Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
2 Content
3 Executive Overview
4 Mission, Strategy, Governance of RECHARGE
5-11 Batteries Markets and Technology Trends
46-51 Recycling
BEBAT Belgian e-bike battery collection up by 75% in 2016
TOYOTA Environmental challenges towards 2050 – establishing a recycling-based society
ACCUREC Dynamic development in Li-ion battery recycling
SNAM You create, SNAM recycles
EBRA Recycling Efficiency for end of life batteries: what is the status?
52 Membership
2
Executive Overview
Dear Reader,
The RECHARGE Report is meant to be a reference and overview document for the interested reader.
• The need to bring legislation and regulation up-to-date with the market development.
A revision of the Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC and Regulation 493/2012 on Recycling Efficiency seems logic in view
of these market developments. The EU institutions should consider - in addition and in line with possible adaptations -
the assurance of sustainable competitiveness of companies in Europe.
Key messages:
• Recycling should become a real economic
opportunity in order to balance the burden
of extended producer responsibility.
• Environmental ‘equivalent’ conditions
for production and recycling of batteries
outside the EU has to be supported and
promoted.
• Re-use and second life of batteries
has to be managed by professionals
understanding the battery management
systems (BMS) and all safety aspects,
in addition to the regulatory requirements.
• Transport of waste batteries has to be
harmonized and safety legislation enforced.
Patrick de Metz
SAFT & Chairman of RECHARGE
Mission
The Mission of RECHARGE is to promote Advanced Rechargeable & Lithium Batteries as a technology that will contribute
to a Sustainable Society, a Resource and Energy Efficient policy and to the achievement of a Green Circular Economy.
Strategy
RECHARGE members contribute to the EU policy framework and to the Circular Economy Package in order to promote
the role of advanced rechargeable & lithium batteries in the society, to secure the development of an EU rechargeable
battery industry and long-term sustainability. Recharging these batteries reduces the use of primary raw materials and
recycling them in the EU brings secondary raw materials back into the EU economy.
Governance
The objective of the General Assembly of RECHARGE is to review and address, under the applicable confidentiality rules,
issues concerning the program and its achievements. The minutes of the General Assembly will reflect all significant
matters discussed between those member companies present.
No discussions will be held, formally or informally, during specified meeting times or otherwise, involving, directly or
indirectly, express or implicit agreements or understandings related to: (a) any company’s price; (b) any company’s terms
or conditions of sale; (c) any company’s production or sales levels; (d) any company’s wages or salaries; (e) the division or
allocation of customers or geographic markets; or (f) customer or suppliers boycotts; or (g) any disclosure of information
which may affect applicable rules on Competition Law.
RECHARGE members, as a group, will make no recommendations of any kind and will not try to reach any agreements
or understandings with respect to an individual company’s prices, terms or conditions of sale, production or sales levels,
wages, salaries, customers or suppliers. RECHARGE members agree to comply with the rules of the Antitrust Compliance
Program communicated to them by the secretariat of RECHARGE
Claude Chanson
General Manager
RECHARGE
4
Batteries Markets and Technology trends
This chapter presents the product trends for the batteries markets:
• Changes in the demand for batteries, i.e. on the markets of the battery-containing products, which are mainly EEE,
electric vehicles and energy storage systems,
• Technological changes of the electrochemical systems used to power a product or store energy and their characteristics
(battery weight, composition, lifespan etc.)
Avicenne (2016) estimates that whereas electronic devices accounted for 50% of the sales of lithium-ion batteries in
2015, the largest application is expected to be electric mobility in 2025 with a share of 56% (Figure 1). This is in line with
other estimates, who expect that, depending on the scenario and its underlying framework conditions, between 50 and
more than 70 percent of lithium-ion batteries are expected to be used in electric mobility applications in the next 10 years,
alongside stationary applications and mobile or portable electronic products (Prosum -2018).
Based on this analysis and on a screening of the uses of batteries based on the available put on the market data (WP3),
three battery applications were identified as keys for future trends:
1- Electric mobility, including vehicles, e-bikes, e-scooters etc.
2- Portable electric and electronic equipment
3- Energy storage
Applications in military, wearables, robotics and internet-of-things are early adaptations that may become key in the
future.
Avicenne (2016) expects an increase of the market shares of advanced lead-acid and lithium-ion batteries between 2010
and 2020, related with an increase of the sales volumes of P-HEV and full HEV (Figure 2). Advanced lead-acid batteries
are smaller, lighter batteries and offer an approximate 20% lead weight reduction. For example, valve-regulated lead acid
(VRLA) batteries containing enhanced levels of carbon in the negative plate belong to the advanced lead-based batteries.
In the European market, lead-based batteries are not considered as promising for traction purposes. Sodium nickel chloride
6
Batteries Markets and Technology trends
batteries have been commercialized since the 1990s and originally found application in electric vehicles and hybrid electric
vehicles, mostly buses, trucks and vans.
Current research activities aim at developing new or alternative technologies like lithium-air, lithium sulphur, lithium-
polymer and solid-state lithium. A significant advancement in one or more of these chemistries could prove disruptive to
the industry; however, the extensive testing needed to bring a new chemistry into a production vehicle makes it unlikely
this would occur before 2020 or 2025, as there are no game-changing technologies approaching the consumer market
(Navigant Research, 2015; Thielmann et al., 2012b; Blagoeva et al., 2016; Avicenne, 2016).
Laslau et al. (2015) forecast lithium-sulfur and solid-state batteries to reach 4% and 2% market penetration in 2030 in
transportation, respectively, rising to 8% and 12% in 2035 (Figure 3). Until 2020, Li-ion will dominate, evolving to become
advanced Li-ion, defined as a varied mix of higher-voltage and higher-capacity materials, a step beyond today’s NMC
(Nickel Manganese Cobalt oxide) or NCA (Nickel Cobalt Aluminium oxide) paired with graphite.
Figure 3: Battery type market shares in transportation between 2015 and 2035 (Laslau et al., 2015)
Because the literature clearly states that li-ion technologies have the most competitive position in electric mobility and that
this is not expected to change before 2025, a special focus was set during the data collection on lithium-ion batteries.
The mass production of HEVs and small industrial trucks using lithium-ion batteries started approximatively in 2015.
The forecast of the following products equipped with lithium-ion batteries:
• Between 2015 and 2020 for PHEV and BEV, scooters, hybrid forklift and 3.5 t vans
• Approximatively 2020 for starter batteries and hybrid tractors
• After 2020 for electric forklifts, electric buses and hybrid trains
An overview of the current and future uses of lithium-ion batteries for electric mobility is provided by Thielmann et al.
(2015a) from Fraunhofer ISI (Table A). It shows the forecasted market development for electric mobility.
Avicenne (2016) assumed that the sales volumes for HEV will increase from 4.8 million HEV/year in 2020 (35% lithium-ion
batteries) to 6.8 million HEV in 2025 (90% lithium-ion batteries). For BEV, 1.6 million BEV are expected to be sold in 2020,
and 2.5 million in 2025 (90% lithium-ion batteries). Anderman (2015) publishes lower forecasts for 2020 (1.9 million unit
cells for HEV, 0.85 million unit cells for PHEV and 0.78 million unit cells for BEV sold worldwide). Other forecasts based on
different scenarios were published by Blagoeva et al. (2016). According to Anderman, until field data for 2020 confirm
reliability, it is risky to forecast sales volumes after 2025. He forecasts that the competitive position of li-ion versus all other
technologies will continue to improve.
The data collected shows that the volumes of zinc-based batteries and NiMH are expected to remain stable or decrease
in the next years, but the volumes of lithium-ion batteries increase continuously and are expected to continue growing.
According to Avicenne (2016), the sales volumes of portable devices are expected to increase by 6% per year between
2015 and 2025. Thielmann et al. (2015a) also mention expected market growth rates of 5 to 10%. For instance the
applications of lithium-ion batteries which sales volumes are increasing are cellular phones and other portable electronics
(Figure 4). The share of the products classified as “other portable electronics” is significantly increasing, showing a
diversification of the usage of the batteries, since a variety of traditionally plugged products like vacuum cleaners are
increasingly becoming cordless and use a battery, which is linked to the trends towards digitalization. In addition, the
world of power tools and gardening tools is also moving fast toward electrification.
8
Batteries Markets and Technology trends
The portable applications, because of their low but steady market growth, can be classified as large and reliable markets,
even though the markets for some consumer electronics applications like digital cameras and camcorders are stagnating
(Thielmann et al. 2015). Large numbers from 10 million to several billions of products using Li-ion batteries with less than 100 Wh
are sold each year, for instance mobile phones (100 % li-ion batteries), tablets (100 % li-ion batteries) and laptops (100 %
li-ion batteries). They represent 10 GWh markets having, for tablets and mobile phones, a dynamic development. Further
portable products using small batteries with markets up to 1 GWh are Power Tools (50 to 70 % li-ion batteries, increasing),
cordless phones (15 to 35 % li-ion batteries, beside Ni-MH), camcorders und video games (100 % li-ion batteries), digital
cameras and MP3-Players (90 to 100 % li-ion batteries, beside primary batteries), toys with electronics (40 to 60 % li-ion batteries,
beside NiMH and primary batteries) as well as household appliances, and medical devices (Thielmann et al. 2015).
Energy Storage Systems can provide a variety of application solutions along the entire value chain of the electrical system,
from generation support to transmission and distribution support to end-customer uses (EPRI, 2010). The roadmap of
Thielmann et al. (2015) distinguish (1) decentralised photovoltaic battery systems, (2) optimisation of electricity consumption
with larger energy storage including peak shaving, (3) direct marketing of renewable energies and (4) balancing power.
According to Avicenne (2016), the market of energy storage systems will increase from 36 GWh in 2015 to 65 GWh in
2025.
The main technology used today in ESS is the Lead acid batteries. The mass production of Energy Storage Systems using
Li-ion batteries is expected to be achieved between 2015 and 2020 for decentralised photovoltaic battery systems, which
already entered the market, around 2020 for larger energy storage between 100 kW and 1 MW, direct marketing of
renewable energies and balancing power, and between 2020 and 2030 for energy storage over 5 MW
(Thielmann et al., 2015).
Lithium-ion batteries will increasingly replace the lead-acid batteries until 2020. Most energy storage systems for
decentralised photovoltaic battery systems currently use LFP/graphite-based lithium-ion batteries. Li-ion batteries with
NMC, NCA, LCO and LMO cathodes, LFP batteries with LTO anodes and lead-based batteries represent in total less than
half of the market. Costs, efficiency, cyclical and calendar lifetime are the main factors influencing the choice of one or
another battery type.
Several other technologies are available, such as sodium sulfur or sodium nickel chloride batteries. Research is currently
conducted to reduce the heat losses by developing low temperature systems, which mass production may be expected
after 2020 (Thielmann et al., 2015). Also redox flow batteries with a low energy density such as the vanadium redox flow
batteries (VRFB) may be relevant for instance for large stationary storage applications after 2020 (Thielmann et al., 2015).
EPRI forecasted in 2012 that batteries using the electrochemical systems sodium-sulfur, sodium-nickel chloride, advanced
lead-acid and lithium-ion will be deployed the mature technologies available on the market in 2020.
Figure 6: Technology Readiness of Energy Storage Technologies as depicted by EPRI in 2012 and cited by Baxter
(2016)
10
Batteries Markets and Technology trends
Figure 7: Market penetration of battery electrochemical systems in applications of the sectors electric mobility,
portable EEE and energy storage in 2017
References
Avicenne (2016). The Rechargeable Battery Market and Main Trends 2015-2025. Presentation by Christophe Pillot at the
Batteries congress 2016, September 28th, 2016, Nice, France.
Baxter, R. (2016). Energy Storage Financing: A Roadmap for Accelerating Market Growth. A Study for the DOE Energy
Storage Systems Program. Worldwide, Sandia National Laboratories. Available online: www.sandia.gov/ess/publications/
SAND2016-8109.pdf
Blagoeva, D. T.; Alves Dias, P.; Marmier, A.; Pavel, C.C. (2016) Assessment of potential bottlenecks along the materials supply
chain for the future deployment of low-carbon energy and transport technologies in the EU. Wind power, photovoltaic
and electric vehicles technologies, time frame: 2015-2030; EUR 28192 EN; doi:10.2790/08169
EPRI (2010). Electricity Energy Storage Technology Options. A White Paper Primer on Applications, Costs, and Benefits.
Technical Update, December 2010. Available online: http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2012/ph240/doshay1/docs/EPRI.pdf
Laslau, C.; Xie, L.; Robinson, C. (2015). The Next-Generation Battery Roadmap: Quantifying How Solid-State, Lithium-Sulfur,
and Other Batteries Will Emerge After 2020. Lux Research Energy Storage Intelligence research sample, October 2015
Navigant Research (2015). Advanced Energy Storage for Automotive Applications. Available online:
www.navigantresearch.com/research/advanced-energy-storage-for-automotive-applications
Chancerel P., Chanson C., Peck D., European funded program Prosum, 2017.
Recharge (2013). E-mobility Roadmap for the EU battery industry. The European Association for Advanced Rechargeable Batteries.
Available online: www.rechargebatteries.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Battery-Roadmap-RECHARGE-05-July-2013.pdf
Thielmann, A.; Sauer, A.; Isenmann, R.; Wietschel, M.; Plötz, P.; Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research
ISI (Karlsruhe) (Hrsg.): Product roadmap lithium-ion batteries 2030; Karlsruhe: Fraunhofer ISI, 2012.
Available online: www.isi.fraunhofer.de/isi-en/t/projekte/at-lib-2015-roadmapping.php
Thielmann, A.; Sauer, A.; Isenmann, R.; Wietschel, M. (2012b). Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research
ISI (Karlsruhe) (Hrsg.): Technology roadmap energy storage for electric mobility 2030; Karlsruhe: Fraunhofer ISI, 2012.
Thielmann, A.; Sauer, A.; Wietschel, M. (2015a); Fraunhofer-Institut für System- und Innovationsforschung ISI (Karlsruhe)
(Hrsg.): Gesamt-Roadmap Lithium-Ionen-Batterien 2030; Karlsruhe: Fraunhofer ISI, 2015.
Available online: www.isi.fraunhofer.de/isi-en/t/projekte/at-lib-2015-roadmapping.php
RECHARGE Report 2018 11
Legislation impacting batteries
The lack of a domestic, European cell manufacturing base jeopardizes the position of EU industrial customers because of the
security of the supply chain, increased costs due to transportation, time delays, weaker quality control or limitations on the design.
The strong and weak points of the EU manufacturing industry have been clearly analyzed in the 2017 JRC report (1): the
battery assembly for e-mobility application is already widely developed in EU, and closely linked to the vehicles architecture
decisions, under the OEM control. Therefore, the main focus of an action plan should be to support the development in
Europe of Li-ion components and cells manufacturing, for integration in the Eu e-mobility batteries and vehicles.
Key enablers to support the industry investment in EU have been identified in the conclusions of JRC report (1):
• Considerations on EU competitiveness in LIB cell manufacturing should target innovation in cell chemistries, formats
and manufacturing technologies/processes.
• Efforts for establishing LIB cell manufacturing capacity in the EU should primarily target LIB cells of generation-2b and
beyond and should focus on production stages which are critical for LIB quality, performance and safety.
• Competing with non-EU LIB cell producers on cost-only basis is unlikely to be successful. A competitive EU LIB cell
production should offer added value beyond cost, in terms of enhanced sustainability, safety and performance.
RECHARGE supports these recommendations. A further study from CEPS(2) presents 2 scenarios (low and high collection
and recycling rates) where the economical and employment benefit of Co and Li recycling are presented. It indicates that
the recycling is possible in an economical approach, but significant investment are needed, and the process cost ensuring
the payback is uncertain.
This European competitive disadvantage needs to be overcome and the EU should capitalize its leadership in many sectors
of the battery value chain, from materials to system integration and recycling. As this cannot be done in a fragmented
manner, a Europe-wide approach is promoted by the Commission.
Members of the EU industry and innovation community will be working in close partnership with the European Commission,
the European Investment Bank and interested Member States, to establish a competitive manufacturing chain, capture
sizeable markets and boost jobs, growth and investment across Europe.
A strategic plan will be developed in 2018, in the form of a comprehensive roadmap for an EU Battery Alliance.
A number of working groups will be organized starting 2018, to the supply chain, investment financing and engineering,
trade issues, research and innovation, with participation of industry.
RECHARGE will be actively involved in this process.
Since then, the Directive has been amended with important changes for the whole industry, such as:
1. The removal of the exemption for the use of Mercury in button cells as of 1 October 2015.
2. The removal of the exemption for the use of Cadmium in cordless power tools as of 1 January 2017.
3. Changes were made to provisions on placing on the market (article 6.2) and the removability of batteries (article 11).
References:
(1) JRC report: EU Competitiveness in Advanced Li-ion Batteries for E-Mobility and Stationary Storage Applications –Opportunities and Actions
Steen, M. Lebedeva, N. Di Persio, F. Boon-Brett, L., 2017, JRC (https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/eur-scientific-and-technical-research-reports/lithium-
ion-battery-value-chain-and-related-opportunities-europe ).
12 (2) CEPS report: Circular economy perspectives for future end-of-life EV batteries, Eleanor Drabik, Vasileios Rizos, The Center for European Policies Studies 2017.
Legislation impacting batteries
The purpose of the Batteries Directive was the protection of health and environment through improved environmental
performance of batteries and of the activities performed on batteries during their life cycle, i.e. reduce the quantities of
hazardous substances in waste, aid consumer choice by providing end-users with transparent, reliable and clear information,
ensure efficient use of resources, improve recycling.
Can the Batteries Directive be improved to respond better to the changed market conditions since 2006?
In view of a possible revision of the Batteries Directive, the EU Commission over the years conducted several ex-post
evaluations of the Directive (fitness check) and detailed evaluations on coherence, relevance, effectiveness, efficiency and
EU added value, in combination with other waste stream Directives, and in view of the Circular Economy approach.
A Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) document on the Batteries Directive was updated by the EU Commission in 2014.
An EU Commission public consultation started in September 2017 and ran until the end of November 2017 as a first step
of a review process, in which the Commission assesses whether the Directive meets its objectives and contributes to the
general objectives of the EU environmental policy. The results of this public consultation will be available in 2018 and the
review and assessment might bring proposals for a revision & implementation of the changes to the Batteries Directive at
Member State level towards the period 2020-2022.
Extending the product life of batteries as a waste prevention measure in support of the circular economy.
The EU Commission acknowledges that extending the product life of batteries through better re-use of batteries or providing
used batteries a second life are possible new markets, which fully complies with the thinking of the circular economy principles:
1. Circular Economy keeps the added value in products for as long as possible and eliminates waste.
2. Member States shall take measures to promote re-use activities and the extension of the life span of products,
provided the quality and safety of products are not compromised, by encouraging the establishment and support of
recognized re-use networks and by incentivizing remanufacturing, refurbishment and repurposing of products.
From numerous contacts, presentations and congresses, it seems that the priorities of the legislator regarding
batteries is now evolving into the direction of:
1. Extension of the product’s service life
2. Re-use and second life
3. Use of recycled components and materials
In this regard, it is important for defining re-use and second life to make first a clear distinction between the different types of
batteries (portable, automotive, industrial) as some legal requirements are different per type (collection or take-back obligations),
and to clearly understand and accept the borderline between a battery as a product, and a battery as a waste.
An Automotive battery is any battery used for automotive starter, lighting or ignition power
(SLI). There is also a collection obligation by producers. Most of the automotive batteries are
lead acid (Pb-Acid) batteries and traditionally have a very high collection rate because of the
positive value of lead. However, the use of lead in general is under much scrutiny by authorities
and environmental groups.
For a portable battery used mostly in household appliances, the user decides when/if/how the battery can/will be discarded,
the battery has no monetary or economic value or need any more for the user who wants to discard it as waste.
For an industrial battery (heavier, larger volume, long service life, expensive in purchase) the decision whether a battery
(or components of that battery) still has a monetary or economic value (re-useable) is taken after a diagnose by a professional.
The decision whether that battery can be discarded as waste or can be re-used as a product is mostly taken in a business
to business (B2B) context.
In this regard, it is interesting to note that according to the EU Council Presidency compromise text on amending Directive
2008/98/EC on waste of 6 January 2017, an object can be transferred from one holder to another holder without the
intention to discard. This implies that the take-back of an industrial battery should not – by default – be regarded as a
waste generation.
In addition, and according to the Compromise Amendments of 11 January 2017 on the Waste Framework Directive, re-
use is a process entailing the treatment of products to prevent waste generation.
As such, the refurbishment or remanufacturing of an industrial battery should therefore be regarded as a specific waste
prevention measure.
This should be addressed in a potential future revision of the Batteries Directive. Because the absence of this legal background
for the re-use and the second life of batteries creates a grey zone full of different interpretations amongst EU Member
States, and fundamentally raises the issue of applying correctly the Extended Producer Responsibility.
14
Legislation impacting batteries
Some of the key issues identified when introducing the Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC were the hazards represented by
the heavy metals Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg) and Cadmium (Cd) in case of lack of end-of-life process control.
Two major targets have been set up or this purpose:
1. Collection target for portable batteries, to avoid incineration or landfill with household waste.
2. Recycling Efficiency (RE) target for a minimum recovery of the heavy metals.
The Recycling Efficiency targets to be achieved at the recycling process level as described in the Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC
are 65% for lead-acid batteries, 75% for Nickel-Cadmium batteries, and 50% for other types of waste batteries, amongst
others Li-ion and Ni-MH batteries.
The first reporting by the recyclers on RE took place in 2015 covering the calendar year 2014.
For the calculation of the RE, there is a need to distinguish between the treatment of portable battery packs and industrial batteries:
1) Portable battery packs RE is calculated on the weight of cells entering the Recycling process as an input fraction.
The weight of the plastic outer casing of a portable battery pack is not considered as an input fraction of the recycling
process (Annex 1 § 6 of Commission Regulation 493/2012).
2) Industrial batteries Recycling Efficiency is calculated on the total weight of the industrial battery, including the external
jacket as indicated in Annex 1 § 6 of Commission Regulation 493/2012.
RECHARGE position:
1. Assure that reporting is harmonized across EU member States according to the requirements of this Regulation.
Alignment with EUROSTAT reporting documents is requested to avoid confusion for Member State Competent
Authority responsible for the reporting.
2. 50% RE is considered an excellent result for Lithium batteries.
3. No distinction should be made between exclusive battery recyclers and WEEE recyclers who also recycle batteries.
In case the EU Commission proposes modifications to the recycling efficiency calculations, RECHARGE is open
for discussion and for offering advice.
List of Waste
In May 2015, the battery industry in Europe was informed that the technical adaptation committee (TAC) on batteries has
been requested to re-assess the classification of waste batteries under the List of Waste. This is a very important exercise
which could lead to significant changes in the transport of waste batteries, cross-border transfers of waste and recycling
permits. All actors involved in the end-of-life management of waste batteries will be affected.
Several battery industry associations, including RECHARGE, have advocated that any changes to the List of Waste should
be based on a coherent methodology. This will require a proper impact assessment to evaluate the consequences of any
proposal in terms of modifying the classifications which should in particular look into the administrative and economic
consequences for waste batteries and WEEE industries.
Due to the diversity, complexity and constant evolution of the composition of batteries and the wide range of composition
observed, it will be justified to include some mirror entry classifications (both hazardous and not hazardous), codes (AH=
absolute hazardous, ANH= absolute non hazardous, MH and MNH= mirror codes for hazardous or non hazardous waste).
The proposal was to develop a methodology to properly classify waste batteries and mixtures of various types of waste
batteries in the List of Waste and to assess the overall impact and consequences.
The process for identification of the waste status relies first on the existence of waste codes. It is the case for the batteries:
3 codes for AH (16 06 01* Lead, 16 06 02* Cd , and 16 056 03* Hg containing batteries) and 2 codes for ANH (16 06 04
alkaline batteries without mercury, 16 06 05 other batteries).
In addition, in the definition of the waste category 16 01, batteries are excluded from the category 16 01: “end-of-life vehicles
from different means of transport (including off-road machinery) and wastes from dismantling of end-of-life vehicles and
vehicle maintenance (except 13, 14, 16 06 and 16 08)”.
Consequently, the category 16 01 21* should not be used for the batteries dismantled from the car, but only 16 06, and
particularly 16 06 05 for the Lithium batteries. It is an ANH (absolute non-hazardous classification, no mirror code).
There is a distinction between the Recycling Efficiency targets of the Batteries Directive (a RE target based on the recycling process)
and the ELV Directive targets (re-use, recycling, and recovery based on total average vehicle weight). The batteries in the ELV
account for 100% in weight into the calculation of the re-use & recycling (target of 85%), and re-use & recovery (target
95%).
To further reduce the use of hazardous substances, the EU Commission has in the meantime also started with the 9th. Revision
of the End-of-Life Vehicle Directive 2000/53/EC relating to the use of lead in batteries.
16
Legislation impacting batteries
The WEEE Directive regulates the end of life management of batteries contained in equipment. The WEEE Directive requires
the selective treatment of materials and components of WEEE and, as a minimum, the removal of components such as
batteries.
The Batteries Directive mentions that where batteries are collected together with WEEE, batteries shall be removed from
the collected WEEE, but flexibility is provided for the process to remove the battery, as long as recycling is achieved in an
identified flow.
When an EEE is containing a battery, the complete battery weight (100%) should count towards achieving the targets
under the WEEE Directive 2012/19/EU.
When a battery is at its end-of-life and is made available for recycling, the WEEE recycler should record & report evidences
about the recycling efficiency according to the requirements of the Battery Directive 2006/66/EC and of the Commission
Regulation 493/2012.
Restriction of the use of certain Hazardous Substances in electrical and electronic equipment.
Directive 2011/65/EU (RoHS 2)
RoHS 2 provisions apply to all EEE placed on the EU market regardless of whether they are produced in the EU or in third
countries. RoHS 2 affects mainly industrial manufacturers, importers and distributors of EEE, as well as EEE customers.
Eurometaux promotes a ‘risk-controlled cycle situation’ whereby the use of hazardous substances is safely controlled.
RECHARGE supports that approach.
2. Increase and focus Research & Innovation support to prepare Europe for industrialisation of next
generation rechargeable batteries
In line with 2016’s European Commission Communication “Accelerating Clean Energy Innovation” as well as Action
7 “Batteries for e-mobility and stationary storage” of the Integrated SET Plan, R&I support at European level should be
increased and focussed to develop next generation batteries in Horizon 2020 and forthcoming FP9.
Industrial Research & Demonstration to develop ‘Advanced Li-ion Batteries’:
Development of large format (> 150 Ah) cells with high energy density (> 300 Wh/kg) could make ‘Advanced Li-ion Batteries‘
a reality. Smart combination of high energy density active materials (cathode and anode) operated under challenging
conditions (e.g. charging at > 4.5 V) will enable significant gains in driving range of electric vehicles. Smart combination
will require though a full Li-ion battery cell ‘system’ approach to optimize all material components of the battery cell
(i.e. electrolyte, anode, cathode, separator, current collectors, can,…).
Advanced Research to develop ‘Solid State Li-ion Batteries’:
Identifying the suitable active materials and better understanding the battery electro-chemistry and physicochemical properties
of the material interfaces is absolutely needed to develop batteries with higher energy density. Solid state Li-ion batteries
offer the potential to overcome the range issue, limiting full development of electro-mobility.
Targeted R&I efforts as well as adapted education programs at European level as well as in Member States will position
Europe as a front runner and industrial player in field of new battery technologies while enabling full realization of
European Energy Union.
3. Encourage and facilitate the creation of a European “Battery Value Chain Project of common
strategic interest”
At least the large EU car manufacturing countries should join forces to create a full battery production value chain. The EU
has a lot of competences in the battery value chain: fundamental battery research, materials technology, pack assembly,
information technology and recycling. The missing link is battery cell production.
Pilot and demonstration projects for improved mass production of new generation battery cells need support. So far, the
EU missed the opportunity to create mass scale production technology of today’s Li-ion battery cells. Significant support
to develop mass production processes for advanced Li-ion technology (and in a later phase for solid state batteries) could
reshore battery cell production to the EU.
18
Legislation impacting batteries
Research
UL - Safety studies on Aged Commercial Lithium-ion Cells and Modules
Introduction
Lithium-ion batteries have the highest energy density of rechargeable battery systems in the market. With the service life
and calendar life associated with them, their use has extended from portable electronic applications to electric vehicles
and stationary energy storage systems. The reuse of automotive batteries in stationary energy storage installations is a new
trend. But the safety of the aged cells and batteries has not been studied well. The current study focused on studying the
safety of aged cells and modules. The tests carried out focused on understanding not only capacity loss and internal resistance
changes but also on cell component changes. The aged cells and modules were tested for safety using external short
and overcharge conditions and compared to the characteristics of the fresh cells and modules. The objective of the study
was to determine if safety changes with cycle life aging, if certain parameters need to be characterized after first life and
before installation in the second life application and what parameters need to be studied closely during usage in second life.
Experimental
Lithium-ion 18650- model cells of 3.35 Ah capacity purchased in a single lot from one manufacturer were tested. The cells
had the internal PTC and CID devices. The separator had a ceramic coating on the sides facing the cathode. Cycle life tests
were carried out with a charge and discharge rate of 1C. In this case, testing
was stopped at 10%, 15% and 20% capacity loss. The voltage range for
the cycle life testing included that recommended by the manufacturer (4.2
V to 2.7 V), as well as a reduced range of 4.0 V to 2.9 V. Cells were also
subjected to a Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) protocol until 25% capacity loss
at three different temperatures of 10 °C, 25 °C and 40 °C. Fresh cells as
well as cells subjected to every condition mentioned above were opened
and the components studied to characterize the changes due to the cycle
life aging process. Three cells were tested under each of these conditions.
Modules of a 3P9S configuration were also cycled to 25% capacity loss and
safety tests carried out on fresh and cycled modules.
20
Research
Summary and Recommendations
The results obtained in this study are based on one cell model from a single manufacturer but several observations were
made that would be beneficial when cells or modules are used for a second life application. Decreasing the voltage range
used by 200 mV at each end, increases cycle life significantly. Cycled modules that do not have sufficient energy (> 20%
capacity loss) do not undergo catastrophic thermal runaway. The observation from these studies is that although the
cells and modules from a used battery can be reused for a second life application, sample cells from various locations in
the battery should undergo meticulous and extensive electrochemical and physical (destructive) analysis to baseline the
changes in the cells. If the changes are significant such as lithium plating or extensive delamination, damage to the electrodes,
separator or other cell components, the cells and modules should not be reused. In addition, a baseline on capacity,
charge/discharge curves, internal resistance, etc. should be recorded before second use and the characteristics tracked to
confirm their safety during second life.
Nowadays, the lightweight, high-energy and high power lithium-ion batteries are being used for more and more applications,
users can sometimes experience safety problems while using the powerful energy source. Although lithium-ion batteries
are designed with integrated passive safeguards and active safeguards for cell, module and pack level designs, these batteries
have been involved in incidents involving overheating and fire that, while very rare, have put these batteries in the public
spotlight due to the high severity of failure mode. To understand the root cause(s) of a field accident in lithium-ion battery
product is therefore critical because we always need to know what to result in the unexpected failure in order to solve the
safety problem.
It’s a usually a challenge for the root causes analysis on a battery field incident as the key evidence may be burned or
destroyed while the failure occurs. And sometimes, the failure scenario may not be easily duplicated if the incident was
caused by a randomly occurred quality defect. However, there are still ways to identify the potential failure mechanism and
normally forensic analysis techniques would be the best approach to dig out the solution. A good example of root cause
analysis is the Boeing 787 battery investigation project1. In this study, the battery was burned so only the failure mode
of the field event battery can be observed. There are very limited clues or information can be learned if the investigation
scope is limited on the field failure battery only. Hence the study on normal battery samples is also helpful and necessary
to investigate the weakness of battery designs or any potential quality issue that might be the contributing factors to cause
the battery failure. For example, the single cell design used in the Boeing 787 is three flattened windings connected in
parallel. The uneven stress issue is almost
inevitable in such a winding design and it can
cause non-uniform distribution of current
density especially for a battery with big size
electrode sheets. Sometimes, the consequence
of non-uniform current density could be
lithium plating or dendrite (Figure 1), which is
one of a well-known safety issues to cause the
battery failure.
In summary, the most likely failure mechanism
and failure mode for a lithium-ion battery
could be sometimes expected by forensic
analysis approaches. Every battery design will
have its own weakness and the weakness
point(s) is very likely to be the key factor to
dominete battery safety characteristics.
Figure 1. Dendrite formation can be possibly
observed at wrinkle of winding in battery
Reference:
1 Full report of Boeing 787 Dreamliner battery failure investigation project:
https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/AccidentReports/Documents/UL_Forensic_Report.pdf
Lithium operations in Salar de Atacama/Chile. We also have capacity in Australia and China.
22
Materials
Background
ProSum – as the Latin word prosum indicates ‘I am useful’ stands for: Prospecting Secondary raw materials in the Urban
mine and Mining waste.
The ProSUM project has established a European network of expertise on secondary sources of critical raw materials (CRMs),
vital to today’s high-tech society. ProSUM directly supports the European Innovation Partnership (EIP) on Raw Materials and its
Strategic Implementation Plan calling for the creation of a European raw materials knowledge base. ProSUM intends to be
an inventory of the “urban mine”, including stock and flows of End of Live vehicles, Waste Electric and Electronic equipment
and Batteries, and mining wastes.
The project started on 1 January 2015 and ran for 36 months until the end of 2017.
24
Materials
The data of products placed on the market has been provided to the project. Finally, the life duration and hoarding time
has been has been assessed for the various chemistries, allowing for the calculation of a stock and flows model. The
output of this model for the waste generation can be compared to the real waste collection data available in Europe.
Example of calculation below for the cobalt contained in the portable batteries placed on the market in Eu.
The assembly of
the high density
electrodes coils or
stacks is realized by
high precision robots,
installed in automatic
assembly lines.
Human intervention is
not required anymore,
and would even
not be possible due
to the components
miniaturization.
For reliability and
quality reasons, these
sensitive processes
are now realized in
dry and white rooms,
very similarly to the
one used for the
electronics industry.
26
Production
In addition, these requirements for “dustfree” and dry rooms environments have contributed to the achievement of
environmental emissions control, and clean manufacturing. The advanced batteries manufacturing plants have complete
set of equipment for gaz emissions collection, recycling and reuse of solvents, dust filters, etc..
As a result, the main environmental impact resulting from advanced batteries manufacturing is associated to the energy
sources used. In this respect, the future development of decarbonized energy can largely contribute to the development of
a sustainable battery manufacturing in Europe.
Introduction
The limited nature of energy resources and the need to decrease greenhouse gas emissions, means renewable energy
has to considered on a grand scale and the use of hybrid and electric vehicles will have to become widespread. Due to the
intermittent and/or diffuse nature of these renewable sources, however, efficient storage and mobile systems are a must.
Panasonic is one of the leading Lithium-Ion battery manufacturers in the world and is very well positioned to meet the
requirements of the future with a product portfolio which emphasizes high energy density, safety and long life.
The company has a particular focus on enhancing safety through technologies such as “Panasonic Solid Solution” (PSS)
which adopts nickel and manganese in a new positive electrode and its “Heat Resistance Layer” (HRL) technology.
HRL Technology
A Lithium-ion battery cell is very sensitive. Overcharging, short circuits, or physical damage results in a risk of overheating
and igniting. Any electrical device, especially notebook PCs, mobile phones, medical equipment and power-tools require
more robust and safer batteries. Increasing energy density, however, raises the risk of overheating and igniting due to
short-circuits. Panasonic uses HRL (Heat Resistance Layer) Technology which improves the safety of Lithium-Ion batteries
significantly. This heat resistant layer consists of an insulating metal oxide on the surface of the electrodes which means
the battery will not overheat even if a short-circuit occurs.
28
Applications
Battery Technology -
the new driver in the Power Tool market
The European Power Tool Association was formed in 1984 to represent the interest of the European power tool manufacturers.
The 27 EPTA members employ approximately 20.000 people and show an annual power tool sale of more than € 5 bn in
Europe. Power tools are used by professionals, skilled tradesmen and also private consumers.
For the last 5 years the European power tool market has shown on average an annual growth of rd. 5 % . This positive
development was mainly driven by two factors. The overall improving economical situation in most of the European countries
and a strong increase in use of battery driven tools. While the market for corded tools in this period has contributed to
the growth only with rd. 1 % p.a., the segment cordless tools has grown disproportionately with 9 % p.a. What are the
reasons behind this market trend?
More than 30 years ago the first cordless tools coming on the market
were light duty drills and screw drivers mainly driven by NiCad- batteries.
For heavy duty applications or other practice, the power provided by this
technology did not lead to satisfactory work results and machine runtime.
In the meantime, NiCad has been completely replaced by Li – Ion creating
tools with a much better performance. As a consequence, today most of
the drilling and screw driving is done cordless and corded tools get more
and more replaced. Furthermore, in other product groups like small angle
grinders, jig – and circular saws or small hammer drills the number of
Metabo Large Angle Grinder battery driven tools has constantly increased.
Today the development goes one step further. The new generation of battery cells allows enough power storage for tools
in heavy duty applications as well. Therefore, all power tool manufacturers strongly extend their offer for cordless tools in
all segments. The use of battery driven products becomes more and more common.
What does this mean for the overall power tool market? Is it perhaps just a few more products replacing previous versions
or technology? No, it is not. It is a game changer bringing new elements to the users purchase decision.
In the past professional users were mainly looking for specialized tools offering them the best performance for the work
they had to do. Previously power supply was not an issue because all of them were corded. Hence, most of the craftsmen
had various types of tools from many different brands.
In the world of cordless tools, the situation is different. Professional users prefer to have one battery system for all cordless
tools they use. This is partly learned, based on the confidence to a brand and its battery system they have built up over the
years. Secondly, they want to avoid complexity for their work on jobsite. Battery technology, battery system and a wide
range of products working with the same system have become new important elements of the purchase decision. This is
a new dimension in the market and economical- and technical - wise a big challenge for all manufacturers.
What do we expect for the future? In 2016 for the first time in history the market for cordless power tools reached a share
of 51% of the total market. Due to further development in Li – Ion technology and the extended possibilities to use the
progress in technology for power tools we assume a disproportionate high growth for this segment in the next years. This
will drive and could change the power tool market and his industry.
At Stanley Black & Decker we believe in excellence in our products, our people and our practices we are committed to
sustainable business policies and initiative that reduce our environmental impact and improve the quality of life in every
community we reach.
We recognize that it is critically important for our company to take responsibility and control for the development of
sustainable products so using our EcoSmart philosophy we are embedding sustainable practices into our product design
processes. Our customers know our products inside and out. They respond to our innovation with brand loyalty so we are
in the best position to provide a sustainable value solution for our customers by emphasizing the sustainable benefits of
our products.
In 2016 Stanley Black & Decker was included in the Dow Jones Sustainability Index for the sixth consecutive year and was
awarded added to the ‘A list’ by the CDP Climate Change programme. This is a listing of those companies from around
the world that have been identified as leading in their efforts and actions to combat climate change so emphasizing our
sustainability credentials and commitment to supplying our customers with products that not only meet their business and
operational needs but also meet the needs of the environment.
In 2016 we launched our DeWalt XR FlexVolt lithium ion battery range. The
DeWalt XR FlexVolt is a convertible 18/54 volt battery: completely backwards
compatible with existing 18 volt DeWalt products, yet with the option to amplify
its voltage to an unprecedented 54 volt to be used on bigger construction power
tools. Traditionally, when compared with corded power tools, even the most
efficient cordless system provided a compromise between increased portability
and reduced power, between greater ease-of-use and reduced runtime. DeWalt
have recognised the daily frustrations these limitations cause our end-users,
and engineered the DeWalt XR FlexVolt system to eliminate any and all restrictions, to provide a cordless system that
offers zero compromises. DeWalt XR FlexVolt has the dual advantage of unbeatable runtime in all existing DeWalt 18 volt
power tools, as well as the power necessary to access applications completely unheard of for cordless technology. With this one
innovation, DeWalt have finally unlocked the full potential of cordless, and now possess the unique ability to power even
heavy duty construction power tools using nothing but a battery.
30
Applications
Manufactured by the Bolloré Group, Bluebus is an ideal solution for collective urban and sub-urban transport. Bluebus
responds to environmental and technical demands regarding design and performance.
Bluebus is fully commercialized with charging system and services
included.
Bluebus is produced in France at integrated production facilities in
Bretagne and employs over one hundred employees. The principle
components of the vehicles have been designed and are manufactured
locally: battery, cabin structure, body frame, interior, electric architecture,
transmission, tires. The charging posts is being made in Besançon.
Lithium Metal Polymer battery unit from the
Bolloré Group of 30 kWh and 410 V.
Weight: 300 kg.
These busses are very ergonomic with a low platform and wide doors for easy access and allowing an enjoyable ride.
They have a rather long autonomy with a small turning circle allowing for perfect urban and sub-urban use.
They are equipped with high-performance innovative LMP® batteries which are locally produced by Bolloré Group.
They are extremely environmental-friendly by construction (aluminum, steel, composites recyclable up to 98%) and for
utilization (hardly any emissions).
32
Applications
The li-ion coin cell, then, has become the preferred battery choice for manufacturers of extremely space-constrained, portable
devices which require a high energy capacity of 50 mAh or more. It has found uses in consumer devices, and medical and
industrial equipment, in which durability, high capacity and long cycle life are important.
The advantages of the original CoinPower product now have been extended with the introduction of the ‘A2’ and ‘A3’
series of cells. Improvements to the chemistry and production techniques of CoinPower cells have increased their capacity,
as well as extending their cycle life. The dimensions and energy capacity of these cells provide the best fit for the size and
shape of the human ear, and for the requirements of manufacturers of earphones and ‘true wireless’ technology.
Standard cycle life ratings for rechargeable batteries measure the fully charged capacity of the cell, as a percentage of its
capacity when new, after 500 charge/discharge cycles at an operating temperature of 20°C. The formal specifications
supplied by VARTA Microbattery show that, when stressed by executing 500 fast charge/fast discharge (1C/1C) cycles in
the laboratory, the CoinPower A3 cells still retain more than 80% of their original capacity. Under gentler operating
conditions (0.2C/0.2C), this value for remaining capacity rises to more than 85% after 500 cycles. In real-world applications,
users are able to achieve outstanding cycle-life performance: customers typically report cells lasting for more than 1,000 cycles
when mounted in an end product.
The CoinPower series of cells from ‘A true wireless’ headset: twin wireless ear buds without cable
VARTA Microbattery come in three sizes. connections – made by the start-up company Bragi” (picture: Bragi)
When a major supplier of DC power systems set to develop a new innovative power solution for outdoor small cells, Alpha
Technologies Ltd. (“Alpha”) conceptualized a low-cost system with limited battery reserve sufficient to feed almost 90 percent of
its power outage period. It is much smaller than traditional telecom backup systems.
Since outdoor small cells are typically deployed on utility poles, street lights or on the
side of buildings, other key requirements also needed to be considered; aesthetics,
space, weight, operating temperature range, deployment in harsh environments, safety,
mounting flexibility and minimum maintenance including preventive maintenance
features. Based upon FDK‘s premium and advanced Ni-MH (nickel-metal hydride)
cells, Alpha chose a low-profile solution using an integrated battery system with
on-board battery management circuit. The resulting Cellect600 product weights less
than 11 kilograms and occupies less than 15 L in physical size, with the capability to
power loads up to 600W at ambient temperatures ranging from -40 to 65 °C. The
decision for FDK Ni-MH was based upon its long history of dependability including
safety aspect and reliable performance in other demanding applications.
CONTEC Co., Ltd. (“CONTEC”) has newly developed an industrial touchscreen
DC Small Cell Power Supply PC called “Panel Computer PT-970 series” that can be installed on a desktop and
equipped with FDK compact and lightweight Ni-MH battery UPS.
The UPS function enables this product to operate for 5 minutes or longer after a
power failure occurs. The included utility software can be used to automatically shut
down the Operating System. FDK Ni-MH rechargeable battery not only provides a
sufficient length of time for the power supply backup to protect the system from
unexpected power outages such as blackouts and momentary power failure but also
makes the panel computer compact. The display has a range of movement of 140
degrees to the front and back, which makes it possible to adjust the angle of the display.
The display can be folded down by 90 degrees to the front, which is the same as a
(1) notebook computer with its display closed. The included rubber feet can be used
to install the product on a desktop. Additionally, this product can be screwed into a
device just like an embedded computer.
One of basic policies in these companies’ corporate code of conduct is that of
“Contributing to society through corporate activities”. FDK Ni-MH battery was
(2) chosen that met its corporate code. It is environmentally friendly and most suitable
to the obsolescence management. To meet this objective, FDK group promotes its
Industrial Panel computer
green procurement guideline. It means that FDK focuses on environmental sensitivity
(1) Open display
and safety, and develops and provides products and systems that contribute to the
(2) Closed display
creation of a comfortable and affluent society. It procures materials that can reduce
(Images courtesy Alpha Technologies Ltd.
the environmental impact preferentially in order to provide environmentally friendly
and CONTEC Co., Ltd.) products based on the environmental policy.
34
Project
The PEF is the result of the calculation of the 16 environmental impact categories selected. As all the models used to calculate
the impacts haven’t the same quality, a robustness factor has been determined for each, as indicated below.
The weighted sum of all the environmental impacts is the Product Environmental Footprint.
The PEF project is now at the end of a 6 steps process
1. Definition of scope and boundaries, calculation of representative products. For batteries, the pilot has analyzed the
“High Specific Energy Rechargeable Batteries for Mobile Applications “
2. Analysis of the representative products to identify the main sources of environmental impacts (PEF screening study).
3. Creation of a draft PEFCR to define the applicable rules for the generation of a PEF.
4. Test of the PEFCR methodology with some real products (3 supporting studies were conducted by RECHARGE members).
5. Final PEFCR and proposal/test of the support for the communication of the PEF results.
6. 2017: Remodeling with updated PEFCR (Guidance 6.3) including new end-of-life model, and based on new Commission
database.
The final PEFCR for the batteries is published.
Batteries with recycled metals are as green as the energy they are using.
36
Project
As a conclusion, the batteries PEF will likely be used every time there is a need to calculate environmental impacts, and
possibly used for mandatory environmental communication allowing for product benchmark. RECHARGE has analyzed the
complexity of this tool, identified strength and weaknesses. The goal is now to anticipate future changes (i.e. inclusion of
toxicity models) and prepare the opportunity to improve the environmental batteries image and avoid unfair treatment in
the European regulation?
Background.
Batteries are classified as ‘Dangerous Goods for transport’ (all modes of transport : road, rail, air, water) by the United
Nations Sub-Committee of Experts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods (UN SCETDG), which is part of the United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE).
The classified technologies include Lead acid and Nickel Cadmium batteries are classified as Class 8 (Lead acid batteries
because they contain acid electrolyte and Nickel Cadmium batteries because they contain alkaline electrolyte) and Lithium
(Lithium-ion and Lithium-metal) and Nickel Metal Hydride batteries are classified as Class 9, to cover their dual electrical
and chemical hazard, properties which are not covered by any other Class.
The regulation covers the transport of new cells and batteries contained in or packed with equipment. There are additional
Special Provisions for transport for waste and damaged & defected Lithium batteries, with very specific packaging and
labelling requirements.
For international transport the applicable regulations are the ICAO (International Civil Air Organization) technical instructions
for air transport, IMDG (International Maritime Dangerous Goods) code for sea transport and ADR-RID for the road transport.
In Europe, batteries which are transported shall also comply with the Directive 2008/68/EC on the inland transport of
Dangerous Goods, similar to the UN ADR regulation.
38
Transport & Safety
The regulation concerns all batteries technologies of the identified classifications: rechargeable
and non-rechargeable, all formats and shape, all batteries containing liquid alkaline or acid
electrolyte, all Li-ion, Li-metal, Li- polymer, Sodium, or other chemistries.
The regulation is applicable in all cases of professional transport: new and used batteries,
prototypes, small production runs, damaged and defectives batteries, waste batteries
transported for disposal, waste batteries transported for recycling.
Each battery identified with a UN number is classified as “Dangerous Good for Transport”:
Class 8 Class 9:
UN 2794: Wet lead acid batteries UN 3090: LITHIUM METAL BATTERIES (including lithium alloy batteries)
UN 2795: Wet Nickel Cadmium batteries UN 3091: Lithium metal batteries contained in equipment, or packed
UN 3292: Sodium nickel chloride batteries with equipment,
UN 2800: Batteries Wet, non spillable UN 3480: LITHUM ION BATTERIES (including Li polymer batteries)
UN 3028: Batteries, dry containing KOH solid UN 3481: Lithium ion batteries contained in equipment, or packed with
equipment,
UN 3171: Battery powered equipment and vehicle
Class 8 Hazard UN 3496: Nickel metal hydride batteries
Corrosive substances UN3499: Capacitors
UN3508: Asymmetric capacitors
(No. 8)
Symbol (liquids, spilling from two glass vessels
and attacking a hand and a metal); black;
Background: upper half white;
lower haf black with white border;
Figure “8” in bottom corner
Class 4.3
UN 3292: Batteries containing sodium
More changes are expected in the coming two to three years for the safe transport and storage of Li batteries. Particularly,
an informal working group has been mandated by the UN SCETDG for preparing a new classification of the lithium batteries
based on their hazards.
It is mandatory to maintain practical and affordable transport conditions for the development of the Li-batteries.
To do so, there is a strong industry involvement in standardisation processes, and RECHARGE, on behalf of its industry
members is:
• Co-chair of the mandated SAE G-27 working group on a new standard for the test of safe packaging in air transport
protection
• Member of the committee for IEC 62902 new marking standard of batteries
• Member of the committee ISO 17840 for rescue sheets and emergency response guidance
• Co-organizer of the UN informal working for the classification of Lithium batteries.
40
Transport & Safety
Conclusions
• The expectations from authorities for safe packaging of Lithium batteries during
transport are increasing.
• All modes of transport are considering more protective packaging for the Li batteries
transport. Practical solutions are proposed on the market which can answer the
need, but with the risk of a high cost packaging.
• Industry must stay involved in order to safeguard practical and affordable transport
conditions for the development of the Li-batteries.
• It is in the interest of the industry to promote the safe transport of the Li batteries:
cost efficient solutions should be looked for, tested, and validated by the competent
authorities.
We emphasize that the interests of safety are best served by the strict enforcement
of the existing regulatory framework. The development of further and increasingly
draconian regulation will only penalize legimate law-abiding manufacturers.
An e-Book has been published to identify the applicable requirements and packaging for classified batteries
(author: Marco Ottaviani): on line access: www.transbatteries.com
The safety aspects of Li-Ion batteries are regulated at three levels for industrial and consumer products.
1. The battery manufacturing level.
2. The equipment manufacturing level.
3. The transport of Lithium batteries
1. At the battery manufacturing level, batteries are delivered to an Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) with a list
of specifications about their use. A technical datasheet is supplied by the manufacturer of the battery to his client: the OEM
who will incorporate the battery in an equipment. In addition the batteries are complying with international safety standards.
2. At the equipment manufacturing level. An OEM delivering a battery powered device to the consumer market has to
comply with the European General Directive for Product Safety where the safety aspects of the equipment are regulated
at consumer level.
3. The transport of lithium batteries. When transported, such Li-batteries or equipment containing Li-batteries are subject
to the United Nations Model Regulation for the Transport of Dangerous Goods. They can only be transported under
strict packaging requirements and testing conditions that are described in Chapter 38.3. of the Manual of Tests and
Criteria.
When the conditions required by these Legal or Regulatory acts are fulfilled, the individual user is protected as it receives
a product manufactured and transported in conformity with the best and safest practices.
Being the last link in a circular economy is not only a great responsibility but also gives us the opportunity to stay in touch
with the past owners of the devices and vehicles, which are no longer wanted. Private customers come to our local civic
waste collection points to rid themselves of all sorts of residues and things. Companies great and small seek advice on
how to handle their waste correctly. We offer our expertise to help find the optimal solution in any case.
The progressing electrification of devices advances further as we move towards a seemingly brighter future. Automated
lawn-mowers and vacuum cleaners, cordless power tools & appliances as well as electrified vehicles from e-bikes to semi-trucks
and even planes all have one thing in common: Lithium-ion batteries.
As with every new and promising technology, lithium-ion batteries bring along new challenges that have to be overcome.
While we reap the energetic benefits of a battery during its lifetime, we have to dispose of it in an appropriate way at
the end of its life. Recent events like major product callbacks have introduced the public to the notorious properties of
lithium-ion batteries. Burning phones and cars have made the news and sensitized lawmakers to create and revise existing
regulations in order to increase safety. Transport regulations have been a focus point of these reactions and this is where
things are getting increasingly complicated.
While the transport of new goods and worn out batteries is still manageable for most businesses, regulations for batteries
in defective condition and batteries that are liable to rapidly disassemble, dangerously react, produce a flame or a dangerous
evolution of heat or a dangerous emission of toxic, corrosive or flammable gas or vapours under normal condition of
transport (ff. critical condition) present an obstacle that sets the bar too high for many. The current legislative and regulatory
framework is so complex that particularly small and middle-sized companies have considerable difficulties following, not
to mention carrying the financial burden when trying to comply with the regulations. Frustration, ignorance and faulty,
hence dangerous packing are the results that we encounter on a daily basis.
Relying on two of the most predominant values of REMONDIS, “Safety First” and “Easy Handling”, we have developed a new
type of storage and transport system. The foremost important feature is the complete lack for necessity of inert bulk materials
(e.g. vermiculites / perlites) whilst ensuring the highest possible safety for anyone that will be in contact with the batteries.
In January 2017, REMONDIS acquired a general permit (specification according to Special provision 376, ADR) for
transportation of lithium-ion batteries in defective and critical condition from the German federal institute of materials
research and testing (BAM) in Berlin.
The RETRON storage and transport system is set for the future and incorporates all upcoming changes to the agreement
concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR) that will take place in 2019 with the introduction
of the new packing instruction P911.
These features include a gas management system and a tough steel casing (4A) that offers protection from projectiles and
flames. The outside temperature of the package will not reach a temperature of more than 100 °C in case of a lithium-ion
battery thermal runaway. Cells or batteries in defective or critical condition will additionally be protected by our RETRON
Safety Bag, which prevents the propagation of thermal runaways within the container.
42
Transport & Safety
It is of key importance that the Standard is supported and implemented by a large majority of the industry, in order to achieve
the expected harmonization of identification and marking.
Further discussion will be needed to identify a marking solution that would be supported by the whole industry.
44
Transport & Safety
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION
OF FIRE AND RESCUE SERVICE
0. Rescue sheet(s)
1. Identification / recognition
6. In case of fire
7. In case of submersion
Bebat also maintains statistics on e-bike battery sales in weight. In 2017 some 446 tons of e-bike batteries were sold.
E-bike batteries accounted for 24% of all Li-ion batteries in Belgium (excluding batteries for electric cars). The average
weight per battery was 3.2 kg.
Total Rechargeable Electric Bicycle 27,462 80,631 113,566 365,558 141,028 446,190
Collection
Collection of e-bike batteries in Belgium has also increased. In 2017 we registered a 33% hike in collected weight
compared to 2016. While the sales of e-bike batteries in 2017 consisted for about 95% of Li-ion batteries, the mix of
batteries collected is quite different. In 2017, of all e-bike batteries collected by Bebat (in weight) 65% was Li-ion, down
from 75% in 2016 and from 66 % in 2015.
46
Recycling
Lead Ni-Cd
3% 3% The difference in mix between batteries sold and batteries
collected illustrates that bike batteries have a long life. Most of
the bike batteries collected by Bebat in 2017 were actually sold
Ni-Mh
in 2012-2013. This indicates a lifecycle of 4 to 5 years for an
29%
average bike battery.
Environmental Challenges
towards 2050 – establishing
a recycling-based society
To go beyond zero environmental impact and achieve a net positive
impact, Toyota has set itself six challenges. All these challenges,
whether in climate change or resource and water recycling, are beset
with difficulties, however we are committed to continuing toward
the year 2050 with steady initiatives in order to realize sustainable
development together with society.
By Life Cycle Zero CO2 Emissions Challenge (challenge 2), we mean
efforts to completely eliminate CO² emissions not only while driving
and in production, but also in the processes of materials production,
disposal, and recycling of vehicles.
For instance, there are some next-generation technnologies that do
achieve reduced CO2 emissions when driven, but actually cause
increased CO2 emissions at the material and vehicle production
stages.
Because of this, we will further promote environmentally friendly
design such as by choosing appropriate materials. In this way, we are
going to pursue “ever-better cars.”
For example, we will develop and expand the use of materials with
lower CO2 emissions during their production and will reduce the
quantity of materials and number of parts used in a vehicle.
We will also adopt more recycled materials and so on for vehicle
production and enhance initiatives aimed at designing vehicles for
easy disassembly.
In this respect, since launching the Prius, the world’s first mass-
produced hybrid electric passenger vehicle in 1997, Toyota has built
its own recovery network to collect and recycle end-of-life hybrid
vehicle (HV) batteries.
HV batteries contain precious resources such as nickel. In order to
deal efficiently with resources, Toyota Motor Europe started recently
in partnership with other related companies research on ‘battery to
battery’ recycling, enabling these precious resources to be reused in
new batteries.
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Recycling
SNAM, Société Nouvelle d’Affinage des Métaux is a French facility classified for Environment, subject to SEVESO authorization
which manages the recycling of batteries including the administration, the logistic, the treatment and the production of
secondary raw materials. It manages the sorting of batteries collected from household and industrial waste and recycles:
• alkaline – zinc/carbon,
• Nickel Cadmium,
• Nickel-Metal Hydride,
• and Lithium-Ion batteries.
The batteries treated may be portable or industrial :
More than 80% of spent batteries come from the Europe zone.
SNAM has engaged major investments on its two facilities to cope with the treatment of increasing volumes of hybrid and
electric vehicle batteries.
Recycling
SNAM vision is the limitation of landfill and the production of secondary raw materials which will be reinjected in circular
economy. To this end, it has invested in the optimization of its recycling process “PROMETHEE” (mechanical, thermal and
hydrometallurgical) in order to increase the quantity and the quality of the recovered materials.
The two pillars of SNAM activity are the Ultimate Recycling with a return to the secondary raw material and the proposal
of solutions for a Second Life of the Batteries.
Second life
• An ever increasing demand for Energy.
• The development of renewable energies which calls for the construction of infrastructures using batteries.
• The necessity to reduce the volume of waste and extend long service life products.
»» SNAM meets these needs with the production of fully remanufactured batteries. The batteries are commercialized
under its Extended Responsibility of Producer. The Extended Responsibility of the original producer has been released
with the emission of the Certificate of Recycling after full dismantling of the generic battery.
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Recycling
FDK
APPLE
53520-1711-1001