EE2401 – Power System Operation and Control

Unit II
Real Power- Frequency Control
Basics of Speed Governing mechanism and modeling – Speed load characteristics – Load
sharing between two synchronous machines in parallel. Control Area Concept – LFC
control of a single area system. Static and dynamic analysis of uncontrolled and controlled
cases- Integration of Economic dispatch control with LFC. Two area system modeling -
Static analysis of uncontrolled case. Tie-line frequency bias control of two area system –
State variable model.

Real Power Frequency control:

 Real power frequency control matches the system generation according to the change in load
and maintains the frequency within a tolerable limit of ±5%.
 When the load in a system changes, the speed of the entire turbine generator connected to the
system changes, which in turn changes the frequency of the system.

120𝑓
𝑁=
𝑃

 𝑁∝𝑓
Where, N – speed of the alternator (rpm)
f – Frequency of the system in Hz.
P – Number of poles of the alternator
 From the above equation it is known that the frequency depends on the speed of the
alternator.
 The speed of the alternator depends on the speed of the prime mover on which they are
connected. The speed of the prime mover depends on the speed governor which are
mechanical speed sensing devices. The mechanical speed sensor senses the speed and
controls the opening and closing of the valves.
 So the load frequency control controls the control valve or gate opening of the prime mover
according to the change in frequency and meets the load variations.
 Control Area: An area in which all the generators speeds up and slow down together
maintaining the relative angles and thus maintaining the frequency is called as a control area.

Basics of Speed Governing Mechanism:

 The governor acts as the main control in case of the Load frequency control.
 The governor controls the position of the control valves or gates, thereby controlling the flow
of high pressure steam into the turbine.
 By controlling the flow of steam, the speed of the alternator is controlled.
 The speed governing mechanism of a steam based system comprises of a fly ball governor,
speed changer, Hydraulic amplifier and linking mechanism.

Fly ball Governor:

 Fly ball governor is a speed sensing device connected directly to the hydraulic amplifier.
 The hydraulic amplifier adjusts the control valve opening using a linkage mechanism.
 When the speed increases due to the increase in load, the speed governor gives the lower
command.
 The fly ball moves outwards and the point B lowers resulting in increase in speed.

Speed Changer:

 It gives a steady state output setting for the turbine.

 By the downward movement of the speed changer, upper pilot valve opens and more steam is
admitted into the turbine under steady state.
 When the speed changer is moved upwards, the upper pilot valve gets closed and lesser
steam is allowed into the turbine.
Hydraulic Valve:

 It consists of a pilot valve and a main piston arrangement.

 It is used inorder to open and close the steam valve against the high pressure steam.
 The low pressure movement is converted into a high pressure pilot valve movement.

Linkage Mechanism:

 ABC and CDE are the rigid links pivoted at point B and D respectively.
 The linkage mechanism provides the movement to the control valves in accordance with the
speed changer.
 It also provides feedback from the steam valve movement.

Operation of Speed governing mechanism:

 When the load increases, the speed of the turbine decreases.

 Now the speed changer fives a raise command.
 The fly ball moves outwards and the point B moves downwards and D moves upwards.
 Now the high pressure oil enters into the pilot valve and pushes the main piston downwards.
 Now the gate valve gets opened and more steam rushes into the turbine.
 The speed now increases and the frequency is maintained.

Modeling of Speed Governing Mechanism:

Modeling of Speed Governor

 The system is operating in a steady state at frequency f0 and delivers a power of PG0. The
initial setting of the steam valve is Xs0.
 Consider a small disturbance has occurred in the system.
 A raise command ΔPc is given to the speed changer. Now the point A moves downwards by
ΔXA.

∆𝑋𝐴 = 𝑘𝑐 ∆𝑃𝑐 ---- (1)

 Movement on C:
i. Due to the movement of A by ∆𝑋𝐴 ,
𝑙2
− ∆𝑋𝐴 = −𝑘1 ∆𝑋𝐴 = −𝑘1 𝑘𝑐 ∆𝑃𝑐 ---- (2)
𝑙1

ii. Now the flyball moves outwards due to the increase in frequency. The B now moves
downwards by a proportion of 𝑘2 ∆𝑓.
∆𝑋𝑐 = −𝑘1 𝑘𝑐 ∆𝑃𝑐 + 𝑘2 ∆𝑓 ---- (3)
 Movement on D:
 The amount of opening of the valve is determined by the movement, ∆𝑋𝐷 .
  The valve gets opened due to the movement of the main piston which is due to the
movement of D.
 The movement of D is due to ∆𝑋𝐶 and ∆𝑋𝐸 .
𝑙4 𝑙3
 ∆𝑋𝐷 = ∆𝑋𝐶 + ∆𝑋𝐸 = 𝑘3 ∆𝑋𝐶 + 𝑘4 ∆𝑋𝐸
𝑙 3 +𝑙 4 𝑙 3 +𝑙 4
---- (4)
 Movement on E:
 The volume of oil entered into the cylinder is proportional to the line integral of ∆𝑋𝐷 .
𝑡
∆𝑋𝐸 = 𝑘5 0
(−∆𝑋𝐷 )𝑑𝑡 ---- (5)
 Taking laplace transform of equation (3), (4) and (5),
∆𝑋𝑐 (𝑠) = −𝑘1 𝑘𝑐 ∆𝑃𝑐 (𝑠) + 𝑘2 ∆𝑓(𝑠) ---- (6)
∆𝑋𝐷 (𝑠) = 𝑘3 ∆𝑋𝐶 (𝑠) + 𝑘4 ∆𝑋𝐸 (𝑠) ---- (7)
−𝑘 5
∆𝑋𝐸 (𝑠) = 𝑠
∆𝑋𝐷 (𝑆) ---- (8)
 Substituting (7) in (8)
𝑘5
∆𝑋𝐸 𝑠 = − 𝑘3 ∆𝑋𝐶 (𝑠) + 𝑘4 ∆𝑋𝐸 (𝑠)
𝑠

𝑘4 𝑘5 𝑘5 𝑘3
 ∆𝑋𝐸 𝑠 1 + =− ∆𝑋𝐶 (𝑠) ---- (9)
𝑆 𝑠
 Substituting (6) in (9),
𝑘4 𝑘5 𝑘5 𝑘3
∆𝑋𝐸 𝑠 1 + =− −𝑘1 𝑘𝑐 ∆𝑃𝑐 (𝑠) + 𝑘2 ∆𝑓(𝑠)
𝑆 𝑠
𝑆+𝑘 4 𝑘 5 𝑘 1 𝑘 5 𝑘 3 𝑘 𝑐 ∆𝑃𝑐 𝑠 −𝑘 5 𝑘 3 𝑘 2 ∆𝑓(𝑠)
 ∆𝑋𝐸 𝑠 =
𝑆 𝑆
𝑆 𝑘2
 ∆𝑋𝐸 𝑠 𝑘4 𝑘5 1 + 𝑘 = 𝑘1 𝑘5 𝑘3 𝑘𝑐 ∆𝑃𝑐 𝑠 − 𝑘 ∆𝑓(𝑠)
4 𝑘5 1 𝑘𝑐
𝑘2 𝑘
𝑘 1 𝑘 5 𝑘 3 𝑘 𝑐 ∆𝑃𝑐 𝑠 − ∆𝑓(𝑠) 𝑘1 𝑘3 𝑘𝑐 ∆𝑃𝑐 𝑠 − 2 ∆𝑓(𝑠)
𝑘1𝑘𝑐 𝑘1𝑘𝑐
 ∆𝑋𝐸 𝑠 = 𝑆
= × 𝑆
𝑘 4 𝑘 5 1+ 𝑘4 1+
𝑘4𝑘5 𝑘4𝑘5
𝑘1 𝑘𝑐
 Let 𝑅= , R is the speed reglation of the Governor in Hz/Mw.
𝑘2
𝑘1 𝑘3 𝑘𝑐
𝑘𝐺 = , 𝑘𝐺 is the Gain of the speed Governor
𝑘4
1
𝑇𝐺 = 𝑘 , 𝑇𝐺 is the time constant of the speed Governor in msec.
4 𝑘5
𝑘𝐺 1
∴ ∆𝑋𝐸 𝑠 = ∆𝑃𝑐 𝑠 − ∆𝑓(𝑠) --- (10)
1+𝑆𝑇𝐺 𝑅
 The output of the generating unit is varied by changing the load reference point which is
integrated with the speed governing mechanism. The adjustment of the load reference point
is done by the speed changing motor which leads to the ups and downs in the speed droop
characteristics.
 The block diagram representing the above equation is given as,
 ∆𝑃𝑐 (s) 𝑘𝐺
+ 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺
-

1
𝑅

Modeling of Turbine:
 The increase in the steam valve opening leads to the increase in the generation, ∆𝑃𝐺 . The
increase is generation is due to the incremental increase in the turbine power, ∆𝑃𝑇 .
 ∆𝑃𝑇 = ∆𝑃𝐺 , When the incremental losses are neglected.
 In a two stage steam turbine, the dynamic response is influenced by two factors, namely,
i. Entrained steam in between the inlet steam valve and first stage of the turbine.
ii. The storage action in the re-heater which makes the output of the low pressure turbine
stage to lag behind the high pressure stage.
 The turbine transfer characteristics are influenced by two time constants. But for simplicity it
is assumed to have a single equivalent time constant (Tt ).
 The turbine model is given as,

𝑘𝑡
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 ∆𝑃𝑇 = ∆𝑃𝐺

Where, Tt is the Time constant of the turbine.

𝑘t is the Gain constant of the turbine.

Modeling of Generator load model

 The increment in power input to the generator load system is ∆𝑃𝐺 − ∆𝑃𝐷 , Where ∆𝑃𝐷 is the
increase in load
 The increment in power input to the system is accounted in two ways:
𝑑
i. By increasing the kinetic energy in the rotor at a rate of 𝑑𝑡 𝑤𝐾𝐸 .
 At a scheduled frequency f 0 the kinetic energy is given by,
0
𝑤𝐾𝐸 = 𝐻 × 𝑃𝑟 kw-sec or kilojoules
Where, 𝑃𝑟 is the kW rating of the turbo-generator
H is the inertia constant.
  The kinetic energy is proportional to the square of the speed (frequency).
0 𝐽 𝜔 02
𝑤𝐾𝐸 = 2
0
=> 𝑤𝐾𝐸 ∝ 𝑓02 --- (11)
So the kinetic energy at a frequency of (𝑓0 + ∆𝑓) is,
𝑤𝐾𝐸 ∝ (𝑓0 + ∆𝑓)2 --- (12)
 Dividing (12) by (11),
0
(𝑓0 + ∆𝑓) 2 0
∆𝑓 2
𝑤𝐾𝐸 = 𝑤𝐾𝐸 = 𝑤𝐾𝐸 1+
𝑓0 𝑓0
2
0
∆𝑓 ∆𝑓
= 𝑤𝐾𝐸 1+2 + 2
𝑓0 𝑓0
0 ∆𝑓
= 𝑤𝐾𝐸 1 + 2 𝑓 (Approximately)
0
0
𝑑𝑤 𝐾𝐸 2𝑤 𝐾𝐸 𝑑 2𝐻𝑃𝑟 𝑑
 Now, the rate of change in kinetic energy, = ∆𝑓= ∆𝑓 --- (13)
𝑑𝑡 𝑓0 𝑑𝑡 𝑓0 𝑑𝑡
ii. As the frequency gets changed the motor load changes being sensitive to speed, the
rate of change of load with respect to frequency can be regarded as constant for a
small change in frequency.
𝜕𝑃 𝐷
 Rate of change of load with respect to frequency, ∆𝑓 = 𝐵∆𝑓
𝜕𝑓
Where, B is the damping factor which can be determined empirically.
 The power balance equation is given as,
2𝐻𝑃𝑟 𝑑
∆𝑃𝐺 − ∆𝑃𝐷 = ∆𝑓 + 𝐵∆𝑓 --- (14)
𝑓0 𝑑𝑡
 Dividing the equation by 𝑃𝑟 the equation becomes as,
2𝐻 𝑑
∆𝑃𝐺(𝑝.𝑢) − ∆𝑃𝐷(𝑝.𝑢) = ∆𝑓 + 𝐵(𝑝.𝑢) ∆𝑓
𝑓0 𝑑𝑡
 Taking Laplace transform,
2𝐻 2𝐻
∆𝑃𝐺 𝑆 − ∆𝑃𝐷 𝑆 = ∆𝑓 𝑆 + 𝐵∆𝑓 𝑆 = ∆𝑓 𝑆 +𝐵
𝑓0 𝑓0
∆𝑃𝐺 𝑆 −∆𝑃𝐷 𝑆 ∆𝑃𝐺 𝑆 −∆𝑃𝐷 𝑆
 ∆𝑓 𝑆 = 2𝐻 = 2𝐻
+𝐵 𝐵 1+
𝑓0 𝐵𝑓0
𝑘𝑝
 ∆𝑓 𝑆 = ∆𝑃𝐺 𝑆 − ∆𝑃𝐷 𝑆 --- (15)
1+𝑆𝑇𝑝
1
Where, power gain, 𝑘𝑝 = 𝐵
2𝐻
Power system constant, 𝑇𝑝 = 𝐵𝑓
0
 The block diagram of the above equation is given as,
 ∆𝑃𝐷 (s)

∆𝑓(s)
- 𝑘𝑝
+
∆𝑃𝑇 = ∆𝑃𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝

Model of a load frequency control of an isolated Single area power system:

 By combining the block diagrams of the governor, turbine, generator and load the complete
block diagram of load frequency control of an isolated single area power system with
feedback is obtained.
∆𝑃𝐷 (s)

∆𝑃𝑐 (s) - 𝑘𝑝
𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 +
+ 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 ∆𝑃𝑇 = ∆𝑃𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝
-

1
𝑅

Steady State Response:

 By considering the speed governor and turbine, the block diagram can be simplified as,
𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 1
∆𝑃𝐺 𝑆 = [∆𝑃𝑐 𝑠 − 𝑅 ∆𝑓(𝑠)] --- (16)
1+𝑆𝑇𝐺 (1+𝑆𝑇𝑡 )
 For any change in power output of the generator, the speed or frequency is independent,
(i.e.)∆𝑓(𝑠)] = 0.
𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡
 ∴ ∆𝑃𝐺 𝑆 = ∆𝑃𝑐 𝑠 --- (17)
1+𝑆𝑇𝐺 (1+𝑆𝑇𝑡 )
 In the model there are two incremental inputs to the load frequency control system, namely
i. Change in speed changer setting,−∆𝑃𝑐
ii. Change in load demand, ∆𝑃𝐷
 Consider that the speed changer setting ∆𝑃𝑐 = 0 and the load demand changes.
𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 1
 Now ∆𝑃𝐺 𝑆 = ∆𝑓(𝑠)
1+𝑆𝑇𝐺 (1+𝑆𝑇𝑡 ) 𝑅
 The value of 𝑘𝑡 is fixed for a turbine and 𝑘𝐺 can be adjusted by changing the lengths of the
links. So for simplicity the value of 𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 ≈ 1
1 1
∴ ∆𝑃𝐺 𝑆 = × − ∆𝑓(𝑠)
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 (1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 ) 𝑅
∆𝑓
Now for a step change, ∆𝑓 𝑠 = 𝑆
1 ∆𝑓(𝑠)
∆𝑃𝐺 𝑆 = ×−
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 (1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 ) 𝑆𝑅
1 ∆𝑓(𝑠)
 𝑆∆𝑃𝐺 𝑆 = ×−
1+𝑆𝑇𝐺 (1+𝑆𝑇𝑡 ) 𝑅

∆𝑓
Applying the final value theorem, ∆𝑃𝐺𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = lim𝑠→0 𝑆∆𝑃𝐺 𝑆 = − 𝑅

∆𝑓
 =-R Hz/Mw.
∆𝑃𝐺 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡

Speed load characteristics:

 For the parallel operation of units the speed versus output characteristics of each unit
should have droop.
 Speed Regulation (per unit droop): It is defined as ratio of magnitude of the change in
steady state speed expressed in p.u to the change in output of the unit expressed in p.u.
𝑓2 −𝑓1 /𝑓𝑟
𝑅𝑝.𝑢 = p.u. --- (18)
𝑃𝐺 /𝑃𝑟
Where, 𝑓1 – frequency at no load
𝑓2 - Frequency at the rated megawatt (𝑃𝐺 )
𝑓𝑟 - Base frequency or rated frequency
𝑃𝑟 - Base power in Mw
The droop is obtained by varying the power output from 1.0 p.u to zero.
Frequency (Hz)

f2 No Load
Slope = -R

f1 Rated power

Output power (MW)

𝑓
 Multiplying (18) by𝑃𝑟 ,
𝑟
𝑓2 −𝑓1
Now, 𝑅𝑝.𝑢 = 𝑃𝐺
  For a increase in 𝑃𝐺 by ∆𝑃𝐺 , due to the supplementary action of the speed changer, the
speed control mechanism parallel-shifts the regulation characteristics.
∆𝑓
Slope = ∆𝑃 = −𝑅
𝐺
𝑓
 ∆𝑓 = −𝑅∆𝑃𝐺 = − 𝑅𝑝.𝑢 𝑃𝑟 ∆𝑃𝐺 Hz.
𝑟

Frequency (Hz)
After Supplementary control

Control control

f0
∆f
f

PG0 PG0+∆PG

Output power (MW)

Load Sharing between two synchronous machines in parallel:

 Requirement of parallel operation:

i. The output voltage rating of the machines should be same.
ii. The prime movers of the alternators should have the same droop characteristics.
iii. The alternators should be of same type so as to generate the voltage of same waveform.
 Conditions for synchronizing two synchronous machines:
i. The terminal voltage of the machine to be synchronized should have the exact voltage as
that of the other machine or the bus terminal connecting them.
ii. The frequency of the machine should be same as that of the bus-bar frequency.
iii. The phase sequence of both the machines should be same.
 When two machines are synchronized and are to be operated in parallel, their speed- droop
characteristics gets shifted and the loads are shared by them by maintaining the frequency.
 Consider unit 1 and unit 2 are operating in parallel. The output change in the units are given
as,
−𝑃𝑟1 ∆𝑓
∆𝑃𝐺1 = 𝑅 × Mw
𝑝 .𝑢 (1) 𝑓𝑟
−𝑃𝑟2 ∆𝑓
∆𝑃𝐺2 = 𝑅 × Mw
𝑝 .𝑢 (2) 𝑓𝑟
∆𝑓 𝑃𝑟1 𝑃𝑟2
Total output change, ∆𝑃 = ∆𝑃𝐺1 + ∆𝑃𝐺2 = − 𝑓 𝑅𝑝 .𝑢 (1)
+𝑅
𝑟 𝑝 .𝑢 (2)
 ∆𝑓 −∆𝑃
The frequency change, = p.u
𝑓𝑟 𝑃 𝑟1 𝑃 𝑟2
+
𝑅 𝑝 .𝑢 (1) 𝑅 𝑝 .𝑢 (2)
−∆𝑃 .𝑓𝑟 −∆𝑃 .𝑓𝑟 −∆𝑃
 ∆𝑓 = = = 1 1
𝑃 𝑟1
+ 𝑟2
𝑃 𝑃 𝑟1
+ 𝑟2
𝑃 +
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅 𝑝 .𝑢 (1) 𝑅 𝑝 .𝑢 (2) 𝑅 𝑝 .𝑢 (1) 𝑅 𝑝 .𝑢 (2)

 Two controls are carried out in the governor:

i. The R is adjusted during the offline condition inorder to ensure the coordination of the
units.
ii. The straight line characteristic is shifted parallel to itself to share the load change among
the units. It is the supplementary control.
 Illustration of parallel operation of two alternators:
 Assume initially the total load is P. The units 1 and 2 generate P1 and P2 respectively and
operate the system in a frequency of f.
 The load is increases to a value of P’, Now the frequency falls to f’ as the units increases
their output and as the speed of the units decreases..
 Inorder to restore the frequency, the droop characteristics get adjusted so that the increase
in load is shared. The shift of the droop characteristics are shown in dotted lines. Now the
units 1 and 2 shares P’ as P1’ and P2’ respectively. The governor characteristics is raised
or lowered with the speed changer.

Frequency

f’

P1 P2

P1’ P2’

Output Power

Control Area Concept

 In practice the extended power system includes number of generating stations and loads.
 An extended power system (Grid) is divided into subareas as electricity boards.
 In the subareas the generators are tightly coupled so as to form a coherent group. The
coherent group responds in unison to change in load or the settings. The coherent area is said
to be the Control Area.
 In a control area the frequency is assumed to be the same in both the static and dynamic
conditions.

Load Frequency Control of a single area system

 The mathematical model of the Load frequency Control (LFC) comprises the model of the
Governor, Turbine and the Generator as developed earlier.
 The incremental inputs of the LFC of a Single area system are:
i. ∆𝑃𝑐 - Incremental input in the control input by the speed changer
ii. ∆𝑃𝐷 - Incremental change in the Load or Demand which is the incremental
disturbance.

Static analysis (Steady State response) of Single area system (Uncontrolled Case)

 The Incremental input in the control input by the speed changer is zero i.e. ∆𝑃𝑐 = 0. This is
known as the free governor operation.
 Consider the free governor operation.
 AS the ∆𝑃𝑐 = 0, the block diagram of the single area load frequency control becomes as:

∆𝑃𝐷 (s)

- 𝑘𝑝
𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 +
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 ∆𝑃𝑇 = ∆𝑃𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝

−1
𝑅

 The block diagram is reduced as:

 ∆𝑃𝐷 (s) - 𝑘𝑝 ∆𝑓(𝑠)
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝
-

𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡
𝑅(1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 )(1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 )

𝑘𝑝
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝
∆𝑓 𝑠 = −∆𝑃𝐷 𝑠
𝑘𝑝 𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡
1 + 1 + 𝑆𝑇 ×
𝑝 𝑅(1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 )(1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 )
𝑘𝑝
= −∆𝑃𝐷 𝑠
𝑘𝑝 𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝 +
𝑅(1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 )(1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 )
∆𝑃𝐷
 For a sudden change in load demand by ∆𝑃𝐷 , ∆𝑃𝐷 𝑠 = 𝑠
𝑘𝑝 −∆𝑃𝐷
∴ ∆𝑓 𝑠 = ×
𝑘𝑝 𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 𝑠
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝 +
𝑅(1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 )(1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 )
𝑘𝑝
 𝑠∆𝑓 𝑠 = 𝑘𝑝 𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 × −∆𝑃𝐷
1+𝑆𝑇𝑝 +
𝑅(1+𝑆𝑇 𝐺 )(1+𝑆𝑇 𝑡 )

 Applying the final value theorem,

−𝑘𝑝
∆𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 = lim 𝑠. ∆𝑓 𝑠 = × ∆𝑃𝐷
∆𝑃𝑐 = 0 𝑠→0 𝑘𝑝 𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡
1+ 𝑅
 The value of 𝑘𝑡 is fixed for a turbine and 𝑘𝐺 can be adjusted by changing the lengths of the
links. So for simplicity the value of 𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 ≈ 1
−𝑘𝑝
∆𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 = × ∆𝑃𝐷
∆𝑃𝑐 = 0
𝑘𝑝
1+ 𝑅
1
 As 𝑘𝑝 = 𝐵 and ∆𝑃𝐷 = M
1
−𝐵 −𝑀
∆𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 = ×𝑀 =
1 1
1 + 𝐵𝑅 𝐵+ 𝑅
1 −𝑀
 Let 𝛽 = 𝐵 + 𝑅, ∆𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝛽
Where, 𝛽 is the Area Frequency Response Co-efficient (AFRC) in MW/Hz
  The value of B is much smaller than 1/R. The value of B ranges is 0.01 p.u Mw/Hz . The
value of B can be neglected.
Now, ∆𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 = −𝑅∆𝑃𝐷 .
∆𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒
 = −𝑅 Hz/Mw
∆𝑃𝐷

 When the number of generators is n, then

−∆𝑃𝐷
∆𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 ==
1 1 1
𝐵 + 𝑅 +𝑅 +⋯+𝑅
1 2 𝑛
Where, 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 … 𝑅𝑛 are the speed regulations of the generators.

Static analysis of Single area system (Controlled Case)

 In this case, the steady effect of changing speed changer setting ∆𝑃𝑐 with load remains
fixed i.e. ∆𝑃𝐷 = 0.
 AS the ∆𝑃𝐷 = 0, the block diagram of the single area load frequency control becomes as:

∆𝑃𝐶 (𝑠)
𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 𝑘𝑝 ∆𝐹(𝑠)
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝

−1
𝑅

 The block diagram can be reduces as:

∆𝑃𝐶 (𝑠)
𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 𝑘𝑝 ∆𝐹(𝑠)
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 (1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝 )

−1
𝑅
 𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 𝑘𝑝
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 (1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝 )
∆𝐹 𝑠 = ∆𝑃𝐶 (𝑠)
𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 𝑘𝑝 1
1+ ×
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 (1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝 ) 𝑅
𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 𝑘𝑝
 ∆𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑘 𝑘𝑡 𝑘𝑝 ∆𝑃𝐶 (𝑠)
1+𝑆𝑇𝐺 1+𝑆𝑇𝑡 (1+𝑆𝑇𝑝 )+ 𝐺
𝑅
 𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 = 0
𝑘𝑝
 ∆𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑘𝑝 ∆𝑃𝐶 (𝑠)
1+𝑆𝑇𝐺 1+𝑆𝑇𝑡 (1+𝑆𝑇𝑝 )+
𝑅
∆𝑃𝐶
 Applying a step response, ∆𝑃𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑠
𝑘𝑝 ∆𝑃𝐶
∆𝐹 𝑠 = ×
𝑘𝑝 𝑠
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 (1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝 ) + 𝑅
1
𝑘𝑝
 Applying final value theorem, ∆𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 = lim𝑠→0 ∆𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑘 𝑝 ∆𝑃𝐶 =
𝐵
1 ∆𝑃𝐶
1+ 1+
𝑅 𝐵𝑅
1
1
 ∆𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝐵
1 ∆𝑃𝐶 = 1 ∆𝑃𝐶
1+ 𝐵+
𝐵𝑅 𝑅
∆𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 1
 = 1
∆𝑃𝐶 𝐵+
𝑅
If the Speed changer is changed by ∆𝑷𝑪 and the load demand by ∆𝑷𝑫 :
 The steady state frequency change can be obtained by the superposition
1
∆𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 = (∆𝑃𝐶 − ∆𝑃𝐷 )
1
𝐵+𝑅

 If ∆𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 0, then ∆𝑃𝐶 = ∆𝑃𝐷

 The performance can be made faster by reducing the values of R or by increasing the
static loop gain.

Dynamic analysis of Single area system (Uncontrolled Case)

 The single area system is given by:

 ∆𝑃𝐷 (s)

- 𝑘𝑝
𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 +
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 ∆𝑃𝑇 = ∆𝑃𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝

−1
𝑅

𝑘𝑝 −∆𝑃𝐷
∆𝑓 𝑠 ∆𝑃𝑐 =0 = ×
𝑘𝑝 𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 𝑠
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝 +
𝑅(1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 )(1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 )
 For analyzing the dynamic characteristics of a single are system the above equation has to
be taken Laplace inverse. The characteristic equation of the above equation is third order,
so dynamic response can be obtained only for numerical cases.
 The dynamic analysis of the Single area system is approximating the equation into a first
order equation by considering the relative magnitudes of the time constant of governor
and turbine as zero.
 The Incremental input in the control input by the speed changer is zero i.e. ∆𝑃𝑐 = 0.
 The value of 𝑇𝐺 ≪ 𝑇𝑡 ≪ 𝑇𝑝 . Typical values of 𝑇𝐺 = 0.4 𝑠𝑒𝑐, 𝑇𝑡 = 0.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐 and 𝑇𝑝 =
20 𝑠𝑒𝑐. For simplicity the time constants, 𝑇𝐺 = 𝑇𝑡 = 0.
 The value of 𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 ≈ 1.
 So the block diagram of the single area system becomes as

∆𝑃𝐷 (s)

- 𝑘𝑝
+ ∆𝑓(s)
1
∆𝑃𝑇 = ∆𝑃𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝

−1
𝑅

Now,
 𝑘𝑝
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝
∆𝑓 𝑠 ∆𝑃𝑐 =0 = × −∆𝑃𝐷 (𝑠)
𝑘𝑝
1+
𝑅 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝
𝑘𝑝
1+𝑆𝑇 𝑝
 ∆𝑓 𝑠 ∆𝑃𝑐 =0 = 𝑘𝑝
× −∆𝑃𝐷 (𝑠)
1+𝑆𝑇𝑝 1+𝑆𝑇𝑝 +
𝑅
𝑘𝑝
 ∆𝑓 𝑠 ∆𝑃𝑐 =0 = 𝑘𝑝 × −∆𝑃𝐷 (𝑠)
1+𝑆𝑇𝑝 +
𝑅
𝑅𝑘 𝑝
 ∆𝑓 𝑠 ∆𝑃𝑐 =0 =𝑅 × −∆𝑃𝐷 (𝑠)
1+𝑆𝑇𝑝 + 𝑘 𝑝
𝑅𝑘 𝑝
 ∆𝑓 𝑠 ∆𝑃𝑐 =0 = 𝑘𝑝
× −∆𝑃𝐷 𝑠
𝑅 1+𝑆𝑇𝑝 +
𝑅
𝑘𝑝
 ∆𝑓 𝑠 ∆𝑃𝑐 =0 = 𝑘𝑝 × −∆𝑃𝐷 𝑠
1+𝑆𝑇𝑝 +
𝑅
𝑘𝑝
 ∆𝑓 𝑠 ∆𝑃𝑐 =0 = 1 𝑘𝑝 × −∆𝑃𝐷 𝑠
𝑇𝑝 𝑆+ +
𝑇 𝑝 𝑅𝑇 𝑝
∆𝑃𝐷
 For a step load change, ∆𝑃𝐷 𝑠 = 𝑠
𝑘𝑝 ∆𝑃𝐷
∆𝑓 𝑠 ∆𝑃𝑐 =0 = ×−
1 𝑘𝑝 𝑠
𝑇𝑝 𝑆 + 𝑇 + 𝑅𝑇
𝑝 𝑝
𝑘𝑝
 ∆𝑓 𝑠 ∆𝑃𝑐 =0 = 𝑅+𝑘 𝑝 × −∆𝑃𝐷
𝑇𝑝 𝑆 𝑆+
𝑅𝑇 𝑝

 By partial fraction,

𝑘𝑝 −𝑘𝑝 ∆𝑃𝐷 𝐴 𝐵
× −∆𝑃𝐷 = +
𝑅 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑇𝑝 𝑆 𝑅 + 𝑘𝑝
𝑇𝑝 𝑆 𝑆 + 𝑅𝑇 𝑆 + 𝑅𝑇
𝑝 𝑝

Co-efficient of A and B,

𝑅 + 𝑘𝑝
𝐴 𝑆+ + 𝐵𝑆 = 1
𝑅𝑇𝑝

Put S=0,
𝑅+𝑘 𝑝
 𝐴 =1
𝑅𝑇𝑝
1 𝑅𝑇𝑝
 𝐴= 𝑅+𝑘 𝑝 = 𝑅+𝑘
𝑝
𝑅𝑇 𝑝

𝑅+𝑘 𝑝
Put 𝑠 = − ,
𝑅𝑇𝑝
 𝑅+𝑘 𝑝
 −𝐵 =1
𝑅𝑇𝑝
𝑅𝑇𝑝
 𝐵=− 𝑅+𝑘 𝑝

𝑅𝑇 𝑝 𝑅𝑇 𝑝
−𝑘 𝑝 ∆𝑃𝐷 𝐴 𝐵 −𝑘 𝑝 ∆𝑃𝐷 𝑅 +𝑘 𝑝 𝑅 +𝑘 𝑝
Now ∆𝑓 𝑠 = + 𝑅+𝑘 𝑝 = − 𝑅+𝑘 𝑝
𝑇𝑝 𝑆 𝑆+ 𝑇𝑝 𝑆 𝑆+
𝑅𝑇 𝑝 𝑅𝑇 𝑝

−𝑘 𝑝 ∆𝑃𝐷 𝑅𝑇𝑝 1 1
 ∆𝑓 𝑠 = × 𝑅+𝑘 − 𝑅 +𝑘 𝑝
𝑇𝑝 𝑝 𝑆 𝑆+
𝑅𝑇 𝑝

By taking inverse laplace transform,

𝑅+𝑘 𝑝
−𝑘 𝑝 𝑅 −
 ∆𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑅+𝑘 1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑅𝑇 𝑝
∆𝑃𝐷
𝑝
−1 𝑅+𝑘 𝑝
𝑅 −
 ∆𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐵
𝑘𝑝 1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑅𝑇 𝑝
∆𝑃𝐷
𝑅(1+ )
𝑅
−1 𝑅+𝑘 𝑝
−
 ∆𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐵
1 1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑅𝑇 𝑝
∆𝑃𝐷
(1+ )
𝐵𝑅
−1 𝑅+𝑘 𝑝
−
 ∆𝑓 𝑡 = 1
𝐵
1 1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑅𝑇 𝑝
∆𝑃𝐷
(𝐵+ )
𝐵 𝑅
𝑅+𝑘 𝑝
−1 −
 ∆𝑓 𝑡 = 1 1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑅𝑇 𝑝
∆𝑃𝐷
(𝐵+ )
𝑅
𝑅+𝑘 𝑝
−1 −
 ∆𝑓 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑅𝑇 𝑝
∆𝑃𝐷
𝛽

Dynamic analysis of Single area system (Controlled Case)

 The single area system is given by:

 ∆𝑃𝐷 (s)
𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 𝑘𝑝
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 ∆𝑃𝑇 = ∆𝑃𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝
-

−1
𝑅

Integral Controller in Single Area System

 As the speed governing mechanism is installed in all the machines, the steady state frequency
characteristics for a given speed changer setting has a considerable droop from no load to full
load. Due to which the change in frequency becomes intolerable. But actually the steady state
frequency change is expected to be zero. The steady state frequency change can be brought to
zero by adjusting the speed changer settings. But the system will be subjected to intolerable
dynamic frequency change with the change in load. So the speed changer setting has be
adjusted automatically corresponding to the frequency change. For automatic control the
change in frequency is fed through an integrator to the speed changer. An proportional plus
integral control is preferred as the steady state error is zero.

∆𝑃𝐷 (s)
- 𝑘𝑝
∆𝑃𝑐 (s) 𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 +
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 ∆𝑃𝑇 = ∆𝑃𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝
-

−𝐾𝑖 1
𝑠 𝑅

 Due to the proportional plus integral control the block diagram of a single area system
becomes as shown in figure. The Single area system has the Primary control loop and the
secondary control loop. The secondary control loop includes the frequency sensor with gain
as 1 and the proportional plus integral controller.
 The signal generated by the integral controller must be of opposite sign to the ∆𝑓 𝑠 , which
leads to the negative sign in the integral controller.
 Advantages of Integral controller in LFC:
1) Achieves zero steady state frequency error.
2) Fast dynamic response

Static Analysis with Integral Controller in Single Area System

 ∆𝑃𝑐 = 0
 The block diagram of integral controller in Single area system becomes as:

∆𝑃𝐷 (s)
- 𝑘𝑝
𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 +
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 ∆𝑃𝑇 = ∆𝑃𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝
-

−𝐾𝑖 1
𝑠 𝑅

1
∆𝑃𝐷
 For a step change of ∆𝑃𝐷 (s)= s
𝐾𝑝 ∆𝑃𝐷
∆𝑓 𝑠 = ×−
𝐾 1 𝐾𝑝 s
1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑝 + 𝑠𝑖 + 𝑅
(1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 )(1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 )
 ∆∆𝑓 𝑠 ∆𝑃𝑐 =0 = lim𝑠→0 𝑠. ∆𝑓 𝑠 =0
 Due to the integral controller, the frequency error is reduced to zero. So the Area control
error has to be minimized.

Dynamic Analysis with Integral Controller in Single Area System

 ∆𝑃𝑐 (𝑠) = 0
 ∆𝑃𝐷 (s)
- 𝑘𝑝
𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 +
1 + 𝑆𝑇𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑡 ∆𝑃𝑇 = ∆𝑃𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝
-

−𝐾𝑖 1
𝑠 𝑅

 Let 𝑇𝐺 = 𝑇𝑡 = 0.
 The value of 𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 ≈ 1.
 Now the block diagram reduces as:

∆𝑃𝐷 (s)

- 𝑘𝑝
+ ∆𝑓(s)
1
∆𝑃𝑇 = ∆𝑃𝐺 1 + 𝑆𝑇𝑝

−𝐾𝑖 −1
𝑠 𝑅

𝑘𝑝
1+𝑆𝑇 𝑝
 ∆𝑓 𝑠 ∆𝑃𝑐 =0 = 𝑘𝑝 𝐾𝑖 1 × −∆𝑃𝐷 (𝑠)
1+ × +
1+𝑆𝑇 𝑝 𝑠 𝑅
∆𝑃𝐷
 For a step chage, ∆𝑃𝐷 (𝑠)= 𝑠
𝑘𝑝 ∆𝑃𝐷 −𝑘 𝑝 𝑅𝑆 ∆𝑃𝐷 −𝑘 𝑝 𝑅𝑆
 ∆𝑓 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑖 1 × = 𝑠𝑅+𝑠 2 𝑇 × =𝑠 2 𝑇
1+𝑆𝑇𝑝 +𝑘 𝑝 × + 𝑠 𝑝 𝑅+𝑘 𝑝 𝑅𝐾𝑖 +𝑘 𝑝 𝑆 𝑠 𝑝 𝑅+𝑠 𝑅+𝑘 𝑝 +𝑅𝐾𝑖 𝑘 𝑝
𝑠 𝑅
−𝑘 𝑝 𝑅𝑆
 ∆𝑓 𝑠 = 𝑅+𝑘 𝑝 𝐾 𝑘𝑝
𝑇𝑝 𝑠 2 +𝑠 + 𝑖
𝑇𝑝 𝑅 𝑇𝑝

𝑅+𝑘 𝑝 𝐾𝑖 𝑘 𝑝
 The characteristic equation of the above equation is 𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + =0
𝑇𝑝 𝑅 𝑇𝑝

2
𝑅+𝑘 𝑝 𝑅+𝑘 𝑝 𝐾𝑖 𝑘 𝑝
− ± −4
𝑇𝑝 𝑅 𝑇𝑝 𝑅 𝑇𝑝
 S= 2
 For critical case, the two roots are equal, to find 𝐾𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
2
𝑅 + 𝑘𝑝 𝐾𝑖 𝑘𝑝
−4 =0
𝑇𝑝 𝑅 𝑇𝑝
2
𝐾𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑘 𝑝 𝑅+𝑘 𝑝
 4 =
𝑇𝑝 𝑇𝑝 𝑅
2 2
𝑅+𝑘 𝑝 𝑇𝑝 𝑅+𝑘 𝑝 𝑅 2 +2𝑅𝑘 𝑝 +𝑘 𝑝 2 1 2𝑘 𝑝 𝑘𝑝 2
 𝐾𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = × 4𝑘 = 4𝑘 = = 4𝑘 1+ +
𝑇𝑝 𝑅 𝑝 𝑝 𝑅 2 𝑇𝑝 4𝑘 𝑝 𝑇𝑝 𝑅 2 𝑝 𝑇𝑝 𝑅 𝑅

1 𝑘𝑝 2
 𝐾𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 4𝑘 1+
𝑝 𝑇𝑝 𝑅
1 2𝐻
 Substituting 𝑘𝑝 = 𝐵 and 𝑇𝑝 = 𝐵𝑓 0
1 1 2
 𝐾𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 1 2𝐻 1 + 𝐵𝑅
4× × 0
𝐵 𝐵𝑓

2
1 1
= 1+
1 2𝐻 𝐵𝑅
4×𝐵×
𝐵𝑓 0
2
21 1
= 1+ +
1 2𝐻 𝐵𝑅 𝐵𝑅
4×𝐵×
𝐵𝑓 0
2
21 1
= 1+ +
1 2𝐻 𝐵𝑅 𝐵𝑅
4×𝐵×
𝐵𝑓 0

1 𝐵 2 𝑅 2 +2𝐵𝑅+1 𝑓0 1 2
= 1 2𝐻 × = 8𝐻 𝐵 + 𝑅
4× × 𝐵2 𝑅2
𝐵 𝐵𝑓0

Integration of Economic dispatch control with LFC

 The LFC with integral controller exercises no control over the relative loadings of various
generating stations of the control area.
 In case of a sudden increase in load in a control area, the LFC speed changes the speed
changer setting of the governors of all the units of that control area so that the frequency is
maintained. But this change in load in the generating units is independent of the economic
loading factor. In some cases the control is performed by adjusting the integral gain (Ki). But
it is not up to the mark.
 So inorder to have a satisfactory control for load frequency and economic dispatch
independent controllers are used. The load frequency controller is a fast acting control which
regulates the system around an operating point in few seconds. Whereas the Economic
dispatch control acts slowly and adjust the speed changer setting every minute in accordance
with the signal generated by the central economic dispatch computer.
 The speed changer setting is adjusted in accordance with the economic dispatch error which
is suitably modified by the signal representing integral area control error.
Economic Dispatch Error =PG Desired – PG Actual
 PG Desired is calculated by the Central Economic Dispatch Computer (CEDC). PG Desired is
sent to the local Economic Dispatch Computer (EDC)

Tw

ACE −𝐾𝑖
Single area System 1
𝑠

Control Area
Local EDC
PG actual
PG Desired

Single area System 2

Local EDC
PG actual

PG Desired

Two Area System Modeling:

 The power system can be divided into a number of load frequqncy control areas
interconnected by means of tie lines.
 Consider two areas connected by a tie-line.

Control Area 1 Tie- Line Control Area 2

 Objective of Two area LFC:

i. To regulate the frequency of each area
ii. To regulate the tie-line power as per the inter area contracts.
 Proportional plus integral controller is considers so to obtain a zero steady state error in the
tie-line power flow.
 In case of an isolated single area system the incremental power is accounted for the rate of
change of stored kinetic energy and increase in load caused by increase in frequency. In two
area system a tie-line transmits the power in and out of the area so the tie-line power transfer
has to be considered in the incremental power.
𝑉1 𝑉2
 Power transferred out of area 1, 𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 ,1 = sin 𝛿10 − 𝛿20 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝛿10 − 𝛿20
𝑋12
 For an incremental change in𝛿1 and 𝛿2 , the incremental change in tie-line power is given as:
𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 ,1 𝑉1 𝑉2
= cos 𝛿10 − 𝛿20 (∆𝛿1 − ∆𝛿2 )
𝑑𝛿12 𝑋12
𝑉1 𝑉2
∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 ,1(𝑝.𝑢) = cos 𝛿10 − 𝛿20 ∆𝛿1 − ∆𝛿2 = 𝑇12 ∆𝛿1 − ∆𝛿2
𝑋12 𝑃𝑟1
𝑉1 𝑉2
 Synchronizing power co-efficient or electric stiffness, 𝑇12 = cos 𝛿10 − 𝛿20
𝑋12 𝑃𝑟1
It is defined as the differential power increase obtained per differential power angle increase.
 We know that 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝜔 1 𝑑𝛿
 𝑓 = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋 . 𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑
 ∆𝑓 = 2𝜋 . 𝑑𝑡 ∆𝛿
 ∆𝛿=2𝜋 ∆𝑓𝑑𝑡
 Now, ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 ,1 𝑝.𝑢 =2𝜋𝑇12 ∆𝑓1 𝑑𝑡 − ∆𝑓2 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋𝑇12
Taking laplace transform, ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 ,1 (𝑠) = ∆𝑓1 𝑠 −∆𝑓2 (𝑠) --- (1)
𝑠
 Similarly, ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 ,2 𝑝.𝑢 = 2𝜋𝑇21 ∆𝑓2 𝑑𝑡 − ∆𝑓1 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋𝑇21
 Taking laplace transform, ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 ,2 (𝑠) = ∆𝑓2 𝑠 −∆𝑓1 (𝑠) --- (2)
𝑠
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑃 𝑃
 𝑇21 = cos 𝛿20 − 𝛿10 × 𝑃𝑟1 = 𝑃𝑟1 𝑇12 = 𝑎12 𝑇12
𝑋12 𝑃𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2

 The incremental power balance equation for area 1 can be written as,
2𝐻1 𝑑
∆𝑃𝐺1 − ∆𝑃𝐷1 = ∆𝑓 + 𝐵1 ∆𝑓1 + ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 ,1
𝑓0 𝑑𝑡 1
Taking Laplace transform,
2𝐻1
∆𝑃𝐺1 𝑠 − ∆𝑃𝐷1 𝑠 − ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 ,1 (𝑠) = 𝑠∆𝑓1 (𝑠) + 𝐵1 ∆𝑓1 (𝑠)
𝑓0
2𝐻1
 ∆𝑃𝐺1 𝑠 − ∆𝑃𝐷1 𝑠 − ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 ,1 (𝑠) = ∆𝑓1 (𝑠) 𝑠 + 𝐵1
𝑓0
1
∆𝑃𝐺1 𝑠 −∆𝑃𝐷 1 𝑠 −∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 ,1 (𝑠) 𝐵1
 ∆𝑓1 𝑠 = 2𝐻 1 = ∆𝑃𝐺1 𝑠 − ∆𝑃𝐷1 𝑠 − ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 ,1 (𝑠) × 2𝐻
𝑠+𝐵1 1+ 1 𝑠
𝑓0 𝐵1𝑓0
𝑘𝑝
 ∆𝑓1 𝑠 == ∆𝑃𝐺1 𝑠 − ∆𝑃𝐷1 𝑠 − ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 ,1 (𝑠) × 1+𝑇 ----(3)
𝑝 1𝑠
 Problems
1. All the generators and motors in a power system represent total kinetic energy of
1500 MJ measured at a rated frequency of 10 Hz. The system has a momentary
surplus power of 5 Mw. At what rate will the frequency increase?
Given data:
Surplus Power = 5 Mw
Kinetic Energy (𝒘𝟎𝑲.𝑬) =1500 MJ
Rated frequency =60 Hz
Solution:
0 2
𝑤𝐾.𝐸 ∝ 𝑓0 ---- (1)
𝑤𝐾.𝐸 ∝ (𝑓 0 + ∆𝑓)2 ….. (2)
2
𝑤 𝑓 0 +∆𝑓 ∆𝑓) 2 ∆𝑓 ∆𝑓 2
Dividing (2) by (1), 𝑤 𝐾.𝐸
0 = = 1+ = 1 + 2 𝑓0 + 𝑓0
𝐾 .𝐸 𝑓0 𝑓0
𝑤 𝐾 .𝐸 ∆𝑓
Neglecting the higher orders, 𝑤 0 = 1 + 2 𝑓 0
𝐾 .𝐸
0 ∆𝑓
 𝑤𝐾.𝐸 = 𝑤𝐾.𝐸 1 + 2 𝑓0
𝑑𝑤 𝐾 .𝐸 2𝑤 𝐾0 .𝐸 𝑑
 Rate of change of Kinetic Energy, = ∆𝑓
𝑑𝑡 𝑓0 𝑑𝑡
2𝑤 𝐾0 .𝐸 𝑑
 ∆𝑃𝐷 − ∆𝑃𝐺 = ∆𝑓
𝑓0 𝑑𝑡
2×1500 𝑑
 5= ∆𝑓
60 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 5×60
 ∆𝑓 = 2×1500 = 0.1𝐻𝑧/𝑠
𝑑𝑡
Result: The rate of change of frequency is 𝟎. 𝟏𝑯𝒛/𝒔
2. Determine the time constant of the generator load of a single area load frequency
control having the following data:
Total rated area capacity = 2000 Mw
Nominal operating load = 1000 Mw
Inertia Constant, H = 5
Regulation = 2.4 Hz/p.u Mw.
Assume that the load frequency dependency is linear. The load increases by 1% for
1 % frequency increase. System frequency is 60 Hz.
1
𝜕𝑃𝐷 1% 𝑜𝑓 𝑃 𝐷 ×1000
𝐵= = = 1001 = 16.667𝑀𝑤/𝐻𝑧
𝜕𝑓 1% 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 ×60
100
𝐵 16.667
𝐵 𝑖𝑛 𝑝. 𝑢 = = = 8.333 × 10−3
𝑃𝑟 2000
1 1 𝐻𝑧
𝑘𝑝 = = = 120
𝐵 8.333 × 10−3 𝑝. 𝑢 𝑊
2𝐻 2×5
𝑇𝑝 = = = 20𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐵𝑓 0 60 × 8.333 × 10−3
Result: The time constant of the generator load = 20 secs.
3. A load frequency dynamics of single area power system data are given below:
Rated capacity of the area = 1500 Mw
Nominal operating load = 750 Mw
Nominal frequency = 50 Hz
Inertia Constant = 5
Speed regulation = 3%
Governor time constant = 0 scs
Turbine time constant = 0 secs
Assume that the load frequency dependency is linear. The load increases by 1% for
1 % frequency increase. The area has a governor control which is subjected to an
increase in load of 30 Mw. Determine the steady state frequency deviation and
AFRC.
1
𝜕𝑃𝐷 1% 𝑜𝑓 𝑃 𝐷 ×750
𝐵= = = 1001 = 15𝑀𝑤/𝐻𝑧
𝜕𝑓 1% 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 ×50
100
𝐵 15
𝐵 𝑖𝑛 𝑝. 𝑢 = = = 0.01 𝑝. 𝑢𝑤/𝐻𝑧
𝑃𝑟 1500
𝑓 3 50 𝐻𝑧
%𝑅 = 3% × 𝑃 = 100 × 1500 = 0.001 𝑀𝑤 = 0.001 × 1500 𝐻𝑧/𝑝. 𝑢𝑀𝑤
𝑟
= 1.5𝐻 𝑧/𝑝. 𝑢𝑀𝑤
1 1
AFRC, 𝛽 = 𝐵 + 𝑅 = 0.01 + 1.5 = 0.68 𝑝. 𝑢𝑤/𝐻𝑧
−∆𝑃𝐷 30/1500
Steady State frequency, ∆𝑓 = =− = −0.0294 𝐻𝑧
𝛽 0.68
Result: AFRC=0.68 𝒑. 𝒖𝒘/𝑯𝒛
Steady State frequency =-0.0294 Hz
4. The data for an isolated single area system is as follows:
Rated capacity of the area = 1500 Mw
Nominal operating load = 750 Mw
Inertia constant = 5
Speed regulation = 3 %
Nominal frequency = 50 Hz
Assume that the load frequency dependency is linear. The load increases by
1% for 1 % frequency increase. Determine the critical integral gain constant.
1
𝜕𝑃𝐷 1% 𝑜𝑓 𝑃 𝐷 ×750
𝐵= = = 1001 = 15𝑀𝑤/𝐻𝑧
𝜕𝑓 1% 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 ×50
100
𝐵 15
𝐵 𝑖𝑛 𝑝. 𝑢 = = = 0.01 𝑝. 𝑢𝑤/𝐻𝑧
𝑃𝑟 1500
𝑓 3 50 𝐻𝑧
%𝑅 = 3% × = × = 0.001 = 0.001 × 1500 𝐻𝑧/𝑝. 𝑢𝑀𝑤
𝑃𝑟 100 1500 𝑀𝑤
= 1.5𝐻 𝑧/𝑝. 𝑢𝑀𝑤
 𝑓0 1 2 50 1 2
𝐾𝐼𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐵+ = 0.01 + = 0.5723
8𝐻 𝑅 8×5 1.5
Another way:
1 1
𝑘𝑝 = = = 100𝐻𝑧/𝑝𝑢𝑀𝑤
𝐵 0.01
2𝐻 2×5
𝑇𝑝 = = = 20 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐵𝑓 0 100 × 50
1 𝑘𝑝 2 1 100 2
𝐾𝐼𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 1+ = 1+ = 0.5723
4𝑘𝑝 𝑇𝑝 𝑅 4 × 100 × 20 1.5
5. The real power frequency control of a single area system have the following data:
Power system gain constant = 120 Hz/p.u Mw
Power System Time constant = 10 secs
Governor Time constant = 0
Governor gain constant = 0
Speed regulation = 2.5 Hz/ p.u Mw
Integrator gain = 0.1
Change in demand = 0.1 p.uMw
Compute the time error and steady state frequency caused due to a step
disturbance. Assume frequency as 50 Hz.
Given data:
𝑘𝑝 = 120 Hz/p.u Mw
𝑇𝑝 = 10 secs
𝑇𝐺 = 0
𝑘𝐺 = 0
R = 2.5 Hz/ p.u Mw
𝐾𝐼 = 0.1
∆𝑃𝐷 = 0.1 p.uMw
f= 50 Hz
−𝑘𝑝 ∆𝑃𝐷 −120 × 0.1
∆𝑓 𝑠 = =
𝑅 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑘𝑝 𝐾𝐼 2.5 + 120 120 × 0.1
𝑇𝑝 𝑠 2 + 𝑠 𝑅𝑇 + 𝑇 10 𝑠 2 + 𝑠 +
𝑝 𝑝 2.5 × 10 10
−1.2
∆𝑓 𝑠 = 2
𝑠 + 4.9𝑠 + 1.2
The characteristic equation is 𝑠 2 + 4.9𝑠 + 1.2 = 0
The roots of the equation are -0.258 or -4.641.
−1.2
∆𝑓 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 0.258 (𝑠 + 4.641)
𝐴 𝐵
 ∆𝑓 𝑠 = + (𝑠+4.641) (By partial fraction method)
𝑠+0.258
 −1.2 = 𝐴 𝑠 + 4.641 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 0.258
Solving for A and B:
Substituting s=-4.641; B= 0.273
Substituting s=-0.258; A= -0.273
𝐴 𝐵 −0.273 0.273
∆𝑓 𝑠 = + = +
𝑠 + 0.258 (𝑠 + 4.641) 𝑠 + 0.258 (𝑠 + 4.641)
Taking Laplace transform,
∆𝑓 𝑡 = −0.273 𝑒 −0.258𝑡 − 𝑒 −4.641𝑡
∞ 𝛼
Time error = 0 ∆𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − 0 0.273 𝑒 −0.258𝑡 − 𝑒 −4.641𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∞
𝛼 𝑒 −4.641 𝑡 𝑒 −0.258 𝑡 1 1
 0
∆𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = −0.273 − == −0.273 0 − −4.641 − −0.258
−4.641 −0.258 0
0.9947
 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = −0.9947 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 = − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠 = −0.02 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠
50
Steady state frequency, ∆𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 = lim𝑠→0 𝑠∆𝑓(𝑠) = lim𝑠→0 𝑠∆𝑓(𝑠)
−0.273 0.273
∆𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 = lim𝑠→0 𝑠 × + (𝑠+4.641) = 0
𝑠+0.258
Result: Time error = -0.02 seconds
Steady state frequency change =0 Hz