The Ship Power Supplier
Replacing fixed pitch propellers
– more possibilities for improvements
by Marcel van Haaren, Fixed Pitch Propellers, Wärtsilä Propulsion Netherlands BV
Fig. 1 - Low-speed diesel-mechanical propulsion system, Sulzer 6RT-flex68T.
Fig. 2 - Low-speed diesel-mechanical propulsion system including PTO/PTI, Sulzer 9RT-flex84T-D.
Significant propulsive efficiency
improvements can be achieved by
modifying the propulsion system of a
vessel. Here we discuss the impact of
changes to the propeller’s diameter,
number of blades, rate of revolutions and
design point. We also consider the
application of a nozzle, especially the HR
nozzle, and other energy saving devices to
the ship’s hull. The proposed modifications
are definitely worth investigating when
considering propeller replacement.
A recent article in Marine News [1]
discussing the replacement of fixed pitch
propellers showed that it is possible
nowadays to design propellers with higher
efficiency and consequently lower fuel
consumption without increasing the
pressure pulse levels.
Significant efficiency improvements can
be achieved even when the main
dimensions remain unaltered. It was
34 - Wärtsilä
assumed that other boundary conditions,
like rate of revolutions, blade number and
diameter, do not change and that nothing is
added to the propulsion system. Taking all
this into account, the following four
alternatives to increase efficiency were
discussed:
n Reduce the blade area
n Change the blade contour
n Modify the radial pitch distribution to
optimize the loading distribution
n Apply the Lips tip-rake concept.
The article also discussed the necessity to
replace the propeller in case of a change in
the mission profile of the vessel. For
example a fixed pitch propeller on a ferry
originally designed to operate on two
engines cannot be used on one of the two
engines alone.
In this article we extend the possibilities
for increasing the efficiency of a new
propeller while still maintaining the
pressure pulse levels, i.e. noise levels.
Together with the options discussed in the
previous article, this can lead to a further
reduction in fuel consumption.
In cases where the above options cannot
be applied, it may still be possible for other
changes to yield improvements. For example
changing the propeller diameter, possibly
combined with adapting the rate of
revolutions, can lead to significant
improvements in the performance of the
propeller. As most options discussed in this
article have other consequences than just for
the propeller, these will be examined as well.
When designing a replacement propeller
it is worth investigating the complete
propulsion characteristics. The following
questions should be considered:
n Is the propeller diameter optimum?
n Is the number of blades the right choice
or is it possible to improve efficiency or
reduce vibrations by altering the number
of blades?
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Table 1: Effect of optimizing diameter.
Diameter Relative propulsive
(mm) efficiency
5000 100.0
5800 108.7
Table 2: Effect of optimizing the number
of blades.
Number of Relative propulsive
blades efficiency
3 95.3
4 100.0
5 102.9
n Is the design point of the propeller
optimum with respect to the engine
layout? Perhaps the choice of another
power-rpm ratio will make it possible to
reduce fuel consumption.
n Can the application of a nozzle or other
energy-saving devices bring
improvements?
Improving the propulsion system
There are several factors to be considered
when selecting the propulsion system of a
newbuild vessel. A gearbox is rare in the case
of large fixed pitch propeller applications, so
the propulsion system is mainly the
combination of the engine and propeller.
Regarding the propeller, certain choices
are made for the diameter and number of
blades. This is significantly influenced by
the load range limits of the engine and the
chosen design point. Of course the
propeller diameter is influenced by the
available space in the stern frame.
Moreover, the natural frequency of the
vessel’s structure and/or number of
cylinders can determine the choice of the
blade number. Cylinder numbers that are
multiples of the blade number might cause
engine vibration problems.
The propeller diameter and blade
number were most likely optimized during
the design of the original propeller.
However, it is worth investigating this again
as some parameters might have been
changed in the meantime. For example
reducing the design speed will require a
lower design power, leading to another
optimum diameter and/or number of
blades. Wärtsilä often meets cases where for
some unclear reason these parameters are
not optimal.
In the following paragraphs we describe
optimization examples for diameter,
number of blades and propeller rpm. Since
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Relative propulsive efficiency versus propeller rpm
106
Relative propulsive efficiency
104
102
100 Present situation
98
96
94
102 108 114 120
rpm
Fig. 3 - Effect of optimizing propeller rpm.
the thrust determines the shipspeed, the
calculations were performed for constant
thrust. The optimization examples are
worked out on the basis of the same case.
The subject vessel is a bulk carrier with the
following particulars:
n Service speed: 14.5 knots
n Engine power: 7061 kW
n Rate of revolutions:112 rpm
n Diameter: 5000 mm
n Blade number: 4 optimization process for the number of
In the examples propulsive efficiency is the
product of the propeller open water
efficiency times the hull efficiency.
Therefore, the analysis includes not just the
propeller on its own but also how the
vessel’s hull and propeller act on each other.
In fact the lowest fuel consumption is
achieved by the highest propulsive
efficiency.
Diameter variation,
other factors unchanged
Table 1 shows the efficiency effect of the
above case when the diameter is optimized.
As the table indicates, increasing the
diameter to an optimum 5800 mm achieves
a propulsive efficiency improvement of
almost 9%, which translates directly into a
9% reduction in fuel consumption.
Of course, it is possible that the larger
diameter would not fit in the present stern
frame or that the propeller intersects the
baseline of the vessel. We must further
remember that a smaller tip-hull clearance
leads to higher pressure pulse levels.
Nonetheless, when the diameter is
increased by 400 mm, for instance, the
efficiency improvement is still 6.6%.
In this case it was assumed that the blade
area ratio is constant, leading to a lower
power density for the higher diameter.
When the blade area ratio is adapted in
such a way that the power density is kept
126 132 138 144 150
constant, the propulsive efficiency gain, and
consequently reduction in fuel
consumption, is increased still further.
Many investigations have been carried out
on large-diameter, slow-running propellers,
see for example [2], [3], [4] and [5].
Varying the number of blades,
other factors unchanged
Table 2 gives the results of performing the
blades in the same example.
Table 2 lets us conclude that a blade
number of 4 is not optimum with regard to
propulsive efficiency. By applying a higher
blade number the efficiency gain is a few
percent. The fact that the number of blades
has to be increased for a more efficient
propeller shows that the original diameter
of 5000 mm was too small, although other
reasons like natural frequencies or number
of cylinders might have determined the
existing blade number.
Varying propeller rpm, other factors
unchanged
It might be difficult to change the
propeller rpm at the design point for an
existing installation. Assuming the rpm
could be changed, the propeller rpm was
optimized for the same configuration. The
results are presented in Figure 3, which
shows that by increasing the rpm to about
140 the propulsive efficiency improves by
almost 5%.
As we noted above, the rpm of 112 in
this case might have been selected for other
reasons, like the application of a specific
engine type. In this case, however, the
increase in rpm immediately results in a
lower fuel consumption. Naturally,
reducing fuel consumption in this manner
is not valid for every situation; there are
cases where a decrease in rpm yields lower
Marine News - 35
 The Ship Power Supplier
Power
fuel consumption. We also need to 110 %
remember that the propeller has to be 100 %
redesigned in order to match a
different rpm. 90 %

Optimum combination of diameter, 80 %

number of blades and propeller rpm
When determining the optimum
70 %
combination of diameter, number of blades
and propeller rpm, it makes a difference in
which sequence the optimization process is 60 %
done. For the above situation optimization
of diameter, followed by blade number and
then rate of revolutions resulted in the 50 %
optimum combination as presented in the
second column of Table 3.
The propulsive efficiency improvement
compared to the original situation is 9.0%. 40 %

70%

80%

90%

100%

104%

As the diameter of 5800 mm might be a
problem with regard to space in the stern
frame, the optimization was repeated by
allowing a diameter increase of not more
than 400 mm. The same sequence of
optimization results in the combination
shown in the third column of Table 3. This
configuration gives a propulsive efficiency
improvement of 7.3%.
As one may conclude in this case the
optimum propeller rpm is close to the
present rpm, meaning that no special
adaptations for the engine are needed.
Applying 112 rpm instead of 110 rpm
yields no significant difference in efficiency.
The change in blade number might have
more impact on the propulsion
configuration – number of cylinders – and
the ship’s structure.
Design point of the propeller
Changing the design point of a propeller
can achieve significant improvements in
fuel consumption. When changing the
design point, however, this should fit
within the allowable load range of the
engine. On the other hand if the engine
characteristics are not changed, it is
generally known for a 2-stroke engine that
an increase of rpm at the same power leads
to a lower fuel consumption. This effect
can be seen in Figure 4, where the red
curves show rpm-power combinations at
constant fuel consumption. The curve
representing the lowest fuel consumption is
on the far right. So, when aiming for lower
fuel consumption, it is more favourable to
design at higher rpm, which is the same as
applying a higher light running margin.
There are two restrictions to increasing
the light running margin. Firstly, the rate of
revolutions in the design point may not
exceed the overspeed limit of the engine.
Secondly, the propeller can no longer
absorb maximum power in ‘clean’
condition. This should not become a
Fig. 4 - The characteristics for fuel consumption on low-speed engines (2-stroke).
Table 3: Optimum combination of diameter, number of blades and propeller rpm.
Original
situation
Diameter (mm) 5000
Blade number 4 5
Rate of revolutions (rpm) 112
Relative propulsive efficiency 100.0
weakness in the operation freedom of the
vessel.
The lie of the propeller curves when
the rpm for the design point is increased, is
outlined in Figure 5. In the case of the ‘too
light’ designed propeller, the trial propeller
curve intersects the maximum rpm limit
before reaching maximum power. Under
service conditions, however, the propeller
curve shows that it is just possible to apply
the maximum power to the propeller.
In replacement cases it is feasible to
imagine there is no further need to use
maximum power. This can be caused by a
change in the mission profile of the vessel.
It is also possible that the engine can no
longer deliver the maximum power because
of the age of the engine. In these or similar
cases the propeller can be designed lighter
in order to have a lower fuel consumption.
In a lot of cases it is worth investigating
whether a redefinition of the propeller
design point is interesting and what
improvements with regard to fuel
consumption can be achieved. Wärtsilä has
a lot of experience in this field and can
provide sound professional advice.
108%
rpm
Optimum Situation for limited
situation diameter increase
5800 5400
5
105 110
109.0 107.3
We noted previously that changing
the rpm yields differences in fuel
consumption. In the above example it was
more favourable to apply a higher rpm. We
should not forget the effect on the propeller
when changing the design point by
increasing the rpm, or else the
improvement obtained by changing the
design point is cancelled out by the effect
on the propeller itself.
Pressure pulses and vibrations
In the previous section it was shown that
significant savings in fuel consumption
could be achieved by selecting another
diameter, blade number or rate of
revolutions of the propeller. Besides these
options, the increase in the rate of
revolutions in the propeller design point
may give an additional reduction in fuel
consumption.
The modifications as discussed cannot
be applied without consideration of other
aspects than just efficiency. Some
restrictions or consequences were already
indicated in the previous section. This
section goes further by dealing with some

36 - Wärtsilä 1-2005
 Engine diagram for a typical diesel engine
120
Engine curve
Trial curve for light-running propeller
100
Service curve for light-running propeller
Trial curve for 'too light' propeller
Service curve for 'too light' propeller
80
Power (%)
60
40
20
0
40 50 60 70
rpm (%)
Fig. 5 - Effect of optimizing propeller rpm.
consequences regarding pressure pulses and
vibrations.
Tip-hull clearance
It is important to include pressure pulse
levels and vibrations when optimizing the
propulsion system. The pressure pulse levels
may increase, especially when applying a
larger diameter, simply because of the
smaller tip-hull clearance.
The pressure pulse levels acting on the
hull increase in inverse proportion to the
tip-hull clearance. Normally, older vessels
have tip-hull clearances which are
relatively large and therefore the
consequences caused by a larger diameter
are acceptable. Often, these vessels are also
of heavier construction than nowadays,
which means that higher pressure pulses
can be absorbed without leading to
unacceptable vibrations or noise.
Harmonics
Regarding pressure pulse levels, it is not
difficult to design a propeller with a
different blade number but with the same
value of the first-order blade harmonic.
When the blade area ratio is not modified,
the power density remains the same,
leading to a similar sheet of suction side
cavitation. Suction side sheet cavitation is
the main parameter that determines the
first-order harmonic pressure pulse level.
Of course, the frequency will change for
another blade number. This can create
problems for the vessel, as the frequency
might come closer to the natural frequency
of parts of the ship’s structure, leading to
serious vibration problems in the vessel.
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5% Light-running margin
MCR
Maximum rpm
80 90 100 110 120
Fig. 6 - Lips HR nozzle.
The higher order harmonic pressure
pulse levels do not influence the ship’s
structure so much, but have more impact
on the machinery on board. Consequently,
it is necessary to keep the higher harmonic
pressure pulses sufficiently low.
As the higher order harmonic pressure
pulses are mainly caused by the strength of
the tip vortex, one can imagine that a
different number of blades will influence
the higher order harmonic pressure pulses.
A different number of blades affects the
tip-loading and consequently the strength
of the tip vortex. When the higher
harmonic pressure pulse levels are critical, it
is generally better to apply a higher number
of blades.
Number of blades
In combination with the engine the
number of blades is also important. The
number of cylinders and number of blades
can strengthen certain frequencies especially
since most fixed pitch propellers are driven
directly. For example it is not advisable to
apply a 4-bladed propeller with an
8-cylinder diesel engine as this combination
might have a negative influence both on the
cavitation/sound behaviour and on the
torsional vibrations in the engine-shaft
system.
Propeller rpm
Within certain limits the propeller rpm
does not have much impact on levels of
pressure pulses and vibrations, but does
change the frequencies. As mentioned
earlier, this might lead to situations where
the frequency comes close to the natural
frequency of parts of the ship’s structure or
other machinery and should therefore be
avoided.
Secondly, the rpm affects the tip speed,
calculated as:
RPM D
V tip = 2p × [ m / s ]
60 2
where D is the propeller diameter
The tip speed influences the cavitation
behaviour and the tip vortex in particular.
Normally, it is recommended that the tip
speed does not exceed 40 – 45 m/s for an
open propeller. As can be seen from the
formula, the diameter also determines tip
speed. So, when changing the diameter of a
replacement propeller, the tip speed should
not be forgotten either.
Application of nozzles and
other energy saving devices
So far only modifications to the propeller
and engine have been discussed. If no further
improvements, i.e. fuel savings, can be
achieved, we still have some possibilities left.
The HR nozzle
The application of a nozzle, for example,
may result in (additional) efficiency
improvements. In general, people have the
idea that a nozzle can only be applied in
bollard situations but this is not the case (see
[6]). In particular, the HR (High Efficiency)
nozzle (Fig. 6) is not only beneficial for extra
thrust in the bollard condition, but can also
be useful for speeds up to 15 – 20 knots.
Wärtsilä’s experience with replacement
propellers is that most of these vessels have
service speeds within this range. It is
Marine News - 37
 The Ship Power Supplier
Fig. 7 - Example of a wake equalizing duct application.
therefore very worthwhile investigating
whether a nozzle can achieve (extra) fuel
savings.
An additional advantage of a
nozzle/propeller combination is that the
optimum propeller diameter is smaller than
for an open propeller. This makes it
possible to fit the nozzle/propeller
combination in the existing aftship.
Generally, fitting a nozzle requires a new
propeller design with higher pitch.
Regarding pressure pulse and vibration
levels it is known that these are better than
for an open propeller. A nozzle
homogenizes the waterflow, resulting in less
variation. The nozzle between the propeller
and hull also reduces the forces acting on
the ship’s hull.
To show the possible fuel savings, we
assume the case of a chemical tanker with
the following properties:
n Service speed: 14.5 knots
n Engine power: 5500 kW
n Rate of revolutions:131 rpm
n Blade number: 4 symmetrical to the ship’s centre line.
The propeller, originally designed for this
case, had the optimum diameter of
5150 mm. When the configuration is
changed with a propeller in an HR nozzle,
the optimum diameter can be reduced to
4250 mm and a fuel saving of almost 6%
can be achieved.
The wake equalizing duct
We must also bear in mind that modifying
an open propeller into a propeller/nozzle
configuration has some impact on the
aftship. When the possibilities to change
38 - Wärtsilä
the aftship are limited, there are still some
options for installing energy saving devices
to the hull and significant improvements
can be achieved particularly in cases where
the wakefield is relatively bad.
Most fitted devices aim to improve the
wakefield, which is beneficial for the
propeller design. Moreover, energy saving
devices can affect the flow around the aft
body of the vessel. A wake equalizing duct
(WED) is a good example of achieving fuel
savings (see [7]). An example is shown in
Figure 7.
A WED is designed carefully to improve
the wake distribution and to reduce flow
separation and suction drag on the ship’s
stern. The WED is a ring-shaped flow vane
with an aerofoil type cross section. It is
fitted to the hull in front of the propeller
approximately 25% x D down from the top
of the propeller, in the form of two
half-ring ducts. The two half rings are set at
different inclination angles for both sides,
so that the total configuration is not
The basic principle of the WED is to
create a flow around both half ducts. Any
flow separation is reduced, which leads to
an improvement in hull efficiency. This
may result in considerable power savings
especially for vessels with high block
coefficients.
Fitting WEDs is also beneficial for the
propeller since the wake field is
homogenized by the WEDs. Logically this
can be used for the propeller design so that
additional efficiency improvements can be
realized. When, for example, the wakefield
becomes more favourable, the blade area
ratio can be reduced.
Beside nozzles and WEDs there are more
energy saving devices possible, like the
efficiency rudder, rudder bulb system and
propeller boss cap fin (see [8]). Wärtsilä has
plenty of experience in this field and is
happy to advise. n
References
[1] Haaren, M.J. van, “Replacement of fixed pitch
propellers”, Marine News No. 1-2002
[2] Hadler, J.B., et al., “Large-Diameter Propellers
of Reduced Weight”, Presented at the annual
meeting of the Society of Naval Architects and
Marine Engineers, 1982.
[3] Jiang, C., et al., “Investigation on Resistance
and Propulsive Qualities of Large Full Ship with
Low Revolution Large Diameter Propeller",
Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 1990.
[4] Weznicki, W., “Components of Propulsive
Efficiency as a Function of Block Coefficient and
Screw Diameter for Full Ships", Gdansk Technical
University, Ship Research Institute, 1990.
[5] Oossanen, P. van, “Toepassingsonderzoek
grote diameter lage toeren schroeven:
samenvattend eindrapport", Marin, 1985.
[6] Oosterveld, M.W.C., and W. van den Berg,
“Research in a Depressurized Towing Tank on
Ducted Propeller-Hull Interaction", 3rd Lips
Propeller Symposium, 1976.
[7] Schneekluth, H., “The wake equalising duct”,
Applications of New Technology, 1989.
[8] Ouchi, K., et al., “Research and development
of PBCF (Propeller Boss Cap Fins -Novel energy-
saving device to enhance propeller efficiency-",
Journal of the Society of Naval Architects of
Japan, Vol. 163, 1988, and Vol. 165, 1989.
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