CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO AIR JALNDHAR

All India Radio is communication principal based, a broadcasting service. Likely the AIR , Jalandhar is a one
of the main broadcasting service station of north India. Which broadcast various programmes in Punjab, Delhi
(by uplink ), Over India (through DTH). With broadcasting it produce music, drama, talk programming,
dubbing, news, urdu service, recording, outdoor broadcasting programmes etc.

1.1 ABOUT: ALL INDIA RADIO

All India Radio (AIR), one of the largest radio networks in the world is a division of Prasar Bharti
(Broadcasting Cooperation of India) Established in 1930 & launched on 1936.

Fig1.1: prasar bharti

Fig1.2:AIR LOGO

All India Radio is also known as Akashvani. The head quarter is at the Akashvani Bhavan, New Delhi.
AIR today has a network of 473 broadcasting centers with 139 medium frequency (MW), 48 high frequency
(SW) and 493 FM transmitters. The coverage is 92% of the area, serving 99.20% of the people in the largest
democracy of the world. AIR covers 24 Languages and 146 dialects in home services. In External services,
it covers 27 languages; 12 national and 15 foreign languages

1.2 EARLY HISTORY

The Jalandhar radio station came in existence in Nov.1947 during partition of India. In 1948 Amritsar also
had a small 1KW transmitter with a studio linked with Jalandhar station to improve its reception n border
areas in 1954 Goraya near Phagwara was installed with 50KW HPT linked with the Amritsar station along
with studio merged with Jalandhar. The transmitter was replaced by 300KW transmitter in June1990.In June
1984,Guruwani from Amritsar was relayed line 3hrs daily.A100KW transmitter was installed at HTP Goraya
on 1969 for Urdu service was later replaced with 2x100KWtransmitter in 1988.Vividh Bharti service was
commissioned on 1.3.1968 with 1KW transmitter installed at studio complex and replaced with 10KW FM
transmitter on 10.10.2012With the installed of capacitive earth station around clock DTH (Direct to home)
Punjabi service was added to broadcast bouquet on 2004.

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1.3 BRIFE INTRODUCTION
Air Jalandhar is a major regional Akashwani Kendra of North Zone .
It broadcast programme on 5 channels namely-
Regional service
Urdu service
FM service
Vividh Bharti
DTH Punjabi.

STUDIO CUM OFFICE COMPLEX AT BMC CHOWK, JALANDHAR

It is situated at the heart of the city. Besides studio setup it has also 10KW FM VB XTR , FM Rainbow
10KW & 10KW IGNOU XTR transmitter , capacitive earth station for DTH & Regional uplink. There are
total 11 studio-
4 x Transmission studio
6 x Recording studio
1 x Dubbing room
The station has distinction of broadcasting all programmes on hard disk based system.
FM TRANSMITTER COMPLEX AT KHURLA KINGRA, JALANDHAR
It is located in DDK(Doordarshan Kendra)transmitter complex about 7kms from studio complex on Nakodar
Road.

HPT,GORAYA
It is situated on NH-1 between Ludhiana & Jalandhar, near village Goraya about 33kms from Jalandhar.
It is spread in 73 acres.
Having 2 transmitter namely-
300KW Nautel make for regional service
200KW BEL for Urdu service.

VIVIDH BHARTI COMMERCIAL SERVICE

At present day there are 37 VB and commercial broadcasting station operating in country.
60% of the time of station is devoted to film music and rest of earmarked for devotional music, light music &
spoken word pragramme in the form of plays and interviews etc.

NEWS
The news division produces 510 bulletins in 82 languages which emanate from Delhi and are replayed by
several AIR stations

1.4 PECIALIZATION OF WORK /CULTURE:

1.Producing, editing, dubbing, various programmes, news, advertisements, from indoor and outdoor
programmes, live actions, plays, events, ceremony, organizations, etc, based on different, languages, locations,
populations, regions and transmitting it to maximum wide over, to maximum audience.

2
2. Work on the culturist Three-Tier Broadcast system-AIR has a three-tier system of broadcasting.
These three levels of programmers are the National, Regional and Local each having distinct audiences.

National programmers are broadcast from Delhi for relay by the Capital, Regional and Local Radio Stations.
Some of these are the National Programme of Talks and Features in Hindi and English, the National
Programmes of Drama and Music.

• The National Channel of All India Radio located in Delhi broadcasts programmes which are heard on Medium
Wave and also on Short Wave. Started on 18th May 1988, this channel works as a night service from 6.50 PM
to 6.10 AM the next morning. Broadcasting in Hindi, Urdu and English, the programme composition of the
channel has been designed to make it representative of the cultural mosaic and ethos of the country.

The Regional Stations in different States form the middle tier of broadcasting. They originate programmes in the
regional languages and dialects. Regional Channels are located in the major linguistic-cultural region of every state.
116 Regional Channels are spread over 29 states & 6 Union Territories including the North-Eastern Service at
Shillong that projects the vibrant cultural heritage of the North-Eastern region of this country. The Regional
Channels, broadcast largely on the Medium Wave frequency, follow a composite programme pattern comprising of
music - classical, light, folk and film, News and Current Affairs, Radio plays, features, Farm and Home programmes,
programmes on Health & Family Welfare and programmes for Woman, Children etc.

• Local Radio is relatively a newer concept of broadcasting in India. Local radio stations serve small
communities, showcase local culture and broadcast area specific programmes for the benefit of the
community. The transmission is in the FM mode. The programming is flexible and spontaneous and the
stations function as the mouth piece of the local community. At present there are 86 Local Stations spread
across the country.

3
 CHAPTER -2

STUDIO CENTRE
2.1INTRODUCTION
The Studio Centre comprises of one or more studios, recording and dubbing room, a control room and other
ancillary rooms like battery room, a.c. rooms, switch gear room, DG room, R/C room, service room, waiting
room, tape library, etc. The size of such a centre and the number of studios provided depend on the programme
activities of the station. The studio centers in AIR are categorized as Type I, II, III and IV. The number of
studios and facilities provided in each type are different. For example a type I studio has a transmission studio,
music studio with announcer booth, a talks studio with announcer booth, one recording/dubbing room and a
Read Over Room. Type II has one additional drama studio. The other types have more studios progressively.

2.2 BROADCAST STUDIO

A broadcast studio is an acoustically treated room. It is necessary that the place where a programme for
broadcast purposes is being produced should be free of extraneous noise. This is possible only if the area of
room is insulated from outside sound. Further, the microphone which is the first equipment that picks up the
sound, is not able to distinguish between wanted and unwanted signals and will pick up the sound not only from
the artists and the instruments but also reflections from the walls marring the quality and clarity of the
programme. So the studios are to be specially treated to give an optimum reverberation time and minimum
noise level. The entry to the studios is generally through sound isolating lobby called sound lock. Outside of
every studio entrance, there is a warning lamp, which glows ‘Red’ when the studio is ‘ON-AIR’. The studios
have separate announcers booths attached to them where first level fading, mixing and cueing facilities are
provided.

2.3 STUDIO OPERATIONAL REQUIERMENTS

For operational purposes, certain basic minimum technical facilities are required for smooth transmission of
programmes and for proper control. These are as follows:
 Programme in a studio may originate from a microphone or a tape deck, or a turntable or a compact
disc. So a facility for selection of output of any of these equipments at any moment is necessary.
Announcer console does this function.
 Facility to fade in/fade out the programme smoothly and control the programme level within
prescribed limits.
 Facility for aural monitoring to check the quality of sound production and sound meters to indicate the
intensity.
 For routing of programmes from various studios/OB spots to a central control room, we require a facility
to further mix/select the programmes. The Control Console in the control room performs this function.
It is also called switching console.
 Before feeding the programmes to the transmitter, the response of the programme should be made flat
by compensating HF and LF losses using equalized line amplifiers.(This is applicable in case of
telephone lines only)
 Visual signaling facility between studio announcer booth and control room should also be provided. If
the programmes from various studios are to be fed to more than one transmitter, a master switching
facility is also required.

4
2.4 MIXING
As already mentioned, various equipments are available in a studio to generate programme as given below:

 Microphone, which normally provides a level of –70 dB.

 Turntable which provides an output of 0 dB.
 Tape decks which may provide a level of 0 dB.
 CD and R-DAT will also provide a level of 0 dB.

The first and foremost requirement is that we should be able to select the output of any of these equipments at
any moment and at the same time should be able to mix output of two or more equipments. However, as we
see, the level from microphone is quite low and need to be amplified, so as to bring it to the levels of tape
recorder/ tape decks.

2.4.1 ADVANTAGE OF HL MIXING OVER LL MIXING:

Low level mixing system may look economical since it requires one single pre-amplifier for all low level inputs,
but quality of sound suffers in this system as far as S/N ratio is concerned. Noise level at the input of best
designed pre-amplifier is of the order of –120 dB and the output levels from low level equipment –70 dB. In
low level mixing, there is signal loss of about 10 to 15 dB in mixing circuits. Therefore, the S/N ratio achieved
in low level mixing is 35 to 40 dB only.
High level mixing system requires one pre-amplifier in each of the low level channels but ensures a S/N of
better than 50 dB. All India Radio employs High level mixing.

2.5 ANNOUNCER CONSOLE

Most of the studios have an attached booth, which is called transmission booth or Announcer booth or play
back studio. This is also acoustically treated and contains a mixing console called Announcer Console. The
Announcer Console is used for mixing and controlling the programmes that are being produced in the studio
using artist microphones, tape playback decks and turn tables/CD players. This is also used for transmission of
programmes either live or recorded.

The technical facilities provided in a typical announcer booth, besides an Announcer Console are one or two
microphones for making announcements, two turn tables for playing the gramophone records and two
playbacdecks or tape recorders for recorded programmes on tapes. Recently CD and Rotary Head Digital Audio
Tape Recorder (R-DAT) are also included in the Transmission Studio.

5
2.6 CONTROL ROOM

For two or more studios set up, there would be a provision for further mixing which is provided by a control
console manned by engineers. Such control console is known as switching console. Broad functions of
switching console in control room are as follows:
Switching of different sources for transmission like News, O.Bs. other satellite based relays, live broadcast
from recording studio.
 Level equalization and level control.
 Quality monitoring.
 Signaling to the source location.
 Communication link between control room and different studios.

2.7 AMPLIFIERS USED IN AIR STUDIOS

Amplifier is one of the basic building blocks of modern electronics. The present day electronics would not exist
without this. Amplification is necessary because the desired signal is usually too weak to be directly useful.
Present day amplifiers used in studios are mostly employing ICs and transistors.

AUDIO AMPLIFIER USED IN ALL INDIA RADIO

The following are some of the audio amplifiers used in AIR. All these amplifiers are designed to have a
frequency response within ± 1 dB from about 30 Hz to 10 KHz with respect to 1 KHz and a total harmonic
distortion (THD) of less than 1% at maximum rated output power.

PRE-AMPLIFIER: Pre-amplifier is the first amplifier in the broadcast chain. The output from a microphone
or a pickup which is at very low level (-70 dB) is fed to its input. The amplified signals obtained from this
amplifier are given to the programme amplifier through a fader box or through a mixing console. The normal
gain of this amplifier is about 50 dB. In some pre -amplifiers a variable gain between 40 to 50 dB is provided.
A special feature of this amplifier is that the noise contributed by this is very low. Usually, an input transformer
is provided at the input of the pre-amplifier. This input transformer has the tapping for 50,200 and 500 ohms
input impedances. The tapping is selected so as to match with the output impedance of the microphone or pick
up. It may be noted that in the Keltron Announcer Consoles, input impedance of the pre-amplifier is of a higher
value (more than 1.5 K ohm

6
PROGRAMME AMPLIFIER: Programme amplifier provides second stage of amplification. The output
obtained from the fader box or mixing console is fed to the input of this amplifier. The normal input level to
this amplifier varies from -45to 20 dB. This amplifier gives a maximum output of +27 dB. It has a gain of 70
dB which is variable from 0 to 70 dB. The input and output impedance are usually 600 ohm. The output obtained
from the programme amplifier is of a sufficiently high level and can be handled without the risk of picking up
electrical noise.

MONITORING AMPLIFIER: The output available from the programme amplifier is however, not enough
to drive loudspeaker. Therefore, monitoring amplifiers are provided to boost these signals further. A part of the
output signal from the programme amplifier is given to the monitoring amplifier. The output of the monitoring
amplifier is usually fed to a monitoring bus for further feeding to the loudspeakers. A separate monitoring
amplifier is used for a group of loudspeakers which are located in studios, control room, duty room and other
selected places. Monitoring amplifiers of different wattage ratings are used in AIR. But 8 watt monitoring
amplifier is very common. Normal input level to the monitoring amplifier is about -12 dB in matching condition
and 0 dB in bridging condition. Matching input impedance is 600 ohms and bridging input impedance is 10 k
ohms. Load impedance values of 8, 50 and 150 ohms are usually provided.

2.8 FACILITIES IN STUDIO CENTRE

In addition to control room and studios, dubbing/recording rooms are also provided in a studio complex.
Following equipments are generally provided in a recording/dubbing room :

Console tape recorders

Console tape decks

Recording/dubbing panel having switches, jacks and keys etc.

The above equipments can be used for the following purpose

For recording of programmes originating from any studio.

For recording of programmes available in the switching consoles in control room.

For dubbing of programmes available on cassette tape.

For editing of programmes

For mixing and recording of programmes

2.9 HARD DISK BASED RECORDING SYSTEM

The computer system deals mainly with texts and digits. These texts and digits are in digital form and are
recorded on the hard disk of the computer. So, if the analog audio or video is converted into digital form, it can
be recorded on the hard disk of the computer. Then the computer can manipulate the audio/video in the similar
way as it manipulates texts and digits. This is what is known as hard disk based recording system. Hard disk
based recording system used for audio is also known as Audio Work Station. Before we discuss the hard disk
based recording system, let us see the constraints of analogue system and benefits of digital system.

7
NEWLY HARD DISK BASED RECORDING SYSTEM:

There are two types of hard disk based (audio) recording system :
i) Dedicated system and
ii) Networked Hard Disk Based System.

DEDICATED SYSTEM

In dedicated system, there is only one computer terminal for recording or play. This
is mainly used for editing purpose with a special key board (edit controller).

NETWORK HARD DISK BASED SYSTEM

In networked hard disk based system a number of work stations (computer terminals) are connected together
to the main server (central server). They work in a LAN environment. This system has been shown in figure

Network hard Disk based system

This system facilitates the following :-

Integrated studio automation system

Simplified operational task
Reduced handling cost
Elimination of monotonous repeat works.
Instant and random access to all audio clips.
Detailed logging of on-air events
Access restriction and security.

8
2.10 MICROPHONES
Microphone plays a very important role in the art of sound broadcasting. It is a device which converts acoustical
energy into electrical energy. In the professional broadcasting field microphones have primarily to be capable
of giving the highest fidelity of reproduction over audio bandwidth.

2.10.1 MICROPHONE CLASSIFICATION

Depending on the relationship between the output voltage from a microphone and the sound pressure on it, the
microphones can be divided into two basic groups.

1)PRESSURE OPERATED TYPE

In such microphones only one side of the diaphragm is exposed to the sound wave. The output voltage is
proportional to the sound pressure on the exposed face of the diaphragm with respect to the constant pressure
on the other face.
2) VELOCITY & PRESSURE GRADIENT TYPE
In these microphones both sides of the diaphragm are exposed to the sound wave. Thus the output voltage is
proportional to the instantaneous difference in pressure on the two sides of the diaphragm. Ribbon microphone
belongs to this category and its polar diagram is figure of eight.

TYPES OF MICROPHONE

There are many types of microphones. But only the most common types used in broadcasting have been
described here.

TODAYS USING MICROPHONES

Combinedmicrophones More than one microphone is placed within the same unit to achieve a particular
purpose e.g. Western Electric 639 combines a dynamic (OMNI) microphone with a Ribbon (Bi-directional)
microphone to get a cardioid pattern. Thus we have a choice of three patterns by switching in either or both
units. AKG 202 consists of two dynamic microphones to obtain a flat frequency response. In fact the dual
arrangement is coaxially mounted with the smaller in the front and the bigger diaphragm in the rear in a single
housing. The two are connected electrically with a phase correcting network. The response shows a cross-over
at 500 Hz. One unit is adjusted for frequencies above and the other unit for frequencies below to achieve good
response. A switch is provided to cut down low frequencies with 50 Hz dropping upto –20 dB with respect to
1 kHz.

Lip Ribbon Microphone

It is also called noise-cancelled mike since the ribbon even if held close, does not pick up breathing noises due
to a guard in between. The stainless steel mesh acts as a wind shield. The design and other features resemble
the ribbon mike.

Lapel Microphone
Both carbon and ribbon types are available. The microphone is very small and light- weight and is suspended around
the neck keeping the mike just below the chin. It is most suitable for running commentary or in a lecture.

9
Contact Microphone
It is generally a dynamic microphone of lower sensitivity. It is normally placed close to the source of sound,
when it is not supposed to pick up other stray noises.

Gun Mike
It has two forms, (short gun and long gun). A dynamic mike placed at the end of a perforated tube extends its
directivity in the front. The short gun about 18” long can pick up a talk from about 10 feet distance and a long
gun with a tube of about 3 feet length can pick up sound from a distance of about 20 to 25 feet. The quality
suffers but is intelligible. This microphone is useful when sound from a distant spot is to be picked up. An
example is the picking of the sound of bat hitting a cricket ball.

2.11 WAVE PROPAGATION

Propagation of Radio waves takes place by different modes, the mechanism being different in each case.
Based on that, it can be classified as:
1. Ground (Surface) waves 2. Space (Tropospheric) waves
3. Sky (Ionospheric) waves
Before we discuss different modes of wave propagation, let us see the allocation of frequencies for broadcasting.

Allocation of frequencies for Broadcasting

Long Wave Band - This is not used in India.

Medium Wave (MW) Band - MF - 300 - 3000 kHz

625 kHz to 1625 kHz
Channel spacing - 9 kHz
Short Wave (SW) Band - HF - 3 - 30 MHz

International Band
3900 - 4000 kHz (75 m)
7100 - 7300 kHz (41 m)
11650 - 12050 kHz (25 m)
21450 - 21850 kHz (13 m)
5950 - 6200 kHz (49 m)
9500 - 9900 kHz (31 m)
13600 - 13800 kHz (19 m)
25670 - 26000 kHz (11 m)

Tropical Band
2300 - 2490 kHz (120 m) 3200 - 3400 kHz (90 m)
4750 - 4995 kHz 5005 – 5060kHz
Channel spacing - 5 kHz

VHF – 30- 300 MHz

Band 1 40- 68 MHz TV Channel #1 - Channel #4

Channel spacing 7 MHz

Band 2 88- 108 MHz FM Sound Broadcasting

10
 Channel spacing 100 kHz

Band 3 174- 230 MHz TV Channel #5 Channel #12

Channel spacing 7 MHz

UHF – 300- 3000 MHz

Band 4 470- 606 MHz Channel #21 Channel #37

Channel spacing 8 MHz

Band 5 606- 798 MHz Channel #38 Channel #61

Channel spacing 8 MHz

SHF – 3- 30 GHz

S- Band 2.5- 2.7 GHz (DL)

C- Band 3.7- 4.2 GHz (DL) & 5.9 6.4 GHz (UL)

Ex.C- Band 4.5- 4.85 GHz (DL) & 6.725- 7.025 GHz (UL)

Ku Band 10.7- 11.7 GHz & 12.5- 12.75 GHz (DL)

12.75-13.25GHz & 13.75- 14.50 GHz (DL)

GROUND (SURFACE) WAVE

Medium wave (MW) propagates along the surface of the earth. It is normally vertically polarized to avoid
short circuiting of the electric component by the ground.
Medium wave induces current in the ground over which it passes, and thus, lose some energy by absorption.
This is made up to some extent by energy diffracted downward from the upper portions of the wave front.
Because of diffraction, the wave front gradually tilts over. As the wave propagates over the earth, it tilts over
more and more and the increasing tilt causes greater short circuiting of the electric field component of the
wave and, hence, the field strength reduces and it will vanish after some distance.
Range of such coverage depends on frequency, power of the transmitter, ground conditions like salinity and
conductivity of the ground or water over which the waves propagate, and the water vapour content of the air.

SPACE (TROPOSPHERIC) WAVE

They travel more or less in straight lines. As they depend on line of sight conditions, they are limited in their
propagation by the curvature of the earth, except in very unusual circumstances.
Space wave can have two components: viz. Direct wave and reflected wave from the surface of earth. Direct
wave will be steady and strong.

SKY (IONOSPHERIC) WAVE

In radio communication, skywave or skip refers to the propagation of radio waves reflected or refracted back
toward Earth from the ionosphere, an electrically charged layer of the upper atmosphere. Since it is not limited
by the curvature of the Earth, skywave propagation can be used to communicate beyond the horizon, at
intercontinental distances. It is mostly used in the shortwave frequency bands. Most long-distance shortwave
(high frequency) radio communication – between 3 and 30 MHz – is a result of skywave propagation.

11
 CHAPTER-3

TRANSMITTER

3.1 TYPE:
 300KW medium wave high power transmitter.
 2 x 100KW medium wave transmitter
 10KW medium wave transmitter.
 10 KW FM transmitter
 10KW Ignou transmitter.
 Capacitive earth station (satellite uplink facility).

At Jalandhar At Khurla Kingra At HPT,Goraya

10KW transmitter & It is located in DDK 2 Transmitter are there

capacitive earth station
DTH & regional uplink.
There are total 11 studios
(4transmission, 6 recording,
1dubbing).
Station broadcasting system on
hard disk based system.
for transmitter complex. namely 300KW.
2x100KW BEL make for
Urdu service.
The program b/w studio &
transmitter is linked with
STL 05 microwave link 05
means 5 channel are there.

10KW Ignou transmitter.

➢
10KW transmitter is for Vividh Bharti service. In capacitive earth station satellite downlink and uplink
facility was installed.
➢
On this DTH Punjabi service was added to broadcast on 16.12.04.
➢
Here we use 2 x 5KW transmitter 2 stands for 2 transmitter and 5KW means we can take 5KW as well as
10KW.

3.2 FREQUENCY USED

873 kHz for 300KW.(Regional channels/Gyanwani)
702 kHz for Urdu service.
100.6MHz for commercial broadcast service.(Vividh Bharti)
102.7MHz for FM.
2-6GHz for DTH.(uplink and downlink)

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3.3 CHANNELS

Regional service (873kHz).

Urdu service (702kHz).
FM rainbow (102.7MHz).
Vividh Bharti service (100.6MHz).
DTH Punjabi service

3.4 SOFTWARE USED

For transmission-Studio pro

Radio Assist
For Recording & editing-ADOBE Audition

3.5 MICROWAVE LINKS

Between Control Room and FM transmitter-

No. of channels-05

Frequency-1489MHz

Power-3watt

Between FM and HTP Goraya

No. of channels-05

Frequency-1440MHz

Power-3watt

3.6 FM TRANSMITTER
There is too much over-crowding in the AM broadcast bands and shrinking in the night-time service area due
to fading, interfacing, etc. FM broadcasting offers several advantages over AM such as uniform day and night
coverage , good, quality listening and suppression of noise, interfacing, etc. All India Radio has gone in for FM
broadcasting using modern FM transmitter incorporating state of art technology.

3.7 SALIENT FEATURE OF BEL FM TRANSMITTER

Completely solid state.
Forced air cooled with help of 2 transmitter in passive exciter standby mode.
Parallel operation of 2 transmitter in passive exciter standby mode.
Mono or stereo broadcasting.
Additional information such as RTS(radio traffic signals) can also be transmitted.
Local/Remote operation.
Each transmitter has been provided with a separate power supply.

13
MODERN FM TRANSMITTER Simplified block diagram of a Modern FM transmitter is given in Fig .The
left and right channel of audio signal is fed to stereo coder for stereo encoding. This stereo encoding signal
or mono signal (either left or right channel audio) is fed to VHF oscillator and modulator. The FM
modulation output is amplified by a wide band power amplifier and then fed to Antenna for transmission.
Voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) is used as VHF oscillator and modulator. To stabilizer its frequency a
portion of FM modulated signal is fed to a programmable divider, which divides the frequency by factor ‘N’
to get 10kHz frequency at the input of a phase and frequency comparator (phase detector). The factor ‘N’ is
automatically selected when we set the station carriers frequency. The other input of phase detector is a
reference signal of 10kHz generated by a crystal oscillator of 10MHz and divider by a
divider(1/1000).The output of phase detector is an error voltage, which is fed to VCO for correlation of its
frequency through rectifier and low pas filter.

Block Diagram of Modern FM Transmitter

10 KW FM TRANSMITTER

14
 CHAPTER 4

SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

Satellite Communication is the outcome of the desire of man to achieve the concept of global village.
Penetration of frequencies beyond 30 Mega Hertz through ionosphere force people to think that if an object
(Reflector) could be placed in the space above ionosphere then it could be possible to use complete spectrum
for communication purpose.
For national as well as neighbouring countries coverage, some of the following satellites are used:

ANIK : Canadian satellite system

INSAT : Indian Satellites
AUSSAT : Australian Satellites
BRAZILSAT : Brazilian Satellites
FRENCH TELECOM : French Satellites
ITALSAT : Italian Satellites
CHINASAT : Chinese Satellites
STATSIONAR, : Russian Satellites
GORIZONT,
EKRAN.
There are also satellites operated by private organizations and some of these are given below :

GALAXY : Owned by Hughes Corporation

SATCOM : Owned by RCA
SBS : Satellite Business Systems
PAS : Owned by PANAMSAT
ASIASAT : Owned by China satellites State Communication for Technology and industry

Space prophet Arthur C. Clarke was the first person to predict the modern day satellite communication. In his
scientific fiction in Wireless World in 1945 he foresaw that it would be possible to provide complete radio
coverage using three satellites placed in geosynchronous orbit at an height of 35,779 KM above earth or 42,157
KM from the centre of earth. It was a remarkable prediction at that time when it was felt it would be shear
wastage time to think of placing satellite in space. He calculated that if a satellite had to remain in space at an
height of 35,779 KM it should revolve with a velocity of 3.074 KM/second so as to acquire centrifugal force to
neutralise the force of attraction of earth. With this velocity, the satellite will make one revolution in 23 hours
56 Minutes and 4 seconds and this is the actual period of rotation of earth on its own axis. This is known as
sidereal day (reference of rotation for sidereal day is a distant star and for solar day, reference of rotation is
sun). Solar day has 24 hours as the reference for rotation is sun. The earth is not remaining in the same location
every day but is revolving around the sun and thus advancing about one degree per day. In a year, it would have
advanced 365 degrees (about one full day) in a year and this would have produced one additional rotation of
earth on its own axis. Thus there are 366.25 sidereal days in a year as compared to 365.25 solar days. This
correspondingly reduces the sidereal day time from 24 hours (solar day) to 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.1 seconds.
Since earth is actually making one rotation on its own axis in 23 hours, 56 Minute and 4.1 seconds the
geosynchronous satellite should also make one revolution during this period as to remain at same point while
looking from earth.

15
Two technologies responsible for the birth of Satellite Communication System are :-
1. Rocket Technology.
2. Microwave Technology
The Second World War favoured the expansion of these two technologies. Satellite is basically a reflector in
the sky

Advantages of satellite Communication

The following are the advantages of satellite communication

This is only means which can provide multi access two way communication. Within the coverage area, it is
possible to establish one way or two way communication between any two points.
The cost of transmitting information through satellite is independent of distance involved.
Satellite can be used for two way communication or broadcast purpose with the covered area.
Satellites are capable of handling very high bandwidth. Normally any satellite can accommodate about 500
MHz in C Band. For example the bandwidth of INSAT-I is 480 MHz in C Band and 80 MHz in S Band. INSAT-
II has a bandwidth of 720 MHz in C Band and 80 MHz in S Band.
It is possible to provide large coverage using satellite. For example Geostationary satellite can cover about 42%
of earth surface using global beam.
Satellite can provide signal to terrestrial uncovered pockets like valleys and mountainous regions.
Satellites can provide uniform signals for urban areas or rural areas unlike terrestrial service which will lay
more signal to urban areas (where the transmitters are located) as compared to rural areas.
It is easy and quicker to establish new satellite link using SNG terminal or VSAT terminal from any point to
any other point as compared to any other means.

Satellite Communication System

Basically it comprises two elements:
a. Ground Segment
b. Space Segment

The Space Segment

The space segment contains the Satellite and all terrestrial facilities for the control and monitoring of the
Satellite. The satellite in turn transmits to the receiving earth stations ; this is the down link. The quality of a
radio link is specified by its carrier-to-noise ratio. The important factor is the quality of the total link, from
station to station, and this is
determined by the quality of the up link and that of the down link. The quality of the total link determines the
quality of the signals delivered to the end user in accordance with the type of modulation and coding used.

The Ground Segment

The ground segment consists of all the earth stations ; these are most often connected to the end-user s equipment
by a terrestrial network or, in the case of small stations (Very Small Aperture Terminal, VSAT), directly
connected to the end-user s equipment. Stations are distinguished by their size which varies according to the
volume of traffic to be carried on the space link and the type of traffic (telephone, television or data). The largest
are equipped with antenna of 30 m diameter (Standard A of the INTELSAT network). The smallest have 0.6 m
antenna (direct television receiving stations). Fixed, transportable and mobile stations can also be distinguished.
Some stations are both transmitters and receivers. Others are only receivers ; this is the case, for example with
receiving stations for a satellite broadcast system or a distribution system for television or data signals.

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4.1 CHAIN DIAGRAM SATELLITE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:

Fig. chain diag. of a Satellite communication system

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 CHAPTER-5

OB (OUTDOOR BROADCASTING)

Outside Broadcasts (abbreviated as OBs) form a substantial portion of programmes radiated from a Radio
Station. Major events that occur at different parts of a country, such as sports events, important functions of
political, cultural and national important and other such programmes that originate from outside the broadcast
studio are covered as OBs.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF OB
OBs can be classified into two types :

i) Live Broadcast

Events of national importance such as Independence Day Celebrations, sports events etc. are generally radiated
as Live programme.

ii) Spot Recordings

Most of the OB programmes are recorded at the OB spot with the help of a portable, battery operated OB
amplifier and or an Ultra Portable Tape Recorder (UPTR) or a cassette tape recorder. Some programmes,
depending on their importance are recorded at the studio end. In this case, it is necessary to book telephone
lines, from the OB spot to CR.
EQUIEPMENTS USED IN OB

i) OB AMPLIFIERS
An OB amplifier is a portable mixing unit. Normally four low level microphone inputs and one high level input
from a PTR or UPTR, can be mixed and controlled by this unit. The individual channel output levels as well as
the level of the programme after mixing can be controlled by rotary step attenuators. A tone generator providing
three spot frequencies (75 Hz, 750 Hz or 1 kHz, 7.5 kHz) is incorporated in this unit so that the frequency
response of the telephone line on which the programme is fed can be quickly checked at CR end and equalisation
done, if found necessary.
The auxiliary output can be used for random operation or for feeding a public address system. Thus two OB
amplifiers can be cascaded, and nine programme sources can be controlled. A portable mixer has recently been
developed by M/s Meltron which can be used with Nagra or Meltron UPTRs. This mixer enables use of three
microphones and has a high level input. The main feature of this mixer is that it is of light weight and takes
power supply from UPTR itself.

ii) MICROPHONES
The choice of the correct type of microphone and its proper handling and placement is very important for the
success of an OB. The microphones used in OBs must be robust, insensitive to wind noise and popping effects,
and having a good front to back ratio to avoid feedback. Hence, when choosing a microphone, for OB operations
the directional characteristics of the microphones should be considered carefully. Suitability of different
microphones for OB recording is discussed below.

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OMNI DIRECTION MICROPHONES

Omni-directional microphones are sensitive to sound from all directions equally and hence they are preferred
in studio recordings. But dynamic cardiod microphones are better suited for OB recordings.

Short Gun Microphones

In OB situations such as cricket test match or athletics coverages, the sound is to be picked up from a distance
and hence we require a microphone with a narrow acceptance angle. Gun microphones are used on such
occasions. Its constructional structure is such that all sounds other than those from the wanted direction, arrive
in such a manner as to produce a very low output from the microphone. Hence, shot-gun microphones are used
when the microphone must remain at some distance from the sound or good rejection of sound from the sides
and rear is desired.

Radio/Wireless Microphones
In sports coverages, there may be situations such as in a big stadium where different athletic events take place
simultaneously where it is not possible to lay cables. Radio microphones are best suited for these locations. In
a radio microphone, the microphone is connected to a miniature FM transmitter (held in hand) and the audio is
picked up from the demodulator output of a FM receiver. Such radio microphones are used in locations where
long cable distances are involved or where it is not possible to lay the cable.

Use of Wind shields

When microphones are used out of doors, in windly conditions, wind shields are used. But wind shields tend to
have adverse effect upon the frequency and directional response of the microphones. Hence, they should be
selected with care, and used only when necessary and suitable corrections are to be made to the frequency
response and operational techniques.

iii) TAPE RECORDERS

Spot interview and glimpses of the various events taking place in a particular city, are covered by spot recordings
done with Ultra Portable Tape Recorders (UPTRs) and cassette tape recorders. They are light weight battery operated
recorders and are provided with only headphone monitoring facility in order to avoid the drain on the batteries.
Generally two sets of either dry cells or chargeable cells are taken for the OB recordings, so that atleast 30 minutes
of recorded programme is made feasible. Major studio centres such as the BH, New Delhi are provided with a
number of such UPTR s and cassette tape recorders so that more than twenty different event can be covered with the
help of such UPTR s. The recorded tapes are brought back to the BH, and a composite news capsule is made with
the help of console tape recorders, in the dubbing room. The edited programme is used in the programmes such as
Radio News Reel, Agricultural Programmes, special features etc.

5.1 IMPORTANT GUIDELINES FOR COVERAGE OF OB

 Cassette tape recorders in our network are not of uniform quality. Each cassette recorder should be
thoroughly tested for satisfactory quality before sending it for OB recording.
 For VIP recordings, Portable tape Recorders (PTRs) are used. A PTR is mains operated, provides good
quality and is also sturdy enough to withstand continuous operation. PTRs can also be taken to those
OB spots where AC power supply is available. It is preferable to take a variance to take care of power
supply voltage fluctuations.
 Where more than one microphone is needed for an OB, proper phasing, correct placement, proper
balancing and mixing of the microphones is essential to get the desired sound quality. Microphones
should be so located as to avoid direct pick up from strong external noise sources e.g. public address

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 loudspeakers, generators, viscinity of heavy traffic etc. Strong sources of RF radiation in the viscidity
of the equipment will also adversely affect the quality. The commentators mike should be unidirectional
and should have minimum possible pick-up from external sound sources. It should also be kept away
from sound reflecting surfaces.
 The connecting cables for microphones and for other equipment should be carefully laid so that these
do not get disturbed during the progress of the OB. Spare cables should be provided wherever possible.
If the effects microphones are at considerable distance from the equipments, these may be connected
through battery operated booster amplifiers located near the mikes
 The equipment should be set-up well before the start of the OB and the entire chain from the microphone
to the receiving end should be thoroughly tested for reliability and satisfactory sound quality. The
equipment should not be disturbed after testing and any last minute changes and adjustment must be
avoided.
 For the coverage of various functions and sports events etc. it is essential to provide adequate sound
effects. If the sound effects are not available in the background of the running commentary, it becomes
an extremely dull coverage, uninteresting to the listeners. The engineer on duty should ensure that the
sound effect do not override the main commentary and proper balance is maintained.
 Proper selection of the microphones for coverage of an OB is very important. Apart from good quality,
the microphone should be rugged and capable of withstanding transit hazard. It should always be carried
in a proper case to avoid damage due to improper handling
 . It is always essential to take standby equipment, spare batteries, spare components and essential tools
for the coverage of an OB. A portable battery operated receiver should also be taken for monitoring
purposes.

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 CHAPTER-6

MOTIVATION OF TRAINING

TO VISIT IN A NATIONAL SERVICES FIRM:

It is very interesting to visit in a main station of the biggest Indian government service. This is the core of Indian
broadcasting service. And this was our industrial training for 6 weeks. So to spend 6 weeks in this greatest firm
will gave me a lot of experience which will surely help me in my future.

COMMUNICATION BASED FIRM:

We are doing B.Tech in Electronics and Communication, so the major reason is for doing 6 weeks training in
this firm is that to judge and to understand the concept of communication and importance in the future.

EXAMINE AND UNDERSTAND THE CONCEPT OF BROADCASTING, ALSO HOW IT IS DONE:

The broadcasting is the main factor of communication so it is important to see the working and learn the concept
of broadcasting. In 6 weeks we examine
1. All the station’s working, the concept of broadcasting, that how it be done.
2. We understand that what actually broadcasting is. How the one message is conveying to the whole
nation.
3. We learn the types of broadcasting i.e Indoor & Outdoor broadcasting.

TO CLEAR THE METODOLOGY AND BASIC CONCEPT THAT HOW THE PROGRAMMES
COMES ON OUR RADIO SETUP FROM RADIO STUDIOS AND DISTANCE EVENTS:

In this 6 weeks we learn and examine practically the concept that

1. How the speech signal from a particular sight delivers to radios.
2. How the programmes made in the different studios and from the live events broadcasts to the nation.
3. We get the knowledge about radio broadcast parameters, steps, functions, modes, methods, modern
techniques and future plans.

STUDIO WORK AND PRODUCTION:

We also see and learn the working of the different types of studios. The studio in which music is operated and
produce, conversation and talk studio, drama and play studio, editing and dubbing of programmes.

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 CHAPTER-7

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

HOW THIS TRAINING WILL HELP IN THE FUTURE?

THERE IS LARGE SCOPE IN THE COMMUNICATION FIELD

We know very well that the every sector of technology, service, agriculture are linked with in their self and
other self. All cities, states, countries are connected with each other because they need so for their growth
and survivor and this is done only by the communication technology. And this technology is fastly growing
since 1964 and in present is becoming modern and more fast with more improvements and more scopes in
all fields.

SCOPE IN THE BROADCASTING

In the communication field the biggest section is broadcasting. And in the broadcasting there are so many
fields like studio technology, transmission technology, satellite communication, radio technology,
management in broadcasting service etc.

DIGITALIZATION OF BROADCASTING
After the spreading of electronics field all technologies are going towards the phenomenon of digital.
Because of the lower power consumption, controllable techniques, and easy maintenance with much
improvement due to spreading electronic technology of digital world the analog concept become old so to
improve the broadcasting service the Indian government is now going to digitalize this service. And due to
this there is heavy scope in requirement of electronic engineering.

SCOPE OF THE ENGINEERING IN THE RADIO TECHNOLOGY SECTOR

There is a broad research line in the radio technology sector . In which working and research on radio waves
and satellite radio is now in progress. So in this research study can be done in the future after engineering
for higher study.

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SATELLITE RADIO TECHNOLOGY
 This is a special part of radio technology.
 Satellite radio is a subscriber based radio service that broadcast directly from satellites.
 It is an advanced form of mobile radio service where one can receive compact disc quality music
and other entertainment channels.
 Even if the person is miles away from the radio station, the quality of the program is not affected.
 In this line there are many fields for setting future in multimedia content, television transmission,
military purpose etc.

IMPROVEMENT IN THE RECORDING SYSTEM

There is requirement in the recording system section of electronics and computer engineers to maintain all
programmes and working on special software and instruments.

OPENING OF NEW CHANNELS

In every year there are new different channels are producing in government and private broadcasting service.
So this will produce vacancies in many sections like in studio, recording, dubbing, entertainment plays ,
technical sections like transmission, control, research etc

MUSIC PRODUCTION
This the one of the big commercial and technical line for the engineers. There are so many courses in this
trade and we can earn best in this field related with entertainment.

SCOPE OF TIME CONTROL MANAGEMENT

In any firm related to broadcasting service or communication there is very importance of a single second.
So after engineering we can do management study and after some experience can apply for this field also
for earn better.
GOOD PACKAGE IN FULL TIME AND PART TIME JOB
So at in the final after engineering there is an interesting field with sub-fields, in which we can make our
future and earn best by getting good technical, management, art and research skills and with some experienc

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