Geology of the Moon

The geology of the Moon (sometimes called selenology,

although the latter term can refer more generally to "lunar
science") is quite different from that of Earth. The Moon
lacks a significant atmosphere, which eliminates erosion
due to weather; it does not have any form of plate tectonics,
it has a lower gravity, and because of its small size, it cooled
more rapidly. The complex geomorphology of the lunar
surface has been formed by a combination of processes,
especially impact cratering and volcanism. The Moon is a
differentiated body, with a crust, mantle, and core. Smithsonian Institution Senior Scientist Tom
Watters talks about the Moon's recent geological
Geological studies of the Moon are based on a combination activity.
of Earth-based telescope observations, measurements from
orbiting spacecraft, lunar samples, and geophysical data.
Six locations were sampled directly during the crewed Apollo program
landings from 1969 to 1972, which returned 380.96 kilograms (839.9 lb)
of lunar rock and lunar soil to Earth. In addition, three robotic Soviet
Luna spacecraft returned another 326 grams (11.5 oz) from 1970 to 1976.
The Moon is the only extraterrestrial body for which we have samples
with a known geologic context. A handful of lunar meteorites have been
recognized on Earth, though their source craters on the Moon are
unknown. A substantial portion of the lunar surface has not been
explored, and a number of geological questions remain unanswered.

Contents False-color image of the Moon taken

by the Galileo orbiter showing
Elemental composition geological features. NASA photo
Formation
Geologic history
Strata and epochs
Lunar landscape
Highlands
Maria
Rilles
Domes
Wrinkle ridges
Grabens
Impact craters
Regolith
Lunar lava tubes The same image using different color
filters
Lunar magma ocean
 Lunar rocks
Surface materials
Composition of the maria
Internal structure
Magnetic field
Gallery
See also
References
External links

Elemental composition
Elements known to be present on the lunar surface include, among others, oxygen (O), silicon (Si), iron (Fe),
magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), aluminium (Al), manganese (Mn) and titanium (Ti). Among the more abundant are
oxygen, iron and silicon. The oxygen content is estimated at 45% (by weight). Carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) appear to
be present only in trace quantities from deposition by solar wind.

Neutron spectrometry data from Lunar Prospector indicate the presence of hydrogen (H) concentrated at the poles.[1]

Relative concentration of various

elements on the lunar surface (in Relative concentration (in weight %) of
weight %) various elements on lunar highlands, lunar
lowlands, and Earth

Formation
For a long period of time, the fundamental question regarding the history
of the Moon was of its origin. Early hypotheses included fission from
Earth, capture, and co-accretion. Today, the giant-impact hypothesis is
widely accepted by the scientific community.[2]

Geologic history
The geological history of the Moon has been defined into six major
epochs, called the lunar geologic timescale. Starting about 4.5 billion
Visible face of the Moon
years ago,[3] the newly formed Moon was in a molten state and was
orbiting much closer to Earth resulting in tidal forces.[4] These tidal forces
deformed the molten body into an ellipsoid, with the major axis pointed
towards Earth.

The first important event in the geologic evolution of the Moon was the
crystallization of the near global magma ocean. It is not known with
certainty what its depth was, but several studies imply a depth of about
500 km or greater. The first minerals to form in this ocean were the iron
Cliffs in the lunar crust indicate the
and magnesium silicates olivine and pyroxene. Because these minerals
moon shrank globally in the
were denser than the molten material around them, they sank. After geologically recent past and is still
crystallization was about 75% complete, less dense anorthositic shrinking today.
plagioclase feldspar crystallized and floated, forming an anorthositic crust
about 50 km in thickness. The majority of the magma ocean crystallized
quickly (within about 100 million years or less), though the final remaining KREEP-rich magmas, which are highly
enriched in incompatible and heat-producing elements, could have remained partially molten for several hundred
million (or perhaps 1 billion) years. It appears that the final KREEP-rich magmas of the magma ocean eventually
became concentrated within the region of Oceanus Procellarum and the Imbrium basin, a unique geologic province
that is now known as the Procellarum KREEP Terrane.

Quickly after the lunar crust formed, or even as it was forming, different
types of magmas that would give rise to the Mg-suite norites and
troctolites[5] began to form, although the exact depths at which this
occurred are not known precisely. Recent theories suggest that Mg-suite
plutonism was largely confined to the region of the Procellarum KREEP
Terrane, and that these magmas are genetically related to KREEP in some
manner, though their origin is still highly debated in the scientific
community. The oldest of the Mg-suite rocks have crystallization ages of
about 3.85 Ga. However, the last large impact that could have excavated
deep into the crust (the Imbrium basin) also occurred at 3.85 Ga before
present. Thus, it seems probable that Mg-suite plutonic activity continued
for a much longer time, and that younger plutonic rocks exist deep below Exploring Shorty Crater during the
the surface. Apollo 17 mission to the Moon. This
was the only Apollo mission to
Analysis of the lunar samples seems to imply that a significant percentage include a geologist (Harrison
of the lunar impact basins formed within a very short period of time Schmitt). NASA photo
between about 4 and 3.85 Ga ago. This hypothesis is referred to as the
lunar cataclysm or late heavy bombardment. However, it is now
recognized that ejecta from the Imbrium impact basin (one of the youngest large impact basins on the Moon) should
be found at all of the Apollo landing sites. It is thus possible that ages for some impact basins (in particular Mare
Nectaris) could have been mistakenly assigned the same age as Imbrium.

The lunar maria represent ancient flood basaltic eruptions. In comparison to terrestrial lavas, these contain higher
iron abundances, have low viscosities, and some contain highly elevated abundances of the titanium-rich mineral
ilmenite. The majority of basaltic eruptions occurred between about 3 and 3.5 Ga ago, though some mare samples
have ages as old as 4.2 Ga, and the youngest (based on the method of crater counting) are believed to have erupted
only 1 billion years ago. Along with mare volcanism came pyroclastic eruptions, which launched molten basaltic
materials hundreds of kilometers away from the volcano. A large portion of the mare formed, or flowed into, the low
elevations associated with the nearside impact basins. However, Oceanus Procellarum does not correspond to any
known impact structure, and the lowest elevations of the Moon within the farside South Pole-Aitken basin are only
modestly covered by mare (see lunar mare for a more detailed discussion).

Moon – Oceanus Procellarum ("Ocean of Storms")

Ancient rift valleys – rectangular structure (visible Ancient rift Ancient rift valleys – closeup
– topography – GRAIL gravity gradients) valleys – context (artist's concept)
(October 1, 2014)

Impacts by meteorites and comets are the only abrupt geologic force acting on the Moon today, though the variation
of Earth tides on the scale of the Lunar anomalistic month causes small variations in stresses.[6] Some of the most
important craters used in lunar stratigraphy formed in this recent epoch. For example, the crater Copernicus, which
has a depth of 3.76 km and a radius of 93 km, is believed to have formed about 900 million years ago (though this is
debatable). The Apollo 17 mission landed in an area in which the material coming from the crater Tycho might have
been sampled. The study of these rocks seem to indicate that this crater could have formed 100 million years ago,
though this is debatable as well. The surface has also experienced space weathering due to high energy particles, solar
wind implantation, and micrometeorite impacts. This process causes the ray systems associated with young craters to
darken until it matches the albedo of the surrounding surface. However, if the composition of the ray is different from
the underlying crustal materials (as might occur when a "highland" ray is emplaced on the mare), the ray could be
visible for much longer times.

After resumption of Lunar exploration in the 1990s, it was discovered there are scarps across the globe that are caused
by the contraction due to cooling of the Moon.[7]

Strata and epochs

On the top of the lunar stratigraphical sequence rayed impact craters can be found. Such youngest craters belong to
the Copernican unit. Below it can be found craters without the ray system, but with rather well developed impact
crater morphology. This is the Eratosthenian unit. The two younger stratigraphical units can be found in crater sized
spots on the Moon. Below them two extending strata can be found: mare units (earlier defined as Procellarian unit)
and the Imbrium basin related ejecta and tectonic units (Imbrian units). Another impact basin related unit is the
Nectarian unit, defined around the Nectarian Basin. At the bottom of the lunar stratigraphical sequence the pre-
Nectarian unit of old crater plains can be found. The stratigraphy of Mercury is very similar to the lunar case.

Lunar landscape
The lunar landscape is characterized by impact craters, their ejecta, a few volcanoes, hills, lava flows and depressions
filled by magma.

Highlands
The most distinctive aspect of the Moon is the contrast between its bright and dark zones. Lighter surfaces are the
lunar highlands, which receive the name of terrae (singular terra, from the Latin for Earth), and the darker plains are
called maria (singular mare, from the Latin for sea), after Johannes Kepler who introduced the name in the 17th
century. The highlands are anorthositic in composition, whereas the maria are basaltic. The maria often coincide with
the "lowlands," but it is important to note that the lowlands (such as
within the South Pole-Aitken basin) are not always covered by maria. The
highlands are older than the visible maria, and hence are more heavily
cratered.

Maria
The major products of volcanic processes on the Moon are evident to
Earth-bound observers in the form of the lunar maria. These are large
flows of basaltic lava that correspond to low-albedo surfaces covering
nearly a third of the near side. Only a few percent of the farside has been
affected by mare volcanism. Even before the Apollo missions confirmed A photograph of full moon taken from
it, most scientists already thought that the maria are lava-filled plains, Earth
because they have lava flow patterns and collapses attributed to lava
tubes.

The ages of the mare basalts have been determined both by direct radiometric dating and by the technique of crater
counting. The oldest radiometric ages are about 4.2 Ga, whereas the youngest ages determined from crater counting
are about 1 Ga (1 Ga = 1 billion years). Volumetrically, most of the mare formed between about 3 and 3.5 Ga before
present. The youngest lavas erupted within Oceanus Procellarum, whereas some of the oldest appear to be located on
the farside. The maria are clearly younger than the surrounding highlands given their lower density of impact craters.

A large portion of maria erupted within, or flowed into, the low-lying

impact basins on the lunar nearside. However, it is unlikely that a causal
relationship exists between the impact event and mare volcanism
because the impact basins are much older (by about 500 million years)
than the mare fill. Furthermore, Oceanus Procellarum, which is the
largest expanse of mare volcanism on the Moon, does not correspond to
any known impact basin. It is commonly suggested that the reason the
mare only erupted on the nearside is that the nearside crust is thinner
than the farside. Although variations in the crustal thickness might act to
modulate the amount of magma that ultimately reaches the surface, this
hypothesis does not explain why the farside South Pole-Aitken basin,
whose crust is thinner than Oceanus Procellarum, was only modestly Moon – Evidence of young lunar
filled by volcanic products. volcanism (October 12, 2014)

Another type of deposit associated with the maria, although it also

covers the highland areas, are the "dark mantle" deposits. These deposits
cannot be seen with the naked eye, but they can be seen in images taken
from telescopes or orbiting spacecraft. Before the Apollo missions,
scientists believed that they were deposits produced by pyroclastic
eruptions. Some deposits appear to be associated with dark elongated
ash cones, reinforcing the idea of pyroclasts. The existence of pyroclastic
eruptions was later confirmed by the discovery of glass spherules similar
to those found in pyroclastic eruptions here on Earth.

Many of the lunar basalts contain small holes called vesicles, which were
formed by gas bubbles exsolving from the magma at the vacuum
conditions encountered at the surface. It is not known with certainty
which gases escaped these rocks, but carbon monoxide is one candidate.

The samples of pyroclastic glasses are of green, yellow, and red tints. The
difference in color indicates the concentration of titanium that the rock
has, with the green particles having the lowest concentrations (about
1%), and red particles having the highest concentrations (up to 14%,
much more than the basalts with the highest concentrations).

Rilles

Rilles on the Moon sometimes resulted from the formation of localized

lava channels. These generally fall into three categories, consisting of
Volcanic rilles near the crater Prinz
sinuous, arcuate, or linear shapes. By following these meandering rilles
back to their source, they often lead to an old volcanic vent. One of the
most notable sinuous rilles is the Vallis Schröteri feature, located in the
Aristarchus plateau along the eastern edge of Oceanus Procellarum. An
example of a sinuous rille exists at the Apollo 15 landing site, Rima
Hadley, located on the rim of the Imbrium Basin. Based on observations
from the mission, it is generally believed that this rille was formed by
volcanic processes, a topic long debated before the mission took place.

Domes

A variety of shield volcanoes can be found in selected locations on the

lunar surface, such as on Mons Rümker. These are believed to be formed
by relatively viscous, possibly silica-rich lava, erupting from localized
Volcanic domes within the Mons
vents. The resulting lunar domes are wide, rounded, circular features
Rümker complex
with a gentle slope rising in elevation a few hundred meters to the
midpoint. They are typically 8–12 km in diameter, but can be up to
20 km across. Some of the domes contain a small pit at their peak.

Wrinkle ridges

Wrinkle ridges are features created by compressive tectonic forces

within the maria. These features represent buckling of the surface and
form long ridges across parts of the maria. Some of these ridges may
outline buried craters or other features beneath the maria. A prime
example of such an outlined feature is the crater Letronne.

Grabens
Grabens are tectonic features that form under extensional stresses.
Structurally, they are composed of two normal faults, with a down-
dropped block between them. Most grabens are found within the lunar
maria near the edges of large impact basins.

Impact craters
The origin of the Moon's craters as impact features became widely
accepted only in the 1940s. This realization allowed the impact history of
the Moon to be gradually worked out by means of the geologic principle
of superposition. That is, if a crater (or its ejecta) overlaid another, it
must be the younger. The amount of erosion experienced by a crater was Wrinkle ridges within the crater
another clue to its age, though this is more subjective. Adopting this Letronne
approach in the late 1950s, Gene Shoemaker took the systematic study of
the Moon away from the astronomers and placed it firmly in the hands
of the lunar geologists.

Impact cratering is the most notable geological process on the Moon.

The craters are formed when a solid body, such as an asteroid or comet,
collides with the surface at a high velocity (mean impact velocities for
the Moon are about 17 km per second). The kinetic energy of the impact
creates a compression shock wave that radiates away from the point of
entry. This is succeeded by a rarefaction wave, which is responsible for
propelling most of the ejecta out of the crater. Finally there is a
hydrodynamic rebound of the floor that can create a central peak.

These craters appear in a continuum of diameters across the surface of

Rima Ariadaeus is a graben. NASA
the Moon, ranging in size from tiny pits to the immense South Pole–
photo taken during Apollo 10
Aitken basin with a diameter of nearly 2,500 km and a depth of 13 km. mission.
In a very general sense, the lunar history of impact cratering follows a
trend of decreasing crater size with time. In particular, the largest
impact basins were formed during the early periods, and these were
successively overlaid by smaller craters. The size frequency distribution
(SFD) of crater diameters on a given surface (that is, the number of
craters as a function of diameter) approximately follows a power law with
increasing number of craters with decreasing crater size. The vertical
position of this curve can be used to estimate the age of the surface.

The most recent impacts are distinguished by well-defined features,

including a sharp-edged rim. Small craters tend to form a bowl shape,
whereas larger impacts can have a central peak with flat floors. Larger
craters generally display slumping features along the inner walls that can Mare Imbrium and the crater
form terraces and ledges. The largest impact basins, the multiring basins, Copernicus
can even have secondary concentric rings of raised material.

The impact process excavates high albedo materials that initially gives the crater, ejecta, and ray system a bright
appearance. The process of space weathering gradually decreases the albedo of this material such that the rays fade
with time. Gradually the crater and its ejecta undergo impact erosion from micrometeorites and smaller impacts. This
erosional process softens and rounds the features of the crater. The crater can also be covered in ejecta from other
impacts, which can submerge features and even bury the central peak.

The ejecta from large impacts can include large blocks of material that
reimpact the surface to form secondary impact craters. These craters are
sometimes formed in clearly discernible radial patterns, and generally
have shallower depths than primary craters of the same size. In some
cases an entire line of these blocks can impact to form a valley. These are
distinguished from catena, or crater chains, which are linear strings of
craters that are formed when the impact body breaks up prior to impact.

Generally speaking, a lunar crater is roughly circular in form. Laboratory

experiments at NASA's Ames Research Center have demonstrated that
even very low-angle impacts tend to produce circular craters, and that
elliptical craters start forming at impact angles below five degrees.
The lunar crater King displays the
However, a low angle impact can produce a central peak that is offset characteristic features of a large
from the midpoint of the crater. Additionally, the ejecta from oblique impact formation, with a raised rim,
impacts show distinctive patterns at different impact angles: asymmetry slumped edges, terraced inner walls,
starting around 60˚ and a wedge-shaped "zone of avoidance" free of a relatively flat floor with some hills,
and a central ridge. The Y-shaped
ejecta in the direction the projectile came from starting around 45˚.[8]
central ridge is unusually complex in
Dark-halo craters are formed when an impact excavates lower albedo form.

material from beneath the surface, then deposits this darker ejecta
around the main crater. This can occur when an area of darker basaltic material, such as that found on the maria, is
later covered by lighter ejecta derived from more distant impacts in the highlands. This covering conceals the darker
material below, which is later excavated by subsequent craters.

The largest impacts produced melt sheets of molten rock that covered portions of the surface that could be as thick as
a kilometer. Examples of such impact melt can be seen in the northeastern part of the Mare Orientale impact basin.

Regolith
The surface of the Moon has been subject to billions of years of collisions with both small and large asteroidal and
cometary materials. Over time, these impact processes have pulverized and "gardened" the surface materials, forming
a fine-grained layer termed regolith. The thickness of the lunar regolith varies between 2 meters (6.6 ft) beneath the
younger maria, to up to 20 meters (66 ft) beneath the oldest surfaces of the lunar highlands. The regolith is
predominantly composed of materials found in the region, but also contains traces of materials ejected by distant
impact craters. The term mega-regolith is often used to describe the heavily fractured bedrock directly beneath the
near-surface regolith layer.

The regolith contains rocks, fragments of minerals from the original bedrock, and glassy particles formed during the
impacts. In most of the lunar regolith, half of the particles are made of mineral fragments fused by the glassy particles;
these objects are called agglutinates. The chemical composition of the regolith varies according to its location; the
regolith in the highlands is rich in aluminium and silica, just as the rocks in those regions. The regolith in the maria is
rich in iron and magnesium and is silica-poor, as are the basaltic rocks from which it is formed.
The lunar regolith is very important because it also stores information about the history of the Sun. The atoms that
compose the solar wind – mostly helium, neon, carbon and nitrogen – hit the lunar surface and insert themselves into
the mineral grains. Upon analyzing the composition of the regolith, particularly its isotopic composition, it is possible
to determine if the activity of the Sun has changed with time. The gases of the solar wind could be useful for future
lunar bases, because oxygen, hydrogen (water), carbon and nitrogen are not only essential to sustain life, but are also
potentially very useful in the production of fuel. The composition of the lunar regolith can also be used to infer its
source origin.

Lunar lava tubes

Lunar lava tubes form a potentially important location for constructing a
future lunar base, which may be used for local exploration and
development, or as a human outpost to serve exploration beyond the
Moon. A lunar lava cave potential has long been suggested and discussed
in literature and thesis.[9] Any intact lava tube on the Moon could serve as
a shelter from the severe environment of the lunar surface, with its
frequent meteorite impacts, high-energy ultraviolet radiation and
energetic particles, and extreme diurnal temperature variations.[10][11][12]
Following the launch of the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, many lunar
lava tubes have been imaged.[13] These lunar pits are found in several
locations across the Moon, including Marius Hills, Mare Ingenii and
Mare Tranquillitatis. Lunar pit in Mare Tranquillitatis

Lunar magma ocean

The first rocks brought back by Apollo 11 were basalts. Although the mission landed on Mare Tranquillitatis, a few
millimetric fragments of rocks coming from the highlands were picked up. These are composed mainly of plagioclase
feldspar; some fragments were composed exclusively of anorthositic plagioclase. The identification of these mineral
fragments led to the bold hypothesis that a large portion of the Moon was once molten, and that the crust formed by
fractional crystallization of this magma ocean.

A natural outcome of the hypothetical giant-impact event is that the materials that re-accreted to form the Moon must
have been hot. Current models predict that a large portion of the Moon would have been molten shortly after the
Moon formed, with estimates for the depth of this magma ocean ranging from about 500 km to complete melting.
Crystallization of this magma ocean would have given rise to a differentiated body with a compositionally distinct
crust and mantle and accounts for the major suites of lunar rocks.

As crystallization of the lunar magma ocean proceeded, minerals such as olivine and pyroxene would have
precipitated and sank to form the lunar mantle. After crystallization was about three-quarters complete, anorthositic
plagioclase would have begun to crystallize, and because of its low density, float, forming an anorthositic crust.
Importantly, elements that are incompatible (i.e., those that partition preferentially into the liquid phase) would have
been progressively concentrated into the magma as crystallization progressed, forming a KREEP-rich magma that
initially should have been sandwiched between the crust and mantle. Evidence for this scenario comes from the highly
anorthositic composition of the lunar highland crust, as well as the existence of KREEP-rich materials.
Lunar rocks

Surface materials
The Apollo program brought back 380.05 kilograms (837.87 lb) of lunar
surface material,[14] most of which is stored at the Lunar Receiving
Laboratory in Houston, Texas, and the uncrewed Soviet Luna programme
returned 326 grams (11.5 oz) of lunar material. These rocks have proved
to be invaluable in deciphering the geologic evolution of the Moon. Lunar
rocks are in large part made of the same common rock forming minerals
as found on Earth, such as olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase feldspar
(anorthosite). Plagioclase feldspar is mostly found in the lunar crust,
whereas pyroxene and olivine are typically seen in the lunar mantle.[15]
The mineral ilmenite is highly abundant in some mare basalts, and a new Olivine basalt collected by Apollo 15
mineral named armalcolite (named for Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins,
the three members of the Apollo 11 crew) was first discovered in the lunar
samples.

The maria are composed predominantly of basalt, whereas the highland regions are iron-poor and composed
primarily of anorthosite, a rock composed primarily of calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar. Another significant
component of the crust are the igneous Mg-suite rocks, such as the troctolites, norites, and KREEP-basalts. These
rocks are believed to be genetically related to the petrogenesis of KREEP.

Composite rocks on the lunar surface often appear in the form of breccias. Of these, the subcategories are called
fragmental, granulitic, and impact-melt breccias, depending on how they were formed. The mafic impact melt
breccias, which are typified by the low-K Fra Mauro composition, have a higher proportion of iron and magnesium
than typical upper crust anorthositic rocks, as well as higher abundances of KREEP.

Composition of the maria

The main characteristics of the basaltic rocks with respect to the rocks of the lunar highlands is that the basalts
contain higher abundances of olivine and pyroxene, and less plagioclase. They are more rich in iron than terrestrial
basalts, and also have lower viscosities. Some of them have high abundances of a ferro-titanic oxide called ilmenite.
Because the first sampling of rocks contained a high content of ilmenite and other related minerals, they received the
name of "high titanium" basalts. The Apollo 12 mission returned to Earth with basalts of lower titanium
concentrations, and these were dubbed "low titanium" basalts. Subsequent missions, including the Soviet robotic
probes, returned with basalts with even lower concentrations, now called "very low titanium" basalts. The Clementine
space probe returned data showing that the mare basalts have a continuum in titanium concentrations, with the
highest concentration rocks being the least abundant.

Internal structure
The current model of the interior of the Moon was derived using seismometers left behind during the crewed Apollo
program missions, as well as investigations of the Moon's gravity field and rotation.

The mass of the Moon is sufficient to eliminate any voids within the interior, so it is believed to be composed of solid
rock throughout. Its low bulk density (~3346 kg m−3) indicates a low metal abundance. Mass and moment of inertia
constraints indicate that the Moon likely has an iron core that is less than about 450 km in radius. Studies of the
Moon's physical librations (small perturbations to its rotation) furthermore indicate that the core is still molten. Most
planetary bodies and moons have iron cores that are about half the size of the body. The Moon is thus anomalous in
having a core whose size is only about one quarter of its radius.

The crust of the Moon is on average about 50 km thick (though this is uncertain by about ±15 km). It is widely
believed that the far-side crust is on average thicker than the near side by about 15 km.[16] Seismology has constrained
the thickness of the crust only near the Apollo 12 and 14 landing sites. Although the initial Apollo-era analyses
suggested a crustal thickness of about 60 km at this site, recent reanalyses of this data suggest that it is thinner,
somewhere between about 30 and 45 km.

Magnetic field
Compared with that of Earth, the Moon has only a very weak external magnetic field. Other major differences are that
the Moon does not currently have a dipolar magnetic field (as would be generated by a geodynamo in its core), and the
magnetizations that are present are almost entirely crustal in origin. One hypothesis holds that the crustal
magnetizations were acquired early in lunar history when a geodynamo was still operating. The small size of the lunar
core, however, is a potential obstacle to this hypothesis. Alternatively, it is possible that on airless bodies such as the
Moon, transient magnetic fields could be generated during impact processes. In support of this, it has been noted that
the largest crustal magnetizations appear to be located near the antipodes of the largest impact basins. Although the
Moon does not have a dipolar magnetic field like Earth's, some of the returned rocks do have strong magnetizations.
Furthermore, measurements from orbit show that some portions of the lunar surface are associated with strong
magnetic fields.

Gallery
Moon photos
 Lunar near side Lunar far side Lunar north pole Lunar south pole

See also
Lunar geologic timescale
Selenography
Transient lunar phenomenon

References
Cited references

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ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-521-19857-8.
3. Kleine, T.; Palme, H.; Mezger, K.; Halliday, A.N. (2005). "Hf–W Chronometry of Lunar Metals and the Age and
Early Differentiation of the Moon". Science. 310 (5754): 1671–1674. Bibcode:2005Sci...310.1671K (http://adsabs.
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2). PMID 16308422 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16308422).
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oon.html). Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. NASA. Retrieved 21 August 2010.
8. "Experimental studies of oblique impact". Proceedings of the Ninth Lunar and Planetary Conference. 1978.
Bibcode:1978LPSC....9.3843G (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978LPSC....9.3843G).
9. Coombs, Cassandra R.; Hawke, B. Ray (September 1992). "A search for intact lava tubes on the Moon: Possible
lunar base habitats". The Second Conference on Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century. NASA.
Johnson Space Center. 1: 219–229. Bibcode:1992lbsa.conf..219C (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992lbsa.conf.
.219C).
10. Marius Hills Pit Offers Potential Location for Lunar Base (http://lunarscience.arc.nasa.gov/articles/lava-tube-lunar-
base); March 25, 2010; NASA
11. Moon hole might be suitable for colony (http://www.cnn.com/2010/TECH/space/01/01/moon.lava.hole/index.html);
January 1, 2010; CNN-Tech
12. Scientists eye moon colonies - in the holes on the lunar surface (http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/2010
/01/04/2010-01-04_scientists_eye_moon_colonies__in_the_holes_on_the_lunar_surface.html); By Rich
O'Malley; January 4th 2010; DAILY NEWS, NY
13. New Views of Lunar Pits (http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/multimedia/lroimages/lroc-20100914_lunarpit
s.html); September 14, 2010; NASA
14. Orloff, Richard W. (September 2004) [First published 2000]. "Extravehicular Activity" (https://history.nasa.gov/SP-
4029/Apollo_18-30_Extravehicular_Activity.htm). Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference (https://history.n
asa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm). NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans. The NASA History Series.
Washington, D.C.: NASA. ISBN 0-16-050631-X. LCCN 00061677 (https://lccn.loc.gov/00061677). NASA SP-
2000-4029. Retrieved August 1, 2013.
15. "Craters Expose the Moon's Insides" (http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/moon-mantle-exposed-craters-10
0705.html). Space.com. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
16. Mark Wieczorek and 15 coauthors, M. A. (2006). "The constitution and structure of the lunar interior". Reviews in
Mineralogy and Geochemistry. 60 (1): 221–364. Bibcode:2006RvMG...60..221W (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
2006RvMG...60..221W). doi:10.2138/rmg.2006.60.3 (https://doi.org/10.2138%2Frmg.2006.60.3).
Scientific references

Don Wilhelms, Geologic History of the Moon (https://web.archive.org/web/20060307070600/http://cps.earth.north

 western.edu/GHM/ghm_01txt.pdf), U.S. Geological Survey.
To a Rocky Moon: A Geologist's History of Lunar Exploration (http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/books/rockyMo
on/), by D.E. Wilhelms. University of Arizona Press, Tucson (1993).
New views of the Moon (http://www.minsocam.org/msa/RIM/Rim60.html), B. L. Jolliff, M. A. Wieczorek, C. K.
Shearer and C. R. Neal (editors), Rev. Mineral. Geochem., 60, Min. Soc. Amer., Chantilly, Virginia, 721 pp., 2006.
The Lunar Sourcebook: A User's Guide to the Moon, by G.H. Heiken, D.T. Vaniman y B.M. French, et al.
Cambridge University Press, New York (1991). ISBN 0-521-33444-6.
Origin of the Moon (http://ads.harvard.edu/books/ormo/), edited by W.K. Hartmann, R.J. Phillips, G. J. Taylor,
ISBN 0-942862-03-1.
R. Canup and K. Righter, editors (2000). Origin of the Earth and Moon. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
p. 555 pp. ISBN 0-8165-2073-9.

General references

Paul D. Spudis, The Once and Future Moon, 1998, Smithsonian Books, ISBN 1-56098-847-9.
Dana Mackenzie, The Big Splat, or How Our Moon Came to Be, 2003, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-15057-6.
Charles Frankel, Volcanoes of the Solar System, Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-521-47201-6.
G. Jeffrey Taylor (November 22, 2005). "Gamma Rays, Meteorites, Lunar Samples, and the Composition of the
Moon" (http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Nov05/MoonComposition.html). Planetary Science Research Discoveries.
Linda Martel (September 28, 2004). "Lunar Crater Rays Point to a New Lunar Time Scale" (http://www.psrd.hawai
i.edu/Sept04/LunarRays.html). Planetary Science Research Discoveries.
Marc Norman (April 21, 2004). "The Oldest Moon Rocks" (http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/April04/lunarAnorthosites.h
tml). Planetary Science Research Discoveries.
G. Jeffrey Taylor (November 28, 2003). "Hafnium, Tungsten, and the Differentiation of the Moon and Mars" (http://
www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Nov03/Hf-W.html). Planetary Science Research Discoveries.
G. Jeffrey Taylor (December 31, 1998). "Origin of the Earth and Moon" (http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Dec98/Origin
EarthMoon.html). Planetary Science Research Discoveries.

External links
Apollo over the Moon: A View from Orbit (http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-362/contents.htm), edited
by Harold Masursky, G. W. Colton, and Farouk El-baz, NASA SP-362.
Eric Douglass, Geologic Processes on the Moon (http://www.moonsociety.org/certificate/lunargeology.html)
Lunar Sample Information (JSC) (http://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/)
The Apollo Lunar Surface Journal (NASA) (http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/alsj)
Lunar and Planetary Institute: Exploring the Moon (http://www.lpi.usra.edu/expmoon/)
Clementine Lunar Image Browser (https://web.archive.org/web/20021028170639/http://www.nrl.navy.mil/clementi
ne/clib/)
Ralph Aeschliman Planetary Cartography and Graphics: Lunar Maps (http://ralphaeschliman.com/id26.htm)
Lunar Gravity, Topography and Crustal Thickness Archive (http://www.ipgp.jussieu.fr/~wieczor/CrustalThicknessA
rchive/CrustalThickness.html)
Lunar and Planetary Institute: Lunar Atlas and Photography Collection (http://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/lunar_image
s/)
Moon Rocks through the Microscope (http://www.cas.usf.edu/~jryan/moonrocks.html) Retrieved 22 August 2007
Moon articles in Planetary Science Research Discoveries (http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Archive/Archive-Moon.html
)
Another Hit to Hoax:Traces of Man on Lunar Surface (http://www.onislam.net/english/health-and-science/news/45
3799-another-hit-to-hoaxtraces-of-man-on-lunar-surface.html)
Visible and Terrain Map of the Moon (http://moon3dmap.com/)
Video (04:56) – The Moon in 4K (NASA, April 2018) (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nr5Pj6GQL2o) on
YouTube
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