12/8/2014

Flexible Pavement Design

Pavement Structure

Pavement Materials

Soil Classification

Flexible Pavement Structure

Surfacing Surfacing (Wearing Course)

Binder course (Basecourse)

Base Base course (Roadbase)

Subbase
Foundation
Capping

Subgrade

1
 12/8/2014

Natural Ground

Natural ground surface on which a
pavement is constructed

Consists of unbound materials

Mostly simply classified as subgrade

No binder or similar binding agent

No tensile strength

Resilient modulus/modulus of resilience

Pavement Materials

General Practice
◦ High volume
◦ Low cost
◦ Can be produced easily and cheaply

Mostly Include
◦ Earth, rock, sand and clay

Relatively sparingly used materials
◦ Cement, bitumen, additives, modifiers

2
 12/8/2014

Road Construction

Many kilometers of road construction

Resurfacing and rehabilitation of existing
pavements

Increase in demand because of population
growth and increased use of road
transport vehicles

Natural resources are depleting but the
demand is increasing

Expectations from Engineers

Pavement engineers are required to;

Maximize the potential of available materials

Low cost construction

Easy to handle materials

Longer pavement life

Innovative construction and rehabilitation
techniques

Reuse of natural resources and conservation
of energy

3
 12/8/2014

Expensive Materials

Cement

Concrete

Steel/reinforcement

Bitumen

Polymers/bitumen modifiers

Additives for aggregates

Pavement construction involves large

quantities of materials

Types of Materials

Soil

Aggregate

Bitumen

Cement

Material Modifications

High strength, Artificial Materials

4
 12/8/2014

Soil

Foundation of a Pavement Structure

Underlying soil should be adequately protected from
applied loads

Soils vary from heavy clays, through silts and sands to
high-strength rocky materials.

Soils are not usually consistent along the length of a
road or across any pavement site.

Soils are sensitive to water content to differing
degrees

Water contents vary during the life of a pavement,
sometimes over quite short timescales

Some soils are highly permeable; some clays are
virtually impermeable but porous

Soil

It is necessary to categorize each soil type
encountered

There are two fundamental areas in which
soil behavior affects pavement
performance

These are:
◦ stiffness under moving load;
◦ resistance to deformation under repeated
load, likely to be related to shear strength

5
 12/8/2014

Granular Materials

Unbound Materials

includes natural gravel, crushed rock and
granulated industrial byproducts (slag
from steel production)

Soil is also a granular material but it is
utilized in its available form

Granular materials are however selected
and different sizes are blended together
according to the requirement of the
engineer

Granular Materials

Granular materials are therefore more
predictable in comparison to soils

More controlled material but uncertainty
still lies because they are;
◦ Natural materials
◦ Different aggregate types used in the blend
will have different properties and behavior

However, performance related properties
are still stiffness and shear strength

6
 12/8/2014

Hydraulically Bound Material

Materials that are produced by using
hydraulic binders

Examples of hydraulic binders
◦ Portland cement
◦ Substitutes of cement such as fly ash or ground
granulated blast-furnace slag

They are used to strengthen granular
materials

The term ‘hydraulic’ means they require the
presence of water for the cementing action
to take place

Hydraulically Bound Material

Concrete is one of the best hydraulically
bound material and very different from
soil as it can withstand tension

Their main properties include
◦ Stiffness
◦ Tensile strength
◦ Fatigue resistance
◦ Curing rate (affects construction & economy)
◦ Thermal expansion

7
 12/8/2014

Bitumen Bound Materials

Asphalts

Around 90% of the highways around the
world are covered or surfaced by using
this material

Different from hydraulically bound
materials because;
◦ Hydraulic binders produce a rigid material
◦ Rigid material cannot deform and is
susceptible to cracking

Bitumen Bound Materials

◦ Bitumen is however viscous and has ability to
flow
◦ Flow may leads to rutting
◦ Bitumen can accommodate expansion and
contraction induced due to thermal changes
◦ Similarly it can accommodate moderate
deformation (differential settlement) in the
foundation. Hydraulically bound material will
exhibit cracking under these conditions

Key properties are stiffness and fatigue
characteristics

8
 12/8/2014

Other Materials

Block Paving
◦ Hydraulically bound materials if produced by
using concrete
◦ Can be cut from natural stones or bricks can
also be used directly

Use of steel for reinforced concrete
◦ Reinforcement of hydraulically bound
materials

Other Materials

Grouted Macadam
◦ Combination of hydraulic and bitumen bound
materials
◦ Expensive and only used for specific heavy
duty applications
◦ Examples are;
 Bus lanes
 Industrial pavements

9
 12/8/2014

Other Materials
Reinforced granular materials

Geosynthetics
◦ Geogrids
 Use of specially made grids for stabilization of roads
over soft grounds
◦ Geotextiles
 Can have a reinforcing function but their most
common usage is simply as a separator, ensuring
that fine soil particles do not migrate up into the
pavement and that stones from a granular layer do
not lose themselves in the soil.

Soil Classification

Soil Classification according to AASHTO
system

Designation
◦ AASHTO M 145-91(2000)
◦ ASTM D 2487-00

10
 12/8/2014

Grain Size Classification

Classification based on Particle Size

Particle size is used because it is related to mineralogy
◦ e.g. very small particles usually contain clay minerals

Broad Classification

◦ Coarse grained soils

 sands, gravels - visible to naked eye

◦ Fine grained soils

 silts, clays, organic soils

11
 12/8/2014

Procedure for grain size determination

Sieving - used for particles > 75 µm

Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles

◦ Analysis based on Stoke’s Law, velocity proportional to diameter

Procedure for grain size determination

Sieving - used for particles > 75 µm

Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles

◦ Analysis based on Stoke’s Law, velocity proportional to diameter

Schematic diagram of hydrometer test

12
 12/8/2014

Procedure for grain size determination

Sieving - used for particles > 75 µm

Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles

◦ Analysis based on Stoke’s Law, velocity proportional to diameter

Schematic diagram of hydrometer test

Grading curves
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0 .0 0 0 1 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 1 0 .1 1 10 100
P a r ti c l e s i ze ( m m )
W Well graded

13
 12/8/2014

Grading curves
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0 .0 0 0 1 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 1 0 .1 1 10 100
P a r ti c l e s i ze ( m m )
W Well graded
U Uniform

Grading curves
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0 .0 0 0 1 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 1 0 .1 1 10 100
P a r ti c l e s i ze ( m m )
W Well graded
U Uniform
P Poorly graded

14
 12/8/2014

Grading curves
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0 .0 0 0 1 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 1 0 .1 1 10 100
P a r ti c l e s i ze ( m m )
W Well graded
U Uniform
P Poorly graded
C Well graded with some clay

Grading curves
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0 .0 0 0 1 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 1 0 .1 1 10 100
P a r ti c l e s i ze ( m m )
W Well graded
U Uniform
P Poorly graded
C Well graded with some clay
F Well graded with an excess of fines

15
 12/8/2014

Simple Classification

In general soils contain a wide range of particle sizes

Some means of describing the characteristics of soils with

different proportions of sand/silt/clay is required.

Soil Classification

Soil classification involves the following
tests
◦ Sieve Analysis
◦ Determination of Atterberg’s Limits
 Liquid limit test
 Plastic limit test

16
 12/8/2014

Sieve Analysis

Apparatus:
◦ Weighing Device
◦ Set of sieves

The following sieves are generally used
for the purpose
Sieve size Sieve size Sieve size Sieve No.
in in in
(mm) (in) (mm)
75 3 in. 0.840 No. 20
37.5 1 ½ in. (.420) No. 40
19 ¾ in. 0.250 No. 60
9.5 3/8 in. 0.15 No. 100
4.75 No. 4 0.075 No. 200
2.00 No. 10

Sieve Analysis

17
 12/8/2014

Procedure

Almost 500g of soil is taken.

Sieves are arranged in descending order with
a pan at bottom.

The sieving operation is conducted by lateral
and vertical motion of the sieves so as to
keep the sample moving continuously over
the sieve surface.

The soil particles should not be turned or
manipulated through the sieves by hand.

Sieving is continued until not more than 1
percent by mass of the residue passes any
sieve during 60 seconds

Calculations
Sieve Size Weight Weight Percentage passing
(mm) retained (gm) passed Weight passed
(gm) ( ×100)
Total weight
(75)
(37.5)
(19)
(9.5)
(4.75)
(2.00)
(0.840)
(0.420)
(0.250)
(0.15)
(0.075)
pan

Gradation curve is obtained by plotting percentage passing on semi-log paper

18
 12/8/2014

Liquid Limit Test

Apparatus:
◦ Porcelain dish, Spatula or knife, Grooving tool,
Balance, Liquid limit apparatus, Drying oven,
Containers for moisture content

Cassagrande Apparatus Grooving tool

19
 12/8/2014

Procedure

Adjust the height of drop of cup equal to 10 ± 0.2 mm.

Take a sample of about 100g from thoroughly mixed portion
of the material passing the No. 40 sieve i.e., 0.425 mm sieve.

Further additions of water shall be made in increments of 1
to 3 ml.

When sufficient water has been thoroughly mixed with the
soil to form a uniform paste of stiff consistency, a sufficient
quantity of this paste shall be placed in the cup and shall be
squeezed and spread with the spatula to level and at the
same time trimmed to a depth of 10 mm at the point of
maximum thickness.

The excess soil shall be returned to the mixing dish and
covered to retain the moisture in the sample.

The soil in the cup of the device shall be divided by a firm
stroke of the grooving tool along the diameter so that a
clean sharp groove will be formed.

Procedure

The cup containing the sample prepared shall be lifted and
dropped by turning the lever at the rate of approximately
two revolutions per second until the two sides of the sample
come in contact at the bottom of groove along a distance of
13 mm.

The number of shocks (blows) required to close the groove
shall be recorded.

Take a sample to determine the moisture content.

The soil remaining in the cup shall be transferred to the
mixing dish. The cup and the grooving tool shall then be
mashed and dried in preparation for the next trial.

Repeat the procedure for at least four times and record the
number of blows and the corresponding moisture content in
each case.

20
 12/8/2014

Main Steps:

1. Sample as taken from the field 2. Sample after passing sieve No. 40
(About 100-g sample passing #40 Sieve)

3. Making the paste 4. Paste in the Cassagrande cup

12.7mm

5. Groove in the paste 6. Groove closed for a length of 12.7 mm.

21
 12/8/2014

Calculations

A “Flow Curve” representing the relation
between moisture content and corresponding
number of blows shall be plotted on a semi-
logarithmic graph.The flow curve shall be a
straight line drawn as nearly as possible through
the three or more plotted points.

Liquid Limit: The moisture content

corresponding to the intersection of the flow
curve with the 25 shocks (blows) ordinate shall
be taken as the liquid limit of soil.

Flow Curve
Liquid Limit
53

51

49
Moisture Content %

47

45

43

41

39

37

35
1 10 100

No. of Blows

22
 12/8/2014

No of Blows

Calculations
Test Wt. of wet Wt. of dry M.C No. of
Repetitions Soil (WW) Soil (WD) in (WW –WD)/ Blows (N)
in grams grams WD

………

23
 12/8/2014

Plastic Limit & Plasticity Index

Apparatus:
◦ Dish, Spatula or knife, Surface for rolling,
Balance, Drying oven, Container for moisture
content determination

Sample:
◦ Take a sample of about 20g of soil passing the
0.425 mm sieve. Thoroughly mix the sample
with distilled water until the mass becomes
plastic enough to be easily shaped into a ball.
Take a portion of this ball with a mass of
about 8g for the test sample.

Sample

Ellipsoidal shape sample Thread rolling

Paste before rolling Rolled thread, & standard needle to compare thread size

24
 12/8/2014

Procedure

Deform 8g test sample into an ellipsoidal- shape mass.

Roll this mass between the fingers or plan on the glass plate with
just sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform
diameter throughout its length.

The rate of rolling shall be between 80 & 90 strokes per minute.

When the diameter of the thread becomes less than 3 mm, break
the thread and squeeze the pieces into a uniform mass of
ellipsoidal shape and re-roll.

Continue this alternate rolling to a thread of 3 mm, in diameter,
gathering together, kneading and re-rolling, until the thread
crumbles under the pressure required for rolling and the soil can
no longer be rolled into a thread.

The crumbling may occur when the thread has a diameter greater
than 3 mm. This shall be considered a satisfactory end point,
provided the soil has been previously rolled into a thread 3 mm in
diameter.

Calculations

Calculate the plastic limit, expressed as moisture
content in percentage of the mass of the oven
dry soil as follows:

M.C = (mass of water/mass of dry soil)x100

Report the plastic limit to the nearest whole

number. Calculate the plasticity index of a soil as
the difference between its liquid limit and its
plastic limit as follows:

Plasticity index = Liquid Limit – Plastic Limit

25
 12/8/2014

AASHTO Soil Classification

AASHTO Soil Classification System (from ASTM M 145)

General Classification Granular Materials Silt-Clay Materials

35% or less passing 0.075 mm (No 200) sieve >35% passing 0.075 mm sieve
A-1 A-2 A-7
Group Classification A-3 A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7-5
A-1-a A-1-b A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
A-7-6
Sieve Analysis, % passing
2.00 mm (No. 10) 50 max --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
0.425 (No. 40) 30 max 50 max 51 max --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
0.075 (No. 200) 15 max 25 max 10 max 35 max 35 max 35 max 35 max 36 min 36 min 36 min 36 min
Characteristics of fraction
passing 0.425 mm (No. 40)
Liquid limit --- --- 40 max 41 min 40 max 41 min 40 max 41 min 40 max 41 min
Plasticity index 6 max N.P. 10 max 10 max 11 min 11 min 10 max 10 max 11 min 11 mina
Usual types of significant Stone fragments, Fine
Silty or clayey gravel and sand Silty soils Clayey soils
constituent materials gravel and sand sand
General rating as a subgrade Excellent to good Fair to poor
a
Plasticity index of A-7-5 subgroup is equal to or less than the LL - 30. Plasticity index of A-7-6 subgroup is greater than LL - 30

L.L=26.8%, P.L=6.38%, P.I=20.42, Material Passing No. 200=6.5%

Material Passing No. 40=32.5%

Result Representation

Following details are provided;

◦ AASHTO classification
◦ Material details
◦ Performance rating

26