EARTH SCIENCE

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ELSEVIER Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130

The generation, segregation, ascent and emplacement of granite

magma: the migmatite-to-crustally-derived granite connection
in thickened orogens
Michael Brown
Department of Geology, University of Maryland at College Park, CollegePark, MD 20742, USA
(Received June 24, 1992; revised and accepted November 12, 1993)

Abstract

Many granites result from anatexis of common crustal rock types and the segregation, aggregation, ascent and
emplacement of the resultant magma. What then is the connection between migmatites, rocks which preserve
evidence at outcrop-scale for the presence of former melt now frozen as granite, whether in situ or locally displaced
with respect to the site of melting, and map-scale bodies of crustally-derived granite, clearly removed from the site of
melting? Both water-rich volatile phase-present melting and volatile phase-absent dehydration melting can occur in
the middle and lower crust, but dehydration melting that involves the decomposition of mica and amphibole likely is
the more important process in the generation of plutonic volumes of magma with sufficient mobility to reach the
upper crust. Both volatile phase-present and dehydration melting can occur in each of the two main types of
orogenic belt, those that result from thickening before maximum temperatures are achieved (clockwise in P - T
space) and those that result from heating prior to or concomitant with thickening (anticlockwise in P - T space).
Depending upon the particular tectonic circumstances, the thermal perturbation to provide the heat necessary for
crustal anatexis may be caused by internal radiogenic heat production in overthickened crust, intraplating/
underplating of mantle-derived magma, an enhanced flux from the mantle, or some combination of these
mechanisms.
The tectonic environment to a large extent also controls the segregation, ascent and emplacement of granite
magma. For example, at the present time a majority of convergent plate margins exhibit an oblique net displacement
vector, and it is likely, therefore, that oblique convergence was important in the past. Retreating subduction
boundaries will result in regional deformation of the overriding plate by horizontal extension or transtension in
contrast to advancing subduction boundaries that will result in regional deformation of the overriding plate by
horizontal shortening or transpression. Transpression can be considered as a zone of transcurrent shear accompa-
nied by horizontal shortening across and vertical lengthening along the shear plane. It plays a vital role in
overthickening of the crust, in structurally shuffling and thickening sedimentary basins, in assisting with the
segregation of crustaUy-derived melts, and ultimately allowing for the ascent and emplacement of granite magma in
extensional segments of the associated strike-slip system.
Segregation of granite melt depends upon a number of factors that include how the liquid is distributed within
the matrix of a partially melted rock and the viscosity of that liquid. The geometrical structure of partially molten
rock is crucial to understanding its behavior. Migration of melt is a complex process that is achieved by compaction
and buoyancy segregation, and flow into extensional and shear fractures and other dilatant sites. The driving force
for segregation may be chemical or physical or a combination of both. In this review I stress the important role of

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84 M. Brown /Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130

deformation in enhancing segregation of melt. Magma buoyancy is a primary driving force for ascent, but diapirism
no longer appears to be a viable mechanism. Rather, fracture-controlled mechanisms and deformation-enhanced
ascent are considered to be of prime importance. Magma ascends in dykes to feed tabular batholiths that are
constructed from hundreds of individual magma pulses due to magma ponding at roughly horizontal discontinuities
in the upper crust. I emphasize the role of ductile shear zones and fault systems in the ascent and emplacement of
magma. Many granites appear to have been constructed from sheets emplaced in transient dilational sites along
transpressional strike-slip fault systems undergoing net contractional deformation. Emplacement is synkinematic, a
void or cavity will not exist and filling at a suitable site occurs simultaneously with dilation. Rates of ascent are fast,
consistent with a pulsed magma supply. Some examples cited in the literature of diapiric emplacement may be
interpreted better as local ballooning by magmatic flow of granite after upward transport along shear zones. Thus,
granite contact relationships likely reflect local emplacement mechanisms rather than regional, crustal-scale ascent
mechanisms.
A general model for granite magma genesis, ascent and emplacement that may apply to other orogenic belts is
developed from relationships interpreted from different crustal levels exposed within the late-Precambrian Cado-
mian orogenic belt of northwest France. Here, thickening of a volcano-sedimentary basin during transpression led to
upper amphibolite facies water-rich volatile phase-present anatexis and development of migmatites (St. Malo
migmatite belt) and granite melt production (Mancellian granites), with some evidence of dehydration melting in
granites emplaced at the highest structural level. Transcurrent shear was regionally focussed within this zone of
softened crust. Granite magma was transported to higher crustal levels in megadike bodies (c. 0.5-1 km width),
themselves constructed from multiple sheets, located within major ductile shear zones. Magma entered the shear
zones at points of local extension and was expelled upwards in zones of compression, a mechanism referred to as
strike-slip dilatancy pumping. The shear zones are inferred to have been linked to major brittle fault zones in the
upper crust, and extensional jogs within such systems have provided sites for assembly of plutons (tens of km across)
from magmas arriving from below.
Granite is generated also by decompression melting during uplift of orogenic belts and commonly has an
important role to play in exhumation of the high-grade cores of thickened orogens. The Variscan metamorphic belt
of western France provides an example of these interactions between tectonic processes and granite in a thickened
orogen. Here, the Eo-Variscan to Variscan P - T - t - d evolution required fast uplift and exhumation of the
metamorphic belt at c. 330-300 Ma as a coherent block without internal penetrative strain. Coeval granite was
produced by decompression melting during the fast uplift. The granite facilitated exhumation by accommodating
strain along a major intracontinental transcurrent shear zone and along thrusts, reactivated to allow tectonic
unroofing by ductile normal faulting.

1. Introduction swered satisfactorily include: What is the rela-

To understand the origin and evolution of
granite we must understand the process of initial
magma generation, the mechanisms of magma
escape (segregation, aggregation and ascent), the
processes of modification of magma by differenti-
ation a n d / o r contamination during ascent a n d /
or emplacement, and the mechanisms of em-
placement. Although melting of continental crust
is essential to the generation of many granites,
our understanding of processes involved between
the beginning of anatexis in the middle and lower
crust and the emplacement of granite plutons at
structurally higher levels in the crust remains
poor. Important questions that remain to be an-
tionship between mid-to-lower crustal regional
migmatite belts and mid-to-upper crustal gran-
ites? What is the nature of the heat source and is
it sufficient enough for long enough? Under what
conditions can granite magma escape its source
and what is the transport mechanism for granite
magma ascent through the crust, diapiric move-
ment or fracture-control? What is the differentia-
tion mechanism within granite magma, restite
unmixing or crystal fractionation or some combi-
nation of both processes? How important are
open system processes, such as magma mixing
and crustal assimilation? Finally, how are granite
plutons emplaced or "constructed", is there a
"space problem"?
 M. Brown/ Earth-ScienceReviews36 (1994)83-130
There have been two main approaches in the
investigation of granites, in each of which the full
range of petrological techniques, field studies,
petrography, geochemistry, experiments and
modelling has been applied. One method of at-
tack has been through metamorphic studies, since,
if metamorphic grade increases into the upper
amphibolite and granulite facies, anatexis is the
inevitable consequence in many crustal rock types,
and granite is a common neighbor of such high-
grade metamorphic rocks. This is demonstrated
by experimental work on compositions such as
pelite (e.g. Thompson, 1982; LeBreton and
Thompson, 1988; Vielzeuf and Holloway, 1988;
Patifio Douce and Johnston, 1991), greywacke
(e.g. Conrad et al., 1988), tonalite (e.g. Rutter
and Wyllie, 1988), amphibolite (e.g. Ellis and
Thompson, 1986; Beard and Lofgren, 1989;
Hacker, 1990; Rushmer, 1991; Wolf and Wyllie,
1993) and interlayered pelite-tonalite (Skjerlie et
al., 1993), and supported by myriad field-based
examples (e.g. Tracy, 1978; Jones and Brown,
1990). Thus, the metamorphic perspective on
Michael Brown has been studying high-grade
metamorphic rocks, migmatites and granites for
the last 25 years. This has included studies of
migmatites and granites in north-west France, in
the Cadomian Belt of the Northern Armorican
Massif and in the Variscan Belt of the Southern
Armorican Massif, work in southern West Green-
land on the Q6rqut granite complex, and re-
search on migmatitic granulite facies gneisses of
various ages from Timor, India, Canada and
Russia. Recently he has been concerned with
85
crustal melting has been developed from inten-
sive study of high-grade gneisses and migmatites.
At outcrop scale commonly these rocks appear to
represent relatively low-melt-fraction systems,
even though the leucosome fraction, representing
frozen melt, may vary substantially from rock type
to rock type within the outcrop and bearing in
mind that some liquid may have escaped from the
system. Indeed, Ellis and Obata (1992) have ar-
gued that leucosome patches in migmatites at
Cooma, Australia, do not represent frozen melt
segregation but rather liquidus minerals (cumu-
lates) which precipitated from a locally-derived
hydrous melt that subsequently migrated out of
the system. Of the many views that derive from
this metamorphic perspective, one is that impor-
tant geochemical differences between granites
may be related to the presence of different
amounts of residual minerals in the magmas. This
is especially true for major elements such as Fe,
Mg and Ti because of the low solubility of their
host mineral phase(s) in granitic melts (Clemens
and Wall, 1981; Naney, 1983; Puziwicz and Jo-
the relationship between magmatism and tecton-
ics during the Mesozoic evolution of the Andean
Plate Boundary Zone in North Chile, and he has
just started working on the low-P metamorphic
belts of Japan. Currently, he is Professor of
Geology and Chair of the Department of Geology
at the University of Maryland at College Park,
having moved to the USA from Britain early in
1990. In addition to writing research papers, Prof.
Brown is an editor of the Journal of Metamorphic
Geology and edited, jointly with John Ashworth,
the book High-grade Metamorphism and Crustal
Anatexis. He is the Chair of the Organizing
Committee for the Third Hutton Symposium on
the Origin of Granite and Related Rocks to be
held at the University of Maryland at College
Park in August 1995 and he was responsible for
the establishment of a Commission on Granites
within the International Association of Volcanol-
ogy and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior.
86 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130

hannes, 1988), and trace element concentrations
(e.g. Rapp and Watson, 1986; Sawka, 1988; Har-
ris and Inger, 1992) and isotopic abundances (e.g.
Hogan and Sinha, 1991) that are controlled largely
by accessory phases.
In partially molten crust, melt that cannot es-
cape at all will remain in the source and may
freeze to form a migmatite, whether in place as a
stromatic structure (Fig. 1) or displaced as a
diktyonitic structure (Fig. 2). Sawyer (1991) pre-
sents evidence that such melts commonly have
disequilibrium chemical compositions. This fea-
ture suggested to Sawyer (1991) that in some
migmatites melt-segregation rates are greater
than rates of chemical equilibration. High mobil-
ity and efficient separation are supported by these
data. In the particular case studied by Sawyer,
melt collected in dilational structures and is
thought to be driven by pressure gradients devel-
oped during syn-anatexis non-coaxial deformation
of the anisotropic protolith, i.e. segregation is
deformation enhanced. Melt that can aggregate
may form a magma that can ascend some dis-
tance to be emplaced as a higher-level granite.
Chemical evidence presented by Sawyer (1991)
indicates that such melts represent the aggrega-
tion of melt batches chemically equilibrated with
residual crystals. This feature led Sawyer (1991)
to infer that rates of chemical equilibration must
exceed those of melt-segregation in circumstances
where plutonic volumes of granite magma are
accumulated and, thus, chemical equilibration is
achieved before segregation occurs. He attributed
differences in rates of chemical equilibration and

Fig. 1. Stromatic migmatite from South Brittany, France. Note discontinuous (lensoid) leucosome with associated biotite-rich
selvages or melanosome set within schistose paleosome. Leucosome in lower part of field of view shows evidence of original melt
migration along the foliation from bulk of rock to accumulate in the overthick part of the leucosome. A buoyancy-driven
compaction process may not be appropriate in such migmatites, but some kind of deformation-enhanced filter-pressing process may
have operated. Diameter of coin c. 25 mm.
 M. Brown~Earth-Science Ret,iews 36 (1994) 83-130 87

bodies of crustally-derived granite represent

high-melt-fraction systems (once migrating as an
aggregated body of m a g m a the system is a high-
melt fraction one even though the initial melts
may have been low-melt fraction segregates dur-
ing the anatectic process, i.e. representing low
values of F in the general equations for melting).
In crustally-derived granites, the primary controls
on melt composition are the intensive parameters
and source compositions. Subsequent modifica-
tion of melt compositions in high melt fraction
systems during ascent and emplacement can oc-
cur either by fractional crystallization or by restite
unmixing or by some combination of both pro-
cesses. Thus, the igneous petrologist must ad-
dress the inverse problem and, using petrographic
and geochemical data, coupled with information
from experiments and modelling, infer source
characteristics and P - T - X n u i d conditions (e.g.
Chappell and Stephens, 1988; White and Chap-
pell, 1988). Unfortunately, this task is not
straightforward and models must be constrained
with a variety of data to minimize error and
ambiguity. To illustrate the kinds of complexity
that may occur, I outline the main factors that
Fig. 2. Fine-scale stromatic migmatite cut by locally discordant may influence the isotopic composition of a gran-
homogeneous diatexite to give a diktyonitic structure. In this ite magma. In the simplest case a source rock
case, since melt does not appear to have migrated from the undergoes closed-system melting and generates a
stromatic migmatite leucosomes into the discordant veins, the
stromatic leucosomes are interpreted to be below the appro- m a g m a which ascends without interaction with
priate solidus at the time of invasion by the homogeneous other rocks and thus inherits the isotopic compo-
diatexite. St. Malo Migmatite Belt, Brittany, France. Diame- sition of its source. However, it is more probable
ter of coin c. 25 mm. that ascent of such a m a g m a will be accompanied
by assimilation of country rock and fractional
crystallization so that the isotopic composition of
melt-segregation between segregated migmatites the resulting pluton will be controlled both by the
and plutonic volumes of granite to a higher tem- source and by the assimilant. Of course, the
perature of melting in the generation of larger source will not be homogeneous and the experi-
volumes of melt required in the latter case. mental results of Skjerlie et al. (1993) suggest that
The alternative line of investigation has been many crustaUy-derived granites most likely con-
that of the igneous petrologist. Fractional crystal- tain contributions from two or more different
lization and crustal anatexis are two end-member source rocks, which will be reflected in their
igneous processes that may produce granitic mag- isotopic and geochemical compositions. The sce-
mas. In this review I am concerned with granites nario may be more complex yet, with the source
derived from essentially crustal sources. Excluded undergoing open-system melting as a result of
from this review are granitic rocks of arc environ- either m a g m a mixing or fluid infiltration. Fur-
ments in which sub-crustal sources and mixing ther, pre-anatectic subsolidus modification of the
between mantle-derived m a g m a and crustally-de- source as a result of hydrothermal activity accom-
rived m a g m a may be more important. Plutonic panying prograde m e t a m o r p h i s m could have oc-
88 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130
 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130
curred. The isotopic signature of a pluton is some
combination of the isotopic composition of the
source, a n d / o r magma mixing a n d / o r metaso-
matic melting in the source, a n d / o r AFC pro-
cesses during ascent. In spite of this complexity,
one outcome of the approach from geochemistry
is the idea that the different geochemical charac-
teristics of granite suites are related to different
source characteristics (Chappell and White, 1974;
Chappell, 1984; Chappell et al., 1988). For exam-
ple, different source regions will have different
accessory mineral assemblages with unique chem-
ical and isotopic signatures. This is an intrinsic
property of the source. The response of accessory
minerals during anatexis can play an important
role in determining geochemical and isotopic
characteristics of resulting granites (e.g. Rapp
and Watson, 1986; Hogan and Sinha, 1991). Let
me illustrate this point with respect to Pb isotope
systematics. Granites derived from the same
source region can have different initial Pb iso-
topic compositions. However, the initial Pb iso-
topic composition of these granites will define a
coherent field on 2°7pb/2°4pb-2°6pb/2°4pb dia-
grams, the slope of which represents the weighted
average U / P b age of the accessory mineral as-
semblage of the source (Hogan and Sinha, 1991).
In this way granites derived from the same source
region (a suite) can be recognized. The contrast-
ing outcomes from the different approaches both
represent valuable contributions to our under-
standing of granites. Furthermore, since the views
are complementary rather than contradictory they
can be reconciled into one or more coherent
model(s) for genesis of crustally-derived granites.
The development of one particular model is a
main objective of this paper.
Most migmatites represent rocks in which the
melt has segregated on a local, centimeter-scale,
such as in Fig. 1, but has not been extracted from
the whole system (e.g. Brown, 1973). If the melt,
or a substantial proportion of it, escaped from
Fig. 3. a. View to show a c. 1 km section through the intermediate zone of the Q6rqut granite complex, southwestern Greenland,
with the upper zone in view in the mountain peaks behind, b. Detail of steep face close to the top of the intermediate zone of the
Q6rqut granite complex to show the sheeted internal structure of the pluton; pale shades of gray represent biotite granites and
dark shades of gray are country-rock enclaves and rafts.
89
the system, then a depleted, residual granulite
would remain. Individual granite segregations in
migmatites are some five orders of magnitude
smaller in size than typical plutonic granites, al-
though the latter are increasingly recognized as
multiple complexes made up of small batches of
melt (Brown et al., 1981; Redden et al., 1985;
Duke et al., 1988; Lanord and Le Fort, 1988),
such as the Q6rqut granite complex of South-
western Greenland illustrated in Fig. 3. Areas in
which this small-scale melting characteristic of
migmatites can be related to specific large-scale
plutonic granites are rare (for an example, see
Brown and D'Lemos, 1991; D'Lemos et al., 1992).
Most plutonic granites are isolated from their
source rocks, with the residual material, from
which the granite magma has been extracted,
remaining in the lower crust as medium- to high-P
granulite (e.g. Clifford et al., 1981; Brown and
Earle, 1983; Clemens, 1990).
This has led to contrasting views about
migmatites. On the one hand, a view exists that
the study of migmatites is unlikely to provide
much information about the formation of granites
(White and Chappell, 1990; Clemens and Mawer,
1992). Indeed, migmatites in New Hampshire,
USA, have been interpreted to be the result of
partial melting driven by infiltration of hot mag-
matic water derived from magmas in transit from
deeper sources through the migmatite terrane to
emplacement at shallow crustal levels (Allen and
Chamberlain, 1992). On the other hand, the view
is held that large areas of crustally-derived gran-
ite in high-grade metamorphic terranes represent
the end product of the ultrametamorphic process
(Read, 1957; Mehnert, 1968; Brown, 1973; White
and Chappell, 1977; Brown, 1983; Tagiri et al.,
1989; Jones and Brown, 1990; Brown and
D'Lemos, 1991; Osanai et al., 1991, 1992; Perci-
val, 1991). Current dogma argues that melt vol-
umes below the critical melt fraction (Arzi, 1978;
van der Molen and Paterson, 1979; Wickham,
90 M. Brown/Earth-Science Rec&ws 36 (1994) 83-130
1987b) can not escape, whereas larger amounts of
melt above the critical melt fraction can aggre-
gate and migrate potentially to form plutonic
granites. It is this dogma that has given rise to the
perception that migmatites represent failed gran-
ites. However, since this view is inconsistent with
the geochemical evidence, for example from Hi-
malayan leucogranites (e.g. Inger and Harris,
1993), experimental evidence (e.g. Wolf and Wyl-
lie, 1991) and field evidence from magmatic brec-
cias (e.g. BEdard, 1993), clearly something other
than critical melt fraction controls what happens
to the melt.
The question, then, is not whether there is a
connection between migmatites and granites, but
rather what factors determine whether or not
low-melt fractions can segregate and escape to
form plutonic bodies of granite. The ability of
granite liquid to segregate depends upon a num-
ber of factors that include how the liquid is
distributed within the matrix of a partially molten
rock and the viscosity of that liquid. The geomet-
rical structure of partially molten rock is crucial
to understanding its behavior. An important
question is whether small melt volumes will dis-
perse along grain edges or form isolated packets.
Melting begins at polymineralic grain corners but
the relative interfacial energies, between melt
and grains and between grains, control the inter-
connectivity of the melt at low melt fractions
(Beere, 1975; Watson, 1982), at least in ideal
isotropic materials if not, apparently, in experi-
ments that involve melting solid rock (Mehnert et
al., 1973; Dell'Angelo and Tullis, 1988; Wolf and
Wyllie, 1991). In principle, melt can flow through
interconnected pores and escape, even if the pro-
portion of partial melt is very small, although in
practice the viscosity of the melt may prevent this
from occurring. In this case, non-hydrostatic stress
still may lead to deformation-assisted melt segre-
gation. Thus low-melt fractions are able to escape
their sources under suitable circumstances.
There is much insight to be gained from the
study of amphibolite and granulite facies mig-
matites concerning processes involved in crustal
melting, and the segregation, aggregation and
migration of melt. Further, study of regions where
migmatites can be related to plutonic granites
may provide insights into middle and lower crustal
processes which may be difficult to gain from
either study of granites emplaced into the upper
crust or study of lower crustal granulites (e.g.
D'Lemos et al., 1992). In particular, vital links
frequently missing are good information on the
state of the magma during ascent and the ascent
mechanism. The ascent mechanism is often in-
ferred from data which reflect only the local
emplacement mechanism. Such data may not re-
late to the regional magma ascent mechanism,
and may even lead to misinterpretation.
As is the case with many problems in geology,
evidence concerning the generation, segregation,
ascent and emplacement of granites is fragmen-
tary. Some of the hotly debated questions con-
cerning granites often are sustained by compar-
isons between granites of different ages and ori-
gins in different tectonic settings. The current
preference for movement of magma through the
crust in shear zones and magma-generated fis-
sures does not necessarily preclude diapiric as-
cent and emplacement during earlier periods of
earth history, in particular during the Archean.
Another example concerns the relative propor-
tions of crust and mantle involvement in granites.
Certainly the proportions vary as a function of
tectonic setting from extensional (e.g. Basin and
Range Province) to contractional (e.g. Himalayas),
and within a particular tectonic setting such as a
convergent plate margin, from retreating subduc-
tion boundaries in transtension (e.g. Mesozoic
Andes) to advancing subduction boundaries in
transpression (e.g. Cainozoic Andes). Therefore,
arguments about mantle involvement based upon
proportion of cognate enclaves (e.g. in calc-al-
kaline complexes) versus neodymium isotopic
compositions (e.g. in bimodal magma provinces
characteristic of continental extension) may be
comparing apples with oranges. Similar spurious
arguments are generated concerning the heat
source for granite magmatism. Assuming a sub-
stantial crustal component derived by crustal ana-
texis, then there are only three heat sources that
can be enhanced individually or in combination
to create the necessary thermal perturbation for
the crust to melt: heat generated internally by
radioactive decay; heat transfer from mantle to
 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reuiews 36 (1994) 83-130
crust by advection; and, heat transfer from man-
tle to crust by conduction. To avoid some of the
problems involved in comparisons between differ-
ent tectonic settings, this review is limited to
intracrustally-derived granites characteristic of
thickened orogens, that is principally those oro-
gens characterized by clockwise P - T - t paths.
This review is divided into five sections as
follows: generation, segregation and aggregation,
ascent and emplacement, development of a gen-
eral model applicable to orogenic granites of pre-
dominantly crustal derivation and consideration
of the wider role of granites in orogenic pro-
cesses.
2. Generation
Crustally-derived granites may be generated in
a variety of tectonic settings, providing that the
geotherm can be enhanced or an intracrustal
thermal perturbation can be created in the partic-
ular tectonic setting and assuming that fertile
crustal lithologies are available to melt. As
pointed out by Vielzeuf et al. (1990), orogenic
belts may be granitoid-rich ("fertile") or grani-
toid-poor ("sterile"), a feature which may be in-
terpreted in terms of contrasting fertility of the
major rock types in the orogens, which also may
reflect whether the crust has been bled previously
of its granitic component. Thus, orogens that
rework rigid, cratonized, differentiated and
"sterile" crust will be granitoid-poor (e.g. the
Alpides of Europe), while those involving large
amounts of clastic sediments and low-grade meta-
morphic rocks potentially would produce large
quantities of granitoid magmas, because of the
combined effects of their fertility, radiogenic heat
production and low thermal conductivity (e.g. the
Variscides of Europe).
2.1. Tectonic models
For our purposes, orogenesis may be classified
into two types (Brown, 1993). One type of oroge-
nesis produces metamorphic belts that are char-
acterized by evolutionary paths in pressure-tem-
perature space which are clockwise (Fig. 4; C W
91
500 700 900 1100
70
17.!
15.,
50
12.
10.1
30
7.
2. 10
500 700 900 1100
Fig. 4. P r e s s u r e - t e m p e r a t u r e diagram (after Thompson, 1990;
and primary references therein) to show: (1) Some of the
initial melting reactions in metapelites. (2) Initial melting
reactions for amphibolites, including the H 2 0 - s a t u r a t e d
solidus for olivine tholeiite and an approximate H 2 0 - s a t u r a t e d
solidus for quartz tholeiite based upon albite + quartz + H 20.
(3) P - T - t paths (CW; 50 km and 70 km depth after thicken-
ing) for thickening of continental crust from 35 km to 70 km,
followed by erosional thinning in 100 Ma, after a post-thicken-
ing isobaric metamorphism of 20 Ma, for an initially " h o t "
geotherm that certainly reaches granulite facies conditions. (4)
P-T-t path (CCW) for heating followed by crustal thicken-
ing and near isobaric cooling. C W = clockwise path in P - T
space; CCW = counterclockwise path in P - T space; GWS =
granite wet solidus; BWS = basalt wet solidus; /AT = island
arc tholeiite; BA = alkali basalt. Mineral abbreviations as fol-
lows: Ab = albite; Als = aluminum silicate (andalusite, silli-
manite, or kyanite as appropriate); Amp = amphibole; Bt
(ss) = Biotite solid solution; Crd = cordierite; Jd = jadeite; Ky
= kyanite; L = liquid; Ms(ss)= muscovite solid solution; Or
= K-feldspar; Pl = plagioclase; Qtz = quartz; Res = residue
and Sil= sillimanite. Reproduced from Brown (1993), with
permission of the Geological Society, London, UK.
paths). Orogenic belts of this type are generated
by basin inversion or crustal thickening followed
by erosional exhumation a n d / o r extensional
thinning a n d / o r lithospheric delamination and
orogenic collapse (Oxburgh and Turcotte, 1974;
Bird et al., 1975; Houseman et al., 1981; see also
92 M. Brown~Earth-Science Reviews36 (1994) 83-130
reviews by Thompson, 1981; Thompson and Rid-
ley, 1987). Such an evolutionary path will lead to
decompression dehydration-melting of common
crustal rock-types (Thompson, 1982, 1990; Brown,
1983; Brown and Earle, 1983; Jones and Brown,
1990). The other type of orogenesis produces
metamorphic belts that are characterized by evo-
lutionary paths in pressure-temperature space
which have a counterclockwise direction (Fig. 4;
C C W path). In such an evolution, heating pre-
cedes crustal thickening or the two may go hand-
in-hand. Models to generate such counterclock-
wise paths include intraplating of mantle-derived
magmas (Bohlen, 1987; Bohlen and Mezger, 1989;
Bohlen, 1991) and crustal thickening with con-
comitant mantle lithosphere thinning (Loosveld
and Etheridge, 1990; Sandiford and Powell, 1991).
Once again, such a process will generate dehydra-
tion melting (Thompson, 1990), and Collins and
Vernon (1991) have argued that the increased
fluid pressure and thermal softening that result
will lead to accelerated, melt-enhanced deforma-
tion and thickening of the orogenic belt during
cooling.
Convergent plate margins
Woodcock (1986) showed that a majority (59%)
of contemporary convergent plate boundaries
have a relative velocity vector that is markedly
oblique (> 22 °) to the boundary normal; further,
a significant proportion (14%) have vectors that
are nearly (_+ 22°) parallel to the boundary. Thus,
it is reasonable to expect that oblique conver-
gence was important in the past. In such circum-
stances retreating subduction boundaries will re-
sult in regional deformation of the overriding
plate by horizontal extension or transtension in
contrast to advancing subduction boundaries that
will result in regional deformation of the overrid-
ing plate by horizontal shortening or transpres-
sion. Accommodation of the oblique motion usu-
ally involves strike-slip faulting, but strike-slip
faulting in general is less commonly recognized in
ancient orogenic belts than its abundance in pre-
sent plate-boundary orogens requires. This re-
flects both poor understanding of strike-slip
kinematics and deeper prejudices about the way
in which orogenic belts form, and possibly ab-
sence of kinematic analysis in some orogenic belts.
Until recently, models of convergent plate
boundaries were fundamentally two-dimensional
and the relation between plate motion and oroge-
nesis--magmatism, deformation and metamor-
p h i s m - w a s unclear. Regardless of the relative
velocity vector, boundary-parallel contractional
belts were thought to be formed by displacements
normal to the plate-margin. Plate margin parallel
strike-slip fault systems were recognized in some
orogenic belts, but displacements were thought to
be unrelated to thrust systems. More recently, it
has been demonstrated that displacements paral-
lel to the plate margins may be large and may
occur simultaneously with plate-margin-normal
contraction in fold and thrust belts. Such belts
are called transpressional. A model for the strain
and structural development in transpressional
belts has been derived by Sanderson and Mar-
chini (1984). Some thermal and mechanical con-
sequences of rapid uplift during transpression
have been investigated by Koons (1987). How-
ever, the metamorphic and magmatic evolution of
transpressional orogens is not well understood; in
this review I will consider the relationship be-
tween transpression and the development of ana-
tectic migmatites and intracrustal granites and
will develop a general model from one particular
example.
2.2. Heat
What is the heat source for granite genesis and
is there a problem? The presence of granites
indicates that if there is a problem it is in our
failure to understand how heat of sufficient mag-
nitude is maintained for sufficient time to gener-
ate the observed outcome! In order for significant
melting of crustal rocks to occur, some kind of
positive thermal perturbation is required, but it
must have the thermal capacity to absorb the
necessary heat of fusion as well as to achieve
temperatures at which fusion can occur! Simplify-
ing matters, the thermal perturbation may be
generated by one of three mechanisms, which
may not always operate independently. (1) Over-
 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reuiews 36 (1994) 83-130
thickening of sedimentary basins during struc-
tural inversion (Treloar and Brown, 1990) or
crustal thickening during collisional orogenesis
(England and Thompson, 1984, 1986; De Yoreo
et al., 1989) followed by erosional exhumation
a n d / o r extensional thinning a n d / o r lithospheric
delamination and orogenic collapse may lead to
high-temperature metamorphism and crustal ana-
texis. Heat generation by internal radioactive de-
cay during thermal relaxation and uplift conse-
quent upon thickening can generate a significant
thermal pulse with a decay period similar to the
time-scale of an orogenic cycle (e.g. Chamberlain
and Sonder, 1990). (2) An alternative view, which
may be complementary in some circumstances, is
that the heat required for crustal anatexis is a
result of crustal growth through underplating
a n d / o r intraplating of mantle-derived magma
(Holland and Lambert, 1975; Wells, 1981; Bohlen,
1987; Bergantz, 1989; Bohlen and Mezger, 1989;
Fountain et al., 1989; Clemens, 1990; Bohlen,
1991). (3) Finally, an enhanced mantle heat flux
could provide the necessary thermal anomaly for
crustal anatexis. Detachment of the lower (man-
tle) lithosphere to be replaced by hotter astheno-
sphere is an effective way of increasing the man-
tle heat flux into the lower crust (Bird, 1979;
Loosveld and Etheridge, 1990; Kay and Mahl-
burg-Kay, 1991; Sandiford and Powell, 1991; El-
lis, 1992). Other mechanisms sometimes sug-
gested as heat sources, such as heat transfer by
overthrusting of hot rocks onto colder rocks or
flow of metamorphic fluid, are modifiers rather
than the principal cause of the required thermal
perturbation [see for example, Jaupart and
Provost (1985) for an analysis of heat focussing as
a consequence of overthrusting, Swapp and Hol-
lister (1991) for an excellent example of a tectoni-
cally transported heat source, and Brady (1988),
Chamberlain and Rumble (1988) and Thompson
and Connolly (1992) for an analysis of the heat
contribution by fluid flow]. Further, evolutionary
processes in orogenic belts naturally lead to com-
binations of mechanisms. An example is illus-
trated by the Velay anatectic dome, Massif Cen-
tral, France, where late-stage intrusion of hot
mafic magmas within the crust promoted exten-
sive melting and granite magma production
93
(Montel et al., 1992); this thermal spike to high T
was superimposed on a clockwise P - T evolution.
2.3. Crustal anatexis
Melting of common crustal lithologies may oc-
cur in the presence of a water-rich volatile phase
at P and T (Tuttle and Bowen, 1958; Luth et al.,
1964). Whether such melting will produce mobile
granite magma will be determined by the amount
of water-rich volatile phase available. Volatile
phase-present crustal anatexis has been suggested
by Brown (1979) for the St. Malo migmatite belt,
northwest France, by Wickham (1987a) for the
Trois Seigneurs Massif in the Pyrenees and by
Montel et al. (1992) for the first stage of melting
in the Velay anatectic dome, Massif Central,
France. In all of these examples, melting of
metasedimentary rocks occurs at relatively shal-
low (mid-crustal) levels. The volatile phase in
such examples may be convected, chemically
evolved meteoric water (Wickham and Oxburgh,
1985; Wickham and Taylor, 1985; Nesbitt and
Muehlenbachs, 1989; Percival, 1989).
More generally, volatile phase-absent partial
melting of common crustal rock-types is indicated
(Brown and Fyfe, 1972; Thompson, 1982). Models
and experiments indicate that volatile phase-ab-
sent dehydration melting of common crustal rocks,
at T of 750-900°C, will yield 10-50 vol.% granitic
melt over a narrow temperature interval that
corresponds to the breakdown of the major hy-
drous phase (see, for example, Clemens and
Vielzeuf, 1987; De Yoreo, 1988; LeBreton and
Thompson, 1988; Rutter and Wyllie, 1988;
Vielzeuf and Holloway, 1988; Vielzeuf et al., 1990;
Patifio Douce et al., 1990; Patifio Douce and
Johnston, 1991; Rushmer, 1991a; Skjerlie et al.,
1993; Wolf and Wyllie, 1993). The amount of
melt will be proportional to the amount of hy-
drous minerals. However, the experimental re-
sults reported by Skjerlie et al. (1993) show that
rocks which are poor melt-producers on their
own can become much more fertile if they occur
in contact with rocks that contain components
that destabilize the hydrous phase(s) and facili-
tate dehydration melting. One implication of
these results is that the continental crust may
94 M. Brown/Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130
have an even greater potential for granitic melt
production than previously thought. The rates of
melt production, as a function of increasing T,
are non-linear and periods of rapid melt produc-
tion over narrow intervals of T are to be ex-
pected (Rutter and Wyllie, 1988; Vielzeuf and
Holloway, 1988; Rushmer, 1991a). Given the
steep, generally positive, slopes of volatile-phase
absent dehydration melting curves in P - T space
(Fig. 4) and the positive AV of reaction implied,
then melting is accompanied by a positive volume
change which will be on the order of 0-20%
(Mawer et al., 1988; Clemens and Mawer, 1992).
The consequences of this increase in volume for
magma segregation, aggregation and ascent may
be significant in some circumstances. The concen-
tration of H 2 0 in the melt will be a function of P
and T, the saturating mineral assemblage and the
mole fraction of the hydroxy component in the
hydrous minerals.
CO2-promoted deep crustal melting has been
supported by the experimental work of Peterson
and Newton (1989). However, the role of carbon
dioxide in the metamorphism and melting of the
crust remains controversial in view of some impli-
cations of their experimental work, such as the
requirement that CO 2 should be more soluble in
the melts than H 2 0 at P and T in the face of
considerable experimental results to the contrary.
Furthermore, Clemens (1993) has been unable to
replicate the results of Peterson and Newton.
This lack of corroboration has cast doubt on the
general idea of melt fluxing by CO 2. For a recent
review of fluid-absent melting and the role of
fluids in the lithosphere see Stevens and Clemens
(1993).
Volatile phase-absent dehydration melting that
involves muscovite, muscovite and biotite, biotite,
hornblende, hornblende and biotite, and horn-
blende and orthopyroxene has been reviewed re-
cently by Thompson (1990) and Vielzeuf et al.
(1990), so it will not be dealt with in detail herein.
A P - T diagram to show selected melting reac-
tions and P - T - t paths for rocks involved in
clockwise orogenic belts (CW paths) and counter-
clockwise orogenic belts (CCW path) is given in
Fig. 4 (after Thompson, 1990). The sequence of
events outlined below will only be approximate
because the univariant lines shown in Fig. 4 are
for simplified chemical systems. In nature, the
real reactions are part of a multisystem, with
either a mixed volatile phase present or no volatile
phase present and with melts of variable compo-
sition, and so the exact position of the reaction
curves will be modified. In pelitic metasediments,
at pressures below about 15 kbar, first muscovite
and then biotite undergo decomposition involving
dehydration that leads to melting through reac-
tions which involve feldspars + quartz + AlzSiO 5
(e.g. at b); at pressures above about 15 kbar,
initial decomposition of phengitic muscovite and
dehydration that leads to melting produces bi-
otite (e.g. at k). Fig. 4 illustrates P - T - t paths
generated by doubling a 35 kin-thick crust and
subsequent exhumation (CW paths). The deeper
crust (from 35 to 70 km) would show some dehy-
dration melting of mica. Dehydration melting of
amphibolite occurs over a wide temperature range
according to the chemistry of the protolith, island
arc tholeiite (IAT) versus alkali basalt (BA), re-
flected in its mineralogy (Rushmer, 1991a). More
magmatically evolved compositions ( I A T , Fig. 4)
undergo dehydration melting at lower tempera-
tures than more primitive basalt (BA, Fig. 4).
This suggests that some amphibolites might begin
dehydration melting at temperatures only slightly
higher than those required for melting of
metapelites caused by dehydration of biotite (see,
for example, Wolf and Wyllie, 1993).
As an illustration, simplified to assume closed
system behavior without segregation of melt, con-
sider what happens along a CW P - T - t path that
represents crust initially at 15 km thickened to 50
km (Fig. 4). Assuming that some free H20 is
available, then, for clastic sediments of suitable
bulk composition, volatile phase-present melting
will occur at (a). However, the amount of free
H 2 0 that remains in pores or along grain bound-
aries from earlier prograde dehydration reac-
tions, or that might migrate from less fertile to
more fertile layers, will be small and will allow
only very limited melting at the H20-saturated
solidus (Connolly and Thompson, 1989), due to
the high solubility of water in granitic melts at
deep crustal pressures (Clemens and Vielzeuf,
1987; Johannes and Holtz, 1991). Muscovite un-
 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reeiews 36 (1994) 83-130
dergoes decomposition involving dehydration that
leads to melting at (b), producing kyanite and
K-feldspar through incongruent melting. At deep
crustal pressures, but < 15 kbar, this is followed
immediately by biotite decomposition involving
dehydration leading to melting at (c), which con-
sumes kyanite and produces garnet at this pres-
sure, as shown in Fig. 5. The latter assemblage
will show a transition from kyanite to sillimanite
(e) and the reaction of garnet+ sillimanite +
quartz to produce cordierite, between about 8 to
5 kbar (g), assuming that melt and residual crys-
tals remain in contact, i.e. no significant segrega-
tion of melt has occurred. In a closed system, at
(h) "rehydration-crystallization" will consume
cordierite and crystallize some melt, as indicated
by textures such as that in Fig. 6. The remaining
melt will most likely undergo complete "rehydra-
tion-crystallization" at point (i), and will not ex-
hibit any boiling at the H20-saturated solidus at
Fig. 5. Stromatic migmatite from South Brittany, France.
Large garnet crystals c. 50 mm across are set in a minimal
volume of leucosome to suggest some melt migration, at least
out of the plane of the photograph. Garnet crystals are the
product of decomposition of biotite involving dehydration that
led to melting. Diameter of lens cap c. 55 mm.
95
(j). However, melt segregated from the mela-
nosome will undergo some "hydration crystalliza-
tion", and significant amounts of "boiling" may
occur when the P - T - t path recrosses the H20-
saturated solidus. Quartz-bearing amphibolite
layers will exhibit amphibole decomposition in-
volving dehydration that leads to melting, at (d),
with the production of tonalite melt, as shown in
Fig. 7 (at higher pressures, where garnet is stable,
the melt will be trondhjemitic). At (f), in a
closed system, "rehydration-crystallization" of the
tonalite segregations within the amphibolite lay-
ers will occur. The complete and pervasive "rehy-
dration-crystallization" expected from closed-
system behavior commonly is not observed either
in migmatites or in granulites. In addition to loss
of water that escapes from the system in migrat-
ing melt, this is at least partly due to coronitic
overgrowth of reaction products on anhydrous
reactants, for example this occurs during rapid
adiabatic decompression which is a common ele-
ment of the exhumation path in orogens charac-
terized by clockwise P - T - t paths. An example of
such a clockwise evolution has been presented by
Jones and Brown (1990).
In contrast, consider what happens along a
CCW P - T - t path that represents some thicken-
ing during heating, followed by substantial thick-
ening and approximately isobaric cooling at
deeper crustal levels, again assuming closed sys-
tem behavior without segregation of melt (Fig. 4).
Muscovite-bearing sediments will undergo sub-
solidus decomposition involving dehydration at
(p). If this fluid migrates away before the rock
sequence reaches the H20-saturated solidus at
(q), then no melting will occur. However, anatexis
could occur in fertile compositions if H20 re-
leased by subsolidus dehydration did not migrate
out of the system. Biotite decomposition involving
dehydration that leads to melting will occur at
(s), which consumes sillimanite and produces
cordierite. During thickening, cordierite will react
to produce garnet + sillimanite + quartz between
about 5 to 8 kbar (u), assuming that melt and
residual crystals remain in contact, i.e. no signifi-
cant segregation of melt has occurred. Approxi-
mate isobaric cooling will result in "rehydration-
crystallization" at (w) in a closed system, fol-
96 M. Brown ~Earth-Science ReL,iews 36 (1994) 83-130
lowed by transition from sillimanite to kyanite at
(x) and further "rehydration-crystallization" at
(y) if free water is still available. Any remaining
melt will exhibit "boiling" at the H20-saturated
solidus at (z). Quartz-bearing amphibolite layers
will exhibit amphibole decomposition involving
dehydration that leads to melting, with the pro-
duction of tonalite melt, at (t). At (v), "rehydra-
tion-crystallization" of tonalite segregations with-
in the amphibolite layers will occur in a closed
system. Once again, "rehydration-crystallization"
is limited, which is partly due to armoring of
anhydrous reactants during rapid isobaric cool-
ing.
The discussion above has been simplified from
Thompson (1990; see also Ellis and Thompson,
1986; Rushmer, 1991a), who points out that in
spite of many attempts to understand the com-
plex details of beginning of melting reactions in
common lower crustal rock types, many of the
relevant reactions in the appropriate petrogenetic
Fig. 6. Photomicrographto show"rehydration-crystallization"of cordierite rim around garnet in Athis granitecomplex,northwest
France. Lengthof field of viewc. 14 mm.
grids are not yet well understood. Production of a
large quantity of melt in the temperature range
750-900°C will have the effect of buffering meta-
morphic temperature in the melting zone (Fyfe et
al., 1978; Rice and Ferry, 1982; Zen, 1988;
Vielzeuf et al., 1990), and migration of melt will
have the effect of dehydrating the lower crust
(Fyfe, 1973a; Powell, 1983). Additionally, the
presence of melt will lower the strength of the
crust and promote failure by fracturing (Clemens
and Mawer, 1992). In effect, the complete se-
quence outlined above for ideal closed system
behavior in a model system likely will not occur in
nature due to segregation, aggregation and mi-
gration of melt. The high temperature of dehy-
dration melting in the crust and relatively low
water content of the resultant melts in fact allows
them to rise to shallow levels in the crust (Cann,
1970). As granite magma (liquid plus crystals)
ascends adiabatically through the crust, assuming
closed system behavior, the melt fraction, the
 M. Brown/Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130 97

H20 activity and the effective viscosity increase
and the temperature decreases slightly with de-
creasing pressure (Johannes and Holtz, 1991).
3. Segregation and aggregation
Some high-P granulites have geochemical and
mineralogical characteristics consistent with an
origin as restitic residues of partial fusion and
granite separation (e.g. Clifford et al., 1981;
Brown and Earle, 1983; Clemens, 1989; Vielzeuf
et al., 1990), particularly if a polycyclic evolution
is acceptable (Rudnick and Presper, 1990; Rud-
nick, 1992). Moreover, textures and structures in
some restitic granulites suggest that melt must
have been evacuated without disruption of meso-
scopic lithological layering (Brown and Earle,
1983; Clemens, 1989). Both of these observations
indicate efficient segregation of melt. The impor-
tant question is, how does melt segregate from
the residue? In particular, how do small melt
fractions segregate from their matrices? Also, if
the bulk of the melt is segregated, will the part
left behind with the residue, equivalent to the
permeability threshold (Maal0e, 1982; Sawyer,
1993), be sufficient to explain the geochemistry of
some granulites (Rudnick, 1992)? Are there dif-
ferences between CW and CCW orogens that
affect melt escape? Does the rapid rate of heat-
ing/ rate of melting in CCW orogens, likely driven
by influx of basaltic magma, facilitate melt es-
cape? Is deformation that produces low pressure
structural sites, such as extensional fractures and
shear zones, necessary to facilitate melt aggrega-
tion and escape in CW orogens that exhibit slower
rates of heating and melt production?
3.1. The geometry and strength of partially molten
rock
The distribution of a small volume of melt
within a material comprised of isotropic grains
under conditions of chemical and mechanical
equilibrium is controlled by the relative surface
tension (or interracial energy) of the interfaces of

Fig. 7. Discordant leucosome patch in amphibolite protolith contains large pyroxene crystals and results from amphibole
decomposition involving dehydration that led to melting; note that the style of the resultant leucosome patch, located in an
extensional fracture, contrasts with the common stromatic structure of pelitic migmatites; South Brittany, France. Diameter of lens
cap c. 55 mm.
98 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130
melt against solid by comparison with the solid-
solid interfaces. These relative interracial ener-
gies determine the geometrical relations of the
melt pores with the solid grains, and are most
simply expressed in terms of the dihedral angle
(or wetting angle), which is defined as the angle
subtending two solid grains adjacent to a melt
pool. For a dihedral angle of 0° a melt, even at
small melt fractions of < 1%, will wet all grain
surfaces. If the dihedral angle is greater than 0 °
but less than 60°, the melt is dispersed along
curved prismatic channels at the junctions be-
tween mineral grains and forms a continuously
connected phase throughout the rock even if it is
present in only vanishingly small amounts. In
materials where the dihedral angle is greater than
60°, small melt volumes will form isolated pores
at grain corners and edges such that the estab-
lishment of continuous connection for the whole
melt fraction depends upon increasing the pro-
portion of melt in the system until the pores can
coalesce. As the dihedral angle increases above
60° so the amount of melt necessary to establish
connectivity (continuous porosity) also is in-
creased (Beere, 1975). Where several solid phases
are present, differences in dihedral angle may
result in melt distributions that deviate substan-
tially from simple geometric models and connec-
tivity of melt may be established between certain
phases but not others. Furthermore, the interfa-
cial energy theory was developed for structurally
isotropic materials and requires modification for
minerals with low symmetry and significant struc-
tural anisotropy, because grain boundary energy
depends strongly on the specific crystallographic
planes forming the interface.
The whole issue of what controls connectivity
has been questioned by the dehydration-melting
experiments on solid amphibolite by Wolf and
WyIlie (1991) in which melt volumes of only 2%
generated at 875°C were interconnected. In this
case the interconnectivity depended upon the ge-
ometries of the liquid pockets. The geometry of
these liquid pockets appears to have been influ-
enced more by hornblende-plagioclase locations
and the hornblende crystallography than by dihe-
dral angles. The results from these experiments
intimate that the phase equilibrium constraints
and structural anisotropy of the minerals domi-
nate over the surface energy effects (Wolf and
Wyllie, 1991). Dynamic melting experiments by
Mawer (1993) on rock analog materials led him to
believe that wetting angles are unstable and ap-
proach 0°, with consequent high connectivity of
melt. This implies that in zones of high strain
even small volumes of melt will form an intercon-
nected network of grain-edge channels that po-
tentially can escape.
Experimentally-determined static solid-solid-
melt dihedral angles for alkali feldspar-alkali
feldspar, alkali feldspar-quartz and quartz-
quartz solids against felsic melt are 44-59 °
(Jurewicz and Watson, 1985). Recent work re-
ported by Laporte and Provost (1993), based on
melting experiments in quartz-albite-potash
feldspar-H20 and quartz-anorthite-H20 sys-
tems, indicates much lower wetting angles for
quartz against hydrous silicic melts, and strong
departure from isotropy for feldspar and hydrous
silicic melts leading to significant deviation from
the ideal model. For mafic minerals in granitic
systems, experimentally-determined static solid-
solid-melt dihedral angles for biotite-biotite
against silicic melt (Laporte, 1988), biotite-bio-
tite against hydrous felsic melt (Watson and La-
porte, 1989) and amphibole-amphibole against
basaltic andesite melt (Vincenzi et al., 1988) are
30°, 40° and 33 °, respectively. Overall, the range
of static wetting angles determined for felsic melts
is similar to that for basaltic melts (see tabulation
in Harte et al., 1993). These data indicate that
during crustal anatexis in appropriate source ma-
terials, however low the fraction of melt, there
would be a continuous interconnection. This is
extremely important because it means that if the
viscosity of the melt is low enough then the melt
can flow through the interconnected pores and
escape, even if the proportion of partial melt is
very small. During the experiments of Jurewicz
and Watson (1985) some melt aggregated in pools
surrounded by more than three grains, which they
attributed to melt in excess of the amount that
minimizes the interracial energy of the system.
One final point on the geometry of melt distribu-
tion, melting experiments on solid-rock samples
which generate 5-10% melt commonly do not
 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130 99

develop homogeneous melt distributions (Meh-
nert et al., 1973; Dell'Angelo and Tullis, 1988;
Wolf and Wyllie, 1991) and some regions in the
samples have higher concentrations of melt.
Knowledge of bulk-system physical properties,
particularly effective viscosity, is clearly important
to the segregation (and aggregation and ascent)
of granite magma. Both the rheological critical
melt percentage and the critical melt fraction are
terms used to describe the point, expressed as
volume of melt, at which partially melted rocks
change from granular framework (crystal domi-
nated, high viscosity) to dense suspension (melt
dominated, lower viscosity) behavior (see discus-
sion in Wickham, 1987b; refer to Arzi, 1978; and,
van der Molen and Paterson, 1979). The concept
of a critical melt fraction is based on the Ein-
stein-Roscoe equation (Roscoe, 1952) for the
viscosity of a Newtonian fluid that contains a
concentration of spheres that are incompressible
relative to the fluid. In this theoretical case, when
the spheres are closely packed the system is effec-
tively solid. However, some liquid (26 vol.% of
the suspension) is trapped between the spheres.
Thus, the viscosity is a maximum at a solid con-
centration of 74% or more. An increase in the
range of particle sizes results in a decrease in the
amount of liquid trapped between particles and
hence the packing density increases at high solid
fractions (Ward and Whitmore, 1950a). However,

Fig. 8. Metatexite from South Brittany, France. This example shows outcrop-scale textural and structural variation which could be
interpreted to support the idea that a critical melt fraction of c. 30% is a valid concept in some anatectic settings, possible volatile
phase-present melting and lower-temperature melting rather than volatile phase-absent dehydration melting and high-temperature
melting. The left-hand part of the field of view shows leucosome with biotite selvages or melanosome set in schistose paleosome,
the leucosome corresponds to c. 30% melt, which is generally below the critical melt fraction, and a stromatic structure was
maintained. In the center of the field of view the leucosome corresponds to > 50% melt which is above the critical melt fraction,
and in this case clearly resulted in disruption of the stromatic layering and the development of a schlieric migmatite. Diameter of
coin c. 25 mm.
100 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130

this effect is balanced by the tendency for irregu-
larly shaped particles in the fluid both to trap
liquid on uneven surfaces by surface tension
(Ward and Whitmore, 1950b), and by the ten-
dency of particles to form aggregates which fur-
ther trap liquid (Roscoe, 1952). Thus, there is a
complex interplay between particle size distribu-
tion, rough vs. smooth surfaces, and tendency to
aggregation. Further, identical rigid spheres are
not good analogues for equant quartz, tabular
feldspar or flakey mica and acicular amphibole.
The interplay between these factors means that,
in rocks, under static conditions, the critical melt
fraction likely is within the range 30-50 vol.%
melt; within this interval, a huge change in the
effective viscosity of a partially molten granitic
system may occur, which will have important im-
plications regarding the susceptibility of such par-
tially molten granitic systems to convection
(Wickham, 1987b). An occurrence interpreted as
an example of melt vol.% exceeding locally the
critical melt fraction is shown in Fig. 8. The
stromatic migmatite in the left hand half of the
field of view contains c. 30% leucosome on aver-
age, whereas in the center of the field of view the
leucosome exceeds 50% and disaggregation of
the rock structure has produced a schlieric
migmatite. Once the melt vol.% exceeds the criti-
cal melt fraction more widely, an enclave-bearing
schlieric migmatite is produced (Fig. 9), and
eventually a schlieric granite or diatexite (Fig.
10).
An alternative approach to the question of
bulk-system rheological properties is to consider
contiguity (German, 1985; Watson, 1987; Miller
et al., 1988), which refers to the fraction of sur-
face area of all solid grains that is shared with
other solid grains. The contiguity depends mainly

Fig. 9. Inhomogeneous diatexite from the St. Malo migmatite belt, northwest France. Schlieric migmatite contains enclaves of
stromatic migmatite, one of which, to the right of the coin, clearly shows the migmatitic banding deflected into asymmetric folds
which presumably represent the edges of syn-anatexis shear zones. One interpretation is that the melt vol.% exceeded the critical
melt fraction and resulted in disruption of the structure of the protolith. Diameter of coin c. 25 ram.
 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130 101

Fig. 10. Schlieric migmatite or inhomogeneous diatexite from the St. Malo Migmatite Belt, northwest France. This structure is a
consequence of melting substantially in excess of the critical melt fraction resulting in whole-scale migration of melt plus residual
crystals as a mobile anatectic magma. Diameter of coin c. 25 mm.

upon melt fraction and wetting angle, and secon-
darily on grain size distribution. For static wetting
angles of 44-59 ° contiguity drops from 1 to c.
0.45 with 10% melting, to c. 0.2 with 50% melting
and to c. 0.1 at 90% melting. The continuous,
self-supporting skeleton of solid grains breaks
down at contiguity of 0.2-0.15. This means that
the contiguity may be sufficiently high even at a
melt fraction of c. 0.5 to sustain a rigid, continu-
ous skeleton of interconnected grains. While at
low strain rates contiguity likely is maintained by
creep of the solid skeleton, at high strain rates it
will not be, and the critical melt fraction leading
to breakdown of the self-supporting skeleton is
likely to be lower than 0.5 (Miller et al., 1988).
Furthermore, the concept of critical melt fraction
may be inappropriate at high strain rates because
the strength of the rock (as measured by its
effective viscosity) will decrease not because of a
shift to a rheology dominated by melt fraction but
because the solid skeleton will break down due to
the high differential stress and fracturing will be
induced at low melt fractions.
Rushmer (1991b, 1992) has investigated exper-
imentally deformation of partially molten amphi-
bolite. The results indicate that the melt fraction
at which initial, dramatic weakening will occur
probably is low (5-15%), much lower than the
theoretical critical melt fraction (c. 30-40%). The
initial weakening certainly is dependent on strain
rate, but it is possible that in active tectonic
regimes where natural strain rates are high (such
as collisional orogens), low fraction, granite mini-
m u m melts may be expelled during deformation.
Although the foregoing relates to melting in
the anatectic environment, the change within a
crystallizing m a g m a from melt dominated (lower
effective viscosity) to crystal dominated (high ef-
fective viscosity) controls the rheological regime
and, therefore, the deformation mechanism and
type of fabric that might be produced as a result
of deformation. The formation of a framework of
102 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130
crystals is critical to the change in rheology, so
that stresses are sustained by the crystals rather
than by the melt.
3.2. The segregation mechanism
The processes by which melt separates from
associated solids, either during anatexis to form
migmatites or granites, or during crystallization to
liberate residual liquids, are not understood com-
pletely. There is increasing agreement that small
volume melt fractions can be extracted from both
residual solids during melting (e.g. Wolf and Wyl-
lie, 1991; Clemens and Mawer, 1992; Sawyer,
1993) and cumulate solids during crystallization
(Mahood and Cornejo, 1992; Petford, 1993). One
is obliged to ask how long can the crust remain
subject only to lithostatic stress. Some deviatoric
stress should develop in the c. 1-10 m.y. period
of a regional metamorphic e#ent. The almost
universal structural complexity seen in regional
migmatite terranes suggests that this is the case.
Thus, it is likely that deformation will occur at
some stage during the evolution of a partially
melted rock and will contribute to the ability of
that melt potentially to escape. The driving force
for melt segregation likely is either chemical,
related to surface tension, or physical and either
related to buoyancy of the melt and driven by
gravity or related to structural features and driven
by non-hydrostatic stress and pressure gradients.
Although, a large number of mechanisms have
been suggested to explain the segregation of melt
from residue, individually they reflect some com-
bination of these driving forces.
In the absence of externally applied stress, a
silicate melt can separate from residual crystals at
low melt fraction by a compaction process, in
which the solid matrix settles to expel the intra-
granular liquid (Sleep, 1974; Robin, 1979; Mc-
Kenzie, 1984, 1985; Richter and McKenzie, 1984;
Ribe, 1987). In this process, a partially molten
region is regarded as a deformable porous
medium or "matrix" saturated with melt. Migra-
tion of melt relative to the matrix can be driven
by either the buoyancy of the melt or non-hydro-
static pressure gradients associated with the de-
formation of the matrix. Partially molten material
will compact if the melt is interconnected, due to
the lower surface energy of solid-solid contacts,
and if the density of the melt differs from that of
the matrix, conditions generally satisfied during
crustal anatexis (average wetting angle for silicate
minerals < 60° and lower density of granite melt
than protolith or residuum). However, segrega-
tion of granitic magma from residual crystals at
low melt fractions is strongly dependent on melt
viscosity, and melt viscosity is dependent on H 2°
content. Although Wickham (1987b) estimated
that typical granite melt viscosities would limit
melt segregation by compaction, the data of Wolf
and Wyllie (1991), Clemens and Mawer (1992)
and Petford (1993) suggest that granite melt vis-
cosities may have been over-estimated, particu-
larly for low volume melt fractions which likely
were H20-saturated. Indeed, Wolf and Wyllie
(1991) conclude that bodies of H20-saturated
granite liquid might be generated and segregated
from a source of amphibolite experiencing dehy-
dration melting at 875°C on a time scale of c. 1
m.y. Natural observations indicate that melt seg-
regation commonly is syntectonic which implies
that an additional driving force to that provided
by compaction results from differential stress dur-
ing regional deformation. The geochemical as-
pects of permeability-controlled partial melting,
termed critical melting, have been considered by
Maal0e (1982) and applied to migmatite leuco-
some segregation mechanisms by Sawyer (1993).
A novel diffusion and gravity-driven com-
paction mechanism has been proposed by Miller
et al. (1988). They suggest that material transfer
through the liquid may promote growth of larger
grains at the expense of smaller ones, with the
result that the larger grains ultimately may detach
and drop to the bottom of the melt pocket in
which they have been growing. The geological
efficacy of such a gravity-driven compaction pro-
cess is uncertain, but if applicable it has the merit
of aggregating melt into pockets. The experimen-
tal work of Wolf and Wyllie (1991) indicates that
such enlarged melt pockets would be intercon-
nected; this would increase the permeability of
the system and, therefore, enhance the prospects
for segregation of the liquid from the rock matrix.
In a closed system, assuming volatile phase-
 M. Brown ~Earth-Science ReL,iews 36 (1994) 83-130 103

present melting, a volume reduction will occur on
crossing the granite solidus because the residue
plus melt occupies a smaller volume than the
original solid protolith and the associated volatile
phase, the reason for negative slopes of the so-
lidii. In contrast, during dehydration melting a
volume increase will occur, reflected in positive
slopes for such reaction curves. Clearly, whether
there is a volume reduction or a volume increase
will influence the segregation process, unless the
volume change can be accommodated by dis-
tributed ductile deformation. The rates of melt
production by volatile phase-absent partial melt-
ing with increasing T are highly nonlinear, and
periods of rapid melt production over narrow
intervals of T are to be expected, resulting in
high pore melt pressures, lowering effective nor-
mal stress and promoting hydraulic fracture as a
segregation mechanism. An explanation of how
segregation operates under nonhydrostatic stress
conditions has been given by Dell'Angelo and
Tullis (1988), as follows. In many low-melt-frac-
tion rocks, the amount of melt produced will have
been in excess of that required for a minimum
surface energy texture (Jurewicz and Watson,
1985). In such cases, excess melt will migrate to a
lower pressure collection site. If melt is confined
so that it can not migrate freely, or if the imposed
strain rate is higher than the rate at which melt
can flow out of the system, then the fluid pres-
sure will increase and the resultant high pore
melt pressure should promote brittle deformation
and melt migration through hydraulic fractures
(Dell'Angelo and Tullis, 1988; Rushmer, 1991b,
1992; Clemens and Mawer, 1992), and an exam-
ple is provided by Allibone and Norris (1992). In
many migmatites stiffer layers in an anisotropic
protolith allow dilatant sites, such as boudin
necks, to develop and melt migrates to these sites
(c.f. melt-induced fluid-pumping of Percival,
1989). Examples of leucosome migration to dila-
tant sites, such as boudin necks, are shown in
Figs. 7, 11 and 12. That the melt appears to have
migrated parallel to lithological layering and tec-
tonic foliation is no surprise given the experimen-
tal results of Laporte (1988) that indicate for a

Fig. 11. Migmatite from South Brittany, France. Leucosome is preferentially located in boudin neck, interpreted to reflect melt
migration parallel to the tectonic foliation to a low pressure site (dilatancy-pumping). Diameter of coin c. 25 mm.
104 M. Brown/Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130
Fig. 12. Boudins on several scales within layered amphibolite,
Tolstik Peninsula, Karelia, Russia. Anatectic melt represented
by leucosome has migrated preferentially parallel to the tec-
tonic foliation to the boudin necks, at each of the scales,
possibly by a dilatancy-pumpingmechanism. Diameter of lens
cap c. 55 mm.
biotite-rich, partially molten source with a strong
preferred orientation, the degree of connectivity
of the melt is higher in sections parallel to the
foliation than in sections normal to the foliation.
For geological strain rates at melt fractions below
the critical volume, extraction of excess melt
would be a gradual process, and the r e s t i t e - -
while melt was still present--would deform by
dislocation a n d / o r diffusion creep (Dell'Angelo
and Tullis, 1988).
Many migmatites are characterized by stro-
matic structure composed of leucosome-melano-
some-mesosome layers on a regular scale. This
suggests that some common mechanism is re-
sponsible for migration of granite melt to form
leucosome layers. It is unlikely in most of these
examples that the mechanism reflects upward
flow channels, although vertical interconnected
leucosome-bearing crenulation zones have been
described by Hand and Dirks (1992). Indeed, the
migmatitic layering commonly occurs parallel to
both the lithological layering and the tectonic
foliation, commonly interpreted as a compres-
sionally-induced feature, although in some cir-
cumstances the migmatitic layering may be
mimetic. It is likely that such a stromatic
migmatite structure is a consequence of small-
scale melt segregation within crustal rocks under-
going large-scale deformation as a consequence
of gradients in mean effective stress between
rheologically contrasting layers of rock. Miller
and McLellan (1986) have suggested that if ana-
texis is accompanied by layer-parallel shearing
then mica-poor leucosomes should be more com-
petent and more permeable than mica-rich mela-
nosomes. Further, they suggest that at low to
moderate melt fractions mechanical equilibrium
will be reached most rapidly through porous-
media flow of melt from the less competent mela-
nosome to the more competent leucosome. This
mechanism is sometimes referred to as filter-
pressing. Pre-existing compositional and textural
heterogeneities may be amplified by this process,
and Johannes (1988) has suggested that inherited
compositional differences may control amounts of
water between layers and therefore amounts of
melt. Stevenson (1989) argued that melt migrates
along the direction parallel to the axis of mini-
mum compressive stress and accumulates in
melt-rich lenses or layers. Such a mechanism is
necessary to explain the preservation of primary
compositional layering in stromatic migmatites.
Further, he argued that veins eventually may
form an interconnected drainage network to al-
low rapid vertical flushing of melt. In this case, a
depleted granulite with preserved primary com-
positional layering may be the end product.
Deformation-enhanced segregation has been
invoked by Robin (1979), Paquet and Francois
(1980), Paquet et al. (1981), Barr (1985), McLel-
lan (1988, 1989), Sawyer (1991, 1993) and D'Le-
mos et al. (1992) among others. During exten-
 M. Brown/Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130 105

sional fracturing local pressure gradients promote
melt flow towards the fracture, providing a possi-
ble segregation mechanism (Shaw, 1980; Sleep,
1988). Dilatancy-driven flow and melt-pumping,
in particular in strike-slip systems, has been sug-
gested as a segregation and ascent mechanism
(Davies, 1982; D ' L e m o s et al., 1992). Dilatancy-
driven and deformation-enhanced segregation
mechanisms, such as melt migration into shear
zones, are attractive because they could operate
in nearly any partially molten system. That defor-
mation is effective in promoting segregation of
granite melt in low-melt-fraction rocks has been
demonstrated by McLellan (1988, 1989). In par-
tially molten rock undergoing shearing dilatancy
leads to an increased pore volume in the shear
zone and development of a pore fluid pressure
gradient to drive segregation. Examples are shown
in Figs. 13-17, individual figure captions give
further details. Once again, the melt appears to
have migrated parallel to lithological layering and
tectonic foliation to accumulate in the shear zone.
Additionally, processes such as melt migration
into shear zones represent an effective mecha-
nism to collect melt into sizeable masses that may
ascend along the shear zones to collect as plutons
in extensional segments of upper crustal brittle
fault systems (D'Lemos et al., 1992; Hutton and
Reavy, 1992) or by another mechanism (for exam-
ple, buoyancy-driven m a g m a fracture). The segre-
gation of melt from its residuum during non-
coaxial strain is an efficient process capable of
yielding leucosomes with little restite contamina-
tion.
When can melt become mobile? For com-
paction of structurally isotropic rock, as soon as
the melt forms a continuously connected phase
through the rock the threshold permeability
(Maaloe, 1982) will be exceeded and if the melt
viscosity is low enough the liquid will migrate
(Wolf and Wyllie, 1991). For melts with higher
viscosities, likely those undersaturated with re-
spect to H 2 0 , the rock mass will become mobile
once the critical melt fraction has been exceeded,

Fig. 13. Melt, now represented by leucosome, interpreted to have migrated along the tectonic foliation and into a sinistral shear
zone within stromatic migmatites, Tolstik Peninsula, Karelia, Russia. One interpretation is that the shear zone is induced by the
presence of the partial melt within the rock. Diameter of lens cap c. 55 mm.
106 M. Brown/Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130

but t h e liquid is unlikely to s e p a r a t e from resid- n e e d c o n t a i n m o r e t h a n a few p e r c e n t melt, well

ual m a t e r i a l by c o m p a c t i o n in geologically rea-
s o n a b l e time scales ( W o l f a n d Wyllie, 1991).
N o n e t h e l e s s , m e l t fractions b e t w e e n the t h r e s h -
old p e r m e a b i l i t y (c. 0 - 5 % ) a n d the critical m e l t
fraction (c. 3 0 - 5 0 % ) clearly can b e c o m e mobile.
Sawyer (1993) has s u g g e s t e d t h a t d u r i n g non-
coaxial d e f o r m a t i o n any v o l u m e of m e l t in excess
of the t h r e s h o l d p e r m e a b i l i t y in a ductilely-defor-
m i n g m a t r i x will be s q u e e z e d out providing it can
m i g r a t e to n e a r b y l o w - p r e s s u r e sites, such as
b o u d i n necks a n d s h e a r b a n d s d e v e l o p i n g d u r i n g
melting. T h e c o n t i n u o u s s q u e e z i n g out from the
matrix of m e l t v o l u m e in excess of the t h r e s h o l d
p e r m e a b i l i t y m e a n s t h a t the site of m e l t i n g n e v e r
below t h e critical m e l t fraction, even t h o u g h the
c u m u l a t i v e d e g r e e of p a r t i a l m e l t i n g at the e n d of
the e x t r a c t i o n p r o c e s s m a y have b e e n g r e a t e r
t h a n 3 0 - 5 0 % . In effect, this is a d e f o r m a t i o n - e n -
h a n c e d version o f the a c c u m u l a t i v e critical melt-
ing m o d e l p r o p o s e d by M a a l 0 e (1982).
4. Ascent and emplacement
In o r d e r to m o d e l m a g m a t r a n s p o r t , the p r o p -
erties o f the melt, the p r o p e r t i e s of the i n c l u d e d
p h a s e s a n d the e x t e r n a l c o n s t r a i n t s from the
c o u n t r y rocks have to be c o n s i d e r e d . T h e dis-

Fig. 14. Stromatic migmatites, Tolstik Peninsula, Karelia, Russia, in which leucosome shows complex inter-relationships interpreted
to represent melt migration along the tectonic foliation and melt accumulation within shear zones. That this interpretation is more
likely than melt migrating in along the shear zone and moving out along the foliation of the gneiss is demonstrated at the top of the
photograph. Here, lensoid leucosome has been slightly folded by the incipient shear zone but the shear displacement at this point is
minimal, further down the line of the shear zone melt occurs within the zone as shear displacement increases and melt can migrate
from the layers into the zone. The shear zones are inferred to have been induced in the weakened zone of partial melting.
Diameter of lens cap c. 55 ram.
 M. Brown/Earth-Science Ret,iews 36 (1994) 83-130
tance that magma may ascend, before solidifying,
depends on temperature, water content and
restite content of the magma as well as the physi-
cal properties of the wall rocks. Hot, dry, restite-
poor magmas potentially can move further,
whereas less hot, wetter and restite-rich magmas
may have more limited mobility (see, for example,
Cann, 1970; Brown and Fyfe, 1972; Clemens,
1984; Johannes and Holtz, 1991). Finally, under
what circumstances, if any, does diapiric ascent of
whole source regions occur, as required by the
restite model for granite genesis of Chappell and
White, at least for the end-member case (see, for
Fig. 15. Leucosome, interpreted to be former melt, in shear
zones parallel to axial surfaces of D 4 folds of stromatic
migmatites, South Brittany, France. Melt does not appear to
have migrated from the folded leucosomes into the shear
zones, suggesting that the stromatic migmatites were below
the solidus at the time of D 4 deformation. Diameter of coin c.
25 mm.
107
example, Chappell and White, 1974; White and
Chappell, 1977; White and Chappell, 1983; Chap-
pell, 1984; Chappell et al., 1987)? Volatile
phase-present anatexis at high melt fraction may
lead to convective overturn and mixing of melt
with residual crystals (Wickham, 1987a, b; Brown
and D'Lemos, 1991), but can this occur in the
lower crust as a result of dehydration melting?
Mechanisms of ascent and emplacement in-
clude the following: diapirism, in particular the
"hot Stokes model" (Grout, 1932, 1945; Ram-
berg, 1967, 1970; Fyfe, 1970, 1973b; Spera, 1980;
Marsh, 1982; Bateman, 1984; Emerman and Tur-
cotte, 1984; Daly and Raefsky, 1985; Cruden,
1988; Mahon et al., 1988; England, 1990; Wein-
berg, 1993), and ballooning (Ramsay, 1975, 1981,
1989; Holder, 1978, 1979, 1981; Brun and Pons,
1981; Brunet al., 1990); zone melting (Dickinson,
1958; Pfann, 1959, 1962; Ahern et al., 1979, 1982;
Marsh, 1982); self-propagating fluid-filled frac-
tures, in particular dikes (Shaw, 1980; Turcotte,
1982; Emerman et al., 1986; Sleep, 1988; Emer-
man and Marrett, 1990; Lister and Kerr, 1991;
Clemens and Mawer, 1992; Petford et al., 1993),
and sheet intrusions (Pollard, 1973) or sill com-
plexes (Brown et al., 1981; Friend et al., 1985;
Redden et al., 1985; Halwas and Simony, 1992);
buoyancy-driven ascent along faults/shear zones
(Strong and Hanmer, 1981; Davis, 1982; Hutton,
1982, 1988a; Castro, 1986); strike-slip dilatancy-
pumping (D'Lemos et al., 1992); stoping (Daly,
1903, 1914, 1933; Marsh, 1982; Furlong and My-
ers, 1985); ring-dike intrusion/cauldron subsi-
dence (Bailey et al., 1924; Anderson, 1936;
Roberts, 1970; Pitcher, 1978, 1979) and domal
uplift (Gilbert, 1877; Pollard and Johnson, 1973;
Pollard and Muller, 1976; Corry, 1988).
It is clear that magma may ascend buoyantly,
but the means by which it actually moves and at
what rate remain unclear, although recent work
suggests magma ascent in dykes is fast (Clemens
and Mawer, 1992; Petford et al., 1993). Questions
that remain to be resolved include the relative
importance of diapirism vs. fracture-controlled
mechanisms for ascent (also discussed by Clemens
and Mawer, 1992), and the role of deformation in
both ascent and emplacement of granite plutons
(also discussed by Hutton, 1988a, b; D'Lemos et
108 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Re~'iews 36 (1994) 83-130

al., 1992; Hutton and Reavy, 1992). Additionally,
there is the question why rising magma should
stop rather than continue its ascent to the surface
of the earth (e.g. Pollard and Holzhausen, 1979;
Weertman, 1980). How important is the depth of
the level of neutral buoyancy or does the level of
the brittle-ductile transition or some other hori-
zontal discontinuity within the crust play a greater
role in arresting magma ascent (see discussion in
Clemens and Mawer, 1992)? The shape of granite
plutons led to the familiar "space problem". It is
clear that both forcible intrusion (ballooning),
whereby wall-rock is pushed aside, and stoping,
whereby spalled roof-rock a n d / o r wall-rock sinks
through the magma, may be part of the final,
local emplacement mechanism in any particular
case. This issue has been considered most re-
cently by Paterson and Fowler (1993a). They re-
fer to the material transfer problems (MTP's)
inherent in emplacement by mechanisms such as
ballooning fed by a dike, perhaps accommodated
locally by ductile flow and rigid translation along
faults, and the likely need for far field material to
be transported towards the Earth's surface or
towards the region of magma generation (Fig.
18). In certain circumstances, ring-dike intrusion
and cauldron subsidence may be the high-level
emplacement mechanism, and the possibility of
midcrustal subsidence may be significant. How-
ever, what is becoming clear is the role that
deformation may play in creating the space into
which magma may intrude, for example the ex-
tensional segments of strike-slip systems (e.g.
Davis, 1982; Hutton, 1988a, b; Brown and
D'Lemos, 1991; D'Lemos et al., 1992; Hutton and
Reavy, 1992; McCaffrey, 1992), although a note
of caution has been sounded by Paterson and
Fowler (1993b).
Fyfe (1970) proposed a buoyancy-driven segre-
gation and accumulation mechanism for small

Fig. 16. Leucosomewithin amphibolite protolith, Tolstik Peninsula, Karelia, Russia, interpreted to show preferential migration of
original anatectic melt into extensional shear zones (top down-to-the-left).One interpretation is that shear zone was induced by the
presence of anatectic melt in the rock. Diameter of lens cap c. 55 mm.
 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130 109

melt volumes eventually to p o n d into a layer of
granite m a g m a from which diapirs might then
rise. Buoyancy-driven m a g m a segregation mecha-
nisms and related diapirism require a large ratio
of melt to restite and may o p e r a t e only within
zones of partially molten rock that are capable of
ductile flow. Crustally-derived m a g m a s most likely
to segregate and move in this fashion are the
products of water-rich volatile phase-present
melting, dehydration melting leading to large per-
cent melt volumes, and, possibly, the products of
high-T lower crustal melting. If segregation of
melt and residual crystals does not occur and
diapiric ascent of the whole source region takes
place, a s required by the e n d - m e m b e r restite
model of granite genesis, then, if this is a com-
mon process t h r o u g h o u t E a r t h history, it is diffi-
cult to see how the crust would develop its char-
acteristic differentiation into silicic u p p e r crust
and more mafic lower crust (Vielzeuf and Hol-

Fig. 17. Metatexite from the St. Malo migmatite belt, northwest France. Center and right-hand part of photograph shows shear
zone, dominated by schlieric migmatite and shear bounded enclaves of stromatic migmatite, which cuts across stromatic migmatite
from which melt appears to have been substantially drained. To the left of the coin a small dextral shear zone illustrates the same
relationships at a smaller scale. Diameter of coin c. 25 ram.
I l0 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130
Fig. 18. Near- and far-field material transfer problems en-
countered during ballooning [from Paterson and Fowler
(1993a)]. The diagram is schematic and shows a dike feeding a
magma chamber that has expanded with time. The extent of
wall-rock before pluton emplacement is outlined by the large
bold box. Material outside this box was displaced by near-field
material transfer processes such as ductile flow and rigid
translation along faults, and shows the need for far-field
material transfer process if sufficient ductile strain does not
occur near the pluton. Black arrows emphasize the need for
the far-field material to be transported towards the Earth's
surface or towards the region of magma generation. Reprinted
from Journal of Structural Geology, 15, Paterson, S.R. and
Fowler, T.K., Re-examining pluton emplacement processes,
pp. 191-206, copyright (1993), with kind permission from
Pergamon Press Ltd., Headington Hill Hall, Oxford OX3
0BW, UK.
loway, 1988; Vielzeuf et al., 1990). Further, if
retention of a small proportion of melt in the
residue during melt separation is required to
explain the geochemistry of residual granulites
(Rudnick, 1992), then wholesale restite entrain-
ment as a common process seems unlikely.
Diapiric ascent of granite magma is attractive
because it is a thermomechanically efficient
mechanism that requires no external stresses on
the body of magma other than gravity. In theory
the process can operate in a range of tectonic
scenarios, horizontal extension, horizontal con-
traction, or no finite horizontal strain. This mech-
anism was popularized in the 1970s by spectacu-
lar aerial photographs of c. 10 km diameter sub-
circular granite plutons in the Saudi Arabian
crust (Fyfe, 1973b). Simple liquid-liquid models
seemed to demonstrate diapirism as a viable
crustal process (Grout, 1945; Price, 1975), and
simple analysis by Fyfe (1970) using Stokes' Law
produced the correct order of magnitude regard-
ing the velocity of upward movement of a granite
body (Price, 1975). However, more recent numer-
ical modelling suggests that granite bodies 1-10
km in diameter, segregated and collected at
crustal depths of 25-40 kin, at an initial T of
850°-1000°C, will solidify and stop moving up at
depths > 15 km (Mahon et al., 1988). Weinberg
(1993) has questioned whether experimental
models of diapiric ascent of granite magma were
based on appropriately scaled physical parame-
ters. In other words, are the conclusions drawn
from these experimental models relevant to na-
ture? Further, traces of the passage of granite
diapirs have not been identified in exposed mid-
dle crustal sections in orogenic belts (Bateman,
1984). Have they been missed, or do they not
exist because diapirism is not the general ascent
mechanism? Finally, many of the features of di-
apiric emplacement, particularly shape and strain
patterns, are also characteristic of ballooning plu-
tons (Holder, 1979; Ramsay, 1989), particularly if,
as seems likely, expansion of the pluton takes
place by magmatic flow rather than by solid-state
ballooning (Paterson et al., 1989). In his study of
the Northern Arran Granite, Scotland, England
(1992) attempts explicitly to distinguish between
diapirism and ballooning as the final emplace-
ment mechanism for this pluton. However, even
though England asserts that his data support
diapiric ascent, his data are consistent with
magma ascent along the bounding Goat Fell Fault
and preferential ballooning upward and outward
away from the fault of one continuous pulse of
magma.
Geophysical data have been used to support
the diapir hypothesis, but once again the evi-
dence is not without ambiguity. Sweeney (1975,
1976) interpreted granite plutons in souti~-central
Maine to have a thin, tabular shape, and this has
been suggested as a regional feature in northern
New England (Neilson et al., 1976; Hodge et al.,
1982), although the interpretation is disputed by
modelling of more recent geophysical data by
Unger et al. (1989). Nonetheless, in spite of the
modelled tabular shapes of these plutons,
 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130 111

Sweeney interpreted their apparent shape in

combination with the expected viscosity of granite
magma to be consistent with an emplacement
mechanism as buoyant diapirs that rose to shal-
low depths. Similarly, extensive studies by Vi-
gneresse in northwest France (Hanmer and Vi-
gneresse, 1980; Vigneresse and Brun, 1983; Gull-
let et al., 1985) were interpreted initially to sup-
port the diapir hypothesis, although more recent
reviews have been less specific in this respect
(Vigneresse, 1988, 1990). Indeed, Vigneresse
(1988, 1990) states firmly that many orogenic
granites commonly are associated with deforma-
tion that strongly controls their shape, although
in general many are flat bodies whose lateral
extent is greater than its thickness. Further, some
of the examples studied by Vigneresse (see also
Davies, 1982) could represent magma ballooning
by magmatic flow after ascent along major tran-
scurrent crustal shear zones. Finally, if diapiric
ascent is arrested either at the level of neutral
buoyancy or at the brittle-ductile transition or
for some other structural reason and magma is
able to spread laterally, then an apparent sill-like
form may result!
Emerman and Marrett (1990) have shown that
sheet-like intrusions are favored for all but the
Fig. 19. Discordant dike of garnet-bearing diatexite cutting
most viscous granitic magmas, which suggests that across fine-scale layering in stromatic migmatite, southern
fracture-related ascent mechanisms may be more Brittany, France.
important than diapirism. Indeed, Emerman and
Marrett (1990) predict that even magmatic bodies
migrating by ductile deformation will be sheet-like gravity data suggests more extensive, low density
if they are sufficiently small. Examples of anatec- material at shallow depth (Duke et al., 1990). The
tic melt migrating through dikes are provided by Harney Peak Granite is a dike and sill complex
the "discordant migmatite leucosomes" of Sawyer rather than a single intrusive body (Redden et al.,
(1987) and Sawyer and Barnes (1988), and Figs. 1982, 1985; Norton and Redden, 1990), but in
19 and 20. The Q6rqut granite complex of south- this case at least two different (composite) sources
ern West Greenland, which outcrops over an area are required for the constituent magmas (Krogs-
of approximately 50 x 20 km, is one example of a tad et al., 1993). The model proposed by Nabelek
major granite pluton (c. 1000 km 3) which has et al. (1992) to explain low-6~80 biotite granites
been constructed from meter-scale sheets (Brown in the core of the complex and high-6~80 tourma-
et al., 1981; Friend et al., 1985), see Fig. 3. line granites around the periphery of the main
Almost as large is the Kinnaird Pluton, British complex and as satellite intrusions is consistent
Columbia, a complex constructed of 50-250 m- with this. However, the schematic emplacement
thick sills (Halwas and Simony, 1992). Based on model illustrated in their Fig. 11, comprising mul-
outcrop area, an apparent order of magnitude tiple km 3 diapirs, is not consistent with the de-
smaller is the Harney Peak Granite complex of scription of the Harney Peak Granite as a dike
South Dakota, although interpretation of Bouger and sill complex. The stereotype of multiple
112 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Ret~iews 36 (1994) 83-130
tear-drop diapirs of rising granite may be better
replaced by sill complexes fed by dikes from
deeper levels for the biotite granites and a more
local fracture-related mechanism for segregation
and emplacement of the tourmaline granites of
the margin.
It has long been recognized (Harry and Richey,
1963) that many granite plutons are both compos-
ite and multiple, that is to say that they are
compositionally zoned and constructed by the
repeated flow of magma, either from depth as
pulses (Harry and Richey, 1963), or by the differ-
ential flow of magmas of different mobilities
within the same magma chamber, the surges of
Cobbing and Pitcher (1972). An interesting exam-
ple of the multiple nature of a granite pluton is
provided by the Himalayan leucogranite of Man-
aslu, which is interpreted as a low-melt-fraction
granite body (Lanord and LeFort, 1988, and ref-
Fig. 20. Dike of interlayered pegmatitic leucosome and dark melanosome within the Moine succession, northwestern Scotland (cf
Barr, 1990). Diameter of lens cap c. 55 mm.
erences therein). It is composed of many magma
batches with different initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios. This
implies that large-volume intrusions of low-melt-
fraction leucogranite can exist, not in the form of
large single intrusions, but by the successive ex-
pulsion of numerous magma batches from the
source, which can collect and ascend into the
upper levels of the crust. These magma pulses
can be more or less continuous. In a wider Hi-
malayan context, the origin of the postcollisional
leucogranites is controversial. Partly this may be
due to scattering of data on emplacement ages,
perhaps related to generation from older crustal
material leading to Pb inheritance in zircon and
heterogeneous Sr isotope ratios. Very young ages
of 7, 5 and 2.3 Ma, based on zircons, reported by
Zeitler and Chamberlain (1991) are interpreted
to represent the products of decompression melt-
ing during rapid exhumation, and a similar mech-
 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reciews 36 (1994) 83-130
anism may be responsible for older Himalayan
leucogranites such as that at Manaslu. These
examples are not dissimilar to the Q6rqut granite
complex quoted above (Brown et al., 1981), ex-
cept that the individual magma pulses are more
easily identified in the field in the Greenland
case, or to the muscovite-rich, two-mica granites
from northern Portugal described by Holtz (1989).
Why does rising magma stop? Numerical mod-
els suggest that once a crack contains a critical
volume of melt it will continue to propagate
upwards towards the Earth's surface (e.g. Pollard
and Holzhausen, 1979; Weertman, 1980). A num-
ber of possible explanations have been suggested
over time and these include: attainment of a level
of neutral buoyancy (Gilbert, 1877; Corry, 1988;
Lister and Kerr, 1991); and arrival at a stress
barrier or rheological transition, such as the duc-
tile-to-brittle transition between the middle and
upper crust (e.g. Gretener, 1969), or a weaker
horizon (e.g. Lagarde et al., 1990), or some other
kind of horizontal discontinuity such as the "crack
stoppers" of Weertman (1980). This question has
been considered also by Clemens and Mawer
(1992), who developed the mechanism proposed
by Cook and Gordon (1964; see also Pollard,
1973) which leads to a geological model with, as
its fundamental element, the ponding of magma
along roughly horizontal discontinuities. This
model predicts that granitoid plutons commonly
should be laccolithic or tabular in shape with
horizontal dimensions far in excess of vertical
thickness. Examples of granite intrusions poten-
tially consistent with such a model include the
Harney Peak Granite and the Q6rqut granite
complex, both mentioned earlier, and the Cheme-
huevi Mountains plutonic suite described by John
(1988).
Megadikes frozen in ascent along shear zones
have been described by D'Lemos et al. (1992)
from northwest France. In many cases, granitic
sheets occur at a high angle to the inferred direc-
tion of maximum principal stress; this may reflect
an exploitation geometry as a dike of granite
magma propagates along the weak medial plane
of shear zones and faults. At higher levels in the
crust, where dilatant sites for emplacement are
available, such as strike-slip releasing bends and
113
extensional settings, granite magma will accumu-
late as plutonic complexes, probably fed from
dikes (for example, Hutton, 1982; Guineberteau
et al., 1987; D'Lemos et al., 1992; McCaffrey,
1992; Morand, 1992), or as a sill complex (Halwas
and Simony, 1992). In a wider context, composi-
tionally-expanded granitoid suites generated and
emplaced within continental arcs often are asso-
ciated with, and controlled by, arc-parallel
strike-slip fault systems (Krohe, 1991; Tikoff and
Teyssier, 1992; Brown et al., 1993; Grocott et al.,
1993; Tobisch et al., 1993) during transpressional
or transtensional tectonics.
A relationship between fault zones and melt-
ing is long established in the literature (Reitan,
1968a, b; McKenzie and Brune, 1972; Nicolas et
al., 1977). A genetic relationship between major
transcrustal shear zones and granite genesis and
emplacement was inferred by Hanmer and Vi-
gneresse (1980), Strong and Hanmer (1981) and
Hanmer et al. (1982). The importance of faults
and shear zones in granite ascent and emplace-
ment has been recognized by Berth6 et al. (1979),
Davies (1982), Hutton (1982, 1988a, 1988b), Hart-
met (1988), Hanmer et al. (1992), Reavy (1989),
Gapais and Bal6 (1990), and is further empha-
sized by Hutton (1988b, 1992), D'Lemos et al.
(1992) and Hutton and Reavy (1992) in their
development of more general models.
Hutton (1982) proposed a crack opening model
for the Main Donegal granite of northwest Ire-
land with successive emplacement of two essen-
tially vertically-oriented tabular bodies of magma.
In a study of the Ox Mountains igneous complex
of western Ireland, McCaffrey (1992) also pro-
posed a granite emplacement mechanism in which
successive sheets of muscovite granite, equigranu-
lar and K-feldspar megacrystic biotite granodior-
ite and tonalite are emplaced into transient, dila-
tional sites developed in response to transpressive
deformation along a major strike-slip shear zone.
McCaffrey speculates that emplacement into
transient dilational cavities may be one way by
which granite is emplaced into fault zones under-
going net contractional deformation. Other
younger granites were emplaced as individual in-
trusions in dilationai cavities at releasing bends
produced during reactivation along the fault zone.
114 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130

The similarity to extensional vein systems devel-
oped by successive opening and collapse events
caused by seismic rupturing along shear zones is
striking (for example, Boullier and Robert, 1992),
at least in a geometric sense.
In both of these examples, successive sheets of
granite are sufficiently distinct one from the other
to be identified in the field during mapping. In
circumstances where successive batches of magma
are more similar it may be impossible to distin-
guish individual sheets during field mapping or
even on the basis of extensive whole rock geo-
chemistry. An example is provided by the Lucerne
Pluton, Maine, which could be considered to be
homogeneous except that recent work by Hogan
and Sinha (1991) has identified variability in its
initial Pb isotopic composition. This variability
requires that the Lucerne Pluton consists of dis-
crete domains that have not equilibrated. If this
is true, then the mineralogic, chemical and iso-
topic variability in the Lucerne Pluton and others
like it can not be explained by differentiation of a
single magma but rather reflect chemical hetero-
geneities of the source coupled with differentia-
tion processes restricted in scope to individual
magma batches (Hogan and Sinha, 1991). Unfor-
tunately, most petrologic studies of granite plu-
tons begin by tacitly assuming geographically dis-
persed samples represent parts of a single former
magma chamber!
Strike-slip dilatancy pumping has been sug-
gested as an ascent mechanism by D'Lemos et al.
(1992). In many respects, this mechanism for
granite magma segregation, aggregation and mi-
gration along shear zones is similar to the seismic
pumping mechanism for hydrothermal fluid
transport at shallower crustal levels (Sibson et al.,
1975). Sibson (Sibson et al., 1988; Sibson, 1990,
1992) has refined this mechanism into the fault-
valve model to link shear stress variations and
fluid pressure fluctuations with time. In a mag-
matic context, such a model may provide a deliv-
ery mechanism for pulses of variably fractionated
magma emplaced as sheets in the construction of
granite complexes at higher crustal levels within
transpressional shear zones. This leads to a gen-
eral model of granite magma migration towards
shear zones, often along a foliation with a subhor-
izontal sheet-dip in overthickened orogenic belts,
aggregation and transport upwards within the

North Armorica

~ A S Z
~dr~C)rie a

\ 'd~C

Fig. 21. Generalized geological m a p of the northeastern part of the Armorican massif. Heavy lines represent Cadomian shear belts,
a majority of which show sinistral strike-slip displacement, or younger brittle faults, thought to lie along Cadomian shear belts.
FSZ = Fresnaye shear zone, which separates arc-related terranes to the northwest from behind-arc terranes to the southeast. Other
abbreviations: L H = La Hague; T = Tr~gor; NASZ = North Armorican shear zone; SASZ = South Armorican shear zone; SC = St.
Cast; R F = Rance Valley; PB = Port Briac; B = Bonnemain granite complex; VC = Vire-Carolles granite complex; A = Athis
granite complex; ADEI = Alexain-Deux-Evailles-Iz6 granite complex. Reproduced from D ' L e m o s et al. (1992), with permission of
the Geological Society, London, UK.
 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130
shear zone. D'Lemos et al. (1992) infer that ma-
jor strike-slip shear zones are located in ther-
mally-weakened crust. Once failure has occurred,
the shear zone then facilitates upward migration
of granite magma.
In contrast to many of the examples quoted
above, at very high crustal levels brittle failure of
host rock controls final emplacement mecha-
nisms. Stoping and subsidence of blocks inside
bell-jar shape intrusions are displayed in spectac-
ular style in the mountain peaks of the Coastal
Batholith of Peru (Pitcher, 1978). Cauldron-subsi-
dence is clearly the dominant process by which
late-stage emplacement of this batholith oc-
curred. However, as noted by Roberts (1970) such
features are produced only at very high levels in
the crust.
5. Development of a general model applicable to
orogenic granites of predominantly crustal
derivation
5.1. The St. Malo migmatite belt and the Mancel-
lian granites, northwest France
Regional geology
The Cadomian orogenic belt of northwest
France records late Precambrian subduction-re-
lated magmatism and accretionary tectonism, and
is interpreted in terms of amalgamation of calc-
alkaline magmatic-arc complexes and marginal
basin successions along an active margin of
Gondwanaland. The resultant North Armorican
Composite Terrane comprises four terranes sepa-
rated, and internally deformed by steeply-dipping
ductile shear zones and brittle faults. From north
to south these are (Fig. 21) arc-related units in
the Tr6gor-La Hague and St. Brieuc terranes,
north-west of the Fresnaye shear zone, and be-
hind-arc marginal basin complexes of the St. Malo
and Mancellian terranes (for a discussion of the
evidence and different views on the interpreta-
tion, see Brun, 1992 and Strachan et al., 1992,
and the references therein). 4°Ar/39Ar and U-Pb
mineral ages imply a complex, polyphase Cado-
mian tectonothermal history (for a brief review
see Brown et al., 1991, and references therein).
115
Southward younging of major tectonothermal
events within the Cadomian belt is inferred to
reflect regionally diachronous terrane accretion
at an obliquely convergent plate margin. Docking
of the already deformed Tr6gor-La Hague ter-
rane-St. Brieuc terrane composite with the be-
hind-arc marginal basins likely effected basin in-
version and structural thickening within the St.
Malo and Mancellian terranes, leading first to
regional deformation and then to intracrustal
granite production at c. 540 Ma (D'Lemos et al.,
1992).
The St. Malo migmatite belt comprises a syn-
tectonic suite of migmatites (metatexites and dia-
texites, Brown, 1973) derived through partial
melting of Neoproterozoic Brioverian succession
(Brown, 1979; Martin, 1979). The Brioverian suc-
cession comprises mainly psammites, semi-pelites
and pelites of probable turbiditic origin. In the
western half of the belt, metatexites are dominant
(metatexites are stromatic migmatites produced
by low to moderate degrees of partial melting
(Brown, 1973), with the generation of up to c. 30
vol.% melt, which generally is below the critical
melt fraction so that wholesale disruption of the
rock structure does not occur). They are cut by
syn-anatexis small-scale, millimetric to metric,
shear zones into which melt has been segregated
preferentially. Further, they contain decametric
to kilometric, elongate diapiric or buoyantly-era-
placed masses of diatexite/anatectic granite,
commonly associated with meter-scale pods or
thin sheets of tourmaline pegmatite. In the east-
ern half of the belt, at a higher structural level,
several tens of cubic kilometers of homogeneous
diatexite/anatectic granite of the core was em-
placed syn-kinematically into a Cadomian strike-
slip shear zone (Brown, 1979; Strachan et al.,
1989; D'Lemos et al., 1992) (diatexites are
schlieric to nebulitic migmatites produced by
moderate to high degrees of partial melting
(Brown, 1973), with the generation of greater
than 30-50 vol.% melt, which exceeds the critical
melt fraction and results in the disruption of the
stromatic structure characteristic of the metatex-
ites). The peak of regional metamorphism and
the culmination of anatexis are dated at c. 540
Ma using information from U-Pb on zircon and
116 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130
monazite, and Rb-Sr whole-rock isochrons
(Peucat, 1986), which is also inferred to be the
age of concomitant strike-slip displacement on
the major crustal shear zones within and at the
margin of the terrane. The Mancellian granites,
to the southeast of the St. Malo migmatites, also
were emplaced at c. 540 Ma (Dallmeyer et al.,
1993) and are overlain unconformably by Cam-
brian sediments. The rocks which form the bulk
of the exposed level of the Mancellian granites
vary between granodiorite (the majority) and
granite; there is no evidence from either regional
gravity or magnetic maps for the existence of
substantial uncompensated masses of basic rock
at depth. In comparison with the St. Malo
migmatites, the Mancellian granites represent
farther-travelled products of intracrustal melting
emplaced at higher levels in the crust (Brown and
D'Lemos, 1991).
On the basis of contrasting metamorphic grade,
structural complexity, lithologic associations and
relative timing of magmatism and deformation,
Strachan et al. (1989) proposed that a St. Malo
terrane (comprising apparently syn-tectonic
migmatites and moderate-grade Brioverian meta-
sedimentary rocks) can be separated from a Man-
cellian terrane (comprising post-tectonic granites
and low-grade Brioverian metasedimentary
rocks). Brown and D'Lemos (1991) provided pet-
rographic and geochemical evidence on the basis
of which they argued that granites of the Mancel-
lian region might represent the farther travelled,
homogenized product of anatectic melting ex-
pressed by the St. Malo migmatites. D'Lemos et
al. (1992) suggest that the contrasting syn-tectonic
nature of magmatism shown by the St. Malo
migmatites and apparent post-tectonic character
of the Mancellian granites is simply a function of
differing crustal level, which is consistent with the
kinematic evolution suggested by shallow east-
northeast-plunging lineations, assuming no subse-
quent crustal tilting. The two terranes of Stra-
chan et al. (1989) thus may represent contrasting
levels of essentially the same crustal block, di-
vided by a shear zone, the present juxtaposition
being the result of sinistral transpression with a
north side up component. This raises the interest-
ing question of whether or not a linking mecha-
nism can be identified between deeper structural
levels represented on a crustal scale by the essen-
tially in situ anatexis demonstrated by the
migmatites and the clearly intrusive granites that
have been emplaced into the upper crust. As
D'Lemos et al. (1992) have shown, such a linking
mechanism is provided by the transcurrent shear
zones that cut the St. Malo-Mancellian terrane.
The continuum of transcurrent shear deforma-
tion and granite magma migration can be estab-
lished from relationships within the shear zones.
Several c. 1 kin-wide SW-NE trending variably
foliated granite bodies ("megadykes" of D'Lemos
et al., 1992) are interleaved with heterogeneously
deformed migmatitic and metasedimentary host
rocks. Pre-, syn- and post-kinematic cordierite
porphyroblasts are present in mylonitic metasedi-
ments adjacent to and for several hundreds of
meters away from granite contacts. These "con-
tact-aureoles" are wider than might be expected
from conductive heating adjacent to a megadyke
of static granite cooling from c. 750°C, consistent
with heating by continuous passage of new
magma. Relatively undeformed granite within
parts of some shear zones is taken to show that
either magma emplacement outlasted ductile
shearing, or the magma contained too great a
melt fraction at the time of shearing to record
deformation. Furthermore, the granites are lo-
cated in straight segments of shear zones which
suggests that they were frozen while on their way
somewhere, rather than simply ponded in dilatant
sites at jogs along the shear zone. Commonly, the
deformed granites display homogeneous grain-
scale C-S fabrics which contrast with heteroge-
neous decimetric shear zones developed in adja-
cent country rocks, features consistent with syn-
tectonic intrusions (Gapais and Bal~, 1990). Thus,
shearing was broadly synchronous with the pas-
sage of anatectic granite, some of which froze
within the shear zones, to suggest that the shear
zones are indeed upward conduits for granite
migration.
Geochemistry
Overall geochemistry and a variety of specific
geochemical parameters show that the Mancel-
lian granites and diatexites and anatectic granites
 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130
of the St. Malo migmatite belt are similar (Brown
and D'Lemos, 1991), although on a statistical
basis this has been questioned by Power (1993).
At SiO 2 < 70% the aluminum saturation index of
the St. Malo diatexites increases with decreasing
SiO2, which suggests control by restite unmixing,
principally of plagioclase + biotite + sillimanite,
although crystal fractionation controls chemical
variations at SiO 2 > 70% (Brown, 1979; Brown
and D'Lemos, 1991). Chemical variation within
the Mancellian granites is consistent with control
by fractional crystallization (Brown and D'Lemos,
1991). Both suites of rocks are peraluminous,
they have similar distributions of Rb, Sr and Ba,
they have K / R b ratios around 225, and they plot
largely within the volcanic arc granite field using
trace element discrimination diagrams for the
interpretation of tectonic setting (which, in this
case, reflect the recently eroded juvenile arc
source of the Brioverian sedimentary succession).
Samples of Brioverian succession sandstones, St.
Malo migmatites and Mancellian granites all ex-
hibit similar primordial mantle-normalized ele-
ment patterns (Brown and D'Lemos, 1991).
117
D'Lemos and Brown (1993) present results of
Nd and Sr isotope studies. Three samples of
anatectic granite/migmatite from the St. Malo
migmatite belt have eNd values in the range
-5.8 to -7.3, eSr of +12 to +40, Nd model
ages of 1.5 to 1.7 Ga (TDM) and Sr model ages of
550 to 600 Ma (bulk Earth). Three samples of
Mancellian granite have eNd values in the range
-4.0 to -6.7, eSr of - 3 to +42, Nd model ages
of 1.5 to 1.7 Ga (TDM) and Sr model ages of 520
to 580 Ma (bulk Earth). Further, the St. Malo
anatectic granites and the Mancellian granites
exhibit significantly older Nd model ages than the
majority of granitic rocks in the arc-related out-
board terranes (ToM of 1.0 to 1.4 Ga). D'Lemos
and Brown (1993) argue that the marked similar-
ity in isotopic characteristics of the anatectic
components of the St. Malo migmatites and the
Fig. 22. Generalized model for crustal anatexis and the ascent
and emplacement of granite magma within middle- to upper-
crustal levels of a transpressional orogen by the proposed
strike-slip dilatancy pumping mechanism (SZ = shear zone;
F = fault). Model is kilometer-scale, but is dependent upon a
specific crustal thickness and geotherm. Magma moves up
from below in a shear zone. It is expelled up and along from a
contractional jog (Tp = zone of transpression) into an overly-
ing extensional jog (Te = zone of transtension) with progres-
sive displacement along the shear zone; upward movement of
magma is by a combination of buoyant ascent and dilatancy
pumping. A = intracrustal anatexis and zone of transcurrent
shear focussed in weakened crust (m = metatexite, stromatic
migmatite with melt vol.% below critical melt fraction; d =
diatexite, schlieric-to-nebulitic migmatite with melt vol.%
above critical melt fraction; black = anatectic granite, may still
exhibit relict nebulitic and even schlieric structure). B =
generally a zone of diapiric rise of magma through ductilely
deforming migmatite, but at right hand side one example is
shown of local brittle behavior due to melting (cf. Rushmer,
1991b, 1992). C = zone of magma transported in megadikes
within shear zones (black = anatectic granite; c = contact
metamorphism); erosion to this paleodepth would reveal ap-
parently "syn-tectonic" granite emplacement with pre-, syn-
and post-tectonic porphyroblastesis in aureole mylonites. D =
zone of emplacement within brittlely-deforming upper crust,
homogeneous granite magma emplaced passively into exten-
sional jogs with local ballooning by magma flow and stoping;
erosion to this paleodepth would reveal apparently "post-
tectonic" granite emplacement, with porphyroblastesis in au-
reole hornfelses post-tectonic with respect to regional cleav-
age (although porphyroblastesis could be syn-tectonic in the
zone of contact strain around a ballooning pluton).
118 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130
Mancellian granites supports the conclusion of
Brown and D'Lemos (1991) that the two are
probably genetically related, in the sense that
they were derived by anatexis of the same
supracrustal sequence within the same orogenic
cycle and were emplaced essentially during the
same interval of time. Since the St. Malo
migmatites are demonstrably derived by partial
melting of the Brioverian sedimentary succession,
a similar source is invoked for the Mancellian
granites.
5.2. A general model related to transpression
On the basis of observations within the Cado-
mian orogenic belt of northwest France, D'Lemos
et al. (1992) proposed an integrated model to
account for the generation, segregation, aggrega-
tion, ascent and final emplacement of granite
magma within a transpressional orogen, and to
explain the co-location of granites and shear zones
(Fig. 22). In their model, oblique collision of
arc-related terranes at a late Precambrian conti-
nental margin resulted in transpressive thickening
of a juvenile supracrustal sequence in a behind-arc
terrane. A combination of structural inversion of
a sedimentary basin with higher than average
heat flow and radiogenic self-heating of the over-
thickened supracrustal sequence, generated the
necessary P - T conditions for water-rich volatile
phase-present anatexis. A crustal-scale linked
strike-slip shear zone/fault system, developed
synchronously with anatexis, provided both mech-
anism and opportunity for granite migration and
ascent. Continuous displacement along the
strike-slip system meant that zones of extension
progressively became zones of contraction, and
vice versa, such that granite magma was forced
through the ductile shear zones and, with the
added impetus of its own buoyancy, generally
upward through the crust (Fig. 22), a mechanism
which I call strike-slip dilatancy pumping. Duc-
tile movement within the middle crust is inferred
to have been accommodated at upper crustal
levels by large-scale fault systems situated directly
above zones of magma ascent. Emplacement of
magma at extensional jogs within this system is
synkinematic, a void or cavity will not exist and
filling by granite magma from below occurs simul-
taneously with dilation. Stoping and ballooning
effects locally modify granite contacts as the
magma spreads laterally. Granite contacts alone
can not provide direct information concerning
ascent mechanisms because the local interaction
between country rock, stress and final emplace-
ment mechanism determine the specific features
of local granite contacts. One feature of the model
is that apparently post-tectonic intrusions in the
upper crust (contact metamorphic porphyroblasts
post-date regional cleavage) occur contemporane-
ously with apparently syn-tectonic magmatism in
the middle crust (contact metamorphic porphy-
roblasts are pre-, syn- and post-tectonic in rela-
tion to the mylonite fabric within enclosing shear
zones).
D'Lemos et al. (1992) suggested that the close
temporal relationship between the peak of ana-
texis and regional strike-slip displacements re-
flected initiation of strike-slip deformation along
zones within the middle crust that had been soft-
ened thermally as a result of anatexis. Thus,
regional deformation and granite generation and
ascent will be genetically-linked processes, with
granite melts continuing to influence crustal be-
havior during their ascent within actively deform-
ing shear zone/fault systems. The common co-lo-
cation of granites and shear zones is to be ex-
pected. Indeed, as D'Lemos et al. (1992) point
out, progressive strike-slip displacement may re-
sult in complete attenuation and closure of
magma conduits, such that evidence or the exis-
tence of passage of granite melt may be cryptic in
ancient orogens. On a regional scale, granites
generated by water-rich fluid-present crustal ana-
texis will be limited in their ascent capability, but
granite magma generated by fluid-absent dehy-
dration melting at higher temperatures, which
may reflect deeper levels within more substan-
tially overthickened areas of the inverted sedi-
mentary basin, can reach higher crustal levels.
This seems to have occurred at the eastern side
of the belt of Mancellian granites where garnet
surrounded by cordierite occurs within the Athis
granite complex (Fig. 6).
The general model outlined above relates
specifically to structural inversion of sedimentary
basins a n d / o r crustal thickening orogens, both of
 M. Brown/Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130 119

which are commonly transpressional since sub-
duction is generally oblique rather than orthogo-
nal at convergent plate margins. In this model,
heat generation by internal radioactive decay dur-
ing thermal relaxation and uplift consequent upon
thickening generated a significant thermal pulse
which led to anatexis at c. 540 Ma. The model
contrasts with that of Clemens (1990) in which
cooling and crystallization of nearly anhydrous
basaltic magma provides the thermal energy re-
quired for partial fusion of fertile crustal rocks.
In this model, granitoid magmatism thus is the
consequence of under- and intraplating of man-
tie-derived magma. Restitic granulites, left be-
hind by fluid-absent partial fusion of supracrustal
rocks, should surround the under- and in-
traplated mantle-derived mafic rocks. The melt
fraction produced will have been transported to
higher levels in the crust via a system of feeder
dikes, to produce a high-level granitoid batholith.
The two models are not mutually exclusive alter-
natives, rather they are complementary end-
members for particular, but different, tectonic
scenarios. Indeed, the Clemens model is more
likely to relate to subduction tectonics at conti-
nental margins.

BA
2ow
48°N+
BA = Baie d'Audi~me -~
Q = Quimper
L = Lorient r:_'~:;~
G = lie de Groix #
Qui = Quiberon Qu
B1 = Belle Ile
V = Vannes
M = Golfe de M o r b i h a n
Qu = Questembert
SASZ = South Armorican Shear Zone
St.N = St. Nazaire
C = Eclogite locality, 3ow
Champtoceaux Complex
N = Nozay 47°N+
Na = Nantes
BC = Bois de C6n6
E = Eclogite locality,
Essarts Complex
St.G = St. Gilles-de-Vie
LSO = Les Sables d'Olonne
N u m b e r e d boxes, sample localities 50km
Black represents Variscan granites
Lines represent tectonic contacts,
LSO
two major normal faults identified Mesozoic
Fig. 23. Map to show the distribution of granites, in black, within the South Brittany metamorphic belt, western France; major
tectonic units forming the country rock are not distinguished.
120 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130
6. Consideration of the wider role of granites in
orogenic processes
Unambiguous crustally-derived granite em-
placed in the middle-upper crust implies at least
a partly residual lower crust. Furthermore, the
mineralogical and chemical composition of at least
some metamorphic rocks in high-T metamorphic
belts, such as highly aluminous garnet-cordie-
rite-aluminosilicate gneisses and sapphirine-
cordierite granulites, requires the removal of a
melt of granite composition at some point during
their evolution. Clearly, these two observations
imply a complementary petrogenetic relationship.
One aim of petrology is to relate the physical-
chemical history of metamorphic rocks and the
generation of crustally-derived granites to the
tectonic evolution of orogenic belts. This is
achieved through the elucidation and interpreta-
tion of the P - T history from petrologic and
mineral equilibrium data, the T-t history from
thermochronologic data and the burial ( P - t ) and
deformation (d) history from structural data, and
integration of these histories into one P - T - t - d
path.
As an example I take the Variscan metamor-
phic belt of west France (Fig. 23). A well-con-
strained "clockwise" P - T path has been defined
for the amphibolite-to-granulite facies migmatitic
core of the belt (Jones and Brown, 1990). The
prograde path is characterized by large d T / d P
and achieved peak T of c. 780-800°C at c. 9 kbar.
Erosion-controlled exhumation is interrupted at
high T by c. 3 kbar near-isothermal decompres-
sion and was followed by near-isobaric cooling.
The early P - T evolution was the result of thrust
thickening of an active continental-margin se-
quence. This resulted in moderate overthickening
and radiogenic self-heating during thermal relax-
ation and erosional exhumation, leading to the
development of anatectic migmatites (Jones and
Brown, 1990; Treloar and Brown, 1990). The
near-isothermal decompression is interpreted to
reflect tectonically-enhanced exhumation and un-
roofing, that generated coeval granite by decom-
pression melting (the distribution of granites is
shown in Fig. 23). Peak metamorphism has been
dated by the U-Pb method at c. 400 Ma (Peucat,
1983) while the cooling history is constrained by
ages on monazite (c. 320 Ma, Peucat, 1983),
4°Ar/39Ar hornblende and muscovite ages (c.
305-300 Ma, Dallmeyer and Brown, 1992), Rb-Sr
ages on biotite (c. 300 Ma, Peucat, 1983), and
fission track ages on apatite (c. 300 Ma, Carpena
et al., 1979).
A T-t plot for the metamorphic belt yields a
cooling path characterized by a segment with a
slow cooling rate of < l°C/m.y, and a segment
with a cooling rate of c. 60°C/m.y., the transition
occurring at c. 330-320 Ma (Brown, 1993). The
data require that penetrative deformation and
initial high-T metamorphism were Eo-Variscan
(c. 400 Ma) and that post-peak cooling during
erosion-controlled exhumation was interrupted by
rapid Variscan uplift and subsequent tectonic ex-
humation (c. 320-300 Ma). Such rapid uplift re-
quires a fundamental tectonic control, which I
suggest may be slab detachment or detachment of
the thickened orogenic root coeval with a transi-
tion from sinistral to dextral displacement on the
South Armorican Shear Zone (SASZ) during in-
tracontinental Variscan deformation. The ages of
the granites vary systematically across the meta-
morphic belt. To the north of the SASZ the
granites are c. 340-330 Ma in age, within the
SASZ the granites are c. 330-320 Ma in age, and
south of the SASZ the granites are 305-300 Ma
in age (Rb-Sr whole-rock isochron data, from
Bernard-Griffiths et al., 1985). The decompres-
sion generated by the tectonic detachment also
may have been responsible for initiating melting
within the crust and the generation of the gran-
ites. Granite melt was transported upward
through the crust along the SASZ, the melt likely
having facilitated the large displacement inferred
to have occurred along this zone (e.g. the
Questenbert granite, J6gouzo, 1980). At higher
crustal levels, the granites were emplaced into
major subhorizontal to S-dipping normal ductile
fault zones, commonly reactivated thrusts, that
facilitated fast unroofing of the metamorphic belt
(e.g. the Quiberon granite, Gapais et aI., 1993).
In this particular case, migmatites within the
metamorphic belt demonstrate one process by
which deeply buried crustal rocks may become
depleted in a granitic component, while the rapid
 M. Brown/Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130
uplift and subsequent exhumation of the belt
generated and utilized a granite extracted during
a younger cycle of decompression melting. These
granites imply that a partly residual lower crust
must underlie this sector of the Variscan meta-
morphic belt.
This example emphasizes the intimate rela-
tionship between granite and tectonics. The rapid
tectonic uplift promoted decompression melting
in the crust to generate granite, and the granite
was able to utilize a major transcurrent fault
system for ascent and to reactivate existing thrust
faults as normal faults to facilitate unroofing.
Granite magma in crustal shear zones is able to
accommodate large amounts of strain due to the
low strength of the melt compared to the wall
rocks (Davidson et al., 1992; D'Lemos et al.,
1992; see also Hollister and Crawford, 1986). The
role of melt in focussing deformation has been
emphasized by Hollister and Crawford (1986) and
Davidson et al. (1992). Carr (1992) has suggested
that decompression melting may provide in situ
magma which can play an important role in the
nucleation of extensional shear zones. Subse-
quently, the extensional regime can facilitate the
emplacement of larger plutonic complexes. In-
deed, Lister and Baldwin (1993) have related the
origin of metamorphic core complexes to plutonic
activity during episodes of continental extension.
This raises the general question of cause and
effect, given that the evidence for the association
of granites with shear zones is syntectonic intru-
sion and deformation fabrics. Are granite mag-
mas attracted to shear zones because they pro-
vide a low pressure sink for magma aggregation
and a conduit for magma ascent or is shear strain
focussed in the high-grade anatectic core of the
hinterland because it is weak? Experiments on
partially molten rock samples indicate that before
melting is initiated the rock deforms ductilely and
it is only later when melt formation begins that
fractures are able to nucleate (Dell'Angelo and
Tullis, 1988; Rushmer, 1991b, 1992). However,
once periodically-spaced oriented fractures have
become established, segregation and migration of
additional melt into the fractures will occur by
dilatancy pumping (Mawer et al., 1988). At the
scale of an orogenic belt, Collins and Vernon
121
(1991) and Sandiford et al. (1992) have suggested
that granite generation and emplacement is a
causative factor in localizing deformation, and
this may be a general feature of CCW orogenic
belts in which heating occurs prior to or concomi-
tant with thickening.
7. Final s t a t e m e n t
Felsic magma generation may occur in the
middle a n d / o r lower crust in sources of appro-
priate composition providing that heat is gener-
ated or transferred and either fluid is present or
fluid-absent dehydration melting can occur. The
only permeable pathways through large volumes
of the continental crust must be fractures and
shear zones. These two statements may be linked
by taking a holistic approach to understanding
orogenesis. Orogenic belts characterized by CW
metamorphism are driven by thickening and the
increased heat flux is due to enhanced heat gen-
eration by internal radioactive decay during ther-
mal relaxation and uplift. Deformation accompa-
nies both thickening and uplift. This will facilitate
deformation-enhanced melt segregation mecha-
nisms, and ascent and emplacement mechanisms
commonly are related to major fault systems that
may be either strike-slip in transpressional belts
or extensional in strongly overthickened orogens
undergoing collapse, or the strain may be parti-
tioned if required by the overall kinematic frame-
work. In contrast, orogenic belts characterized by
CCW metamorphism probably are driven by em-
placement of mantle-derived magma. This may
lead to rapid heating, overstepping of reaction
boundaries, rapid generation of melt and frac-
ture-related melt segregation and ascent mecha-
nisms. In both cases tabular sub-horizontal plu-
tons are constructed from sequential pulses of
magma. Although in either case magma may mi-
grate to an emplacement site in a dike or along a
shear zone, there are sufficient common elements
within plutons and differences between plutons in
CW and CCW orogenic belts to suggest a funda-
mental difference in the processes of magma as-
cent and emplacement. In CW orogenic belts
many syn-tectonic plutons either are constructed
122 M. Brown ~Earth-Science Reviews 36 (1994) 83-130
from sub-vertical sheets emplaced in extensional
jogs in strike-slip fault systems, or are con-
structed from steeply-inclined sheets emplaced in
dilational jogs along the active breakaway zone of
extensional fault systems with ramp-flat geome-
try. In contrast, in CCW orogenic belts many
plutons that are pre- or early syn-tectonic are
constructed from horizontal sheets of magma fed
by dikes at a roughly horizontal discontinuity in
the crust. Further, in CW orogenic belts granite is
generated during the middle and late stages of
the cycle and may facilitate unroofing of such
belts during emplacement along late orogenic ex-
tensional fault systems. This contrasts with CCW
orogenic belts in which granite emplacement is
an early feature that softens the crust to localize
deformation within the orogenic belt which then
leads to thickening of the orogen and cooling.
Finally, post-tectonic plutons likely are fed by
dikes.
Acknowledgements
In this paper I have attempted to show how
some of my own research contributes to a better
understanding of crustal anatexis, segregation and
aggregation of magma, and ascent and emplace-
ment of granite. Of course, much of this research
is collaborative with others and many of the ideas
that I present, like good wine, have evolved
through complex interactions and matured with
time; I acknowledge everyone who has con-
tributed to my continuing education in granite
petrology.
I thank the following for critical reviews, in-
volving stimulating ideas as well as corrections, at
various stages in the preparation of this
manuscript: Philip Candela; Bill Collins; Louise
Corriveau; John Hogan; John Percival; Wally
Pitcher; Tracy Rushmer; Ed Sawyer; and, E-an
Zen. However, I take responsibility for those
infelicities that remain. I thank John Clemens,
Scott Paterson, Alberto Patifio Douce, Nick Pet-
ford and Ed Sawyer for supplying preprints of
articles in press. Finally, the word processing
support of Jeanne Martin is greatly appreciated.
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