SOLUTIONS

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1. Consider a first order instrument, G(s) =k/(1+Ts), with output y(t) and given input
x(t)=1 sin ωt.
a) Obtain the analytical solution for y(t), xest(t) and |xest(t)|/|x(t)|
b) Calculate y(t), xest(t) and |xest(t)|/|x(t)|, where k=5 and T=0.2, for ω = 1, 10 and1000
c) Obtain the analytical solution the cutoff frequency, ωb
d) Calculate the value of ωb for k=5 and T=0.2
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a)|x(t)|=1 x(t)=1 sin ωt
G(s) =k/(1+Ts) G(jω) =k/(1+T jω)
y(t)=1 |G(jω)| sin (ωt+ Φ)
xest(t)= y(t)/k=(|G(jω)|/k) sin (ωt+ Φ)= (|G(jω)|/50) sin (ωt+ Φ)
|xest(t)|/|x(t)|= |G(jω)|/k

b) For k=5; T=0.2;

results
5/(1+0.2 jω)= 5 (1-j0. 2ω)/(1+0. 22ω2)= 5 (1-j0. 2ω)/(1+0.22ω2)
|G(jω)|= 5/(1+0.22ω2) ½ Φ = tan -1 (-0.2ω)
xest(t)= y(t)/k=(|G(jω)|/k) sin (ωt+ Φ)= (|G(jω)|/5) sin (ωt+ Φ)
|xest(t)|/|x(t)|= |G(jω)|/k= |G(jω)|/5
For ω = 1 results
|G(jω)|= 5/(1+0. 22ω2) 1/2 =5/(1+0.2212) 1/2 ≈5
-1
Φ = tan (-0.2ω) ≈0
y(t)=1 |G(jω)| sin (ωt+ Φ) ≈5 sin ωt
xest(t)= y(t)/k ≈1 sin ωt=x(t)
|xest(t)|/|x(t)| ≈1

c) Exact calculation of the cutoff frequency, ωb ,defining the bandwidth, obtained from the equation
20 log|G(jωb)|= 20 log|G(j0)| - 3
or
log|G(j0)| - log|G(jωb)| = log(|G(j0)| / |G(jωb)| )=3/20
or |G(j0)| /|G(jωb)| = log-1 3/20 = 1.4125
or |G(jωb)| =|G(j0)| /1.4125 =0.0709 |G(j0)|
For the above first order instrument
G(jω) =k/(1+T jω)
|G(jω)|= k/((1+T2ω2) 1/2
|G(j0)|=k
and
|G(jωb)| = k/((1+T2ωb2) 1/2
such that
|G(jωb)=|G(j0)| /1.4125
gives
k/((1+T2ωb2) 1/2 =k /1.4125

d)) For the above first order instrument and for k=5 and T=0.2
|G(jω)|= 5/((1+0.22ω2) 1/2
|G(j0)|= 5
The cutoff frequency, ωb can be obtained from
|G(jωb)| =|G(j0)| /1.4125
For obtaining ωb the equation to solve is then
5/((1+0.22ωb2) 1/2=5 /1.4125
or
1+0.22ωb2 = 1.41252
1+0.04 ωb2 =1.9952.6
The solution for ωb2 is
ωb2 =99.526/4
Only the positive solution gives
ωb =√(99.526/4)≈ 5 [rad/s]
2. A PC based data acquisition system is considered for a J type thermocouple, having a
Seebeck coefficient of 51 µV/ 0C. The temperature to be measured varies from 00 C
to 2500 C. Two different designs have to be evaluated:
Design A)
-a 8-bit A/D converter which has input voltage ranges 0 to 100 mV
or 0 to 10 V, selectable by software;
-an electronic reference junction block with a temperature uncertainty of
± 0.12 0 C at 00 C;
- a thermocouple with ± 0.220 C error limit.
Design B)
-a 16-bit A/D converter which has input voltage ranges of 0 to 10 V ,0 to 1 V or 0
to 0.01 V
selectable by software.
- an electronic reference junction block with a temperature uncertainty of
± 0.125 0 C at 00 C;
-a thermocouple with ± 0.225 0 C 0 C error limit 00 C
a) Determine the suitable input voltage range for the analog input voltage;
b) Calculate the resolution and the combined uncertainty (of A/D converter, Reference
Junction and Thermocouple) regarding the temperature measurement.
c) Which design is preferable?

a) 1800 C *51 µV/ 0C=9000µV=9 mV. The chosen range is0 - 100 mV for Design A and 0-10 mV for design B

b) For a 8-bit converter, 2 8 = 256 distinct digital readings are possible, i.e. a
resolution of 100 [mV]/ 256 = 0.39 [mV]
For a 16-bit converter, 2 16 = 4096*16 distinct digital readings are possible, i.e. a
resolution of 10 [mV]/ 4096*16 = 0.00244/16 [mV] This is an improvement of 2 8 =64 times

The combined uncertainty, u, of the uncertainties of the ADC, uA/D, of the Reference Junction, uRJ, and of the thermocouple ,uTC, can
be evaluated with a square root of sum of squares (RSS) method defined in this case by:
u=(uA/D 2 + uRJ 2 + uTC 2 )
For the case of no calibration error, the (resolution)/2 in mV of the A/D converter can be converted into temperature () uncertainty uA/D
using the Seebeck coefficient for 200 C for K type thermocouple of 40 V/0 C or 0.04 mV/0 C, such that
for design “A”
-for 8-bit converter
uA/D = (0.39 [mV]/0.051 [mV/0 C] )/2=  3.75 0 C
and the combined uncertainty is
u =(uA/D 2 + uRJ 2 + uTC 2 ) = (3.752 + 0.52 + 2.22 ) =  4.0 0C
for design “B”
-for 16-bit converter
uA/D =  ((0.00244/16) [mV]/0.051 [mV/0 C] )/2=  0.4/16 0C
and the combined uncertainty is
u = (uA/D 2 + uRJ 2 + uTC 2 ) =  (0.0042 + 0.12 + 1.12 ) = 1.1 0 C
The large temperature error  4.0 0C of the design “A” is mainly due to uA/D =  7.5 0 C, while the temperature error1.15 0C is determined
mainly by uTC =  1.1 0C error limit of a standard thermocouple.
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3. Assume a potentiometer, of total length ymax and total resistance R, for rectilinear
displacement measurement, supplied by a (DC) voltage source of constant value vi. The
output voltage vo is measured by a voltmeter with input resistance Rv.
a) Obtain the nonlinear relationship between the output voltage vo and the wiper
displacement y.
b) Obtain the approximate linear relationship between the output voltage vo and the
wiper
displacement y of the nonlinear relationship from a) when Rv >>R.
b) One of the following voltmeters has to be selected for measuring vo:
- an analog voltmeter with Rv = 30 kΩ
- a digital voltmeter with Rv = 14 MΩ. The resistance of the potentiometer is R = 1.2 kΩ
and vi = 10V.
Select the voltmeter such that the error due to Rv when measuring displacement of y=
0.075 [m], is smaller than the physical resolution of the potentiometer resolution given
that the potentiometer coil has 5000 turns and ymax =0.15 [m].

a)

−1
⎡ ⎛ R y max ⎞⎛ y ⎞⎤
v o = v i ⎢1 + ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ R v y ⎠⎝ y max ⎠⎦
b)

⎛ v ⎞
v o = ⎜⎜ i ⎟⎟ y
⎝ y max ⎠

c) For y = 50°, calculate vo for each voltmeter taking into account its Rv in kΩ

For this values of vo (Rv) calculate the linear approximation of the angle
−1 −1
v ⎡ R y ⎛ y ⎞⎤ 10 ⎡ 1 50 ⎛ 50 ⎞⎤
v o (R v ) = i ⎢1 + ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟⎥ y = ⎢1 + ⎜1 − ⎟⎥ 50
y max ⎢⎣ R v y max ⎝ y max ⎥
⎠⎦ 180 ⎣ R v 180 ⎝ 180 ⎠⎦

⎛y ⎞ ⎛ 180 ⎞
y(R v ) = ⎜⎜ max ⎟⎟ v o (R v ) = ⎜ ⎟ v o (R v )
⎝ vi ⎠ ⎝ 10 ⎠
The angular measurement error e(Rv) due to Rv is
e(Rv) = 50 – y(Rv)
and this error can be compared to the resolution of r = 0.18°

a)For Rv = 30 kΩ,

−1
10 ⎡ 1 50 ⎛ 50 ⎞⎤
v o (30) = 1+ ⎜1 − ⎟ 50 = 2.759V
180 ⎣ 30 180 ⎝ 180 ⎠⎥⎦
⎢

⎛ 180 ⎞
y(30) = ⎜ ⎟2.759 = 49.67
⎝ 10 ⎠
e(30) = 50 –49.67 =0.33°>0.18°

Consequently, when the effect of its input resistance is ignored and the angle is calculated with the linear approximation y = (ymax/ vi)
vo, the analog voltmeter introduces an error of 0.33°. This error is larger than the resolution of the potentiometer r=0.18° and the
analog voltmeter is rejected.

b) For Rv = 10 MΩ = 10000 kΩ,

−1
10 ⎡ 1 50 ⎛ 50 ⎞⎤
v o (10000) = 1+ ⎜1 − ⎟ 50 = 2.7777V
⎢
180 ⎣ 10000 180 ⎝ 180 ⎠⎥⎦

⎛ 180 ⎞
y(10000) = ⎜ ⎟2.7777 = 49.999
0

⎝ 10 ⎠
e(10000) = 50 –49.999 =0.001°< 0.18°

The digital voltmeter introduces an error of 0.001° (when the effect of its input resistance is ignored) which is much smaller than the
resolution of the potentiometer r=0.18° and the digital voltmeter is chosen.

4. Assume a wire of diameter D, length L, cross section area A and resistivity ρ.

a) Obtain the equation for the gauge factor G function of axial strain and Poisson
ratio and resistivity ρ change with strain.
b) For a wire with 120 Ω nominal resistance, a Poisson ratio µ= 0.5 and an
insignificantly low resistivity change with strain, calculate the change of the resistance of
the wire when subject to an axial strain of 10-9 m/m.

a)

ρ − 2Lρ L
dR = 2
dL + 3
dD + dρ
kD kD kD 2
G  1 + 2 * 0.5 = 2
For a nominal resistance of 120, and a small strain of = 10-9 m/m
2 * 120 * 10-9 = 240 10-6
5. A weighted-resistor Digital-to-Analog Converter shown has N = 8 bit, the reference
voltage vR = 10 V, the Most Significant Bit resistance R = 2.5 k Ω, and the feedback
resistance of the operational amplifier RF = 15 k Ω.
Calculate:
a) The output voltage corresponding to the Least Significant Bit;
b) The output voltage corresponding to the Most Significant Bit;
c) The maximum value of the output voltage;
d) The nominal full-scale output voltage;
e) The resolution
f) The output voltage corresponding to the binary input 11011101.
Solution

a) for LSB the binary input is 00000001 such that

Vo LSB = - 2 (5) (1/28) = - 0.039
The resolution is also 39 mV.
b) for MSB the binary input is 10000000 such that
Vo MSB = - 2 (5)(1/2 1) = - 5 V
c) the maximum value of the digital input is 11111111 such that
Vo = - 2 (5) (1/2 1 + 1/2 2 +….+1/2 11+1/2 12 ) = - 5(1 + 1/2 1 + 1/2 2 +….+1/2 8) =- 9.961 V
d) for the the binary input 11011101
Vo= - 2 (5)(1(1/2 1) + 1(1/2 2 )+ 0(1/2 3 )+ 1(1/2 4 )+ 1(1/2 5 )+ 1(1/2 6 )+ 0(1/2 7 )+
1(1/2 8 )) = 5.35 V
e) Vfsr = 2RFVR /R = 10 V
It can be observed that
Vfsr - Vo MSB = 10 - 9.961 = 0.039 V
i.e. the same value as the resolution.

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6. For a piezoceramic element of thickness 0.02”, width 1. 5” and length 1.5”, the
parameters are g31 = - 21 * 10-3 [Vm/N], compliance = 25 *10 –12 [m2 /N] and relative
dielectric constant = 1000
Absolute dielectric constant of vacuum is 8.854 10 -12) [F/m].
a) Calculate the capacitance
b) Obtain the axial strain ∆L/L for the value V = 7.5 [V] of the
applied voltage.

dimensions 0.5" * 1.5" * 0.020" (12.7mm * 38.1mm * 0.5mm), g31 = - 21 * 10-3 [Vm/N]
compliance = 25 *10 –12 [m2 /N]
E = 1/ (compliance )= 4 *10 10 [N/m2]
T = 0.5 *10-3 [m]
L= 38.1 *10-3 [m ]
c = (relative dielectric constant )(absolute dielectric constant of vacuum) =
(1000 )(8.854 10 -12) [F/m] = 8.854 * 10 -9 [F/m]
a) the capacitance of this sensor is:
C = c WL/T = (8.854 * 10 -9) (12.7 10-3 )( 38.1 10-3)/( 0.5 10-3) = 11.57 *10-9 [F]
b) the voltage V is:
V = g31 E T ∆L/L = (- 21 10-3 ) (4 10 10)( 0.5 10-3)( 10-6)/( 38.1 10-3) = -44.02 [V]
7. For a strain gauge based accelerometer using a cantilever beam, assume the gauge
factor G and the nominal resistance R. Assume the beam modulus of elasticity E, the
width “w”, the thickness “t”, , and the distance “l” between the location of the strain
gauge and the seismic mass “M”. The inverting operational amplifier connecting the
Wheatstone bridge to the ADC has voltage supply Vi and the same feedback resistance
and positive input to ground resistance Ro.
a) Obtain the equation between input acceleration “a” and output voltage “V0”.
b) The accelerometer based o a strain gauge has the cantilever beam of length L = 14
mm, width w = 1.5 mm and thickness t =0.225 mm, fitted with a (seismic) mass M =
0.015 kg. The modulus of elasticity of the beam is E = 210 x 109 N/m2. The strain gauge
cemented at l = 12 mm, from the free end of the beam, has G = 2.15 and is connected to
a bridge which is interfaced to an ADC through an inverting amplifier. Assume nominal
resistance of the strain gauge of R = 360 Ω and the supply voltage of the bridge Vi =10 V.
Calculate the acceleration which produces an inverting operational amplifier voltage
output of 0.12 V when the resistance of the inverting amplifier is Ro = 4 MΩ.
In case that the ADC has only the range 0 to 10 V available, calculate a value for Ro
which will give 5 V for Vo, for an acceleration value and all other factors being kept the
same.
a) Ma l = m

ε = Φ / E = (6 M l /EwtPP2PP) a
When an inverting operational amplifier is connected to the bridge its output voltage is

Vi R 0 G
V0 = ε
2R
or

6GMlVi R 0
V0 = a
2REwt 2
Consequently, the acceleration can be calculated as follows:
REwt 2
a= V0
3GMlVi R o

b) An accelerometer based on a strain gauge consists in a cantilever beam of length l = 20 mm, width w = 2 mm and thickness t =1
mm, fitted with a (seismic) mass M = 0.01 kg (See Fig. 2.12). The modulus of elasticity of the beam is EBB BB= 200 * 10PP9
PP
N/mPP2PP. The strain gauge, cemented is at l = 20 mm from the free end of the beam, has G = 2.1 and is connected to a bridge. The
bridge is interfaced with an ADC through an inverting amplifier with RBBoBB = 1 MΣ. Assume a nominal resistance of the strain
gauge of R = 350 Σ and the supply voltage of the bridge of VBBi BB= 10 V.
Calculate the acceleration “a” that produces a voltage output VBBoBB = 0.1 V.

Solution

For the given data, the acceleration is given by

In per unit of gravitational acceleration g = 9.81 m/sPP2PP this represents

(350)(200 *10 9 )(0.002)(0.001) 2

a= 6
0.1 = 1.11[m/s 2 ]
3(2.1)(0.01)(0.02)(10)(10 )
a / g = 1.11 / 9.81 = 0.1131
i.e. 11.31 % of g. Assuming that measurements up to twenty times higher than this value are expected, the voltage VBBo BBwill
increase proportionally twenty times to (0.1V)(20) = 2 V and the range for input voltage to ADC has to be 0 to 2V, if available as
software selectable ( as for example in the case of the DAQPad – MIO-16XE-50 of National Instruments).

Example: Design Issues in Signal Conditioning

In the previous example the resistance RBBoBB of the inverting amplifier had the value of 1 MΣ and the voltage output from this
amplifier to ADC was VBBoBB = 0.1 V. In case the ADC has only the range 0 to 10 V available, calculate a value for RBBoBB which
will give the midscale 5 V for VBBoBB, for the above acceleration value of 1.11m/sPP2PP, when all other factors being kept the same.

Solution

Given

for the new value VBBoBB = 5 V , the resistance RBBoBB will be given by

(350)(200 *10 9 )(0.002)(0.001) 2

1.11 = 2 5
REwt
3(2.1)(0.01)(0.02)(1 0)(R )
a= V0 0
3GMlVi R o
or
RBBo BB = 50 MOhm

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8. A strain gauge can be installed on a steel bar to measure the applied axial force, as
shown
a) Obtain the equation that calculates the force given the voltage output
b) Consider a bar that has the Young elastic modulus 220 * 106 kN/m2 and a cross section
area 10 cm2 is subject to an axial force F. For measuring this force, a strain gauge with a
nominal resistance R= 300 Ω is cemented to the bar and connected in a branch of bridge
with all other branches with resistances equal to 300 Ω and with the inverting amplifier
output resistance of 2.5 MΩ. The strain gauge factor is 2.15 and the voltage Vi = 10 V.
Calculate the force F given a measured voltage output 6 V.
In case of a slow varying F(t), inertial and damping effects are negligible. Young modulus E is used to define the dependence between
the strain Φ and the stress γ
Φ=Eγ
where, for the area A,
Φ = F/A
Given that for a strain gauge

2R
ε= V0
Vi R 0 G

the following equation results

2R σ F
ε= V0 = =
Vi R 0 G E EA
or
2RAE
F= V0
Vi R 0 G
b) A steel bar with Young elastic modulus E = 200 * 106 kN/m2 P and a cross section area A= 4 cm2 is subject to an axial force F. A
strain gauge with voltage output VBBo BBis used for measuring the force F. The strain gauge, with a nominal resistance R= 300  is
connected in a branch of bridge, and with the inverting amplifier. The output resistance of the operational amplifier is Ro = 2.5 M .
All branches of the bridge, except for the branch containing the strain gauge, have fixed resistances of R = 350. The strain gauge
factor is G = 2.1 and the voltage Vi = 10 V.
Calculate the force F given a measured voltage Vo= 5 V.

Solution

Using the last equation, the force is

(2)(300)(4 * 10-4 )(200 * 109 )
F= (5) = 13,333N
(10)(106 )(2.1)

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9. A tachometer has the tachometer constant K = 15 V/krpm (krpm= 1000 revolutions

per minute) and is connected to a 12 bit ADC which has input voltage range from 0 to 10
V.
a) Calculate the maximum acceptable velocity that can be measured by the tachometer
in this configuration.
b) Calculate the velocity measurement resolution of the tachometer with ADC.

a) The maximum voltage output acceptable for the ADC is U max .

Maximum angular velocity is given by
ωmax = U max /K
where K has the units Volts per radians/sec.

For this problem is more convenient to use angular velocity as “n” in [1000 revolutions/min] or [krpm] such that
nmax = U max /Kn
where
Kn =15 [V/krpm]
such that the maximum angular velocity that can be measured is
nmax = 10 V / (15 V/krpm) = 0.667 krpm = 667 revolutions per minute

b) Voltage resolution at 12-bit is

rd = 10 V / 212 = 10 / 4096 = 0.00244 V
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10. Assume a Wheatstone bridge with a strain gauge with resistance R1 (with the
nominal resistance R, when subject to no strain, and R +∆R, when subject to a given
strain). The other resistances of the Wheatstone bridge have the same value of the
nominal resistance of the strain gauge. The resistance of Rm of the voltmeter can be
assumed practically infinite.
a) obtain the equation that gives the voltage output of the Wheatstone bridge function of
∆R for a constant DC voltage Vi
b) obtain a linear approximation of the above voltage output of the Wheatstone bridge
function of ∆R for a constant DC voltage Vi when ∆R<<R.
c) For resistive strain gauge with gauge factor equal to 2.2, cemented on a rectangular
steel bar, 2.5 [cm] wide and 0.75 [cm] thick, with Young modulus E = 2 x 108 [kN/m2],
subject to an axial force of 25 [kN] , calculate the change of the resistance of the strain
gauge, when unstressed strain gauge resistance is 100 [Ω].
d) Calculate the strain and the change of strain gauge resistance that results in a voltage
output of 7.5 [mV] given Vi = 10 [V].

a)
In the unbalanced case:
R1 = R + R
and for
R2 = R
I1B = Vi / (R1 + R2)
I3 BB= Vi / (R3 + R4B)

⎛ R +∆ R R3 ⎞
V0 = Vi ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
⎝ R +∆ R + R R 3 + R 4 ⎠
For the case of all bridge resistances chosen equal to R, the nominal strain gauge resistance,

R ∆R
V0 = Vi
4R + 2R∆R
2

δ
V0 = Vi
4
or
R = (4 R /VBBiBB)BB BBVBBoBB

b-d) Deflection Method for a Strain Gauge

A strain gauge with nominal resistance RBB1 BB= R = 600 is installed in a branch of a Wheatstone bridge having for unstrained
strain gauge RBB1BB = RBB2BB = RBB3BB =BB BBRBB4BB = R and VBBiBB = 10 V The strain gauge is subject to a strain as a result
of bending the beam on which it is cemented. A digital voltmeter with input resistance RBB mBB = 10 M gives a reading of VBBoBB
= 5 mV = 5 10PP-3PP V. Calculate the
a) the change of the resistance R
b) the strain for gauge factor G = 2 .
a) The change in resistance is given by
R = 4 VBBoBB R /VBBi BB = 4 * 5 10PP-3PP * 600 /10 = 1.2
b) the strain is given by
=(1/G) = (1/G) R/ R = (1/2) 1.2 V/600
i = 0.001 [m/m].

Example: Calculation of Strain Gauge Resistance Change

A resistive strain gauge, G = 2.1, is cemented on a rectangular steel bar, 4 cm wide and 1 cm thick, with Young modulus EBB BB=
200 x 10PP6 PPkN/mPP2PP. An axial force F =30 kN is applied.
Determine the change of the resistance of the strain gauge, ∆R, if the resistance of the unstressed strain gauge is R=350 .
The cross section area A is
A = 4 x 1[cmPP2PP]PP PP= 4*10PP-4 PP[mPP2 PP]PP
 F 30
σ= = −4
= 75 *10 3
A 4 * 10
The stress σ [kN/ m2] is

and the resulting strain is

σ 75 * 10 3
ε= = 6
= 0.375 *10 −3 m/m
E 200 *10
The change in resistance is:
deltaR = RγG = (350) ( 0.375*10PP-3PP) (2.1) = 0.276

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