Module 3

KBC AHMEDNAGAR COLLEGE, AHMEDNAGAR (DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS)
MODULE: 3
Reaction Dynamics, Nuclear Reactors & Accelerators

1 Credit
Education is not the learning of facts, but the

training of the mind to think
- Albert Einstein
[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

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Lecture Notes
PHYUT 801: NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Mr. K. B. Chavan
Assistant Professor,
Department of Physics,
Ahmednagar College, Ahmednagar.

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Introduction–In Nuclear Physics many more nuclear reactions are important such
as nuclear fission reaction, nuclear fusion reaction, scattering reactions. In order to
study nuclear phenomenon we must able to understand these nuclear reactions.
First part of this module belongs to different types of nuclear reaction and their
reaction mechanism. These nuclear reactions are carried out in controlled
environment. Device which is used for this purpose is named as nuclear reactor,
second part of this module is dedicated to nuclear reactors. In addition to nuclear
reactors, to stimulate nuclear reaction we require the energetic particles. In order to
accelerate charge particles certain devices are designed, these devices are known as
accelerators. These accelerators are studied in the third part of this module.
Reaction Dynamics – Nuclear reactions are carried out through different ways
means there are different types of nuclear reaction given as follows;
Types of nuclear reactions – In all there are 10 categories of nuclear reactions
 Elastic Scattering – In this reaction the incident particle strikes the target
nucleus and leaves without energy loss but, in general, with altered direction
of motion. Scattering of alpha particles in gold is a good example of this
process
e.g.
4 197 197 4
2𝐻𝑒 + 79𝐴𝑢 → 79𝐴𝑢 + 2𝐻𝑒
 Inelastic Scattering – The scattered particle may loss KE . this being
corresponding increase in the internal energy of the nucleus which is excited
to a high quantum state. This inelastic scattering cam be represented as
follow;
e.g.
7 1 7 ∗ 1
3𝐿𝑖 + 1𝐻 → 3𝐿𝑖 + 1𝐻
∗ Indicates that after scattering nucleus is left in an excited state. This excess
energy is later radiated away in the form of gamma radiation.
 Disintegration – On striking the target nucleus the incident particle is
absorbed and different particle is ejected. The product nucleus differs from
the target nucleus.
e.g.
14 4 17 1
7𝑁 + 2𝐻𝑒 → 8𝑂 + 1𝐻

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 Photo Disintegration – The gamma rays are absorbed by the raget nucleus
exciting it to higher quantum state . if the energy is high enough, one ro
more particles may be liberated.
e.g.
2 1 1
1𝐻 + 𝛾 → 1𝐻 + 0𝑛
 Radiative Capture – A particle may combine with a nucleus to produce a
new nucleus or compound nucleus which is in an excited state. The excess
energy is emitted in the form of gamma ray photons. This type of process is
known as Radiative capture process.
E,g,
26 1 27 ∗ 27
12𝑀𝑔 + 1𝐻 → 13𝐴𝑙 → + 13𝐴𝑙 + 𝛾
 Direct Reactions – A collision of an incident particle with the nucleus may
immediately pull one of the nucleons out of the target nucleus by the so
called pickup reaction. In the inverse process, bombarding particle
composed of more than one nucleon may loss one of them to e target by the
stripping reaction
e.g.
63 2 64 1
29𝐶𝑢 + 1𝑑 → 29𝐶𝑢 + 1𝐻
 Spontaneous Decay – beta and alpha decay processes may be regarded as
this type of nuclear reactions. These reactions are not under the
experimenter’s control.
 Spallation Reactions – On capture a incident particle a heavy nucleus has
sufficient energy for this ejection of several particles. Such a reactions is
known as Spallation reaction.
e.g. Nuclear fission in which heavy nucleus splits mainly in two nuclei,
235 1 98 136 1
92𝑈 + 0𝑛 → 40𝑍𝑟 → + 52𝑇𝑒 + 2 0𝑛
 High Energy reactions - In the energy range about 150 𝑀𝑒𝑉 Spallation
process merges in to new kinds of reactions in which news kinds of particles
like mesons are produced along with protons and neutrons.
 Heavy Ion Reactions – These Nuclear reactions induced by heavy ions also
include conventional reactions mechanisms such as coulomb excitation,
elastic scattering, compound nucleus formation and direct reactions.
e.g. Charged particle reactions, neutron reactions, electron induced reactions.

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Conservation Laws in Nuclear Reactions – In any nuclear reactions certain

quantities must be conserved, this fact is gives rise to conservation laws. Given as
follows;
 Conservation of Energy – The total energy of the products, including both
mass energy and kinetic energy of the particles plus the energy involved
must be equal to the mass energy of the initial ingredients plus the kinetic
energy of the bombarding particle.
 Conservation of Momentum – The total linear momentum of the products
must be equal to the linear momentum of the bombarding particle.
 Conservation of Angular Momentum – The total angular momentum
𝐼 comprising the vector sum of the intrinsic angular momentum 𝑠 and
relative orbital angular momentum 𝐼 of the products must be equal to the
total angular momentum of the initial particle.
 Conservation of Charge – Total electric charge of the products must be
equal to the total electric charge of initial particles.
 Conservation of Nucleons – It states that, the nucleons can neither be
created nor can be destroyed so that the number of nucleons minus the
number of anti nucleons in the universe remains constant.
 Conservation of Spin – The important conservation law asserts that the spin
character of closed system cannot change. That is statistics remains the same
as that existed before reactions.
 Conservation of Parity – The parity of the system determined by the target
nucleons and bombarding particles must be conserved throughout the
reaction. The total parity of the system is the product of intrinsic parities of
the target nucleus and bombarding nucleus.
 Conservation of Iso-spin – The invariance of the nuclear Hamiltonian
functions towards the charge character of the nucleons can be expressed
analytically as invariance towards rotational shifts of the axes in isotopic
spin space.
𝑸 value of Nuclear Reaction – The Conservation of energy and momentum
imposes certain restrictions on the reactions. These restrictions are known as
kinematics restrictions and this mathematical method is known as kinematics.
Consider a nuclear reaction given as
𝑋+𝑥 →𝑌+𝑦

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𝑋, 𝑥, 𝑌 & 𝑦 are thetarget nucleus, bombarding particle, product nucleus and product
particle respectively. Since total energy is conserved in a nuclear reaction therefore
we get,
𝑀𝑥 𝑐 2 + (𝐸𝑥 + 𝑚𝑥 𝑐 2 ) = (𝐸𝑌 + 𝑀𝑌 𝑐 2) +
(𝐸𝑦 + 𝑚𝑦 𝑐 2)
My Y
Where, 𝑚𝑥, 𝑀𝑥 , 𝑚𝑦 & 𝑀𝑌 are all representing
masses of incident particle, target nucleus,
product particle and product nucleus.
Vx
X
Let 𝑄 be the difference in kinetic energy
mx
of the products of the reaction and that of
incident particle. my
Vy
𝑄 = 𝐸𝑌 + 𝐸𝑦 − 𝐸𝑥
Figure – Nuclear Reaction
Form above equations we can write,
(𝑀𝑥 + 𝑚𝑥 − 𝑀𝑌 − 𝑚𝑦 )𝑐 2 = 𝑄
The quantity 𝑄 is called the energy balance of the reaction or 𝑄 value of the
reaction.
If 𝑄 > 0 then reaction is said to be exoergic reactions.
If 𝑄 < 0 then reaction is said to be endoergic reaction. A reaction cannot take
place unless particles 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑌 emerge out with positive kinetic energies, that is
𝐸𝑌 + 𝐸𝑦 ≥ 0
By applying laws of conservation of momentum along 𝑋 axis we get
𝑚𝑥 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑀𝑌 𝑉𝑌 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝑚𝑦 𝑣𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Similarly for 𝑌 axis
𝑀𝑌 𝑉𝑌 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 𝑚𝑦 𝑣𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
By solving above equations we get,
𝑀𝑌 2 𝑉𝑌 2 = 𝑚𝑥 2𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑚𝑦 2𝑣𝑦 2 − 2𝑚𝑥 𝑣𝑥 𝑚𝑦 𝑣𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1 1
but we know that 𝐸𝑥 = 𝑚𝑥 𝑣𝑥 2; 𝐸𝑦 = 𝑚𝑦 𝑣𝑦 2; 𝐸𝑌 = 𝑀𝑌 𝑉𝑌 2 after eliminating
2 2
velocities form above we get,
2𝐸𝑌 𝑀𝑌 = 2𝐸𝑥 𝑚𝑥 + 2𝐸𝑦 𝑚𝑦 − 4(𝑚𝑥 𝑚𝑦 𝐸𝑥 𝐸𝑦 )1/2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

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by solving above we get

𝑚𝑦 𝑚𝑥 2 1
𝑄 = 𝐸𝑦 (1 + ) − 𝐸𝑥 (1 − )− (𝑚𝑥 𝑚𝑦 𝐸𝑥 𝐸𝑦 )2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑀𝑌 𝑀𝑥 𝑀𝑌
Above equation is known as 𝑄 equation it gives desired relation between the

energy released and the measured quantities in lab system. When 𝜃 = 90°then
𝑄 value becomes,
𝑚𝑦 𝑚𝑥
𝑄 = 𝐸𝑦 (1 + ) − 𝐸𝑥 (1 − )
𝑀𝑌 𝑀𝑥
For elastic scattering in which masses are equal then 𝑄 = 0

For inelastic scattering mass are equal but 𝑄 = −𝐸 ∗
Where, 𝐸 ∗ is the excitation energy imparted to the target nucleus 𝑀𝑋
In this way 𝑄 values plays an important role in nuclear reaction.
Compound Nucleus Hypothesis – According to Niles Bohr the nuclear reaction

takes place in two distinct and independent stages given as follows;
1. Formation of compound nucleus 𝐶 which survives a relatively long time
2. The disintegration of the compound nucleus in to the products
Hence according Bohr we can write,
𝑋 + 𝑥 → 𝐶∗
Incident particle captured by a target nucleus gives up its energy to two nucleons
and as the result of the interaction of these nucleons with all the others the energy
is quickly distributed among all the nucleons of the target nucleus.
The nucleus thus formed is called compound nucleus which is excited state. If 𝐸𝑥
is the kinetic energy of the incident particle of mass𝑚, the excitation energy of the
compound nucleus will be given as
𝐸𝑥 𝑀
𝐸∗ = + 𝐸𝐵
𝑚+𝑀
Where, 𝑀 is the mass of target nucleus, and 𝐸𝐵 be the binding energy of the
particle in the compound nucleus.
The mode of disintegration of compound nucleus that is 𝐶 ∗ → 𝑌 + 𝑦 is
independent of the mode of the formation and depends only on its energy, angular

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momentum and parity. A compound nucleus in once formed can decay in number
of different ways.
For example, 𝐴27∗ → (𝑁𝑎23 + 𝛼 ), (𝑀𝑔25 + 𝑑 ), (𝑀𝑔26 + 𝑝), (𝐴𝑙26 + 𝑛)
The compound nucleus has a life time which is long 10−14𝑡𝑜 10−18 𝑠𝑒𝑐. compared
to nucleon to traverse a nucleus.
Reactors –We know that nuclear energy is one of the clean source on energy. But
it is difficult to perform the sustained and controlled nuclear reaction. For this
purpose we are using special devices form many days these devices are termed as
nuclear reactors. Basically there are two types of nuclear reactions fission reaction
and nuclear fusion reaction.
Fission Chain Reaction– The principle of chain reaction was first realized in
practice by the famous Italian physicist Enrico Fermi. Chain reaction is self
sustaining process that once started needs no additional agents to keep it going. In
fission reaction heavier
FN
nuclei is splits in to two
lighter nuclei’s and gives
out some energy. This U235
energy we are using for FF FF

FN
our practical application M FN- Fast Neutrons
with the help of nuclear SN SN-Slow Neutrons
FF- Fission Fragments
fission reactor. When fast U235
M-Moderator
moving neutron is
bombarded on FF FN FF
radioactive nuclei like M

SN
Uranium then that tends Figure- Fission Chain Reaction
to compound nucleus and

split in to two lighter nuclei these are also known as fission fragments, along with
this there is emission of three fast neutrons. When these neutrons are incident on
other three Uranium atoms causes fission reaction and gives 9 fast moving
neutrons and again if these 9 neutrons are incident other 9 Uranium atoms and this
process continue as shown in figure. This process is known as fission chain
reaction.
During nuclear fission, on the other hand not only is large quantity of energy
is released but a number of neutrons are also emitted some of which can be utilized
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for causing fission of other nuclei. If this happens then more neutrons will
available after the second generation of fission reactions, and so on. Thus the
fission reaction under favorable conditions, can be made to go on in chain without
the intervention any external agent, which means the chain reaction can go on as a
self sustaining process
Four Factor Formula– Consider the absorption of 𝑛 thermal neutrons in𝑈 238 to
produce fission (process 𝑑) if 𝑣 fast neutrons are emitted per fission then total
number of fast neutrons produced as a result of the thermal neutrons fission of n𝑛
nuclie of 𝑈 238 is 𝑛𝑣. The number of fast neutrons produced is actually slightly
greater than 𝑛𝑣 due to the fast fission of some 𝑈 238 , suppose the total number of
fast neutrons produced due to fission of 𝑈 235 is increased by factor 𝜖 > 1due to
fast fission of 𝑈 238 ; in this case 𝜖 factor is called the fast fission factor. Thus the
total number of fast neutrons produced is actually 𝑛𝑣𝜖.
The fast neutrons are slowed down in the moderator and some of neutrons are
absorbed by materials present in reactor. Let 𝑝be the neutron escape resonance
capture while slowing down it is known as resonance escape probability then
number of neutron slowed down to thermal energies is 𝑛𝑣𝜖𝑝. while the 𝑛𝑣𝜖(1 − 𝑝)
number of neutrons are captured to produce non fission reactions. The fraction of
thermal neutrons which are absorbed in the fuel is called the thermal utilization
factor. So total number of thermal neutrons absorbed in fuel is 𝑛𝑣𝜖𝑝𝑓 and the rest
𝑛𝑣𝜖𝑝(1 − 𝑓) is absorbed in other materials. Let 𝑔 be the fraction of thermal
neutrons absorbed in the fuel to produce fission in the second generation then the
total number of thermal neutrons available for producing fission in the second
generation due to 𝑛 thermal neutron fission in the first generation will be given
by, 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑣𝜖𝑝𝑓𝑔
Hence the infinite multiplication factor is
𝑁
𝑘∝ = = 𝑣𝜖𝑝𝑓𝑔
𝑛
𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝜂 = 𝑣𝑔 gives the number of fast neutrons produced for each thermal neutron
absorbed in the fuel by using this we can write,
𝑘∝ = 𝜂𝜖𝑝𝑓
Above expression is known as four factor formula, which plays an important role
in working of fission nuclear reactor.

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Multiplication Factor – We know that in fission reaction during every generation

reaction number of fast moving neutrons goes on increasing. This leads to
uncontrolled fission reaction which latter on result in nuclear explosion. In order to
avoid this, to achieve self sustained chain reaction we have to control the
multiplication factor of the fission reaction. Multiplication factor 𝑘 depends on
four factors given by 𝜂, 𝜖, 𝑝 & 𝑓. Let 𝑛 neutrons are absorbed in the nuclei ot her
fuel to produce fission then each fission generates a 𝑣 number of fresh neutrons.
Out of these if 𝑁 number of neutrons are available for production of fission in the
next generation, then we define a new factor given by,
𝑁
Multiplication factor = (𝑘 ) =
𝑛
Above expression is known as multiplication factor.
If for a given value of 𝑘, nature of fission reaction is
Value of
Nature of fission reaction
𝒌
𝑘 = 1 Self sustained chain reaction.
𝑘 > 1 Large energy is liberated and it is uncontrolled reaction leads to explosion.
𝑘 < 1 Chain reaction is not self sustained, it stops after some time.
In this way we can decide the nature of fission reaction, if we have information
about multiplication factor of that corresponding nuclear reaction.
General Properties and Concept of Nuclear Reactor– In nuclear fission reaction

energy is released during each
Shield
fission according to Einstein’s
energy mass equivalence
relation, along with this Control Rod
Core
energy there is liberation of

two or three energetic fast Reflector
Heat
Exchanger
moving neutrons. Latter on
these neutrons are incident on
other radioactive nuclei. Fuel Rod
Coolant
Which causes secondary
fission and during that again Figure – Block Diagram of Nuclear Reactor
some energy and fast neutrons
are liberated, in short this is a one kind of chain reaction. In this chain reaction, in

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each generation large amount of energy is liberated along with fast neutrons. This
neutron number goes on multiplying which causes emission of tremendous amount
of energy in very short time. So there is explosion which is termed as atomic
explosion.
In short, if we want to utilize energy liberated in nuclear fission then we
must able to control this fission reaction. We must able to control the number of
fast moving neutrons; we must handle the reaction in such a way that it should be
self sustained reaction, which gives us energy without pollution. The device which
is used to produce nuclear fission reaction in controlled manner is known as
nuclear fission reactor.
Reactor Materials – In order to fabricate the nuclear reactor we have to use
special materials which are able to absorb the radiations and which are able to
withstand on high temperature. Let us discuss one by one;
 Fuel – Theoretically any material fissionable with thermal neutrons can be
used as the reactor fuel. As already stated natural uranium in which the
isotope 𝑈 235 is present to the extent of 0.715 % is commonly used as a
reactor fuel.
 Moderators – In order to control energy of fast moving neutrons, in reactors
we are using special material named as moderator. Commonly used
moderators are water, heavy water, graphite, beryllium and its oxide and
some organic compounds. Moderator must have good slowing down
property and must have very slow neutron absorption cross-section.Carbon
in the form of graphite is also good moderator. When solid moderator is
required, then graphite is used. Ordinary water is also used to slow down the
fast moving neutrons. Beryllium and its oxide are also good moderators but,
expensive.
 Reflectors – In order to avoid leakage of fast neutrons the walls of reactor is
coated with reflector which reflects fast neutrons in to the core of nuclear
reactor. Materials which having high mass number are used as a reflector.
The ideal reflector must have high energy loss by neutron per collision, low
neutron absorption and high neutron scattering.
 Control Materials – In thermal reactors, control is achieved by means of a
neutron absorbing materials. The material should not become reactive as a
result of neutron capture. Material like cadmium, boron, hafnium, iridium,
mercury and mixtures of rare earth materials are used as control materials.
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The most common absorber used for reactor control is boron because; it has
high melting point and large cross sections for neutron absorption. Control
materials are located in core of reactor either in the form of rods or plates
and according to movement of these rods or plates multiplication factor of
neutrons goes on change, on the other hand we can control the rate of
nuclear fission reaction.
 Reactor Coolants – During fission process, large amount of heat is generated
in the core of reactor. In order to prevent reactor form this heat dissipation
we are using special material which are controlling this excess heat, these
materials are known as reactor coolants. These materials are circulated
through the reactor core for the purpose of abstracting the heat and
transferring it to the outside of the core. Reactor coolant must have
following characteristics;
 An ideal coolant should have as little effect on the neutron as possible,
it should not absorb nor moderate the neutrons.
 It should not react chemically with the other materials which it
contacts into the system.
 It should not break up under irradiation.
 It should not be explosive, toxic, inflammable.
 It should not acquire intense long lived radioactivity.
 It should have low vapour pressure.
 It should be easy to handle and cheaper.
The materials proposed as coolant are ordinary water, heavy water, liquid
metals such as sodium or sodium potassium or mercury and organic liquids
and gases. At ordinary temperature ordinary water and heavy water are good
coolants, whereas at high temperatures, high pressures are required to
prevent boiling. Liquid metals such as sodium have been proposed for use at
high temperatures but since it become radioactive due to reactions in core
reactor. In order to avoid this organic compounds such as polyphenyls are
used as reactor coolant. Helium is also good coolant but it is very costly.
 Reactor Shielding – All nuclear reactors except those operating at very low
powers are source of intense neutron and gamma radiation and therefore
represent hazard to person in the immediate vicinity of the reactor. In order to
prevent this reactor core with a radiation protection is used. This shield is
known as biological shield. Generally a layer of concrete about 6 𝑡𝑜 8 feet
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thick and capable of absorbing both gamma rays and neutrons. As in reactor
core heat is large so part of shield inside the core require special cooling
facility in order to prevent form cracking or suffering other heat damage,
shield require for this purpose is known as thermal shield which consists of
few inches of iron or steel.
 Structural Metals – In selecting materials for reactor applications the general
characteristics are mechanical strength, ductility, design, stability, availability,
fabricability, corrosion resistance, heat transfer and cost. The additional facts
in selection of reactor materials are neutron absorption, susceptibility to
induced radioactivity, radiation stability etc.
These are the important parts of the nuclear reactor.
Types of Reactors–There are several types of nuclear reactor given as follows;

 Homogeneous Reactor – In this reactor, the fuel and the moderator are
intimately mixed in the form of a solution of slurry, hence this type of
reactor is known as homogeneous reactor.
 Heterogeneous Reactor – In this type of reactor, the fuel and moderator are
in separated form, hence such reactor is known as heterogeneous reactor.
Nuclear reactors are classified according to their purpose.
 Research Reactors – These are used to supply neutrons for physical
research and radioisotope production. In these reactors the total energy
liberated is comparatively small. These reactors further classified in several
sub types given as below.
 Graphite-Moderated Research Reactor – It is one of the
heterogeneous reactor. Generally these reactor use fuel in the shape of
cylindrical rods or variations on this shape, clad usually in aluminum.
Several hundred tons of graphite is used as moderator and reflector,
with several hundred cylindrical channels passing right through the
graphite to allow the introduction and positioning the fuel elements.
Cooling gas is made to pass over the elements through the channels at
low pressure.
e.g.- Chicago Pile-1, BEPO (British Experimental Pile), Harwell, 𝑋 −
10Clinton pile, BNL(Brookhaven National Laboratory).

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 Water Boiler Type Reactor – This is one of the homogeneous type

of nuclear reactor. In this water boiler is a mixture of higher enriched
uranium salt dissolved in ordinary water.
e.g.- LOPO (low power) in Los Alamos, HYPO(high power), SUPO
(Super power), WBNS( water boiler neutron source), ARR( Armour
research rector) etc.
 Swimming Pool Reactor – This is one of the homogeneous type of
reactor. It consists of enriched uranium fuel immersed in a large pool
of water. The water in the pool plays the role of moderator, coolant
and shield. Such reactors are low cost, and having high safety.
e.g.- BSR, Apsara in India,
 Light-Water –Moderator: Tank Type Reactor – This is similar to
pool reactor. The core is suspended in deep cylindrical tank of water
and cannot move and is preferred over one of the pool type when a
large number of holes for neutrons beams in many different directions
is an important requirement.
E.g.-MTR (material testing reactor),
 Heavy Water Moderator: Tank Type Reactor – In this type of
reactor heavy water is used as a moderator. Heavy water is having
very small thermal absorption cross section because of this property
the neutron economy in heavy water system is greatly increased. In
this uranium is used as fuel and heavy water is a moderator, graphite
as reflector. Ordinary water and air also used as a coolant.
e.g. - Chicago Pile, Cirus (Canadian Indian Reactor), Zerlina( zero
energy reactor with lattice investigation nuclear assembly),
PURNIMA( zero energy plutonium oxide fuelled fast reactor),
Dhurva.
 Production Reactors – These reactors are used to convert fertile in to
fissile material. This fissible material is used as fuel in other reactors.
In these types of reactors uranium is used as fuel, graphite as
moderator and water as coolant. The efficiency of conversion is less
than unity. This efficiency is increased by decreasing resonance
probability. Multiplication factor for such type of reactor is near about
2.5, if heavy water is used as moderator.

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 Power Reactor – In this type of reactors utilization of fission energy

has got prime importance. Fission energy is converting in to useful
power. Heat generated in reactor is used to rotate the turbine which
can be used as source for electric generator or mechanical power.
There are three important consideration for power reactors given
below;
1. It must have high thermal conductivity so as to carry the heat.
2. It must have low neutron capture cross section.
3. It must not be decomposed by intense radiation.
e.g.- Pressurized water reactor, Boling water reactor, Heavy water
moderated reactor, RAPS( Rajasthan Atomic Power Station), MAPS
(Madras Atomic Power Station), NAPS ( Narora APS), Kakarpar APS,
Kaiga APS, Tarapur APS etc.
List of Different Types of Reactors Developed in India–After the independence,
in India several reactors are developed by different such as BARC. These reactors
are as given below.
Location of
No. Types of Reactor Name of Reactor
Reactor
Research Reactor
BARC
1 (Swimming Pool Apsara
Mumbai
type reactor)
Research Reactor
(Heavy Water
2 Cirus Trombay
Moderator: tank
type reactor)
Zerlina ( zero energy reactor with
Research Reactor
3 lattice investigation nuclear -------
assembly)
Research Reactor Purnima( zero energy plutonium BARC,
4
oxide fuelled fast reactor) Mumbai
Research Reactor Purnima-3(Kamini)Kalpakam Mini
5 Kalpakam
Reactor
Research Reactor BARC,
6 Dhurva
Trombay
Tarapur,
Power Reactor
7 MW energy Station Maharashtra

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Location of
No. Types of Reactor Name of Reactor
Reactor
Power Reactor RAPS ( Rajasthan Atomic
8 Kota, Rajasthan
Power Station)
Power Reactor MAPS (Madras Atomic Power
9 Madras
Station)
NAPS ( Narora Atomic Power
10 Power Reactor Narora
Station)
KAPS (Kakarpar Atomic Power
11 Power Reactor Kakarpar
Station)
12 Power Reactor Kaiga APS Kaiga
Kudankulam Atomic Power
13 Power Reactor Kudankulam
Project (KKAPP)
Accelerators – In order to study the nuclear physics we must able to see inside the
particles in nuclear physics such as protons. It is a device used for the kinetic
energy of electrically charged particle. Cathode ray, X- ray tubes are working
according to principles of accelerators. There are several types of accelerators, let
us discuss one by one.
Van de Graff Accelerator – It is a new type of machine designed by R.J.Van de
Graff in 1931. It is an instrument
for producing high voltages in the
million volts region. Its design is
based on the principle that if a Terminal T
charged conductor is brought in to Collection
internal contact with a hollow Comb
second conductor, all of its charge

transfers to the hollow conductor Rubber Belt
no matter how high the potential of Spray Comb

Insulated Pulley
the latter may be.
 Construction – It consists
of three main parts namely Motor
the generator, pressurized

Figure- Van de Graff Generator

17
tank and accelerator as shown in figure. It consists of a belt, made of paper,

silk, rayon or other flexible non conducting material which is run by means
of motor at high speed over two pulleys. The positive pole of dc power
supply at few KV is connected to the pointed comb like conductor. Both
pulleys are connected by rubber belt; upper pulley is connected to collection
comb which spread the charges over the terminal T as shown in figure.
 Working – Due to large electrostatic field in the air near the spray points of
the conductor, positive and negative ions are formed and spray of positive
ions is repelled from the points. These positive ions attach themselves to the
surface of moving belt and are carried mechanically by the belt to the
terminal where they are removed by another hemispherical conductor
mounted on insulating support. The upper pulley is within this large metal
hemisphere. That is large charge is transferred to this hemisphere and
increases its potential.
If 𝑐 is the capacitance of terminal to the ground, the terminal will be raised
to a potential 𝑉 by charge𝑄, the rate of increase of potential is given by,
𝑄 = 𝑐𝑉
𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑𝑄 𝑖
= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑐 𝑑𝑡 𝑐
In this way we can find the potential gradient with respect to time, with the
help of current generated and capacitance associated with the Van de Graff
Accelerator.
Microtron – Microtron is a device for accelerating electrons to relativistic

energies and has cyclotron like
structure.
 Construction – Construction
of Microtron is simple. It
consists of small rf cavity is
located near the cylindrical
accelerating chamber placed
between the pole faces of
magnet. The electron traverse
the resonator and accelerate by the rf field by an amount equal to the
electron rest mass energy.
18
 Working – The electrons are travels in a circular orbit under the

action of the magnetic field and return to the resonator in
approximately an integral number of rf cycles to be accelerated again.
Thus the orbit is a series of circles of increasing radii, all tangential at
the resonator as shown in figure. Electrons are accelerated to a few
tens of Mev in the Microtron. The beam is easily extracted. The
energy gain at each step in the resonator is large fraction of the total
energy.
Suppose the electrons are injected form the electron gun with energy
which is given by,
𝐸1 = 𝛼𝑖 𝑊0
Let ∆𝑊 be the gain in energy of electron after each rotation, it is
given by,
∆𝑊 = 𝛼𝑊0
Rest mass energy of electron is given by,
𝐸 = 𝑚0 𝑐 2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑚0 𝑐 2 = 𝑊0
Hence, total energy of electron is given by,
𝐸 = (1 + 𝛼𝑖 + 𝛼) 𝑊0
Time period after first crossing of the resonator is given by
2𝜋 (1 + 𝛼𝑖 + 𝛼 )𝑊0
𝜏1 =
𝐵𝑒𝑐 2
Similarly time taken by these electrons to describe on more complete
turns is given by,
2𝜋 (1 + 𝛼𝑖 + 2𝛼 )𝑊0
𝜏2 =
𝐵𝑒𝑐 2
2𝜋(1 + 𝛼𝑖 + 2𝛼 )𝑊0 2𝜋(1 + 𝛼𝑖 + 𝛼 )𝑊0 2𝜋𝛼𝑊0
𝜏2 − 𝜏1 = − =
𝐵𝑒𝑐 2 𝐵𝑒𝑐 2 𝐵𝑒𝑐 2
Form above expression we can find wavelength of travelling wave, as
follows,
2𝜋𝛼𝑊0
𝜆 = 𝜏𝑐 =
𝐵𝑒𝑐
In this way we can find out wavelength of accelerating electron
through the Microtron.

19
Electron & Proton Synchrotron–This device is also known as frequency

modulated cyclotron. For electron and proton there is different construction of
synchrotron. This is due to fact that mass of electron and proton is not same.
 Electron Synchrotron – This device is used to accelerate the electron. The
electron synchrotron is analogues to construction of betatron.
 Construction – It consists of doughnut placed in a 𝑎𝑐 magnetic field. The
magnet can be a ring of 𝐶 shaped
Doughnut
units. The weight of the magnet is
decreased by different ways. In
some synchrotrons the magnetic Flux Bar N
field is produced by coils only, no

iron being present. In the central
gap some flux bars serve as the S
central core of the magnet to start

up the machine as a betatron.
These bars are made of high Figure- Vertical section showing annular magnet
permeability metal and do not have to be large; they short the magnetic
field at low inductions but become saturated at high inductions and the
transitions form betatron action to synchrotron action can be made
smoothly. Part of the interior of the doughnut is coated with copper or
silver to give resonance cavity. A small break in the coating separates it in
to two parts. A high frequency electric field form a radio frequency
oscillator is applied across this gap at the proper time in the magnetic
cycle.
 Working – The electrons are injected in to the doughnut after preliminary
acceleration in an electrostatic field. The electron synchrotron accelerates
electron in an orbit of constant radius by means of radiofrequency electric
field applied across a gap. A ring shaped magnet provides the magnetic
field over the doughnut shaped vacuum chamber. The pole faces are
accurately shaped to provide a field which decreases with increasing
radius with 𝑛~0.6, to supply focusing forces for the electrons. The
maximum energy of the electrons depends on the radius of orbit and on to
maximum value of magnetic field. Period of rotation of electron is given
by,
𝑇 = 𝑐𝑒𝐵𝑅
20
Orbital frequency 𝑓 is given by

𝜔 𝑒𝐵 𝑒𝑐 2𝐵
𝑓= = =
2𝜋 2𝜋𝑀 2𝜋𝐸
For relativistic velocities, expression for velocities is given by,
𝑒𝑐 2𝐵 𝑒𝑐 2𝐵
𝑓= =
2𝜋√𝑚02 𝑐 4 + 𝑝2 𝑐 2 2𝜋√𝑚02 𝑐 4 + 𝐵 2 𝑒 2 𝑟 2𝑐 2
Volt per turn requirement comes from the rate of rise of magnetic field and other
constants of motion. It is given by;
𝑑𝐵
𝑉𝑒 = 2𝜋𝑅 2
𝑑𝑡
During acceleration the electrons are kept in step with the accelerating field by the
phase stability. The equilibrium electrons continue to return to accelerating point at
the correct phase; other electrons in the phase stable range oscillate in phase
around this equilibrium phase. The phase oscillations are accompanied by
oscillations in energy and so in orbits radius. Hence the electrons are accelerated in
a bunch as are the protons in synchrocyclotron. In this way phase stability is
maintain during the acceleration of electron in the electron synchrotron.
Proton Synchrotron –The principle of operating of proton synchrotron is

basically the same as that of electron synchrotron.
 Construction – The construction of proton synchrotron is simple. Most
important part of this device is
magnet. C- Shapeor H- shape
magnet is used in this device.
Protons are accelerated to a few
MeV and then injected into the
doughnut tube, when the
magnetic field is small. A
magnetic field varying with
time gives the energy to
protons. A velocity and
frequency of rotation of protons
in an orbit of constant radius

21
increases during the acceleration. Radius of orbit of proton is nearly constant

in proton synchrotron. To maintain the phase stability, the frequency of the
radio frequency potential is increased as the increase in energy of the proton.
This straight section is made of ferromagnetic material, called ferrites. The
vacuum chamber is required to contain the ion orbits during acceleration.
The vacuum chamber is divided in four quadrants fitting between magnet
pole pieces with four connecting straight sections. The proton beam can be
expanded or contracted by a small variation in applied frequency. Inside
these quadrants targets are provided these targets are known as internal
targets. Protons with required kinetic energy are taken out form the proton
synchrotron with the help of extraction magnet. This whole machine is
surrounded by 8𝑓𝑡 thick concrete shields.
 Working – Protons are ejected with the pre accelerator which is generally
Van de Graff accelerator in to the one of the four quadrants. These protons
are deflected due to presence of magnetic field. Due to applied magnetic field
energy of proton is also increases. Magnetic field increases with time during
the pulse; the rate of increase is determined by the characteristics of the
power supply and the magnet winding. The ion revolution frequencies at
injection and at high energy determine the range o frequencies required in the
radiofrequency system. The relativistic relation for the frequency of
revolution in circular orbit is given by,
𝑣 𝑞𝐵 𝑞𝐵 𝑐 2 𝑞𝐵
𝑓𝑐 = = = =
2𝜋𝑅 2𝜋𝑀 2𝜋𝑀0 (1 + 𝑇 ) 2𝜋 (𝑇 + 𝑀0 𝑐 2)
𝑀0 𝑐 2
In the orbit with four quadrants of radius 𝑅 and straight sections of length 𝐿;
the orbital frequency is decreased by the path length ratio given by,
2𝜋𝑅
𝑓0/𝑓𝑐 =
[2𝜋𝑅 + 4𝐿]
Hence, the frequency of the revolution is reduced to,
𝑐 2𝑞𝐵
𝑓0 = 0.824
2𝜋 (𝑇 + 𝑀0𝑐 2 )
In this way we can get high energy proton beam form the proton synchrotron.
Pelletron Accelerators – It is one another particle accelerator which is used in

nuclear physics. In these accelerators positively charged ions are accelerated.

22
 Construction – Construction of Pelletron is simple. It consists of conveyor
V
Negative +
Ions + Positive
+
++++ Ions
-------
Stripper
Figure – Palletorn Accelerator

belt with a resistance of the order of 10 𝑡𝑜 1014 𝑜ℎ𝑚 made up of a
13
material which is moisture resistant, smooth surface and possesses

mechanical strength. This belt consists of small metal cylinders with
carefully rounded edges. Ion source is at one end which produces positive
ions; target is on the other end, as shown in figure.
Electron stripper is provided to obtain the high energy positive ions.

 Working – The positive ions for the ion source passes through an electron
adding canal where a flow of hydrogen adds two electrons successively to
them so that are transformed into negative ions. These are then accelerated
to the positive HV terminal. This beam passes through electron stripper, in
which collisions with some neutral gas atoms reconverts the high energy
negative ions in to a beam of positive ions, without change of energy. This
beam travel down through the accelerator tube with energy twice to that of
value of corresponding voltage produced in the machine. The energy of ions
can be increased by adding the third portion.
This type of accelerator is useful in the case of heavy ion acceleration.
Cyclotron –This is one of the cyclic accelerators. In these types of accelerators we

can increases the energy of particle without increasing the length of accelerator.
 Construction – It is simplest form of the accelerator. It consists of tow flat,
semicircular metal boxes called dees because of their shape. These hollow
chambers have their diametric edges parallel and slightly separated from

23
each other. A radio frequency alternating potential of the order of

megacycles per
second is applied
between the dees
which act as
electrodes. These
dees are surrounded
by a closed vessel. An
ion source 𝑆 is placed
between the poles of a
strong electromagnet
which provides a
magnetic field
perpendicular to the
plane of the dees as
shown in figure.
 Working–Ion source emits an positive ion will be attracted by the
Dee𝐷2 since there is a uniform magnetic field 𝐵 acting at right angles to the
plane of dees, the ion of charge 𝑞 and mass 𝑀 will move with velocity 𝑣 in
a circular path of radius 𝑟given by,
𝑀𝑣
𝑟=
𝐵𝑞
In the interior of the Dee, the speed of the ion remains constant. After it has
traversed half a cycle, the ion comes to the edge of𝐷2 . If in the mean time,
the potential difference between 𝐷1and 𝐷2 has changed direction so that 𝐷2
is now positive and 𝐷1 is negative, the positive ion will receive an
additional acceleration while going across the gap between the dees
𝐷2&𝐷1 and then travel in a circular path of larger radius inside the 𝐷1 under
the influence of magnetic field. After the traversing a half cycle in 𝐷1 it will
reach the edge of 𝐷1 and receive an additional acceleration between the
gaps, because in mean time potential has changed. This process will
continues and finally we get high energy ion.
Time require to complete the circular path is given by,

24
2𝜋𝑀
𝜏=
𝐵𝑞
Form above we can find the frequency of oscillations,
𝑓 = 𝐵𝑞/2𝜋𝑀
If the radius of the Dee is 𝑅 the kinetic energy of ion emerging from the
cyclotron is given by,
1 𝐵𝑞𝑅 2 (𝐵𝑞𝑅 )2
𝑇 = 𝑀( ) = = 2𝜋 2 𝑅 2 𝑓 2𝑀
2 𝑀 2𝑀
gives an expression for kinetic energy of ion accelerated from the cyclotron.
In this way we can use cyclotron in order to accelerate the positive ions.

25
References:
1. Nuclear Physics – Irving Kaplan.
2. Concepts of Nuclear Physics – Cohen.
3. Nuclear Physics – D.C.Tayal
4. Nuclear Physics – S.N. Ghoshal.
5. Basic Nuclear Physics – B. N. Shrivastava.
6. http://www.revisionworld.com/sites/revisionworld.com/files/imce/cyclotron.gif
7. http://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/topics/atomic/Accelerators/Cyclotron/cycfig.gif

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KBC AHMEDNAGAR COLLEGE, AHMEDNAGAR (DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS)

Reaction Dynamics, Nuclear Reactors & Accelerators

Education is not the learning of facts, but the

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

Conservation Laws in Nuclear Reactions – In any nuclear reactions certain

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

2𝐸𝑌 𝑀𝑌 = 2𝐸𝑥 𝑚𝑥 + 2𝐸𝑦 𝑚𝑦 − 4(𝑚𝑥 𝑚𝑦 𝐸𝑥 𝐸𝑦 )1/2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

by solving above we get

Above equation is known as 𝑄 equation it gives desired relation between the

For elastic scattering in which masses are equal then 𝑄 = 0

Compound Nucleus Hypothesis – According to Niles Bohr the nuclear reaction

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

energy we are using for FF FF

radioactive nuclei like M

to compound nucleus and

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

Multiplication Factor – We know that in fission reaction during every generation

General Properties and Concept of Nuclear Reactor– In nuclear fission reaction

energy there is liberation of

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

Types of Reactors–There are several types of nuclear reactor given as follows;

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

 Water Boiler Type Reactor – This is one of the homogeneous type

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

 Power Reactor – In this type of reactors utilization of fission energy

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

second conductor, all of its charge

no matter how high the potential of Spray Comb

the generator, pressurized

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

tank and accelerator as shown in figure. It consists of a belt, made of paper,

Microtron – Microtron is a device for accelerating electrons to relativistic

 Working – The electrons are travels in a circular orbit under the

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

Electron & Proton Synchrotron–This device is also known as frequency

field is produced by coils only, no

central core of the magnet to start

Orbital frequency 𝑓 is given by

Proton Synchrotron –The principle of operating of proton synchrotron is

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

increases during the acceleration. Radius of orbit of proton is nearly constant

Pelletron Accelerators – It is one another particle accelerator which is used in

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

 Construction – Construction of Pelletron is simple. It consists of conveyor

Figure – Palletorn Accelerator

material which is moisture resistant, smooth surface and possesses

Electron stripper is provided to obtain the high energy positive ions.

Cyclotron –This is one of the cyclic accelerators. In these types of accelerators we

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

each other. A radio frequency alternating potential of the order of

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

2. Concepts of Nuclear Physics – Cohen.

3. Nuclear Physics – D.C.Tayal

4. Nuclear Physics – S.N. Ghoshal.

5. Basic Nuclear Physics – B. N. Shrivastava.

[K.B.Chavan-Ahmednagar College] 2018-19

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