a major fault suddenly takes place inside the transformer tank to the conservator.
relay (2nd The second stage of buchholz relay is actuated by this oil flow. If the second stage of
stage) the relay functions independently, check the air breather, nitrogen gas sealing device
etc. If it functions combined with the over current relay etc. it is suspected that a
serious internal defect is existent. In such a case, take all tentative measures and
contact TESLA immediately.
3. Pressure When the internal pressure of the transformer rises above the set valve, the pressure
relief relief device functions. It also functions, though occasionally by the choking of the air
device breather. The self-excited pressure relief plate is subject to brittles caused by secular
change. Comprehensive judgement based on the inspection of their protective relays is
the key to determining whether the function of this is an erroneous operation or a
normal operation caused by internal defect.
Page | 25
 4. Differentia This relay detects the internal defect by comparing the input current and the output
l relay current of the transformer .If it functions combinedly with other protective devices, it
is indicative, in almost all cases, of an internal fault. Note that this relay sometimes
operates due to in rush current when the transformer is energized, and this is of course
not an internal fault.
5. Dial This thermometer gives alarm while temperature rises beyond the preset valve.
thermo Insufficient cooling effect of cooling equipment due to contamination of cooling fins,
meter stoppage of oil pumps, fans and so forth is one of the reasons that operates this device.
alarm
contact
6. Over These are intended for detecting faults in the electric system connected with the
current transformer. A fault in the transformer results in the function of these relays, which is
relay, always accompanied by the actuation of protective devices of the transformer.
ground Detection of the fault in the electric system should therefore be made on the basis of a
fault relay comprehensive judgement of these functions.
7. Voltmeter If a sudden change in voltage or current is noted when no abnormalities are detected in
ammeter the electric system, or an abnormal unbalance of voltage or current is noted between
phases, investigate the cause.
8. Human Note that human senses also play an important role in the fault detection. Following
senses are the points to be checked by your senses.
1. Discoloration or odour of insulation oil (blackening or stink). If pieces of insulating
materials or copper particles are found in the oil, it is suspected that an internal defect
has developed.
2. Abnormal vibrations or sound.
Table 7.1

Sl. Check point Description Judging standard

no.
1. Measurement of Grounding fault can be detected by this Judgment to be made by
insulation measurement though to some extent. The comparison with values
resistance measurement must be proceeded after obtained by periodical
disconnecting the transformer from lines and inspection.
cleaning of bushing surfaces.
2. Measurement of This is a primary means to be employed for Judgment to be made by
winding detecting the faults of windings. The resistance comparison with the
resistance should preferably be measured independently by factory test report.
the D.C drop of potential method.
3. Measurement of This can be conducted by applying a voltage of Ditto
voltage ratio about 200V which can be readily obtained at job-

Page | 26
 site. Accurate measurement at job site entails some
difficulties due to source voltages variation and
errors of instruments. In case of 3-phase
transformers, it is essential to measure the ratio
phase by phase and check the variation of the ratio
between phases.
4. Measurement of This measurement is very useful to detect fault in 1. Comparison of the
exciting current windings and/or cores. Local short-circuit in measured values
windings or cores often causes an increase in the with previously
exciting current. The test can be made by applying obtained ones.
current. The test can be made by applying a low 2. Significant diff in
voltage (200-400 volts) to a winding. value among
phases.
5. Checking of Measure dielectric strength and check for carbon Judgement is made with
insulation oil sludge, offensive odour and discoloration. reference to supervision
of transformer &
supervision and control
of oil.
6. Measurement of Judgement to be made
dielectric loss by comparison with
factor, tan δ values obtained by
periodical inspection.
7. Analysis of gas When gas is accumulated in the buchholz relay, its Contact TESLA.
accumulated composition must be clarified by the gas
Buchholz relay chromatograph analyzer to check for the possible
internal defect.

8. Analysis of Existence of internal defect can be judged though Contact TESLA.

dissolved gas in to a limited degree. By sampling and analyzing oil
the oil by a gas chromatograph.

Table 7.2

Method for detecting oil or nitrogen leaks

Leak Measures Description

Oil leak Clean the suspected leak The following are susceptible
part with thinner or to leakage.
gasoline, apply chalk 1. Gasketed joints

Page | 27
 powder to it. The leak part 2. Welded parts.
will present itself as a soiled
sport.
The following are susceptible
Nitrogen leak (in case of Step up nitrogen gas
to leakage.
nitrogen sealed system) pressure to 0.17 kg/cm2
1. Accessories for
pressure relief
2. Flanges
3. Welded parts.
Table-7.3

7.6 GAS ANALYSIS ON TRANSFORMER OIL

Incipient faults in filled transformer are usually the result of electrical or thermal
excess stress of either the transformer oil or insulating materials.
It is known that such excessive stresses produce a mixture of gases characteristic
of which give an indication of the type of faults, and materials associated with the faults.
It is recommended that analysis of dissolved gases in transformer oil by gas
chromatographic equipment is made, the time of commissioning and then after an interval
of one year for transformers of 145kV class and above.

MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE
Sl. Items to be inspected Inspection notes Action required
HOURLY
1. Ambient temperature Check that the Shutdown the transformer
2. Winding temperature temperature rise is and investigate, if higher
3. oil temperature reasonable than normal.
4. Load amps. An improper tap position
Load voltages Check against rated can cause excessive core
figures. loss. Voltage and tap
position should be corrected.

Page | 28
 DAILY
1. Oil level in transformer Check Oil level from oil Top up if found low.
conservator. gauge.
2. Oil level in tap changer Check oil level from the Top up if found low.
diverter switch. gauge glass.
3. Oil level in bushings. Check oil level from the
4. Pipe work and gauge glass/gauge. Top up if found low.
accessories for Inspect the transformer If leakages are observed
leakages. for leakages tighten evenly the gasket
joints. Replace ‘O’ ring of
washer suitably.

MONTHLY
1. Buchholz relay Check oil level Release collected gas /air
2. Dehydrating breather Check colour of silica gel. Reactivate/replace with new
3. Leakages of water in to charge if found pink
cooler. investigate and rectify after
taking shut down.

YEARLY
1. Transformer oil Check for characteristics Filter/replace as required to
in line with IS:1866. restore the quality
2. Cable box Check for proper scaling Replace sealing washer, if
of compound filling found damaged
holes. check for cracks in
the compounds
3. Alarm and protection Check al protections and Replace born fusers, adjust
circuits alarm circuits by actual the setting and check wiring
external initiation. Check circuit. Adjust relay setting,
operation of relays and if needed. Replace damaged
their sensitivity relays.
4. OTI & WTI pockets Check oil in the WTI and Replenish if required.
OTI pockets.
5. Earth strict Check earthing resistance Take suitable action, if
resistance is noted high
Page | 29
 6. Packing gaskets of fans Inspect the condition Replace if worn out or
packing gaskets resilience lost.
7. Fan motors Check is value of motor Dry out if found low, check
winding after rainy balancing of fans.
season. Noise and
vibration of fans
8. Tank and accessories Check painting and Touch up/repaint , if
surface finished. required replace any
Mechanical inspection of component found damaged
all accessories.
9. Gasket joints Check the tightness of Tighten evenly all loose
bolts bolts, nuts, locking etc.
10. Divert servicing One year after Draw out diverter, clean
commissioning tighten contacts.
11. Diverter switch of on Check the contacts for Recondition / replace, if
load tap changer burning or pitting marks required.
12. Diverter switch oil Filter oil irrespective of Replenish with new oil, if
strength. oil is too much
13. Tank cover and Dirt, dust, surface. contaminated.
conservator Clean touch up painting.
14. Bushing top connectors. Check contact joints.
Retighten.
TWO YEARLY
1. Oil conservator General inspection including Clean if required. Ensure proper
checking the operation of functioning of indicator/replace if
gauges on it. Check healthiness puncheness.
of air cell.
Examine values as per IS: 1866 Filter oil if required.
2. Transformer oil Mechanical inspection of Set floats, if required.
3. Buchholz relay buchholz.

7-10 YEARLY
Transformer tap changer Overall internal inspection Tighten all clamping arrangement,
assembly including lifting of core and loose clearings etc. tighten all nuts
coil assembly. and bolts and check locking
arrangements and fasteners. Wash
core and coil with dry transformer

Page | 30
 oil.

Table 7.4

APPLICATION AND INTERPRETATION OF TESTS ON OIL IN TRANSFORMERS AND

REACTORS

(INCLUDING SELECTOR TANKS OF ON-LOAD TAP CHANGERS)

Sl Characteri Equipment Test Test Suggested Permissib Action if
.n stic method venue initial le limit outside
o F=field periodicity satisfacto permissi
L=Lab of tests ry for use ble limit
oratory
(1 (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
)
1. Electric 145 KV and IS:6792 F/L AFTER 50 KV Reconditi
(breakdown above (average filling or re- (min) on of
voltage-kV 72.5 KV and of 6 filling prior alternatel
less than 145 breakdow to 40 KV y if more
KV below ns on one energizing (min) economic
72.5 KV cell filling then after 3 other tests
with 2.5 months and 30 KV dictate
mm gap after 1 year (min) replace
2. Water spacing L oil
content 25 PPM
(ppm) 145 KV and Reconditi
above IS:335- AFTER on of
Below 145 1983 filling or re- 35 PPM alternatel
KV filling prior (max) y if more
to economic
3. L energizing or other
Specific then after 3 tests
resistance months and 0.1×1012 dictate
All voltages
after 1 year OHM-CM replace
(resistivity) IS:6103- (MIN) at oil

Page | 31
 ;ohm-cm at 1971 90°c Reconditi
4. 90°c L AFTER on if the
145 KV and
filling or re- value of
above
Dielectric filling prior DDF-
dissipation Below 145 to 0.2 (max) permits
factor (tan) KV energizing reclaim or
at 90°c IS: 6626- then after 3 replace if
1971 months and 1.0 (max) not
after 1 year
Reclaim
All voltages
AFTER or replace
5. All voltages F filling or re- oil (limit
(or) filling prior to be
L to adopted
6. Neutralizati L energizing, 0.5mg depends
on value then after 2 KOH/g on the
(total year (max) type of
acidity) IS:1448(P equipmen
Sediment :2) 1967 No t and
and/ or sediment instructio
precipitate All voltages Appendix or ns from
sludge A perceptibl manufact
e sludge urer
All voltages DO should be Reclaim

145kb and detectable or replace

above oil
DO
7. L Reconditi
on oil if
sediment
IS
detected
alternatel
8. Flash point L y if more
Page | 32
 IS:1448(P Decrease economic
9 :21)1970 L in the or other
flash point test
15c(max) dictate
of the replace
Interfacial DO initial oil.
at 25c IS:6104- value Reclaim
1971 minimum or replace
Dissolved value oil if
gas IS:9434- 125c precipitat
analysis 1979 0.018 N/ e sludge
DO m is
After filling minimum detected
prior to IS:10593 Reclaim
energizing 1983 or replace
3months oil after
and after 1 hacking
year causes

Reclaim
or replace
oil
Reclaim
or replace
oil
(DGA)
Table: 7.5

Page | 33
DO’S AND DON’TS
DONT’S FOR POWER TRANSFORER
Do not energise without thorough investigation of the transformer, whenever any
alarm of protection has operated.
1. Do not re-energise the transformer, unless the Buchholz gas is analyzed.
2. Do not re-energise the transformer without conducting all precommissioning
checks. the results must be comparable with results at works.
3. Do not handle the off-circuit tap switch when the transformer is energised.
4. Do not energise the transformer, unless the off-circuit tap switch handle is in
locked position.
5. Do not leave-off circuit tap switch handle unlocked.
6. Do not leave tertiary terminals unprotected outside the tank, connect them to
tertiary lightning arrestors protection scheme, when connected to load.
7. Do not allow WTI/OTI temperature to exceed to 65oC during dry out of
transformer and filter machine temperature beyond 70oC.
8. Do not parallel transformers which do not fulfil the condition given in clause 4.4
9. Do not use low capacity lifting jacks on transformers for jacking.
10. Do not move the transformer with bushings mounted.
11. Do not overload the transformer other than the specified limits as per IS:6600.

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 12. Do not change the settings of WTI and OTI alarm and trip frequently. The setting
should be done as per the site condition.
13. Do not leave red pointer behind the black pointer in OTI and WTI.
14. Do not leave any connection loose.
15. Do not meddle with the protection circuits.
16. Do not allow conservator oil level to fall below ¼ level.
17. Do not allow oil level to fall in the bushings, they must immediately to be topped
up.
18. Do not leave marshalling box doors open, they must be locked.
19. Do not switch off the heater in marshalling box except to be periodically cleaned.
20. Do not allow dirt and deposits on bushings, they should be periodically cleaned.
21. Do not allow unauthorized entry near the transformer.
22. Do not leave ladder unlocked, when the transformer is ‘ON’ in service, in case it
is provided.
23. Do not change the sequence of valve opening for taking standby pump and motor
into circuit.
24. Do not switch on water pump unless oil pump is switched on.
25. Do not allow water pressure more than oil pressure in differential pressure gauge.
26. Do not mix the oil, unless it confirms fully to IS:335.
27. Do not allow inferior oil to continue in transformer. The oil should be
immediately processed and to be used only when only when BDV/ ppm conforms
to IS:1866.
28. Do not continue with pink silica gel, this should immediately be changed or
regenerated.
29. Do not leave secondary terminal of an unloaded CT open.
30. Do not store transformer for long after reaching site. It must be erected and
commissioned at the earliest.
31. Do not keep the transformer gas filled at site for a longer period.
DO’S FOR POWER TRANSFORER:-
Check and thoroughly investigate the transformer whenever any alarm or protection
operated.
1. Check air cell in conservator.
2. Attend the leakage on the bushing immediately.
3. Examine the bushing for dirt deposits and coats, and clean them periodically.
4. Check the oil level in oil cup and ensure air passages are free un the breather. If oil
is less, make up the oil.
5. Check the oil for acidity and sludge as per IS:1866.
6. If inspection covers are opened or any gasket joint is to be tighted, then tighten the
bolts evenly to avoid uneven pressure.
7. Check and clean the relay and alarm contacts. Check also their operation, and
accuracy and if required change the setting.
8. Check the protection circuits periodically.
9. Check the pointers of all gauges for their free movement.
10. Clean the oil conservator thoroughly before erecting.
Page | 35
11. Check the buchholz relay and readjust the floats, switches etc.
12. Inspect the painting and if necessary retouching should be done.
13. Check the OTI and WTI pockets and replenish the oil, if required.
14. Remove the air through vent plug of the diverter switch before you energise the
transformer.
15. Check the oil level in the diverter switch and if found less, top up with fresh oil
conforming to IS:335.
16. Check the gear box oil level, if less, top up with specified oil.
17. Examine and replace the burnt or worn out contacts as per Annexure 4.1 of
Maintenance Schedule.
18. Check all bearings and operating mechanism and lubricate them as per schedule.
19. Open the equalising valve between tank and OLTC, wherever provided at the time
of filling the oil in the tank.
20. Connect gas cylinder with automatic if transformer is to be stored for long, in
order to maintain positive pressure.
21. Fill the oil in the transformer at the earliest opportunity at site and follow storage
instructions.
22. Check the door seals of marshalling box. Change the rubber lining if required.
23. Equalise the diverter compartment of the OLTC by connecting equalising pipe
between flange joints provided on the tap changer head.

Page | 36
 CONCLUSION
A transformer is protected against several faults by the protection devices like:

 Buchholz relay, an alarming device for internal faults.

 OTI and WTI for measurement and protection due to high oil and winding
temperature.
 Breather and silica gel arrangement for venting in and out moisture free
air.
 Conservator tank take up expansion and contraction of during
loading/unloading cycles.
Most of the system should be protected to obtain continuous supply power to the
load centres, here if any fault occurs the correspondent protective devices are operated,
and hence the transformer is protected by all the methods used.

Page | 37
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER By R.K.SINGH

 POWER TRANSFORMERS PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS
By JOHN J.WINDERS
 DESING AND CONSTRUCTION FEATURES By R.C.AGARWAL
 COOLING OF TRANSFORMER By C.M.SHARMA
 TRANSFORMER PROTECTION By B.L.RAWAT
 ELECTRICAL MACHINES By J.B.GUPTA
 PRINCIPLES OF POWER SYSTEMS By V.K.MEHTA
 MODERN POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS By C.L.WADHWA

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