3.

SPRINGS
3.1. DEFINITION, CLASSIFICATION, FIELDS OF APPLICATION

The springs are machine elements used as elastic link between certain parts or subassemblies
of a machine. By their shape and by the special mechanical characteristics of the materials they
are made of, the springs have the capacity to deform under the action of an external force,
absorbing the mechanical work of this force and storing it as strain energy. When the external
load disappears, the stored energy is returned to the mechanical system from which the spring is
part.
The classification of springs is done according to a series of criteria presented below.
• According to the constructive shape there are: coiled springs, torsion beam springs, plane
spiral springs, leaf springs, ring springs, disk springs and block springs.
• According to the direction of action of the external load they are classified in:
compression springs, tension springs, torsion springs and bending springs.
• According to the main stress there are springs stressed at torsion, at bending and at
tension or compression.
• According to the material, there are metallic springs and non-metallic springs.
• According to the variation of stiffness the springs may have constant stiffness or variable
stiffness (progressive or regressive).
• According to the shape of the cross section of the spring there are springs with circular,
ring, rectangular, profiled or composed cross section.
The range applications of springs are varied, the most important being:
• the damping of shocks and vibrations (at the suspensions of the cars, elastic couplings,
basement of machine-tools etc.);
• accumulation of energy (at watches with springs, the springs of valves etc.), which can be
restored step by step or all of a sudden;
• the loading of a permanent elastic force, (at safety couplings with friction, clutches etc.);
• adjustment or limitation of forces (at presses, control valves etc.);
• measuring the forces and torques, by using the dependence between the external load and
the deformation of the spring (at balances, dynamometric keys, testing stands etc.);
• the variation of the own frequency of some mechanical systems.

3.2. MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY

The materials used to manufacture the springs are chosen such that they fulfill a series of
general conditions like: high fracture strength, high limit of elasticity, high fatigue resistance. In
the case of special functioning conditions, some special characteristics are imposed for the
materials for the springs: resistance at high temperatures, resistance at corrosion, lack of magnetic
properties, reduced thermal dilatation, independent elastic behavior considering the temperature
etc.
 The ferrous material used for spring construction is the steel.. This can be quality carbon
steel (OLC 55A, OLC 65A, OLC 75A, OLC 85A) or alloyed steel (with Si, for strength and
tenacity; with Mn or Cr, for hardening and fracture strength; with V, for fatigue resistance; with
Ni, for thermal resistance). A thermal treatment of deep hardening and medium annealing is
applied to spring steels obtaining in this way an improved elasticity in the entire mass of the
material. The brands for spring steels are standardized.
The non-ferrous materials are usually used for springs that work in electrostatic fields, for
which the lack of magnetic properties is desired. The most used non-ferrous alloys for springs are
the brass and the bronze but also certain special alloys (Monel, Inconel etc.).
The non-metallic materials used for springs are the rubber, the cork etc.
The technology for manufacturing the springs depends mainly on their shape.
The half products for coiled springs are presented like wires, beams, strips etc. The coiled
shape is obtained through cold winding-up (at springs with small cross-section) or through warm
winding-up (at springs with large sections). The thermal treatment is done, generally after the
winding process. At cold winding-up springs, less loaded, the thermal treatment may be done
before winding-up, after it, only some annealing operations being done.
The surface condition of springs is important for the fatigue resistance. In order to increase
lifetime of springs submitted to variable stresses, few solutions are applied: grinding of the spring
surface (after the thermal treatment), hardening of the surface (if grinding is not possible),
covering of the surface (for protection against corrosion or avoiding the decarburizing of the
surfaces during the thermal treatment) etc.

3.3. THE ELASTIC CHARACTERISTIC

The elastic characteristic of a spring represents the dependence between the external load
(force or torque) which acts upon the spring and the elastic deformation (deflection or angle of
deformation) on the direction of the load. Depending on the type of the external load, the elastic
characteristic can be expressed through one of the following formulas F = F(δ) or Mt = Mt(θ),
where δ represents the linear deformation of the spring on the direction of the force F (the
deflection), and θ – the angular deformation of the spring on the direction of the torque Mt. In
figure 3.1 are shown the two types of linear elastic characteristics corresponding to the two types
of external loads.

Force

Deflection
a b
Fig. 3.1

The gradient of the elastic characteristic of the spring indicates the stiffness of the spring
which can be determined with one of the following formulas (see figure 3.1):
F M
c = tgα = ; c′ = tgα = t . (3.1)
δ θ
 Another parameter which characterizes the action of a spring is the stored strain energy,
which is equal to the mechanical work of the force which determined the deformation, only in the
absence of frictions. In figure 3.1, the hatched surfaces represent the mechanical work of
deformation for the spring loaded with the force F3 (see figure 3.1,a), respectively with the torque
Mt3 (see figure 3.1,b). The formulas of the mechanical work of deformation are:
1 1
L = Fδ = cδ 2 , (3.2)
2 2
respectively
1 1
L= M t θ = c ′θ 2 . (3.3)
2 2
Although the springs with linear elastic
characteristic (constant stiffness) are more often
used, in practice are also used springs with variable
stiffness which have a non-linear elastic
characteristic. (figure 3.2).
The stiffness of these springs can be expressed
by one of the following formulas:
∂F
c = tg α = ≠ const. ;
∂δ
∂M t
Fig. 3.2 c ′ = tg α = ≠ const.
∂θ
The characteristics with progressive stiffness have an increasing gradient and the
characteristics with regressive stiffness have a decreasing gradient.
The mechanical work of deformation for the springs with non-linear elastic characteristic is
expressed in one of the following ways (see figure 3.2):
δn θn
L=
∫ Fdδ ;
0
L=
∫ M dθ .
0
t (3.5)

The elastic characteristic at unloading is superposed exactly over the elastic characteristic
from loading only if there are no frictions between or inside the composing elements.
If the springs are made from several superposed elements (leaf springs, ring springs, disk
springs) or if the spring is made from a material with considerable internal frictions (rubber
springs) the elastic characteristic (figure 3.3) shows a
difference between the loading and the unloading action (the
so called “hysteresis”).The mechanical work taken by the
spring during loading action (the surface below the loading
characteristic) is different from the mechanical work given up
by the spring during the unloading action (the surface below
the unloading characteristic). The difference between these
mechanical works is represented by the consumed
mechanical work by friction (the surface closed by the loop
of the “hysteresis”) which is transformed into heat and warms
up the spring. Due to this phenomenon, the springs which
have an elastic characteristic with “hysteresis” have a greater
Fig. 3.3
capacity of damping the shocks and vibrations.
 3.4. COILED SPRINGS

The coiled springs are obtained from wires or beams of different sections, winding-up on a
directory surface.
The coiled springs are classified according to a series of criteria, presented below.
ƒ According to the shape of the section the coiled springs can be with round section, with
square, rectangular or with profiled section.
ƒ According to the shape of the directory surface the coiled springs can be classified in
cylindrical springs, volute springs, double volute springs, conoidal springs, hyperconoidal
springs, prysmatic springs etc.
ƒ According to the direction of load there are compression, tension or torsion coiled
springs.

a b c d

e f
Fig. 3.4

The standards prescribe, for coiled springs, the classification, terminology and representation
in technical drawing [97].

3.4.1. Cylindrical Coiled Compression Springs

3.4.1.1. Characterization, Geometrical Elements

Figure 3.4 presents few solutions for the coiled springs of compression, and in figure 3.5 are
presented the geometrical elements of cylindrical coiled compression spring with round (figure
3.5, a) and rectangular cross section (figure 3.5, b).
The terminology used for cylindrical coiled compression springs with round cross section
(available also in the case of rectangular cross section), is:
ƒ d – the cross section diameter;
ƒ Di – the winding-up internal diameter;
• Dm – the winding-up medium diameter;
 a b c
Fig. 3.5
• D – the winding-up external diameter;
• t – the pitch;
• H0 – the length of the spring in unloaded state;
• α0 – the winding-up angle in unloaded state.
The bearing surfaces of the cylindrical coiled compression springs are plane processed,
perpendicular on the axis of the spring. The windings from both ends of the spring, processed in
this way, do not have an elastic deformation.
The total number of convolutions, nt, of a cylindrical coiled compression spring can be
determined with the formula nt = n + nr , where n represents the number of useful convolutions
(which take part to the elastic deformation of the spring), and nr is the number of the idle
convolutions (edge convolutions), prescribed in standards [97] depending on the number of
useful convolutions: nr = 1.5, if n ≤ 7; nr = 1.5...3.5, if n > 7.
The cylindrical coiled springs with the rectangular cross section can be made in one of the
variants presented in figure 3.5, b and c. If the cross section has the larger side of the rectangle
perpendicular on the axis of the spring (see figure 3.5, b) a greater elasticity is gained. If the
larger side of the rectangle is parallel (see figure 3.5, c), the spring has higher stiffness and a
more precise linear characteristic, this fact recommends using in the construction of the
measuring instruments.

3.4.1.2. The Strength Calculus For The Cylindrical Coiled Compression Spring

The diagram of the cylindrical coiled compression spring with round cross section is shown
in figure 3.6. The force F acting along the axis of the spring splits into two components:
• F cosα - perpendicular on the convolution plane – determines the torsion load (given
D
by the torque M t = F cos α m ) and the shearing load (given by the shearing force T = F cosα);
2
• F sinα - which is situated in the convolution plane - determines the bending load (given by
D
the bending moment M i = F sin α m ) and the compression load (given by the normal force N
2
= F cosα).
 Fig. 3.7
Because the winding-up angle has low values (α
= 6…9 o), cosα ≅ 1 and sin α ≅ 0, the shearing stress
is very small and only the torsion load, with the
Fig. 3.6 D
torque M t = F m is considered in calculus.
2
The torsion load which appears in the convolution of the spring – considered to have the
shape of a straight beam – is
D
F m
τt =
Mt
= 2 = 8 FDm .
(3.6)
Wp πd 3 πd 3
16
D
Considering notation i = m as the index of the spring, the formula (3.6) can be written like
d
8 Fi
τt = . (3.7)
πd 2
Because the distribution of the torsion stress is not uniform, the cross section having greater
values on the interior side of the curvature (figure 3.7), the checking of the spring at torsion load
is done with one of the following formulas
8 FDm
τ t max = kτ t = k ≤ τ at and (3.8)
πd 3
8 Fi
τ t max = kτ t = k ≤ τ at , (3.9)
πd 2
where k is the shape coefficient of the spring, depending on the index i of the spring and it can be
determined with the formula [5, 14]
1,6
k =1+ . (3.10)
i
For the dimensioning of the spring results, from the formulas (3.8) or (3.9):
8kFDm
d =3 or (3.11)
πτ at
8kFi
d= . (3.12)
πτ at
The allowable torsion strength τat is chosen depending on the material of the spring, on the
thermal treatment, on the type of load (static or dynamic), on the functioning conditions and on
the importance of the spring inside the assembly, taking values in the range τat = 500…800 MPa.
 3.4.1.3. The calculus for deformations of the cylindrical coiled compression spring

The calculus for deformations (also called stiffness calculus) is specific for springs and it
consists in establishing the deformation of the spring corresponding to a certain load.

a b

Fig. 3.8

The deformation of the cylindrical coiled compression spring is represented by the

displacement of the application point of the force which acts on the spring, on the direction of this
force. By unwrapping the convolutions of the spring, the shape of a beam of length l = πDmn
(figure 3.8) is obtained, the deformation is given by the deflection of the force F, acting at the end
Dm
of the beam, with the arm . The total angle of deformation of the spring is
2
Dm
F πnDm 16nFD 2
M tl 2
θ= = = m
, (3.13)
GI p πd 4 Gd 4
G
32
and the deformation of the spring is
Dm 8FnDm3
δ=θ = , (3.14)
2 Gd 4
where: n represents the number of active convolutions, G – the shearing modulus and Ip – the
polar moment of inertia of the cross section of the spring.
The formula for the deformation of spring proves the high importance of the spring index
over the elasticity of the spring. The springs with a high index are elastic (easy to deform) and
those with a low index are rigid.

3.4.1.4. The elastic characteristic

In figure 3.9 is shown the elastic characteristic for a cylindrical coiled compression spring.
The notations used to define this characteristic are:
• H 0 – the length of the spring in unloaded state;
• F1 – the initial load of mounting;

Fig. 3.9
spring on this non-linear part of the characteristic, it is recommended the limitation of the
maximum functioning load Fmax ≤ (0,8…0,9) Fb.
• δ1, H1 – the deflection, respectively the
length of the assembled spring mounted
with the force F1;
• Fmax – the maximum functioning load;
• δmax, Hmax – the deflection, respectively
the length of the spring under the action
of force;
• h – the working stroke of the spring;
• Fb – the limited blocking load of the
spring;
• δb, Hb – the pitch, respectively the length
of the blocked spring (compressed
convolutions).
Due to the irregularity of the winding-up
pitch, when loaded, some convolutions get in
touch faster than others and, consequently, the
final part of the characteristic becomes
progressive. In order to avoid the working of the

3.4.1.5 Design Algorithm

The dimensioning of a cylindrical coiled compression spring is done by selecting some

functional and geometric parameters of the spring, from functional and technological reasons, but
also as a result of the calculus of strength and the calculus of deformation.
The general input data are: the shape of the cross section, the maximum load acting on the
spring, the maximum pitch or the number of useful convolutions or the imposed stiffness and the
working conditions.
The steps in designing a cylindrical coiled compression spring are presented below.
1. The material of the spring is chosen depending on the working conditions and the
allowable torsion strength is established.
2. The strength calculus is accomplished – the cross section diameter d is determined,
corresponding to a standard wire [96].
3. The calculus for deformations is accomplished – choosing or adopting the number of
useful convolutions, so that the spring ensures the imposed conditions of stiffness and
size.
4. The geometric dimensions of the spring and the parameters corresponding to the elastic
characteristic are established.
5. Detail drawing is accomplished, according to the previous steps and to the prescriptions
from the standards.

3.4.2. Cylindrical Coiled Tension Springs

The coiled tension spring takes over an axial load which tend to elongate it. The load is
applied by using some catching loops, having the shape of hooks made through the deformation
of the edge convolutions of the spring (figure 3.10, a, b, c and d) or using some separate pieces
(figure 3.10, e and f).

a b

c d

e f

Fig. 3.10
The convolution of the coiled tension spring is loaded, mainly, at torsion like the
convolutions of the coiled compression spring. The strength calculus of the coiled tension spring
is done based upon the formulas presented in subchapter 3.4.1.2.
At the calculus of the coiled tension springs it is recommended to work with allowable
strengths decreased with 12% in comparison with those used in calculus of coiled compression
springs. Also, it is recommended that the tension springs do not be dynamic loaded, and if this is
not possible, to consider the following specifications [14, 16]:
• recommended use of catching screwed elements (see example figure 3.10, e);
• calculus is using allowable resistances decreased with 25%, if the springs has catching
loops;
• recommended cold wrapping of the spring.
The calculus for deformations is based upon the formulas established in subchapter 3.4.1.3 f
of the coiled cylindrical compression
spring.
Theoretically, the cylindrical coiled
tension springs have linear elastic
characteristic identical with that of the
cylindrical coiled compression springs
(see figure 3.9). Practically, the coiled
tension springs are made, usually, with
tighten convolutions. In this way, the
convolutions are not only in contact in
unloaded state, but they are also
reciprocally compressed, due to an initial
mounting force. The elastic characteristic
of these springs and the parameters which
define them are presented in figure 3.11. Fig. 3.11
The notations are:
• F0 – the initial force;
• HC – the heights of the catching loops;
• H – the active length of the spring in unloaded state;
• H0 – the length of the spring in unloaded state;
• F1 – the mounting force;
• δ1, H1 – the pitch, respectively the length of the assembled spring, loaded with the force
F1;
• Fmax – the maximum load;
• δmax, Hmax – the pitch, respectively the length of the spring under the action of the force
Fmax;
• h – the stroke of the spring;
• Flim – the limit loading, under which the stresses from the spring are getting near the yield
stress of the material;
• Hlim – the length of the spring under the action of the force, imposing that higher
deformations will not be allowed by using special limiters.
Due to the assembling imperfections, the initial compression between the convolutions is not
uniform. As a consequence, at the beginning of loading the elastic characteristic is not linear
(follows the dotted line from figure 3.11).

3.4.3. Cylindrical Coiled Torsion Springs

The cylindrical coiled torsion springs take

over a torque which is applied on the direction of
the spring axis. The shape of these springs is
similar to that of cylindrical coiled compression
springs, the difference being given by the
construction of the edge convolutions, which are
bent in such a way that they can be fixed at one
edge and support a torque at the other edge.
In figure 3.12 is shown a sketch of the
cylindrical coiled torsion spring where is noticed
the load realized by applying a force F having the
arm R. Loading it with the torque of torsion Mt =
FR, the active edge of the spring rotates with the
angle θ.
The calculus of strength
The torque Mt acting upon the convolution of
the spring, splits into two components (figure
Fig. 3.12
3.13):
• Mt cosα - perpendicular on the convolution plane– determines the bending stress of the
convolution;
• Mt sinα - situated in the convolution plane determines the torsion stress.
Because the winding-up angle α of the spring has low values (cosα ≅ 1 and sinα ≅ 0), only
the bending stress is considered for strength calculation.
The checking calculus of the convolution for bending is done with the relation
 Mi M
σ i max = ki = 32k i t3 ≤ σ ai , (3.16)
Wz πd
where: ki is the correction coefficient of the
bending stress, chosen depending of the spring
D
index i = m and is considering the fact that the
d
distribution of the bending stress is influenced
by the convolution curvature, the maximum
bending stress appearing on the convolution
internal side; σai – the allowable bending
strength, is established in function of the
allowable torsion strength σai = 1,25τat [14]. Fig. 3.13
By processing this formula, it results the
dimensioning formula of the cross section for the cylindrical coiled torsion spring
32k i M t
d =3 . (3.17)
πσ ai

The calculus for deformations

The deformation of the spring is determined like for a straight beam – of length l = nπDm –
obtained by unwrapping the convolutions of the spring, fixed at one edge and loaded with a
bending moment Mi = Mt = FR at the other edge (figure 3.14).
The formula for the angle of deformation of the spring is
M l M πnDm 64nDm M t
θ= i = t =E , (3.18)
EI z πd 4 Gd 4
E
64
where n represents the number of useful convolution, E – the Young modulus of the material of
the spring and Iz – the moment of inertia of the convolution cross section of the spring .

3.5. BEAM TORSION SPRING

3.5.1. Definition, Characteristics

a b
Fig. 3.15
The beam torsion spring has, as it’s name shows it, the shape of a beam loaded with a torque.
From the constructive point of view, the spring can be presented as a beam fixed at one edge,
loaded with a force applied by using a lever at the other edge (figure 3.15, a) or as a free beam,
loaded at both edges with forces, using some levers (figure 3.15, b). To avoid the bending load,
the beam is supported on slide bearings which are placed as near as possible to the action levers.
 The cross section of the spring can be round, ring-shaped, square, rectangular, hexagonal,
composed from several round bars or from a package of blades. The most frequently met are the
springs with a round section, which ensures the uniformity of the distribution of the torsion stress and
technological simplicity.
The advantages of the beam torsion springs are:
• reduced dimensions;
• simple construction;
• easy mounting, demounting and maintenance;
• lack of internal frictions;
• relatively simple technology;
• high loading capacity.
The beam torsion springs are used in cars suspension, elastic couplings, dynamometric keys,
measuring devices and in installations from testing stands etc.

3.5.2. Calculus Elements

The strength calculus of the beam torsion springs with circular cross section is done in case of
torsion loading, according to the calculus sketch presented in figure 3.15,a. The checking formula for
torsion is
M 16 Fa
τt = t = ≤ τ at , (3.19)
Wp πd 3
where the torsion torque is determined depending of the force F and the arm a at which it is
applied on the lever, Mt = Fa.
From the formula of the torsion stress (3.19), the dimensioning formula for the beam torsion
spring can be obtained
16 Fa
d =3 (3.20)
πτ at
.
The allowable strength at torsion is chosen depending on the material of the spring, the type
of the loading (static or dynamic), the diameter of the beam and its surface state, taking values in
the interval τat = 500…800 MPa [5, 14].

The calculus for deformations (see figure 3.15) is done according to the formula
M l 32 M t l
θ= t = , (3.21)
GI p Gπd 4
where: l represents the working length of the beam, G – the shearing modulus for the material of the
spring, Ip – the polar moment of inertia of the spring cross section.
If the deformation is imposed, from formula (3.21), the necessary length of the spring can be
determined
Gπd 4
l= . (3.22)
32 M t θ

According to the formula (3.21), the elastic characteristic of the beam torsion spring is linear
(see figure 3.2).
 3.5.3 Constructive Elements

Fig. 3.18.
The fixed edges and the ones on which are assembled the levers can be made with flattening
dc = 1,6d and d1 = 1,2d (figure 3.18, a), with hexagonal contour (figure 3.18, b), with square
contour (figure 3.18, c), splined (figure 3.18, d) etc. Between the working shank – with the
diameter d – and the edges of the beam, filleting with high radius (r ≅ 2d) should be
manufactured, in order to get a decrease of the stress concentrator and also the fatigue stress. For
the same purpose, the surface of the beam is grinded and/or thermal treated.

8.6. FLAT SPIRAL SPRINGS

The flat spiral springs can support torsion torques, their name being given by the fact that the
spring steel strip, from which the springs are
manufactured is winding-up following an
archimedical spiral. (figure 3.19). The
construction of this type of spring looks very
much with the one from coiled torsion spring,
having one fixed edge and the torque applied at
the opposite edge. In figure 3.19, the notations
are: 1 – the flat spiral spring, 2 – the loading
shaft through which the torsion torque is applied
Mt, 3 – the frame in which the external edge of Fig. 3.19
the spring is fixed.
The flat spiral spring is used, mainly, as a driving element, having a high capacity of
deformation and energy storage – when armed – energy that can be released afterwards, in time.
It is met, mainly at watches mechanisms and measuring devices.
The strength calculus is done for the bending stress, the bending moment which loads the
strip of the spring being equal to the torque loading the spring Mi = Mt. The checking formula at
the bending stress is
 M i 6M t
σi = = ≤ σ ai , (3.23)
Wz bh 2
The relation can be rewritten for dimensioning the spring like
6M
b= 2 t . (3.24)
h σ ai
The thickness h of the strip can be chosen depending on the diameter d of the shaft of loading
h = (0,003…0,004) d [5, 14].

The calculus for deformations is done with the formula

Ml M tl 12 M t l
θ= i = = , (3.25)
EI z bh 3 Ebh 3
E
12
where: l represents the length of the spring, E – the Young modulus of the material of the spring;
Iz – the axial moment of inertia of the strip cross section. The formula for deformations was
obtained by comparing the flat spiral spring, in its unwrapped shape, with an embedded straight
beam loaded with a bending moment Mi = Mt – similar to the diagram for deformation calculus of
the cylindrical torsion coiled spring (see figure 3.14) – the angle at the edge of the beam being the
same with the rotation angle of the loading shaft of the flat spiral spring. From the formula (3.25)
it results the linearity of the elastic characteristic of the flat spiral spring.

3.7. LAMELLAR SPRINGS

The lamellar springs have two main constructive forms: with one
blade (plate springs) and with several superposed blades (leaf springs).

3.7.1. Plate Springs

Fig. 3.20

The plate springs are found, usually, like a fixed

blade at one edge and free at the other edge. They are
used as in construction of measuring devices, at
mechanisms with ratchet (figure 3.20), mechanisms
of shutting-up [14] etc. The section of the blade is a
rectangular, with the thickness h, usually being
constant. In function of the variation with the length
of the width b of the blade, the plate springs are
classified in (figure 3.21): a – rectangular springs, b – b
triangular springs, c – trapezoidal springs etc. The
triangular and the trapezoidal springs have a shape
which is similar to the shape of the beam of equal
bending strength. c
The calculus for strength consists in limiting
the bending stress, which is maximum in the
embedding section of the blade,
M Fl d
σ i = i = 2 ≤ σ ai , (3.26)
Wz bh Fig. 3.21
6
where l represents the active length of the blade.
 The formula (3.26) can be rewritten, for determining the necessary width of the blade like
6 Fl
b= , (3.27)
h 2 σ ai

the thickness h of the blade being chosen from constructive purposes.

The calculus for deformations is made in order to determine the dependence between the
deflection δ at the free edge of the blade spring under the action of the force F. The calculus
formula is

Fl 3 Fl 3 4 Fl 3
δ= = = , (3.28)
3EI z bh 3 Ebh 3
3E
12
where E represents the Young modulus of the spring material. According to this formula the elastic
characteristic of the plate spring is linear.

3.7.2. Leaf Springs

c d

e
Fig. 3.22
These springs are composed from several superposed blade springs, of different lengths,
assembled in such a way that all of them take part to the deformation. The leaf springs are frequently
used in vehicles suspension (both cars and trains), in the construction of dampers, forging
installations, the buffers of the elevators etc.
In figure 3.22 are presented some usual constructive types: a – with one arm (the quarter spring);
b – with two arms, which takes over the load at the middle of the spring (half elliptical spring); c –
with two arms, which takes over the load at one edge of the spring (cantilever spring); d – formed of
two superposed arms (double spring or elliptical spring). A more recent type is that shown in figure
3.22, e, with blades which have a variable thickness, reducing in this way the weight of the spring
with at least 30% [14]. By splitting the blades using packing of plastic materials (see figure 3.22, e)
the friction between the blades can be reduced with 80% [14].
The friction between the blades of the leaf springs is desired, especially when the spring is used
as a damping element. A part from the energy taken over by the spring is transformed into heat, by
friction, and is not given back to the system from which the spring is part, after the load disappears. If
the external load acts with small shocks upon the
spring, which don’t overcome the friction from the
a b spring and don’t deform it, these shocks will be
entirely transmitted to the system from which the
spring is part. In these cases the friction has an
undesired effect.
c d The friction between the blades depends on a
series of elements such as: the quality of the bearing
surfaces, the lubrication state of the surfaces, the
number and the length of the blades.
e Sometimes, the spring leafs are made with an
f initial curvature, the smaller length of blades the
bigger the curvature, so that all the blades take part in
transmitting the load.
The cylindrical joint from the edges of the blade
spring can be made like loops, obtained by plastically
deformation at the edge of one leaf (figure 3.23, a…e)
by leaning in a rubber pillow (figure 3.23, f) or by
leaning on hub assembled on the fixed part of the
g assembly (figure 3.23, g).
Fig. 3.23 The leaf type springs calculus is made by
comparing these springs with a single blade spring
with variable thickness. The elements of calculus for this type of springs are presented in [5, 14], its
precision being affected by the complexity of the phenomena which take place.

3.8. RING SPRINGS

The ring springs are obtained through putting together some internal or external taper rings,
alternatively assembled, having contact on the conical surfaces (figure 3.25). These springs take over
a compression external load under whose action the internal rings tend to decrease their diameter, by
comprising themselves, whereas the external rings tend to increase their diameter, by tensioning.
Between the rings high friction forces appear, the mechanic work of friction reaching at 60…70%
from the work of the external force [14], which leads to a high damping capacity. Due to this
characteristic, the ring springs are used as buffer springs, to take over very high loads (at the buffer
springs from rolling installations). The angle α (see figure 3.25) of the tapered surfaces (α ≅ 15°) is
chosen in order to avoid the jamming of
the springs and to allow the returning of
the springs to their initial shape after the
external load stops to act.
In order to increase the elasticity of
the spring both the internal and the
external rings can be made like in the
figure 3.25, b.
The high dimension rings are
executed by forging and those of small
dimensions by stamping, the conical
surfaces being processed by taper c d
turning.
Fig. 3.26

3.9 . DISK SPRINGS

The disk springs are consisted of one or several ring type plates, having a taper shape, being
subjected to axial loads of compression. The geometrical elements of the disk spring, shown in figure
3.26, a, are:
• Di – the internal diameter;
• De – the external diameter;
• s – the thickness of the plate;
• h – the height of the spring.
Under the action of the external load F, the spring deforms with the deflection δ, decreasing the
height of the spring h.
According to the standardized prescriptions [97] the disk springs can be compounded as it
follows:
• in column, by arranging the springs
alternatively (figure 3.26, b), increasing the
elasticity;
• in packages of disks superposed on the
same side (figure 3.26, c), obtaining in this
way a higher stiffness and more higher
frictions;
• in column of packages (figure 3.26, d),
having a stiffness intermediary to the two
compounding types presented before.
The disk springs are used as buffer springs at a b
stamping installations, at the frames of heavy Fig. 3.25
machines, at the buffers of some vehicles etc., where
high and rare shocks or very high static loads, with relatively small deformations are to be taken over.
The disks are obtained from strip steel for springs, by stamping, by bulging (by hot pressing),
followed by a thermal treatment.
The calculus of the disk springs is difficult, because of the complexity of the loads and the
changing of the geometry during the action of the load. The calculus methods [14] presume the
uniform distribution of the pressure onto the circumference of the disks and considers the geometry of
the spring as being invariable. The elastic characteristic of the disk spring is, generally, nonlinear,
depending on the ratio and on the compounding type of the disks [14].

3.10. RUBBER SPRINGS

The rubber springs are used due to some special particular characteristics, which are determined
by the properties of the rubber. These characteristics are: high damping capacity, high capacity of
deformation, simple technology and construction, safe and low noise functioning, low cost.
The high capacity of damping of the rubber springs is due to the internal frictions through which
is taken over 40% from the work of the external force. This may lead to the unwanted phenomenon of
heating the spring, which imposes some supplementary solutions for evacuation the heat.
The rubber springs are especially used, for damping the shocks and vibrations, in the suspension
of the vehicles or installations, at balancing some errors from the kinematical chains and at the
variation of the critical angular velocity of some mechanical systems .
The springs can be manufactured as blocks or with hollows.
The block springs, shown in figure 3.27, are made by vulcanizing the rubber on metallic
elements and can be used to take over vertical and horizontal loads (the constructive solutions from

a b
Fig. 3.27

Fig. 3.28

Fig. 3.29
figure 3.27, a) or to take over only vertical loads (the constructive solutions from figure 3.27, b ).
The springs with hollows have centering systems in rigid structures (figure 3.28), which prevent
the asymmetrical transversal deformation of the spring.
Other types of springs, made by vulcanizing on metallic elements are presented in figure 3.29.
The calculus of the rubber springs is extremely difficult, due to the complexity of the phenomena
which take place at the deformation of the rubber and due to the very different constructive shapes.
The calculus formulas [5, 14] are valid only for the quasilinear field of the elastic characteristic of the
springs.