Skin stem cells: where do they live and what can they

do?
Last updated:
9 Feb 2011

Skin is a very important tissue in our bodies. It protects us from infection and
dehydration, and allows us to feel many different things, such as pressure or
heat. Our skin has to be constantly renewed throughout our lives. It relies on a
whole host of different stem cells to keep it in good shape.

Did you know?

Your entire skin is replaced about every 4 weeks.

Human keratinocytes
 Human keratinocytes with red marking the structural protein keratin 5

Section of the epidermis showing all its layers, with cell borders in green and cell nuclei in blue

Skin graft grown in the lab from stem cells

The skin
In humans and other mammals, the skin has three parts - the epidermis, the dermis and the subcutis (or
hypodermis). The epidermis forms the surface of the skin. It is made up of several layers of cells called
keratinocytes. The dermis lies underneath the epidermis and contains skin appendages: hair follicles,
sebaceous (oil) glands and sweat glands. The subcutis contains fat cells and some sweat glands.
The skin and its structure: The skin has three main layers - the epidermis, dermis and subcutis. The
epidermis contains layers of cells called keratinocytes. BL = basal layer; SL = spinous layer; GL =
granular layer; SC= stratum corneum.
Image adapted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 199-209 (March 2002), Getting

under the skin of epidermal morphogenesis, Elaine Fuchs & Srikala Raghavan; doi:10.1038/nrg758; Copyright 2002.

Skin stem cells

In everyday life your skin has to cope with a lot of wear and tear. For example, it is exposed to
chemicals like soap and to physical stresses such as friction with your clothes or exposure to sunlight.
The epidermis and skin appendages need to be renewed constantly to keep your skin in good condition.
What’s more, if you cut or damage your skin, it has to be able to repair itself efficiently to keep doing its
job – protecting your body from the outside world.
 Skin stem cells make all this possible. They are responsible for constant renewal (regeneration) of your
skin, and for healing wounds. So far, scientists have identified several different types of skin stem cell:

 Epidermal stem cells are responsible for everyday regeneration of the different layers of the
epidermis. These stem cells are found in the basal layer of the epidermis.
 Hair follicle stem cells ensure constant renewal of the hair follicles. They can also regenerate
the epidermis and sebaceous glands if these tissues are damaged. Hair follicle stem cells are found
throughout the hair follicles.
 Melanocyte stem cells are responsible for regeneration of melanocytes, a type of pigment
cell. Melanocytes produce the pigment melanin, and therefore play an important role in skin and hair
follicle pigmentation. It is not yet certain where these stem cells are found in humans.

Some studies have also suggested that another type of stem cell, known as mesenchymal stem cells,
can be found in the dermis and hypodermis. This remains controversial amongst scientists and further
studies are needed to determine whether these cells are truly mesenchymal stem cells and what their
role is in the skin.

Clinical applications of epidermal stem cells

Epidermal stem cells are one of the few types of stem cell already used to treat patients. Thanks to a
discovery made in 1970 by Professor Howard Green in the USA, epidermal stem cells can be taken
from a patient, multiplied and used to grow sheets of epidermis in the lab. The new epidermis can then
be transplanted back onto the patient as a skin graft. This technique is mainly used to save the lives of
patients who have third degree burns over very large areas of their bodies. Only a few clinical centres
are able to carry out the treatment successfully, and it is an expensive process. It is also not a perfect
solution. Only the epidermis can be replaced with this method; the new skin has no hair follicles, sweat
glands or sebaceous glands.

Current research directions

One of the current challenges for stem cell researchers is to understand how all the skin appendages
are regenerated. This could lead to improved treatments for burn patients, or others with severe skin
damage.

Researchers are also working to identify new ways to grow skin cells in the lab. Epidermal stem cells
are currently cultivated on a layer of cells from rodents, called murine cells. These cell culture conditions
have been proved safe, but it would be preferable to avoid using animal products when cultivating cells
that will be transplanted into patients. So, researchers are searching for effective cell culture conditions
that will not require the use of murine cells.

Scientists are also working to treat genetic diseases affecting the skin. Since skin stem cells can be
cultivated in laboratories, researchers can genetically modify the cells, for example by inserting a
missing gene. The correctly modified cells can be selected, grown and multiplied in the lab, then
transplanted back onto the patient. Epidermolysis Bullosa is one example of a genetic skin disease that
might benefit from this approach. Work is underway to test the technique.
http://www.eurostemcell.org/factsheet/skin-stem-cells-where-do-they-live-
and-what-can-they-do

Body organs aren't all internal like the brain or the heart. There's one we wear on the outside. Skin is our
largest organ—adults carry some 8 pounds (3.6 kilograms) and 22 square feet (2 square meters) of it.
This fleshy covering does a lot more than make us look presentable. In fact, without it, we'd literally
evaporate.
Skin acts as a waterproof, insulating shield, guarding the body against extremes of temperature,
damaging sunlight, and harmful chemicals. It also exudes antibacterial substances that prevent infection
and manufactures vitamin D for converting calcium into healthy bones. Skin additionally is a huge
sensor packed with nerves for keeping the brain in touch with the outside world. At the same time, skin
allows us free movement, proving itself an amazingly versatile organ.
Skin is made up of three layers. The outermost is the epidermis. This consists mainly of cells called
keratinocytes, made from the tough protein keratin (also the material in hair and nails). Keratinocytes
form several layers that constantly grow outwards as the exterior cells die and flake off. It takes roughly
five weeks for newly created cells to work their way to the surface. This covering of dead skin is known
as the stratum corneum, or horny layer, and its thickness varies considerably, being more than ten
times thicker on the soles of the feet than around the eyes. The epidermis harbors defensive
Langerhans cells, which alert the body's immune system to viruses and other infectious agents.
The epidermis is bonded to a deeper skin layer below known as the dermis, which gives the organ its
strength and elasticity thanks to fibers of collagen and elastin. Blood vessels here help regulate body
temperature by increasing blood flow to the skin to allow heat to escape, or by restricting the flow when
it's cold. A network of nerve fibers and receptors pick up feelings such as touch, temperature, and pain,
relaying them to the brain.
The dermis houses hair follicles and glands with ducts that pass up through the skin. Sweat glands bring
down internal temperature through perspiration while ridding the body of the waste fluids urea and
lactate. Apocrine glands, which develop during puberty, produce a scented sweat linked to sexual
attraction that can also cause body odor, especially around the armpits. Sebaceous glands secrete oil-
like sebum for lubricating the hair and skin.
The skin's base layer is the subcutis, which includes a seam of fat laid down as a fuel reserve in case
of food shortage. It also works as insulation and cushions us from knocks and falls.
Skin Color
Skin color is due to melanin, a pigment produced in the epidermis to protect us from the sun's
potentially cancer-causing ultraviolet (UV) rays. Dark-skinned people produce more numerous and
deeper-colored melanin particles. People with the darkest complexions are native to tropical regions,
particularly those with few densely forested areas.
Fair skin is an adaptation found in people from northern latitudes where solar rays are relatively weak.
Here the benefits of dark skin are outweighed by the need for bone-strengthening vitamin D, produced
through exposure to UV rays. But hotter, sunnier environments bring the risk of serious skin damage.
Australia, where the majority of the population is of northern European descent, has the world's highest
rates of skin cancer, accounting for more than 80 percent of all cancers diagnosed there each year.