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STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Table of contents
1. Introduction to laboratory 2
2. Report Format 3
3. Strength of Materials-1 4
4. Strength of Materials-2 27
5. Appendix A 41
6. Appendix B 42
7. Appendix C 44
Introduction to Laboratory
Strength Laboratory deals with the strength testing of structural materials. While designing any
structure, one of the most important concerns of design engineer is to determine the strength of
any material that has to be used in the construction of relevant structure. The material should be
strong enough to carry load for which the subject structure is to be designed without undergoing
undue deformations. The structural design should be such as the stresses within any member do
not exceed strength of material used. In any case if internal stresses exceed strength of material
used, failure occurs. Structural failure may include additional complexity like stresses in
different directions, components or material carrying cracks, creep or fatigue.
In Strength Laboratory, students will have the opportunity to verify various properties of
structural materials under different loading scenarios. There are many test equipments and
skilled staff to operate those equipments. Most of the tests are performed using Universal Testing
Machine to study stress strain behavior of various materials. Bend and twist apparatus id used for
simulating torsion phenomenon in materials like steel, aluminum and brass. Also bend and twist
apparatus is used to study deformation in materials.
Report Format
Every individual student should represent his/her lab work on a proper format preferably
consisting following.
1. Experiment Title
2. Experiment Objective/Theory
3. Apparatus & Specimen
4. Procedure
5. Readings & Calculations
6. Graphs & Diagrams
7. Conclusions Or Significance of Testing
Strength of Materials-I
Strength of Materials-I covers basics of material testing. Mostly experiments covering
mechanical properties, torsion property and deflection of structural materials are performed
under this course.
List of Experiments
Experiment#07: To perform torsion test for calculating shear strength and shear modulus of
various materials.
Vernier Caliper:
THEORY:
Vernier caliper was invented by a French mathematician Pierre Vernier. It is used to measure the
length/diameter of a rod or cylinder, diameter of a sphere, the internal and external diameter of a
hollow cylinder and the depth of a small vessel. It consists of a steel strip graduated in cm. This
is called the main scale. There is another strip known as vernier scale which can slide over the
main scale, and is graduated with the number of divisions. The vernier scale can be fixed at any
position on the main scale by means of a screw. There are two jaws perpendicular to the main
scale. One of the jaw is fixed at the left end of the main scale and other jaw is fixed on the frame
of the vernier scale. The lower outside jaws are used to measure the length or the external
diameter of an object (rod or cylinder) and the upper inside jaws are used to measure the internal
diameter of a hollow cylinder. The vernier caliper is provided with along thin strip attached at
the back of the main scale. This strip is used to measure the depth of any small vessel.
Least count. The least distance which can be measured accurately by an instrument is called
least count of that instrument. The difference between the values of one main scale division and
one vernier scale division is called the vernier constant or the least count, since it is the least
distance which can be measured by that instrument.
If the value of one division of main scale is x and the length of n divisions of vernier scale is
equal to the length of (n – 1) divisions of main scale then,
Least count of vernier
= Value of 1 main scale division = x
Total no. of division on vernier scale n
Zero error. On bringing both the jaws together, if the zero marks of the vernier scale does not
coincide exactly with the zero mark of the main scale then it is said to have zero error in the
instrument.
PROCEDURE
1. Determine the vernier constant (VC.) i.e. least count (L.C.) of the vernier calipers and
record it stepwise.
2. Bring the movable jaw BD in close contact with the fixed-jaw AC and find the zero error.
Do it three times and record them. If there is no zero error, then record 'zero error nil.
3. Open the jaws, place the rod/sphere or cylinder between the two jaws A and B and adjust
the jaw DB, such that it gently grips the body without any undue pressure on it. Tight the
screw S attached to the vernier scale V.
4. Note the position of the zero mark of the vernier scale on the main scale. Record the main
scale reading just before the zero mark of the vernier scale. This reading (N) is called
main scale reading (M.S.R.).
5. Note the number (VSC) of the vernier scale division which coincides with some division
of the main scale.
6. Find total reading and apply zero correction.
Precautions:
1. The body should not be pressed too hard or kept too loose in between the jaws.
2. While taking the observations, the eyes must be kept perpendicular to the scale.
3. To avoid the non-uniformity of the cylinder, the readings should be taken at different
places along the cylinder. The diameter of the cylinder should also be measured in two
perpendicular directions at the same place since it may be possible that the cross section
of cylinder may not be circular completely, so this error may also be avoided.
THEORY:
The screw gauge consists of a screw working in a hollow cylindrical nut attached to one end of a
frame G. On a hollow cylinder, a scale is marked in mm. this scale is called the pitch scale (PS).
There is a fixed stud A at one end of the frame and exactly opposite to A, there is a movable stud
B of the screw. The other end of this screw has a Head H. To the head, a hollow sleeve is
attached. On the tapering of the sleeve 50 or 100 divisions are marked. This scale is called the
Head Scale (HS). The screw gauge head is having a ratchet arrangement, to avoid over-working
of the screw.
Least count. The least distance which can be measured accurately by an instrument is called
least count of that instrument. First the pitch of screw is determined, by giving a known number
of rotations to head scale and noting the distance advanced in pitch scale in mm. then the number
of division in head scale is also noted.
Zero error. The screw gauge is checked to find whether there is any initial error in the
instrument. If there is any initial error, suitable correction is to be made.
When the studs A and B touch each other, if zero of the head scale lies on the same line as that of
the pitch scale index line (I.L), the instrument has no zero error.
If the zero of head scale is below the index line, it has positive error and zero correction is
negative. And if the zero of head scale is above the index line, it has negative error and zero
correction is positive.
PROCEDURE
1. The given object is placed gently in between the studs A and B and the ratchet is rotated
till the object body is firmly and gently gripped.
2. Note the no. of completed divisions in mm on the pitch scale as pitch scale reading
(PSR).
3. Also note the divisions on head scale which coincides with index line and head scale
coincidence (HSC)
4. The head scale reading (HSR) is calculated as HSC multiplied with LC.
5. Total observed reading is obtained by adding HSR and PSR. And then apply zero
correction.
Precautions:
1. The body should not be pressed too hard or kept too loose in between the studs.
2. While taking the observations, the eyes must be kept perpendicular to the scale.
3. To avoid the non-uniformity of the cylinder, the readings should be taken at different
places along the cylinder. The diameter of the cylinder should also be measured in two
perpendicular directions at the same place since it may be possible that the cross section
of cylinder may not be circular completely, so this error may also be avoided.
THEORY:
As we all know that every object/body is made of certain material and those bodies different
function depending upon properties of material from which they are made up of. Purpose of this
lab is to focus on engineering materials which we mostly encounter in structural design and civil
engineering practice. Following are samples of those materials which are covered under this
small scale study.
1. Aluminum rod
2. Copper rod
3. Mild Steel rod
4. Deformed Steel rod
5. Tor Steel rod
6. Tendons or pre-stressing wire
7. Strands
8. Galvanized Iron sheet
9. T-Section
10. Angle Section
Aluminum Rod:
Aluminum rods are made up of aluminum which is relatively soft and durable material. It is
lightweight and shows ductile behavior, which means that it will not fail suddenly. It has the
capability of resisting tension and gives warning in form of
elongation or deformation before it gets fractured. Due to
its ductility, it has good yielding property. It has about one-
third the density and stiffness of steel. It can easily be
molded into desired shapes. Due to formation of aluminum
oxide on its surface, it resists corrosion effectively.
Because of these reasons, aluminum has been widely used
as window frames.
Copper Rod:
Copper rods are also available in laboratory to perform torsion test and to find out its modulus of
rigidity.
Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, other infrastructure,
appliances, and buildings. Most large modern structures, such as stadiums and skyscrapers,
bridges, and airports, are supported by a steel skeleton. Even those with a concrete structure
employ steel for reinforcing. Steel is used in a variety of other construction materials, such as
bolts, nails, and screws
Deformed Steel:
Tor Steel:
Pre-stressing Wires/strands:
Concrete in which there has been introduced internal stresses of such magnitude and distribution
that the stresses resulting from given external loadings are counteracted to a desired degree. In
reinforced concrete members the pre-stress is commonly introduced by tensioning the steel
reinforcement.
This internal stress is induced into the member by either of the following pre-stressing methods.
• Pre-tensioning
• Post-tensioning
In pre-tensioning, the tendons are first stressed to a given level
and then the concrete is cast around them. The tendons may be
composed of wires, bars or strands. The most common system of
pre-tensioning is the long line system, by which a number of
units are produced at once. First the tendons are stretched
between anchorage blocks at opposite ends of the long stretching
bed. Next the spacers or separators are placed at the desired
member intervals, and then the concrete is placed within these
intervals. When the concrete has attained a sufficient strength, the steel is released and its stress
is transferred to the concrete via bond.
In post-tensioning, the concrete member is first cast with one or more post-tensioning ducts or
tubes for future insertion of tendons. Once the concrete is sufficiently strong, the tendons are
stressed by jacking against the concrete. When the desired pre-stress level is reached, the tendons
are locked under stress by means of end anchorages or clamps. Subsequently, the duct is filled
with grout to protect the steel from corrosion and give the added safeguard of bond.
In contrast to pre-tensioning, which is usually incorporated in pre-casting (casting away from
final position), post-tensioning lends itself to cast-in-place construction.
Steel used to pre-stress concrete is known as pre-stressing wires and strands are made up of
sufficient number or pre-stressing wires. Number of wires to be used in strands depends upon
design requirement. Mostly 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 and so on number of wires is used in strands.
T-Sections:
Angle Section:
THEORY:
The strength of material depends on its ability to sustain load without undue deformation or
failure. This property is inherent in the material itself and must be determined by experiment.
One of the most important tests to perform in this regard is tension and compression test.
Although several important mechanical properties can be determined from this test, it is used
primarily to determine the relationship between average normal stress and average normal strain
in many engineering materials such as metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites.
Gauge length: It is the length between punch marks on specimen. ASTM 615 specifies this
gauge length to be 200mm or 8in.
Proportional Limit: it is the point to which stress is directly proportional to strain. The curve
shows linear behavior and material is said to be linear elastic in this range.
Elastic Limit: If the stress slightly exceeds the proportional limit, the curve tends to bend and
flatten out to the point where if the load is removed specimen will still return back to its original
shape. This point is known as elastic limit.
Yield Point: A slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will result in a breakdown of the
material and cause it to deform permanently. This behavior is called yielding. And the point on
the curve associated with yielding is referred to as yield point.
Ultimate Stress: When yielding has ended, an increase in load can be supported by the
specimen, resulting in a curve that rises continuously but becomes flatter until it reaches a
maximum stress referred to as the ultimate stress.
Apparatus:
Universal Testing Machine
Vernier caliper
Specimen:
Deformed bars
Cast iron
Procedure:
Following procedure is adopted while performing experiment:
1. All the test samples are made into required length (i.e. 22in min. as per recommendation)
and their masses are measured.
2. Total length and diameter of each specimen is measured.
3. Properly mark gauge length on each sample to be tested. Gauge length should be 8in.
4. Place the sample in gripers of the machine and start applying load.
5. Note the load at yielding and ultimate points.
6. Obtain the stress-strain graph from machine and locate the Proportional Limit, Elastic
Limit, Yield Point and Ultimate Stress.
7. Repeat theses steps for all given samples.
Experiment No. 05: To perform bend test upon steel samples of various diameter.
THEORY:
Bend test is performed to check the bending capability of structural steel bars. The specimen
tested shall withstand being bent around a pin without cracking on the outside radius of the bent
portion. Pin to be used in bend test shall be selected on the basis of specimen’s diameter and
Grade.
A
Test bends 1800 unless noted otherwise
B
d = nominal diameter of specimen
The bend test shall be made on specimens of sufficient length to ensure free bending and with
apparatus which provides;
Apparatus:
Universal Testing Machine
Vernier caliper
Specimen:
Deformed bars
Procedure:
Following procedure is adopted while performing experiment:
THEORY:
Modulus of Rupture: It is the maximum flexural stress at the bottom fiber of beam at failure.
The main objective of performing this test is to determine the modulus of rupture of given
samples using one point and two point loading.
Where;
I = moment of Inertia
Apparatus:
Universal Testing Machine
Measuring tape
Specimen:
Wooden beam
Procedure:
Following procedure is adopted while performing experiment:
5. From bending moment diagrams, calculate the values of maximum bending moment and
use it in flexural formula for calculating modulus of rupture.
Experiment No. 07: To perform torsion test for calculating shear strength and shear
modulus of various materials.
THEORY:
The stress distribution in a torsion member such as transmission shaft is non-uniform; it varies
from zero at the centroidal longitudinal axis to a maximum at the outer fibers.
In many engineering applications, such as torque transmission and in springs, the torsional
behavior critically governs the design. In many cases the maximum torsional stress is the
limiting factor in design while in others; it may be the maximum permissible angle of twist.
The internal torque T develops a linear distribution of shear stress along radial lines in plane of
cross-sectional area and an associated shear stress distribution is developed along the axial plane.
Apparatus:
Bend and Twist apparatus
Vernier Caliper
Dial Gauge
Dead Weights
Specimen:
Aluminum bar
Steel bar
Brass bar
Procedure:
Following procedure is adopted while performing experiment:
1. Measure the diameter of each sample and calculate polar moment of inertia.
2. Insert the first rod through the torsional fastening components of the bearers. Adjust the
distance between bearers to match the required length and fix them.
3. Locate the dial gauge support so that the gauge shaft is aligned with the small groove at
the center of the flat spot on the lever.
(Note: the dimension between the groove on the lever and the axis of load is 57.3mm., thus, one
revolution of the gauge corresponds to
one degree of twist in the rod.)
4. Place the knife edge f the weight
hanger in the groove near the tip of
lever.
5. Apply torque to the rod in increment
of 2.5N up to 17.5N and keep on
reading the gauge at each increment
of load. Now read dial gauge while
unloading the rod.
6. Repeat these steps for all rods.
Torque, T = F.d
Shear Stress, =
!
Shear Strain, =
"
#
Shear Modulus, G =
Experiment No. 08: To determine deflection of beam and compare it with theoretical
values.
THEORY:
The deflection of a beam or a shaft must often be limited in order to provide integrity and
stability of a structure or a machine, and prevent the cracking of any attached brittle materials
such as concrete and glass. Furthermore, code restrictions often require these members not
vibrate or deflect severely in order to safely support their intended loading. It is often helpful to
sketch the deflected shape of a beam or a shaft when it is loaded, in order to visualize any
computed deflection. The deflected curve of the longitudinal axis that passes through centroid of
each cross sectional area of a beam is called the Elastic Curve.
Apparatus:
Deflection apparatus
Measuring Tape
Dial Gauges
Dead Weights
Specimen:
Steel Beams
Procedure:
Following procedure is adopted while performing experiment:
1. Measure the cross section of each sample and calculate moment of inertia.
2. Set the apparatus and place dial gauge at points of measurement for vertical displacement
in beam
3. Attach the hanger for applying point load.
4. Place load in increment of 5N and read the gauge for deflection.
5. Remove hanger and place uniformly distributed load. Read dial gauge reading at point of
observation
6. Repeat the above procedure for different beams and different support conditions.
Beam
Span Point of Dial Gauge
Load Deflection
Cross- Length Deflection Reading
Type Material
Section
Strength of Materials-II
Strength of Materials-II covers more detailed analysis of materials. Mainly it includes
observations of materials subjected to biaxial loads and unsymmetrical bending. A few
properties e.g., shear center and principal stresses are also covered under this course.
List of Experiments
Experiment#01: To determine the principal stresses in axially loaded cast iron and steel
Experiment#02: To plot stress trajectories for simply supported rectangular beam to predict
strain rosettes.
Experiment No. 01: To determine the principal stresses in axially loaded cast iron and
steel bars using graphical and analytical methods.
THEORY:
The principal stresses represent the maximum and minimum normal stress at the point. Theses
stresses lie at principal axis where there is no shear stress. In engineering practice it is often
significant to determine the orientation of an element that causes the normal stress to be
maximum and minimum and an orientation which gives maximum shear stresses.
+ −
±)
% %
= +
,
2 2 %
−
= )
%
+
+,- ./0123/4
2 %
Principal stresses can also be calculated using graphical technique by the help of Mohr’s circle.
Apparatus:
Universal Testing Machine
Vernier Caliper
Measuring scale
Measuring tape
Specimen:
Deformed bars
Cast Iron
Procedure:
Following procedure is adopted for analytical calculations of principal stresses:
1. All the test samples are made into required length (i.e. 22in min. as per recommendation)
and their masses are measured.
2. Total length and diameter of each specimen is measured.
3. Properly mark gauge length on each sample to be tested. Gauge length should be 8in.
4. Place the sample in gripers of the machine and start applying load.
5. Note the load at yielding and ultimate points.
6. Calculate ultimate stress and obtain principal stress and maximum shear stress.
7. Repeat theses steps for all given samples.
1. Establish a coordinate system such that the x-axis represents normal stress and y-axis
represents shear stress.
2. Plot the center “C” of circle on σ axis using following formula.
% +
=
356
2
Experiment No. 02: To plot stress trajectories for simply supported rectangular beam
to predict the crack pattern and compare it with existing cracked beams.
THEORY:
Stress Trajectory: Stress trajectories are lines in the direction of principal stresses.
In beams, the directions of principal stress vary with intensities of flexural stresses and
horizontal shearing stresses. At extreme fibers of any beam section, shear stresses are zero and
flexural stresses are zero at the neutral axis.
The same concept is used in evaluating the maximum and minimum stresses in a beam and
respected principal stresses are calculated.
Apparatus:
Universal Testing Machine
Measuring tape
Specimen:
Wooden beam
Procedure:
Following procedure is adopted while performing
experiment:
Where;
Flexural Stress, % =
9:
Shear Stress, % =
+ −
±)
% %
= +
,
2 2 %
2 %
tan 281 =
> % − ?
Experiment No. 03: To calculate principal stresses in a biaxially loaded beam installed
with strain rosettes.
THEORY:
When performing a tension test on a specimen, the normal strain is measured using an electrical
resistance strain gauge, which consists of a wire grid or piece of metal foil bonded to the
specimen. For a general loading on a body, however, the strains at a point on its free surface are
determined using a cluster of three electrical-resistance strain gauges, arranged in a specified
pattern. This pattern is referred to as strain rosette. Once the normal strains on these three gauges
are measured, the data can then be transformed to specify the state of strain at the point.
In general the axes of three gauges are arranged at the angles 83 , 8 , 8@ as shown. Strain rosettes
are of two types depending upon the arrangement of strain gauges. 45o strain rosette is known as
rectangular strain rosette and 60o strain rosette is known as delta strain rosette.
If the readings A3 , A , A@ are taken, we can determine the strain components A% , A , % at the point
by applying the strain-transformation equation.
Apparatus:
Universal Testing Machine
Measuring tape
Specimen:
Steel Section
Procedure:
Following procedure is adopted while performing experiment:
BC BD BE BC BD BE
Rectangular Strain Rosette Delta Strain Rosette
Load
The values A% , A , % of are determined by solving these three equations simultaneously. And
A% + A A% − A
A = ±) +
,
2 2 %
KA + LA MN
=
1−L
KA + LA MN
=
1−L
Experiment No. 04: To find out shear center of following cross sections;
a) Semi Circle
b) Channel Section
c) Angle Section
d) Z-Section
THEORY:
Shear center of the cross section of a beam is that point through which the lines of load must pass
in order that the beam shall bend without twisting about its longitudinal axis. For beams with two
axes of symmetry the shear center is at the intersection, while for sections with one axis of
symmetry the shear center will lie somewhere on that axes.
Apparatus:
Shear Center Apparatus
Dial gauges
Measuring tape
Specimen:
Semi Circle
Channel Section
Angle Section
Z-Section
Procedure:
Follow the steps mentioned below
Part 1:
Part 2:
Part 2:
Where Rotation = ∆F - ∆R
THEORY:
The simple theory of bending applies only to bending in the plane of a principal axis of the beam
section. There are two such axes, mutually perpendicular. They are easily located in regular
sections since axes of symmetry must be a principal axes.
If the load acting on a beam is not in the plane of a principal axes, the simplest way of
determining its effect is to resolve it into two components which are in the planes of principal
axes. Let the load act at an angle θ to principal axes. Then the behavior of the beam is described
by
HIJ8 N
=
%% PQ
FGH8 N
=
P%
It is frequently the case when sections like angles are used as beams that the load is not applied
in the plane of principal axes.
Apparatus:
Unsymmetrical bending Apparatus
Dial gauges
Measuring tape
Specimen:
Cantilever steel beam
Procedure:
Follow the steps mentioned below
Part 1:
1. Set the fixed end of the cantilever to 45o and the dial gauge to 90o.
2. Centralize the dial gauge plate
3. Apply the load of 40N in increment of 5N.
4. Record the horizontal dial gauge and vertical dial gauge at each increment of load.
5. Plot a graph of deflection against load.
Part 2:
1. Fix the dial gauge plate and fixed end of beam at 45o.
2. Apply the load of 20N.
3. Record horizontal and vertical dial gauge readings.
4. Repeat it for each 15o increment between 45o and 225o.
5. Plot a graph of deflection against orientation.
Part 2: