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Solar Electric Photovoltaic Modules

Photovoltaic (PV) Power

PV is emerging as a major power resource, steadily becoming


more affordable and proving to be more reliable than utilities.
Photovoltaic power promises a brighter, cleaner future for our
children.

Using the technology we have today we could equal the entire


electric production of the United States with photovoltaic power
plants using only about 12,000 square miles.

In 1839, Edmund Becquerel discovered the process of using


sunlight to produce an electric current in a solid material, but it wasn't until a century later that
scientists eventually learned that the photovoltaic effect caused certain materials to convert light
energy into electrical energy.

The photovoltaic effect is the basic principal process by which a PV cell converts sunlight into
electricity. When light shines on a PV cell, it may be reflected, absorbed, or pass right through.
The absorbed light generates electricity.

In the early 1950s, photovoltaic (PV) cells were developed as a spin-off of transistor technology.
Very thin layers of pure silicon are impregnated with tiny amounts of other elements. When
exposed to sunlight, small amounts of electricity are produced. Originally this technology was a
costly source of power for satellites but it has steadily come down in price making it affordable
to power homes and businesses.

Cells Semiconductor device that converts sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity
PV modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an environmentally protective
Modules
laminate and are the fundamental building block of PV systems
PV panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-
Panels
installable unit
A PV array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of any number of PV
Array
modules and panels

Photovoltaic Cell

A single PV cell is a thin semiconductor wafer made of two layers generally made of
highly purified silicon (PV cells can be made of many different semiconductors but crystalline
silicon is the most widely used). The layers have been doped with boron on one side and
phosphorous on the other side, producing surplus of electrons on one side and a deficit of
electrons on the other side.
When the wafer is bombarded by sunlight, photons in the sunlight knock off some of
excess electrons, this makes a voltage difference between the two sides as the excess electrons
try to move to the deficit side. In silicon this voltage is .5 volt
Metallic contacts are made to both sides of the semiconductor. With an external circuit
attached to the contacts, the electrons can get back to where they came from and a current flows
through the circuit. This PV cell has no storage capacity, it simply acts as an electron pump.
The amount of current is determined by the number of electrons that the solar photons
knock off. Bigger cells, more efficient cells, or cells exposed to more intense sunlight will
deliver more electrons.

Photovoltaic Modules

A PV module consists of many PV cells wired in parallel to increase current and in series
to produce a higher voltage. 36 cell modules are the industry standard for large power
production.
The module is encapsulated with tempered glass (or some other transparent material) on
the front surface, and with a protective and waterproof material on the back surface. The edges
are sealed for weatherproofing, and there is often an aluminum frame holding everything
together in a mountable unit. In the back of the module there is a junction box, or wire leads,
providing electrical connections.

There are currently four commercial production technologies for PV Modules:

Single Crystalline
This is the oldest and more expensive production technique, but it's also the most efficient
sunlight conversion technology available. Module efficiency averages about 10% to 12%*

Polycrystalline or Multicrystalline
This has a slightly lower conversion efficiency compared to single crystalline but manufacturing
costs are also lower. Module efficiency averages about 10% to 11%*

String Ribbon
This is a refinement of polycrystalline production, there is less work in production so costs are
even lower. Module efficiency averages 7% to 8%*
Amorphous or Thin Film
Silicon material is vaporized and deposited on glass or stainless steel. The cost is lower than any
other method. Module efficiency averages 5% to 7%*

*Check with manufacturer for module's accurate conversion efficiency.

Photovoltaic Panels

PV panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable unit. The
modular design of PV panels allows systems to grow as needs change. Modules of different
manufacture can be intermixed without any problem, as long as all the modules have rated
voltage output within 1.0 volt difference.

Photovoltaic Array

A PV Array consists of a number of individual PV modules or panels that have been wired
together in a series and/or parallel to deliver the voltage and amperage a particular system
requires. An array can be as small as a single pair of modules, or large enough to cover acres.

12 volt module is the industry standard for battery charging. Systems processing up to about
2000 watt-hours should be fine at 12 volts. Systems processing 2000 - 7000 watt-hours will
function better at 24 volt. Systems running more than 7000 watt-hours should probably be
running at 48 volts.

Follow the link below to see samples of complete photovoltaic-based electrical


systems: Configured Solar Electric Systems

Photovoltaic Module Performance

The performance of PV modules and arrays are generally rated according to their maximum DC
power output (watts) under Standard Test Conditions (STC). Standard Test Conditions are
defined by a module (cell) operating temperature of 25o C (77 F), and incident solar irradiant
level of 1000 W/m2 and under Air Mass 1.5 spectral distribution. Since these conditions are not
always typical of how PV modules and arrays operate in the field, actual performance is usually
85 to 90 percent of the STC rating.

Today’s photovoltaic modules are extremely safe and reliable products, with minimal failure
rates and projected service lifetimes of 20 to 30 years. Most major manufacturers offer
warranties of twenty or more years for maintaining a high percentage of initial rated power
output. When selecting PV modules, look for the product listing (UL), qualification testing and
warranty information in the module manufacturer’s specifications.

Photovoltaic Applications

PV has been routinely used for roadside emergency phones and many temporary construction
signs, where the cost and trouble of bringing in utility power outweighs the higher initial expense
of PV, and where mobile generator sets present more fueling and maintenance trouble.

More than 100,000 homes in the United States, largely in rural sites, now depend on PVs as a
primary power source, and this figure is growing rapidly as people begin to understand how
clean and reliable this power source is, and how deeply our current energy practices are
borrowing from our children.

PV costs are now down to a level that makes them the clear choice not just for remote
applications, but for those seeking environmentally safer solutions and independence from the
ever-increasing utility power costs.

Photovoltaic Benefits

 Solar power provided by photovoltaic systems lower your utility bills and insulate you
from utility rate hikes and price volatility due to fluctuating energy prices
 Installing a solar system increases property value and home resale opportunities
 Purchase of a solar power system allows you to take advantage of available tax and
financial incentives
 Because they don't rely on miles of exposed wires, residential PV systems are more
reliable than utilities, particularly when the weather gets nasty.
 PV modules have no moving parts, degrade very, very slowly, and boast a life span that
isn't fully known yet, but will be measured in decades.
 Solar electric systems are quiet, reliable, fossil-fuel free
 Unlike mobile power generators, avoids greenhouse gas emissions

Solar Cell I-V Characteristic 2561

Solar Cell I-V Characteristic and the Solar Cell I-V Curve
Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves show the current and voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a
particular photovoltaic ( PV ) cell, module or array giving a detailed description of its solar energy
conversion ability and efficiency. Knowing the electrical I-V characteristics (more
importantly Pmax) of a solar cell, or panel is critical in determining the device’s output performance
and solar efficiency.
Photovoltaic solar cells convert the suns radiant light directly into electricity. With increasing
demand for a clean energy source and the sun’s potential as a free energy source, has made solar
energy conversion as part of a mixture of renewable energy sources increasingly important. As a
result, the demand for efficient solar cells, which convert sunlight directly into electricity, is
growing faster than ever before.
Photovoltaic ( PV ) cells are made made almost entirely from silicon that has been processed into
an extremely pure crystalline form that absorbs the photons from sunlight and then releases them
as electrons, causing an electric current to flow when the photoconductive cell is connected to an
external load. There are a variety of different measurements we can make to determine the solar
cell’s performance, such as its power output and its conversion efficiency.
The main electrical characteristics of a PV cell or module are summarized in the relationship
between the current and voltage produced on a typical solar cell I-V characteristics curve. The
intensity of the solar radiation (insolation) that hits the cell controls the current ( I ), while the
increases in the temperature of the solar cell reduces its voltage ( V ).
Solar cells produce direct current ( DC ) electricity and current times voltage equals power, so we
can create solar cell I-V curves representing the current versus the voltage for a photovoltaic
device.
Solar Cell I-V Characteristics Curves are basically a graphical representation of the operation of
a solar cell or module summarising the relationship between the current and voltage at the existing
conditions of irradiance and temperature. I-V curves provide the information required to configure
a solar system so that it can operate as close to its optimal peak power point (MPP) as possible.

Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve

The above graph shows the current-voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a typical silicon PV cell
operating under normal conditions. The power delivered by a solar cell is the product of current
and voltage ( I x V ). If the multiplication is done, point for point, for all voltages from short-circuit
to open-circuit conditions, the power curve above is obtained for a given radiation level.
With the solar cell open-circuited, that is not connected to any load, the current will be at its
minimum (zero) and the voltage across the cell is at its maximum, known as the solar cells open
circuit voltage, or Voc. At the other extreme, when the solar cell is short circuited, that is the
positive and negative leads connected together, the voltage across the cell is at its minimum (zero)
but the current flowing out of the cell reaches its maximum, known as the solar cells short circuit
current, or Isc.
Then the span of the solar cell I-V characteristics curve ranges from the short circuit current ( Isc )
at zero output volts, to zero current at the full open circuit voltage ( Voc ). In other words, the
maximum voltage available from a cell is at open circuit, and the maximum current at closed
circuit. Of course, neither of these two conditions generates any electrical power, but there must
be a point somewhere in between were the solar cell generates maximum power.
However, there is one particular combination of current and voltage for which the power reaches
its maximum value, at Imp and Vmp. In other words, the point at which the cell generates
maximum electrical power and this is shown at the top right area of the green rectangle. This is
the “maximum power point” or MPP. Therefore the ideal operation of a photovoltaic cell (or
panel) is defined to be at the maximum power point.
The maximum power point (MPP) of a solar cell is positioned near the bend in the I-V
characteristics curve. The corresponding values of Vmp and Imp can be estimated from the open
circuit voltage and the short circuit current: Vmp ≅ (0.8–0.90)Voc and Imp ≅ (0.85–0.95)Isc.
Since solar cell output voltage and current both depend on temperature, the actual output power
will vary with changes in ambient temperature.
Thus far we have looked at Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve for a single solar cell or panel.
But many photovoltaic arrays are made up of smaller PV panels connected together. Then the I-V
curve of a PV array is just a scaled up version of the single solar cell I-V characteristic curve as
shown.

The Electrical Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Array


The electrical characteristics of a photovoltaic array are summarised in the relationship between
the output current and voltage. The amount and intensity of solar insolation (solar irradiance)
controls the amount of output current ( I ), and the operating temperature of the solar cells affects
the output voltage ( V ) of the PV array. Solar cell I-V characteristic curves that summarise the
relationship between the current and voltage are generally provided by the panels manufacturer
and are given as:

Solar Array Parameters

 • VOC = open-circuit voltage: – This is the maximum voltage that the array provides when
the terminals are not connected to any load (an open circuit condition). This value is
much higher than Vmp which relates to the operation of the PV array which is fixed by
the load. This value depends upon the number of PV panels connected together in series.

 • ISC = short-circuit current – The maximum current provided by the PV array when the
output connectors are shorted together (a short circuit condition). This value is much
higher than Imp which relates to the normal operating circuit current.
 • MPP = maximum power point – This relates to the point where the power supplied by
the array that is connected to the load (batteries, inverters) is at its maximum value, where
MPP = Imp x Vmp. The maximum power point of a photovoltaic array is measured in
Watts (W) or peak Watts (Wp).

 • FF = fill factor – The fill factor is the relationship between the maximum power that
the array can actually provide under normal operating conditions and the product of the
open-circuit voltage times the short-circuit current, ( Voc x Isc ) This fill factor value
gives an idea of the quality of the array and the closer the fill factor is to 1 (unity), the
more power the array can provide. Typical values are between 0.7 and 0.8.

 • %eff = percent efficiency – The efficiency of a photovoltaic array is the ratio between
the maximum electrical power that the array can produce compared to the amount of
solar irradiance hitting the array. The efficiency of a typical solar array is normally low
at around 10-12%, depending on the type of cells (monocrystalline, polycrystalline,
amorphous or thin film) being used.
Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves are graphs of output voltage versus current for different
levels of insolation and temperature and can tell you a lot about a PV cell or panel’s ability to
convert sunlight into electricity. The most important values for calculating a particular panels
power rating are the voltage and current at maximum power.
Some solar panels are rated at slightly higher or lower voltages than others of the same wattage
value, and this affects the amount of current available and therefore the panels MPP. Other
parameters also important are the open circuit voltage and short circuit current ratings from a safety
point of view, especially the voltage rating. An array of six panels in series, while having a nominal
72 volt (6 x 12) rating, could potentially produce an open-circuit voltage of over 120 volts DC,
which is more than enough to be dangerous.
Photovoltaic I-V characteristics curves provide the information needed for us to configure a solar
power array so that it can operate as close as possible to its maximum peak power point. The peak
power point is measured as the PV module produces its maximum amount of power when exposed
to solar radiation equivalent to 1000 watts per square metre, 1000 W/m2 or 1kW/m2.
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Example of I-V Curve and Ratings of a 12 V Solar (PV) Panel

Fig.2. Example of I-V Curve and Ratings of a 12 V PV / Solar Panel

The I-V Curve for a typical 12 Volt PV / Solar Panel is shown at Fig.2 above

This Maximum Power Point in the example curve given above is where Vmp is 17 Volts, and the
current Imp is 2.5 amps. Therefore, the rated or the maximum power Wmax in watts is 17 Volts
times 2.5 Amps, or 42.5 Watts.

IV Curve

The IV curve of a solar cell is the superposition of the IV curve of the solar cell diode in the dark
with the light-generated current.1 The light has the effect of shifting the IV curve down into the
fourth quadrant where power can be extracted from the diode. Illuminating a cell adds to the
normal "dark" currents in the diode so that the diode law becomes:

where IL = light generated current.

The effect of light on the current-voltage characteristics


of a p-junction. The equation for the IV curve in the first quadrant is:

Ideal Solar Cell

The -1 term in the above equation can usually be


neglected. The exponential term is usually >> 1
except for voltages below 100 mV. Further, at low voltages the light generated current
IL dominates the I0 (...) term so the -1 term is not needed under illumination.

Ideal Solar Cell (simplified)

Where:

Dark Saturation Current, I0

Light Generated Current, IL

Ideality Factor, n

Temperature, T

Voltage, V

Current, A

Effect of Temperature

Like all other semiconductor devices, solar cells are sensitive to temperature. Increases in
temperature reduce the band gap of a semiconductor, thereby effecting most of the
semiconductor material parameters. The decrease in the band gap of a semiconductor with
increasing temperature can be viewed as increasing the energy of the electrons in the material.
Lower energy is therefore needed to break the bond. In the bond model of a semiconductor band
gap, reduction in the bond energy also reduces the band gap. Therefore increasing the
temperature reduces the band gap.

In a solar cell, the parameter most affected by an increase in temperature is the open-
circuit voltage. The impact of increasing temperature is shown in the figure below.
The effect of temperature on the
IV characteristics of a solar cell.

The open-circuit voltage


decreases with temperature
because of the temperature
dependence of I0. The equation
for I0from one side of a p-
n junction is given by;

where:
q is the electronic charge given in the constants page;
A is the area;
D is the diffusivity of the minority carrier given for silicon as a function of doping in
the Silicon Material Parameters page;
L is the minority carrier diffusion length;
ND is the doping; and
ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration given for silicon in the Silicon Material
Parameters page.

In the above equation, many of the parameters have some temperature dependance, but the most
significant effect is due to the intrinsic carrier concentration, ni. The intrinsic carrier
concentration depends on the band gap energy (with lower band gaps giving a higher intrinsic
carrier concentration), and on the energy which the carriers have (with higher temperatures
giving higher intrinsic carrier concentrations). The equation for the intrinsic carrier concentration
is;

where:
T is the temperature;
h and k are constants given in the constants page;
me and mh are the effective masses of electrons and holes respectively;
EGO is the band gap linearly extrapolated to absolute zero; and
B is a constant which is essentially independent of temperature

1.3 The Affects Of Irradiance

Solar irradiance is a measure of the sun’s energy, under standard conditions the amount
of energy reaching the Earth’s surface on a clear day is taken to be 1kW/m2. The amount of
irradiance reduces with the slightest amount of haze and becomes quite small on over cast days.
ISC is directly proportional to the irradiance: so that if irradiance halves so does ISC. The voltage
variation is very small and usually ignored

The power produced under different conditions, as a function of voltage, is shown in


figure 5. Figures 4 and 5 clearly show that the voltage at which PMax occurs does not vary much
with irradiance.

Figure 5: PV cell power output as a function of voltage.

Irradiance values are normally given as an average per day, so that the average global
irradiance may be 4.5kW/m2 per day. If we assume that most of this radiation falls on the solar
panels in the six hours between 9am and 3pm we can estimate the average irradiance falling on
the panels throughout the day: in this case it will be 0.75kW/m2. Irradiance is sometimes denoted
by I however, to avoid confusion with current it is denoted here by G. When looking up values
for G be careful to note whether they are for horizontal panels or panels inverted from the
horizontal by an angle equal to the location’s latitude.

1. [1]TheAM1.5 spectrum is the spectrum (i.e. range of wavelengths) provided on a clear


day by the sun when its rays have passed through an average depth of atmosphere to the
Earth’s surface

Effect of Light Intensity

Changing the light intensity incident on a solar cell changes all solar cell parameters,
including the short-circuit current, the open-circuit voltage, the FF, the efficiency and the
impact of series and shunt resistances. The light intensity on a solar cell is called the number
of suns, where 1 sun corresponds to standard illumination at AM1.5, or 1 kW/m2. For
example a system with 10 kW/m2 incident on the solar cell would be operating at 10 suns, or
at 10X. A PV module designed to operate under 1 sun conditions is called a "flat plate"
module while those using concentrated sunlight are called "concentrators".

The effect of concentration on the IV characteristics of a solar cell. The series resistance has a
greater effect on performance at high intensity and the shunt resistance has a greater effect on
cell performance at low light intensity.

Concentrators
A concentrator is a solar cell designed to operate under illumination greater than 1 sun. The
incident sunlight is focused or guided by optical elements such that a high intensity light beam
shines on a small solar cell. Concentrators have several potential advantages, including a higher
efficiency potential than a one-sun solar cell and the possibility of lower cost. The short-circuit
current from a solar cell depends linearly on light intensity, such that a device operating under 10
suns would have 10 times the short-circuit current as the same device under one sun operation.
However, this effect does not provide an efficiency increase, since the incident power also
increases linearly with concentration. Instead, the efficiency benefits arise from the logarithmic
dependence of the open-circuit voltage on short circuit. Therefore, under concentration, Voc
increases logarithmically with light intensity, as shown in the equation below;

where X is the concentration of sunlight.


From the equation above, a doubling of the light intensity (X=2) causes a 18 mV rise in VOC .
The cost of a concentrating PV system may be lower than a corresponding flat-plate PV system
since only a small area of solar cells is needed.
The efficiency benefits of concentration may be reduced by increased losses in series
resistance as the short-circuit current increases and also by the increased temperature operation
of the solar cell. As losses due to short-circuit current depend on the square of the current, power
loss due to series resistance increases as the square of the concentration.
Low Light Intensity
Solar cells experience daily variations in light intensity, with the incident power from the
sun varying between 0 and 1 kW/m2. At low light levels, the effect of the shunt resistance
becomes increasingly important. As the light intensity decreases, the bias point and current
through the solar cell also decreases, and the equivalent resistance of the solar cell may begin to
approach the shunt resistance. When these two resistances are similar, the fraction of the total
current flowing through the shunt resistance increases, thereby increasing the fractional power
loss due to shunt resistance. Consequently, under cloudy conditions, a solar cell with a high
shunt resistance retains a greater fraction of its original power than a solar cell with a low shunt
resistance1.

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