Mental Status Exam

Clinical Psychology Review 25 (2005) 341 – 363
Potential roles of parental self-efficacy in parent

and child adjustment: A review
Tracy L. Jones, Ronald J. Prinz*
Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 20208, United States
Received 23 February 2004; received in revised form 10 May 2004; accepted 24 December 2004
Abstract
This review examines the potential roles of parental self-efficacy (PSE) in parent and child adjustment and the
role of parental cognitions in understanding behaviors and emotions within families. The areas in this review
include parental competence and psychological functioning, as well as child behaviors, socio-emotional
adjustment, school achievement, and maltreatment. There is strong evidence linking PSE to parental competence,
and more modest linkage to parental psychological functioning. Some findings suggest that PSE impacts child
adjustment directly but also indirectly via parenting practices and behaviors. Although the role of PSE likely varies
across parents, children, and cultural–contextual factors, its influence cannot be overlooked as a possible predictor
of parental competence and child functioning, or perhaps an indicator of risk. PSE may also be an appropriate
target for prevention and intervention efforts. Limitations in the literature include measurement problems,
variability in conceptualizations and definitions of the construct, and the lack of research exploring causality.
Future research should focus on clarifying the measurement of PSE, studying potential bias in self-report of PSE,
and utilizing experimental and longitudinal designs to untangle the issues of causal direction and potential
transactional processes.
D 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Parental self-efficacy; Parenting; Parental competence; Child adjustment
T Corresponding author.
E-mail address: prinz@sc.edu (R.J. Prinz).
0272-7358/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2004.12.004
342 T.L. Jones, R.J. Prinz / Clinical Psychology Review 25 (2005) 341–363
This review examines the potential roles of parental self-efficacy (PSE) in parent and child adjustment
and the role of parental cognitions in understanding behaviors and emotions within families. PSE is a
potentially important cognitive construct, related to child and family functioning, that can be broadly
defined as the expectation caregivers hold about their ability to parent successfully. PSE is presumed to
be a specific case of the more general class of constructs associated with personal efficacy (Bandura,
1977, 1982; Cervone, 2000; Pajares, 1997).
Bandura (1997) links personal efficacy to human agency, which he defines as acts done intentionally
that reflect an individual’s perception that they are exercising influence over what they do. Cognitions of
personal efficacy, considered the main facets of human agency, are the beliefs that what the person does
will produce the intended outcomes. Extrapolating from these general definitions, PSE involves a
parent’s beliefs in their ability to influence their child and the environment in ways that would foster the
child’s development and success (Ardelt & Eccles, 2001).
Building on Bandura’s conceptualizations, Coleman and Karraker (1998) explicated the PSE
construct with respect to importance of studying PSE, levels of specificity, and discrimination from
related constructs, and they characterized the role that PSE appears to play in parenting. The Coleman
and Karraker review was based on 18 studies related to PSE. The present review, which focuses
predominantly on studies from 1995 onward, examines a substantially larger and stronger body of
empirical work (47 studies) and examines evidence regarding the extent to which PSE relates to facets
of parent and child adjustment. Evidence is considered that relates PSE to parenting competencies,
parental psychological functioning, and child adjustment. Within each section evidence is generally
presented from stronger to weaker to conflicted. Mediator and moderator roles, and cultural,
contextual, and developmental considerations are discussed where salient.
1. Conceptual frameworks
Depending on the particular conceptualization and application, PSE has been posited as an
antecedent, a consequence, a mediator, and a transactional variable. PSE as an antecedent has primarily
involved PSE as an influence over parenting competence. Presumably, parents with high PSE exude
confidence in acquiring and exercising effective parenting skills, and conversely, parents with low PSE
may find it more difficult to parent effectively in the face of challenging child situations.
PSE as a consequence has taken on multiple forms. The most common is that the ecological
context influences PSE. Variables linked to socioeconomic disadvantage and neighborhood character-
istics may undermine or limit the development of PSE, or may interfere with parenting competence
which in turn limits PSE. Another consideration is that child problems of a particularly challenging
nature (e.g., severe oppositional-defiant disorder or ADHD, autism, delinquent behavior) may affect
PSE.
PSE as a mediator mainly concerns a link between ecological variables and parenting competence.
Environmental conditions may undermine a parent’s confidence and account for less effective
parenting.
PSE may operate as a transactional variable. For example, parents with higher levels of PSE may
reflect greater success in parenting, resulting in better child outcomes which in turn increases PSE further
in a feedback loop. Similarly, parents who have lower levels of PSE may struggle with parenting,
experience frustration and non-optimal child outcomes, and have PSE further undermined.
T.L. Jones, R.J. Prinz / Clinical Psychology Review 25 (2005) 341–363 343
Ardelt and Eccles (2001) described a conceptual model, which they put forward regarding PSE, that
is based on qualitative research by Furstenberg (1993) and theory by Bandura (1997). In their model,
parents who feel efficacious (i.e., reflect higher PSE) are more likely to be engaged in promotive
parenting strategies, which in turn increases the likelihood for their children’s success in both
academic and social–psychological domains. The model also suggests that PSE can also have a direct
impact on children’s success through modeling of attitudes and beliefs. Ardelt and Eccles (2001) also
argued that there can be reverse effects. Parents with low PSE may struggle to use promotive
parenting strategies and give up easily when challenges arise, which in turn may confirm their beliefs
of low efficacy. In a similar way, parents faced with challenging child behavior problems may find it
difficult to maintain high PSE given the adverse results, while observing success in their children
might strengthen PSE. The model is further complicated by the consideration that the interaction
among PSE, parenting, and child outcomes is likely to be affected by environmental and family
contexts.
Bandura’s (1997) conceptualization of PSE, and the variables that impact it, is compatible with the
Ardelt and Eccles (2001) framework. Bandura summarized evidence about the various factors that
may impinge on PSE, such as a temperamentally difficult infant, lack of social support, parental
depression, and child health problems. Bandura also noted how PSE can serve as a predictive
antecedent for both child and marital relationships, as found in the longitudinal research of Williams et
al. (1987).
2. Measurement considerations
PSE has been assessed exclusively by self-report, in one of three ways. One type of measure,
which we refer to as general PSE, focuses broadly on the extent to which a parent feels competent in
the parenting role, without focusing on specific parenting tasks or a particular domain of parenting.
The second type of measure, task-related PSE, is similar to general PSE in assessing PSE globally,
but the items themselves are task-specific (e.g., related to childrearing activities such as toilet-
training, learning readiness tasks, or caring for a sick child). Task-related PSE measures further
collapse across parenting domains such as discipline, warmth, meeting instrumental needs, and
supervision/monitoring to yield a summary of PSE. The third type of measure, narrow-domain PSE,
focuses on one parenting domain such as discipline, promotion of learning, or communication. The
narrow-domain PSE measures also rely on task-specific rather than more global items.
In the studies reviewed, task-related PSE measure were used in 23 studies, general PSE measures in
17 studies, and narrow-domain measures in 7 studies (note: 6 studies used more than one type of PSE
measure). In 7 studies, insufficient information was provided to permit a determination of the kind of
PSE measure used.
In terms of actual instruments, the most frequently used one was the Parenting Sense of
Competence Scale (Johnston & Mash, 1989), a general PSE measure. Two other frequently used
instruments were the Toddler Care Questionnaire (Gross & Rocissano, 1988) and the Maternal Self-
Efficacy Scale (Teti & Gelfand, 1991), both of which are task-related PSE measures. Also used to
some extent was the Parenting Self-Agency Measure (Dumka, Stoerzinger, Jackson, & Roosa, 1996),
a general PSE measure. Many of the reviewed studies used a measure created by the investigator and
typically deployed in only one study: 2 general PSE, 10 task-related PSE, and 6 narrow-domain PSE
344
Table 1
Self-efficacy and parenting behaviors in studies with supportive evidence
Studies Parenting Measurement: Sample: N, ethnicity, Results
dimension Parenting Source; child age, SES
PSE type
Ardelt & Eccles, promotive par: PSR; task-related 376; African American, African American mothers: PSE positively related to
T.L. Jones, R.J. Prinz / Clinical Psychology Review 25 (2005) 341–363

2001 encouragement, Caucasian; adolescent; promotive par and related to promotive par across
collaborative low-income African American family structure (single parent, weak
activity, involvement, marriage, strong marriage). Caucasian mothers: PSE not
proactive prevention significantly related to promotive par. Effect of PSE on
promotive par: stronger for African American than
Caucasian mothers.
Bogenschneider involvement, CR; task-related 666 mother–adolescent Maternal PSE positively related to monitoring, b=.18,
et al., 1997 monitoring pairs, 510 father– pV.001 and to responsiveness, b=.35, pV.001 (sons) and
adolescent pairs; b=.28, pV.001 (daughters), and negatively to control for
Caucasian; diverse sons, b= .16, pV.10 and for daughters, b= .27, pV.01.
Paternal PSE positively related to monitoring, b=.13,
pV.01 and to responsiveness, b=.19, pV.01, and
negatively to control for sons, b= .26, pV.001 and for
daughters, b= .27, pV.001.
Bohlin & interactive behavior, OH; 32; Caucasian; infants; PSE to interactive behavior, r=.58, pb.01; sensitivity,
Hagekull, sensitivity indeterminate not reported r=.42, pb.05.
1987
Day et al., discipline style PSR; 253; not reported; young PSE mediated the effect of child behavior problems on
1994 narrow-domain childhood–adolescent; not the use of harsh discipline (but not for mild aversive
reported discipline).
Dumka et al., acceptance, PSR; general 184; Hispanic, Caucasian; PSE correlated with acceptance for Hispanic (r=.29,
1996 inconsistent (PSAM) young childhood; low pb.01) and Caucasian (r=.55, pb.01) mothers. PSE
discipline and middle income correlated with inconsistent discipline for White
(r= .34, pb.01), but not for Hispanic mothers (r= .18).
Elder et al., promotive and PSR; task-related 429; African American, For African American families, PSE correlated with all
1995 preventive par White; adolescent; in home and out-of-home strategies. For White families,
strategies low-income one scale of PSE was correlated with only one strategy
(encouragement). PSE was predictive of par strategies.
Gondoli & responsiveness, PSR+CR+OL; 94; White, Hispanic; PSE correlated with maternal reported responsiveness
Silverberg, perspective-taking general (SES) adolescents; diverse (r=.50, pb.001) and perspective-taking (r=.29, pb.01),
1997 with adolescent reported maternal responsiveness (r=.40,
pb.001), and marginally with observer-rated maternal
responsiveness (r=.18, pb.10).
Gross et al., discipline strategies PSR; task-related 133; African American, PSE correlated with lax discipline (r= .19, pb.05) and
1999 (TCQ) Hispanic; toddlers; overreactive discipline (r= .32, pb.001).
low-income
Hill & Bush, inconsistent PSR; general 103; White, African PSE correlated positively to positive par and negatively
2001 discipline, hostile (PSOC) American; young to negative par (correlations not reported).
control, limit-setting, childhood; diverse
love withdrawal
Hoover-Dempsey involvement in PSR; narrow- 390; not reported; Higher PSE to hours of classroom volunteerism r=.15,
et al., 1992 school related domain young childhood; pb.01, time on educational activities, r=.11, pb.05,
T.L. Jones, R.J. Prinz / Clinical Psychology Review 25 (2005) 341–363

activities (PPOPES) diverse teacher telephone calls, r= .14, pb.01.
Izzo et al., 2000 warmth, control PSR; general 93; Hispanic; young PSE correlated with warmth, r=.56, pb.001 and with
childhood; low-income control, r=.44, pb.001. PSE mediated the effect of
social support on warmth, control.
King & Elder, 1998 involvement PSR; task-related 883 grandparents; White; Higher levels of PSE predicted more contact with youth,
adolescent; not reported higher relationship quality, more participation in
activities, playing the role of friend/mentor, knowing
youth well, providing financial support, and discussing
problems and future plans with youth.
MacPhee et al., limit-setting, PSR; 500; diverse; preschool PSE fully (except for American Indian parents, it was
1996 encouraging indeterminate age; low-income partial mediation) mediated the relation between social
autonomy, harsh (SPPR) support and parenting.
discipline, rational
guidance
Raver & dyadic conflict OL; task-related 44; African American, Dyadic conflict moderated environmental risk on PSE.
Leadbeater, (MSES), White; toddlers;
1999 general (PSI) low-income
Shumow & involvement, PSR+CR; 929; African American, PSE predictive of involvement, monitoring.
Lomax, 2002 monitoring task-related Hispanic, White;
adolescents; diverse
Teti & Gelfand, competence: OH; task-related 86; White; infants; PSE related to competence independent of the effects of
1991 sensitivity, warmth, (MSES), diverse other variables.
flatness of affect, general (PSI)
disengagement,
anger
PSE=Parental Self-Efficacy. Parenting Source (measurement): Par=Parenting, O=Observation (H=Home, L=Laboratory), PSR=Parent Self-Report, CR=Child
Report. PSE type refers measures of PSE that are classified as either general PSE, task-related PSE, narrow-domain PSE, or indeterminate when there was not
enough information provided to determine the type. When specific PSE measure names are provided in studies, they are listed following PSE type.
PSAM=Parenting Self-Agency Measure (Dumka et al., 1996); SES=Self-Efficacy Scales (Wells-Parker, Miller, & Topping, 1990); TCQ=Toddler Care
Questionnaire (Gross & Rocissano, 1988); PSOC=Parenting Sense of Competence (Johnston & Mash, 1989); PPOPES=Parent Perceptions of Parent Efficacy
Scale (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 1992); SPPR=Self-Perceptions of the Parental Role (MacPhee, Benson, & Bullock, 1986); MSES=Maternal Self-Efficacy Scale
345
(Teti & Gelfand, 1991); PSI=Parenting Stress Index, Sense of Competence subscale (Abidin, 1990).
Table 2
Self-efficacy and parenting behaviors in studies with null findings
Studies Parenting dimension Measurement: Sample: N, Results
Parenting Source; ethnicity, child
PSE type age, SES
Bohlin & impinging behavior OH; indeterminate 32; White; infant; PSE not significantly correlated with
Hagekull, not reported impinging behavior, r= .21.
1987
Brody et al., competence-promoting PSR+OH+TR; 139; African No direct effect of PSE on practices.
1999 practices task-related (PES) American; young
childhood;
low-income
Coleman & competence OL; task-related 68; White; infant; Competence did not correlate
Karraker, (supportive presence, (SEPTI-TS, MSES), middle class significantly with general PSE,
2003 quality of assistance) general (PSOC) r= .01, or with task-related PSE,
r=.13. Neither PSE measure was
found to be predictive of competence,
F (3, 62)=.79, pN .05, r2=.04.
Conrad et al., positive interactions OH; task-related 50; White; toddler; PSE not significantly correlated with
1992 with child (TCQ) middle class quality of interactions, r= .04.
Corapci & developmentally OH; task-related 57; White; toddler; Correlations and regression analyses
Wachs, facilitative/ (MSES), not reported did not support link between PSE and
2002 nonfacilitative general (PSOC) par; PSE did not mediate the relation
between home chaos and par behavior.
PSE=Parental Self-Efficacy. Parenting Source (measurement): Par=Parenting, O=Observation (H=Home, L=Laboratory),
PSR=Parent Self-Report, CR=Child Report, TR=Teacher Report. PSE type refers measures of PSE that are classified as either
general PSE, task-related PSE, narrow-domain PSE, or indeterminate when there was not enough information provided to
determine the type. When specific PSE measure names are provided in studies, they are listed following PSE type.
PES=Parenting Efficacy Scale (Duke, Allen, & Halverson, 1996); SEPTI-TS=Self-Efficacy for Parenting Tasks Index-Toddler
Scale (Coleman & Karraker, 2003); MSES=Maternal Self-Efficacy Scale (Teti & Gelfand, 1991); PSOC=Parenting Sense of
Competence (Johnston & Mash, 1989); TCQ=Toddler Care Questionnaire (Gross & Rocissano, 1988).
measures. Measure types and specific instruments are identified in Tables 1 and 2 for each study
relating PSE and parenting.
3. Parental competence and adjustment
3.1. The role of PSE in parental competence
Inconsistent parental behavior and maladaptive parenting patterns along with insecure parent–child
attachment and difficult child behavior are factors that have been empirically identified as influential in
the development of child and adolescent disorders (Mash & Dozois, 1997). Parenting behaviors such as
punitive discipline and inconsistency have been associated with oppositional and aggressive behaviors
(Stormshak et al., 2000). For the purpose of this review, positive parenting and competence are those
parenting behaviors, skills, and strategies that have been considered to promote positive and adaptive
child development and outcomes. Although a variety of factors has been implicated in parenting
practices, a review of the literature indicates that high PSE has been linked with competent and positive
parenting practices, strategies, and behaviors (Coleman & Karraker, 1998).
Ferreting out the direction of influence between PSE and parenting is a critical issue awaiting
longitudinal research. The strongest evidence for the role of PSE as an antecedent for parenting
effectiveness is found in studies that have used multiple methods and informants for assessing the
constructs. Intervention studies supply evidence of the modifiable nature of PSE as well as more
evidence of its importance in parenting practices. Theory suggests that PSE is a major factor in
determining which behaviors a parent will attempt and the subsequent coping efforts and persistence a
parent will demonstrate in the face of adversity (Bandura, 1977). However, it might also be expected that
parental behaviors and consequent successes or failures contribute to feedback loops that impact PSE.
Overall, this suggests a transactional rather than unidirectional relationship in which each factor impacts
the other over time, or at least that PSE functions as both an antecedent and a consequence.
3.1.1. Evidence
Overall, the evidence indicates a strong association between PSE and parenting competence (see
Table 1). The strongest evidence comes from studies with large samples that used multiple informants
and/or measures. However additional studies have supported and extended these findings. With the
exception of intervention studies, most of the research has involved correlational methods (including
path analyses and S.E.M.) and not laboratory experimental manipulation.
PSE has been linked to positive maternal interactive behavior with infants (Bohlin & Hagekull, 1987),
to parental warmth and control with toddlers (Izzo, Weiss, Shanahan, & Rodriguez-Brown, 2000) and
with older children (Dumka et al., 1996), to parental limit setting and harsh discipline with preschoolers
(MacPhee, Fritz, & Miller-Heyl, 1996), to positive parenting of kindergarten children (Hill & Bush,
2001), to adolescent-reported parental responsiveness (Gondoli & Silverberg, 1997), and to parental
involvement and monitoring of adolescents (Bogenschneider, Small, & Tsay, 1997; King & Elder, 1998;
Shumow & Lomax, 2002). The link between PSE and parental involvement has been shown for parents
of elementary school-age children (Eccles & Harold, 1996; Hoover-Dempsey, Bassler, & Brissie, 1992),
middle school children (Eccles & Harold, 1996), and adolescents (Shumow & Lomax, 2002). PSE can
be increased through intervention (Evans et al., 2003; Miller-Heyl, MacPhee, & Fritz, 1998) and may be
a predictor of parenting in intervention programs (Spoth, Redmond, Haggerty, & Ward, 1995) as well as
a predictor of treatment outcomes (Hoza et al., 2000).
Two noteworthy studies, one by Bogenschneider et al. (1997) and the other by Shumow and Lomax
(2002), involving large samples and drawing on both youth and parental report, linked PSE to parental
involvement and monitoring. Bogenschneider et al. found that PSE was positively related to adolescent
report of parental monitoring and responsiveness and inversely related to adolescent report of parental
psychological control. Parents with higher PSE tended to engage in more effective parenting practices as
reported by their adolescent offspring. Shumow and Lomax applied S.E.M. to a large and diverse
national sample and found PSE to be predictive both of parental self-report of involvement in youth
activities and school events and of parental monitoring as assessed by a composite of parent and
adolescent reports.
PSE has also been linked to parenting by parents of younger children in observational studies. PSE
was found by Teti and Gelfand (1991) to correlate with independently observed parenting competence,
even after controlling for depression, social support, and child temperament. In another study, Bohlin
and Hagekull (1987) found PSE in mothers was strongly associated with adequate interactive behavior
(maternal visual and verbal communication, quality of physical contact with the infant, and emotional
expressions) and maternal sensitivity.
The aforementioned studies included either independent observation or report by an additional
informant. Studies relying on parental self-report have also found links between PSE and parenting
competence. For example, Ardelt and Eccles (2001) found that mothers with higher PSE have been
shown to engage in parenting practices that promote positive child adjustment and Gross,
Sambrook, and Fogg (1999) found significant relationship between PSE and the use of lax and
overreactive discipline. Other examples link PSE to parental warmth and control. Izzo et al. (2000)
found that PSE and parental social support predicted warmth and control, while Dumka et al.
(1996) found that PSE was positively related to parenting acceptance (or warmth) and inversely
related to inconsistent discipline (or control) in a culturally diverse sample. Some studies examined
a broader array of parenting behaviors by assessing potentially adverse and positive practices (Elder,
Eccles, Ardelt, & Lord, 1995; Hill & Bush, 2001; MacPhee et al., 1996). MacPhee et al. (1996)
found PSE related strongly to parenting competence as measured by parental limit setting and less
harsh discipline practices in a large study of ethnically diverse low-income parents of preschoolers.
PSE proved to be more important than measures of social network processes in explaining variance
associated with parenting. In a study that examined parenting in relation to conduct problems and
anxiety symptoms, Hill and Bush (2001) found that PSE was positively related to positive parenting
practices and negatively associated with negative parenting such as inconsistent discipline and love
withdrawal. In a large study of African American families, Elder et al. (1995) found that PSE was
predictive of how much parents engaged in promotive and preventive strategies. Promotive
strategies involved parenting aimed at creating positive child experiences or helping a child to
develop skills and interests, while preventive strategies aimed to reduce child risk and adverse
outcomes.
With respect to parenting in relation to child academic performance, some research has demonstrated
links between parenting behaviors and PSE. A review by Hoover-Dempsey et al. (2001) identified PSE
to be one of the factors that facilitated parents’ involvement in children’s homework. Additional forms of
parental involvement in the academic domain such as more time spent on educational activities and
volunteering in the classroom was correlated with PSE specific to child academic performance (Hoover-
Dempsey et al., 1992). The correlations relating PSE with parent self-report of behavior, however, were
smaller than those seen in some of the previously mentioned studies, suggesting a smaller magnitude of
effect.
3.1.2. Intervention evidence

Studies of PSE often include families seen in clinical settings. This is relevant for research examining
therapeutic interventions such as parent management training. Intervention studies that aim to improve
parental competence and increase PSE offer additional evidence of the relationship of these two
constructs.
PSE has been studied as an indicator of successful treatment (Tucker, Gross, Fogg, Delaney, &
Lapporte, 1998), as a predictor of treatment outcomes (Hoza et al., 2000), and as a mechanism for
parenting behavior changes targeted by intervention (Miller-Heyl et al., 1998; Spoth et al., 1995). Some
studies have demonstrated that interventions aimed at improving parenting and child behavior can
increase PSE for example via behavioral parent training (e.g., Gross, Fogg, & Tucker, 1995; e.g., Tucker
et al., 1998) as well as via media-based programming (Sanders, Montgomery, & Brechman-Toussaint,
2000). Gross et al. (1995) found that improvements following intervention in parenting and child
behavior were related to increases in maternal PSE. Hoza et al. (2000) found PSE to be a predictor of
treatment outcome for families of children with ADHD.
A few family-based interventions for reducing child behavior problems also targeted increased PSE as
a goal. For example, Miller-Heyl et al. (1998) conducted a large intervention study with high-risk
families of 2 to 5 year-old children and found a significant increase in PSE compared with the control
condition. Intervention families showed improvement in parenting, and increases in PSE were linked to
greater use of positive parenting practices and positive limit setting and to less use of physical
punishment. In this study and in Spoth et al. (1995), PSE emerged as a significant predictor of targeted
parenting behaviors.
3.1.3. Null findings

Findings from four studies did not support a link between parenting and PSE (Bohlin & Hagekull,
1987; Brody, Flor, & Gibson, 1999; Coleman & Karraker, 2003; Corapci & Wachs, 2002). All four of
these studies only included families with only young children, and all assessed parenting practices via
observation as a main source of measurement (see Table 2). For example, Coleman and Karraker
(2003) found that parental competence was not significantly correlated with either a task-related PSE
measure or a general PSE measure. Bohlin and Hagekull (1987) found that the relationship between
maternal impinging behavior (intrusive parenting) and maternal self-efficacy did not reach
significance. Corapci and Wachs (2002) found no support for a relationship between PSE and
parenting, nor for PSE as a mediator between home chaos and parenting behavior. Brody et al. (1999),
using structural equation modeling to test a complex model examining financial strain, parenting
beliefs and behaviors, and child self-regulation and competence, found no significant direct effect of
PSE on parenting practices.
3.1.4. Exploring discrepant findings

Discrepancies in findings among studies do not appear to be explained by variations in
instrumentation used to assess PSE or parenting. General and task-related PSE measures were used in
both the supportive and null-findings studies. Similarly, methods of assessment for parenting (e.g.,
observation vs. report measures) did not account for supportive versus null findings. See Tables 1 and 2
for specific information about each study.
Another possibility is that lack of independence between measurement source for PSE and
parenting may have accounted for the supportive findings. However, this does not appear to explain
the discrepancy of findings because there were 4 supportive studies and 5 null-finding studies which
tapped parental self-report for PSE and independent observation for assessment of parenting.
A more likely explanation for the discrepancies is that some studies may have suffered from a
greater proportion of participants who reported PSE inaccurately, which in turn may have limited the
validity of PSE measurement and reduced the likelihood of detecting effects. Little research has been
conducted on the potential distortions in PSE self-report. However, indirect indications of this notion
can be found in a study by Conrad, Gross, Fogg, and Ruchala (1992). Conrad et al. found no
significant direct correlation between maternal self-efficacy and mother–toddler interaction, but when
developmental knowledge by the mother was taken into account, a telling pattern emerged. Mothers
having the highest levels of knowledge and PSE were observed to have the most positive mother–
toddler interactions, while mothers with the lowest level of developmental knowledge but who still
reported high PSE had the least positive interactions with their children, suggesting that some of these
latter mothers may have inflated their reported PSE.
3.1.5. PSE as a mediator

PSE in some instances might function as a mediator. In a large clinic sample of children referred for
conduct problems, Day, Factor, and Szkiba-Day (1994) related PSE to discipline style. For those parents
classified as using a harsh discipline style, PSE mediated the relationship between child behavior
problems and discipline. Parents having low PSE tended to report more child behavior problems and use
of more severe aversive discipline techniques.
Teti and Gelfand (1991) found support for the contention that PSE operates as a mediator of the
effects of maternal depression, infant difficulty, and social support on maternal parenting competence.
A mediational role was inferred because: 1) maternal self-efficacy correlated with observed parenting
competence, maternal report of infant difficulty, maternal social support, and diagnosed depression;
2) after controlling for the other variables, PSE still correlated significantly with parenting
competence; and 3) after controlling for PSE, depression and social support were not significantly
correlated with parenting competence. Similarly, Gondoli and Silverberg (1997) found that PSE
mediated the relationship between maternal emotional distress and competent parenting.
In terms of protective factors, several studies supported PSE as a mediator of social support and
parental competence. For example, MacPhee et al. (1996) established that PSE was strongly related to
parenting practices and fully mediated the effect of social support on parenting practices such as
appropriate limit setting and adverse use of harsh discipline. PSE has also been shown to mediate the
relationship between social support and parental warmth/control (Izzo et al., 2000) and between social
support and postpartum depression (Cutrona & Troutman, 1986).
3.1.6. Cultural and contextual considerations

Some differential findings suggested that cultural and contextual factors have not been sufficiently
considered. For example, a study by Elder et al. (1995) demonstrated that although African American
and Caucasian parents had similar levels of PSE, the African American parents engaged in greater use
of parenting strategies both that promote adaptive child development and protect children from risk
that may lead to negative outcomes. The researchers concluded this difference was due to the
perception of some African American parents that the community is unresponsive, thus prompting
highly efficacious parents to take on the role of strongly promoting and protecting their children. This
difference between African American and Caucasian parents’ likelihood of utilizing promotive and
preventive parenting strategies suggests that environmental circumstances may moderate the
relationship between PSE and parenting.
Ardelt and Eccles (2001) found that African American mothers who rated themselves higher on
feelings of PSE tended to use more positive parenting strategies than mothers lower on PSE. This pattern
did not emerge with Caucasian mothers. While a significant difference was found for the influence of
PSE on parenting practices across African American and Caucasian mothers, there was no difference
between the two groups for ratings of PSE. African American mothers used positive parenting strategies
more with boys than girls. Ardelt and Eccles attributed the variability to differences in perception of
environmental risk.
Although some studies supported the idea that ethnicity or environmental circumstances moderate the
relationship between PSE and parenting, nonetheless there is substantial similarity across ethnic groups.
With a culturally diverse group of parents, MacPhee et al. (1996) related PSE to effective child rearing
practices regardless of ethnicity. Shumow and Lomax (2002) linked parental monitoring and
involvement to PSE for diverse ethnic populations. The link between PSE and more adaptive parenting
has been found for different cultural groups (Izzo et al., 2000).
It is also possible that impact of a contextual factor might be moderated by other variables. For
example, Raver and Leadbeater (1999) found that mother–toddler conflict moderated the relationship
between environmental risk and maternal self-efficacy in a sample of women living in an urban area. For
those women engaged in high levels of mother–toddler conflict, high environmental risk was associated
with low maternal self-efficacy. This relationship was less apparent for mothers with low levels of
mother–child conflict.
3.2. The role of PSE in parental functioning
This section considers the extent to which PSE appears to play a role in the psychological functioning/
adjustment of parents, including linkage to depression, stress, role satisfaction, and coping. The
psychological adjustment of parents has been linked to parenting effectiveness and children’s adjustment
(Burke, 2003; Crnic & Acevedo, 1995; Lovejoy, Graczyk, O’Hare, & Neuman, 2000).
3.2.1. Evidence related to parental depression

PSE correlates inversely with parent’s depressive symptoms (Cutrona & Troutman, 1986; Gondoli &
Silverberg, 1997; Gross, Conrad, Fogg, & Wothke, 1994; Gross et al., 1999; Teti & Gelfand, 1991).
However, the direction of influence is unclear. A depressed mood may impact PSE through cognitions
such as other negative self-attributions or general feelings of worthlessness. Alternatively, PSE
influences a parent’s affective state.
Four studies that all used longitudinal frameworks found links between PSE and depression
reflecting at least moderate effect sizes (Cutrona & Troutman, 1986; Gross et al., 1994; Olioff &
Aboud, 1991; Porter & Hsu, 2003). Cutrona and Troutman (1986) found support for PSE as a
factor influencing depression during the first few months of parenthood. PSE was inversely related
to self-reported depressive symptoms, and S.E.M. indicated a direct effect of PSE on depression.
Social support during pregnancy and infant difficulty at 3 months postpartum were related to
maternal depression at 3 months postpartum, but this relationship was partially mediated by PSE.
Cutrona and Troutman concluded that the protective effect of social support on depression operated
via its influence on maternal self-efficacy. Similar to the Cutrona and Troutman findings, Olioff
and Aboud (1991) found prepartum PSE predicted postpartum dysphoria after accounting for
prepartum dysphoria and self-esteem. Gross et al. (1994) found support for a model that linked
lower PSE to higher levels of depression. While Porter and Hsu (2003) found prepartum
depression correlated negatively with prepartum PSE and postpartum PSE at one month, they also
found depression measured at one and at three months postpartum did not significantly relate to
postpartum PSE.
Beyond the direct association of PSE and depression, there is some support for a link among
depression, stress, and PSE. Fox and Gelfand (1994) found women with depressed mood and stressed
reported lower PSE and rated their children as less competent than non-depressed mothers. In addition,
mothers who were both stressed and depressed exhibited less effective parenting (i.e., observations of
lower sensitivity, warmth, and vigilance).
Although only a few studies of PSE have looked at fathers, the relationship between depression and
PSE may be different for fathers compared with mothers. In a study of parents with toddlers, Gross and
Tucker (1994) found that maternal but not paternal self-report of depression was correlated significantly
with PSE. Paternal PSE is understudied and less well understood.
From a conceptual standpoint, it is not altogether clear whether PSE functions consistently as an
antecedent or contributor to parental depression, as a consequence of parental depression, or in a
transactional relationship with parental depression. On the one hand, low PSE can contribute to maternal
vulnerability for depression. Alternatively, depression can lead to lower maternal PSE. Because
measurement of PSE depends on self-report, the problem of depressed mothers being more prone to self-
debasing could be creating false effects.
3.2.2. Evidence related to parental stress

While Gross et al. (1995) found, after the implementation of a parent training program, that
parents’ decreased parenting stress was related to increased PSE, Scheel and Rieckmann (1998)
found PSE negatively correlated with parenting stress in a study of 75 parents of preschool children
receiving clinical services for a range of diagnosed disorders. Scheel and Rieckmann found that
parenting stress and PSE were found to correlate strongly, and that parenting stress alone was a
significant predictor of PSE, accounting for 15% of the variance. Their results suggest that stress
impacts PSE rather than the other way around, although a transactional relationship may also be
possible.
In one of the few studies examining the relationship between PSE and stress associated with women
juggling work and family demands, Erdwins, Buffardi, Casper, and O’Brien (2001) found in a sample of
129 middle- to upper-income women of preschool children that higher PSE was associated with lower
stress attributed to managing multiple role demands.
Overall, the studies relating PSE to parental stress reflected medium effect sizes. PSE and parental
stress appear to covary, but teasing out antecedent, consequence, or transactional role has not been
possible.
3.2.3. Evidence related to role satisfaction

Although there does seem to be a relationship between parents’ satisfaction and their self-efficacy,
the direction of effect is unclear. PSE may directly impact parents’ satisfaction with being parents
(Coleman & Karraker, 2000), or perhaps parental satisfaction boosts PSE (Binda & Crippa, 2000).
Alternatively, a transactional relationship may be operating, or other factors such as child
manageability might affect both constructs. The relationship between parental satisfaction and PSE
is clouded somewhat when the total score from the Parental Sense of Competence Scale (Johnston &
Mash, 1989) is used to represent PSE. This instrument contains two subscales, one measuring PSE
and another regarding parental satisfaction. While some researchers use only the self-efficacy
subscale, others use the total combined score, making it difficult to get a clear picture of this
relationship.
Several studies have documented a positive relationship between PSE and parental satisfaction with
medium to large effect sizes (Coleman & Karraker, 2000; Laws & Millward, 2001). Coleman and
Karraker (2000) demonstrated this correlation across four different measures of maternal self-efficacy.
Maternal education level and mothers’ prior experience with children other than their own were
associated with parenting satisfaction, mediated through PSE. Additionally, child temperament
moderated the relationship between PSE and parental satisfaction such that mothers with high PSE
who had children with high-emotionality temperament reflected lower satisfaction with parenting
(Coleman & Karraker, 2000).
3.2.4. Evidence related to parental coping

Some researchers have proposed that passive coping, which might be less conducive to well-being,
links to external locus of control and limits self-efficacy (e.g., Barnett, Hall, & Bramlett, 1990). Few
researchers, however, have examined parental coping and PSE, with the exception of Dumka et al.
(1996) who found that higher PSE was moderately associated with less passive coping in the form of
active coping for Caucasian mothers and positive-reinterpretation coping for Mexican American
mothers.
3.2.5. PSE as a moderator or mediator

A few studies have offered evidence of PSE acting as a mediator or moderator of risk factors
associated with parental functioning. For example, Cutrona and Troutman (1986) found PSE partially
mediated the effect of infant difficulty on postpartum depression while Ozer (1995) found self-efficacy
in terms of managing work and family roles mediated the relationship between perceptions of childcare
responsibility and psychological well-being. Hastings and Brown (2002) found that PSE mediated the
effect of child behavior problems on maternal anxiety and depression for mothers of autistic children.
PSE acted as a mediator of the effect of teacher-reported difficult child behavior on maternal depression
and anxiety while it operated as a moderator of difficult child behavior on paternal anxiety (Hastings &
Brown, 2002). These results pointed to PSE acting as a compensatory factor for mothers and a protective
factor for fathers. This suggests perhaps a protective role of PSE for fathers. When the situation is such
that a father is facing parenting a difficult child, those fathers with higher PSE are protected against
experiencing more anxious feelings than those fathers less confident in their parenting abilities. But these
gender differences may also be due to a potential third variable such as extent of parent involvement with
the child.
4. Child adjustment
4.1. The role of PSE in child behavior
If PSE reflects an important parental dimension, then it is also relevant to understand what role if any
PSE has with respect to child adjustment (e.g., child behavior, socio-emotional functioning, and
achievement at school). From a conceptual standpoint, PSE has been considered both as directly
influencing child behavior as well as indirectly via parenting.
4.1.1. Evidence
Some of the strongest evidence of this association has linked PSE with independent (not parent report)
measures of child behaviors. These studies have utilized observations of infant behaviors and self-report
by adolescents while studies of child behaviors in young and middle childhood have tended to rely on
parent report of child behaviors. For example, early work by Bohlin and Hagekull (1987) found that
maternal self-efficacy was correlated with observers’ assessments of infant adequate interactive behavior
and signaling capacity. These findings have been extended by Coleman and Karraker (2003) who found
a significant relationship between PSE and observed toddler adjustment. High maternal task-related PSE
significantly predicted high child enthusiasm, compliance, affection, and low child avoidance and
negativity.
Bogenschneider et al. (1997) found that adolescents of parents with higher PSE tended to show
fewer behavioral problems. They found that sons of mothers with high PSE reported fewer
delinquent behaviors, daughters of high PSE mothers reported greater seeking out of parents over
peers to confer about personal problems, and both genders of high PSE parents reported lower
substance abuse. Higher PSE among fathers was associated to some extent with better youth
adjustment as well.
Some studies where parents are the sources of child behavior assessment have found a relationship
between child behavior problems and (lower) PSE. For example, Day et al. (1994) studied a large sample
of parents with clinic-referred children ages 6 to 12 who were being seen for conduct problems and
found that parents with lower discipline-related PSE tended to perceive their children as having higher
rates of behavior problems than parents with higher PSE. Studies by Gross and Tucker (1994) and Hill
and Bush (2001) lent further support the contention that lower PSE, mostly for mothers but to some
extent fathers as well, is associated with higher parental report of child behavior problems. For all three
of these studies, it is not clear whether the documented association is more a reflection of parental
perceptions of child behavior which might have been affected by parental self-doubt about parenting
efficacy.
Overall, studies linking PSE to child behavior problems reflected moderate effect sizes. Conceptually,
it is not possible to know at this stage whether low PSE pre-dates, and contributes to, child behavior
problems, versus child behavior problems contributing to lowered PSE. Undoubtedly, parenting
competence may play a pivotal role relative to both PSE and child behavior problems.
4.1.2. Intervention evidence

Intervention research is relevant to PSE and child behavior problems in that some interventions that
have increased PSE have also decreased child behavior problems (e.g., Sanders et al., 2000; Sofronoff &
Farbotko, 2002). Sofronoff and Farbotko (2002) conducted one of the few intervention studies to target
PSE centrally via a parent management training intervention. The study generally found that parents in
the intervention conditions reported increased PSE and decreased child behavior problems. Parents in
either a workshop group format or an individual treatment format reported higher PSE while the control
group parents reported decreased PSE. The analysis, unfortunately, did not offer evidence as to the
relationship between the decreased report of child behavior problems and the increased PSE. In a
different intervention study using a non-therapy format, Sanders and his colleagues tested a prevention
program involving an infotainment television series for families with children ages 2 to 8 in a
randomized design (Sanders et al., 2000). Compared to control parents, the parents who watch the
television series reported increased PSE and decreased child behavior problems, but not a significant
change in parenting styles.

Few of the published studies in this area failed to find an association between PSE and child behavior.
Coleman and Karraker (2003) found that a general PSE was not significantly related to any aspects of
toddler adjustment, although as noted earlier, they did find that task-related PSE was linked.
4.2. The role of PSE in child socio-emotional functioning
PSE has been related, both directly and indirectly, to facets of child socio-emotional functioning such
as social interaction, feelings of self-regulation and self-worth, anxiety, and self-efficacy.
4.2.1. Evidence
Support for a direct relationship between these constructs has been found across child ages and
sample characteristics. Bohlin and Hagekull (1987), found significant correlations between maternal
self-efficacy and observed infant social interactions. Murry and Brody (1999) found that PSE was
significantly correlated with child self-regulation and self-worth.
Studies by Ardelt and Eccles (2001) and Hill and Bush (2001), both of which made use of
multiple informants and assessed large and ethnically diverse samples, examined child anxiety and
self-efficacy in relation to PSE. Hill and Bush (2001) found that PSE was inversely related to child
report of child anxiety for Caucasian (but not African American) kindergarten-age children. Further
analyses suggested that PSE may have protected children from developing anxiety, albeit indirectly
via parenting practices (Hill & Bush, 2001). Ardelt and Eccles (2001) found that PSE directly
impacted youth self-efficacy. However, those families living in the most disadvantaged circumstances
were the ones for whom high PSE related most strongly to children’s efficacy beliefs. Surprisingly,
children’s personal self-efficacy was clearly related to their mothers’ PSE but not to actual parenting,
perhaps suggesting a possible modeling influence (Ardelt & Eccles, 2001).
Some researchers have proposed that PSE impacts child socio-emotional functioning via its effects
on different aspects of parental adjustment (Brody et al., 1999; Izzo et al., 2000; Shumow & Lomax,
2002). For example, Izzo et al. (2000) found that although PSE predicted positive child socio-
emotional adjustment initially, adding the variables of parental warmth and control accounted for
greater variance. Shumow and Lomax (2002) found PSE predicted parental monitoring that was, in
turn, predictive of adolescent social-emotional adjustment. Brody et al. (1999) related PSE in a
structural equation model to maternal setting of developmental goals, which directly affected
parenting behaviors. Parenting behaviors directly impacted child self-regulation, as reported by both
mothers and teachers, and child self-regulation was predictive of child academic and psychosocial
competence. This body of research suggests that PSE may relate to child socio-emotional functioning
indirectly through its influence on aspects of parental adjustment.
Overall, the studies relating PSE and child socio-emotional functioning reflected moderate effect
sizes.

Although Bohlin and Hagekull (1987) found that PSE was significantly related to other aspects of
social behaviors, it was not significantly related to observed negative social behavior by the infants
(though in the expected direction).
4.2.3. Cultural considerations

It is plausible that cultural factors may influence the relationship between PSE and child psychosocial
adjustment. For example, in a study by Hill and Bush (2001) ethnicity moderated the relationship
between PSE and child anxiety. The relationship between lower maternal PSE and higher child anxiety
was stronger for Caucasian families than for African American families.
4.3. The role of PSE in child academic achievement
Studies examining PSE and child academic performance most often used a narrow-domain measure
of PSE that reflected parental sense of competence in tasks associated with helping children learn and
achieve. Both direct and indirect evidence has supported the association of PSE with child academic
performance.
4.3.1. Evidence
There is evidence supporting a direct relationship between PSE and child school performance. For
example, Bogenschneider et al. (1997) found that children of parents with higher PSE reported higher
school grades. Using a composite measure of child academic success that included child self-report,
parent report, and interview assessment, Ardelt and Eccles (2001) found both direct and indirect effects
of maternal PSE on adolescent academic success for African American but not Caucasian families.
However, for both African American and Caucasian mothers, parenting was not significantly related to
youth academic performance.
Other studies supported an indirect link between PSE and child academic performance, for example,
that PSE acts indirectly via parental involvement and monitoring (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2001;
Shumow & Lomax, 2002), through parental aspirations (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorelli,
2001; Wentzel, 1998), and through various child cognitions (Bandura et al., 2001). Hoover-Dempsey et
al. (2001) in their review of parent–school involvement pointed to PSE as a factor that influences the
extent to which parents involve themselves in their children’s homework, concluding that this
involvement impacts student achievement and behaviors as well as student academic attributions and
beliefs (e.g., attitudes about homework, competence, and self-regulation). Along the same lines,
Shumow and Lomax (2002) found that PSE predicted parental monitoring and involvement which in
turn predicted adolescent academic adjustment.
Overall, studies relating PSE to child academic achievement reflected small effect sizes. PSE appears
to functioning primarily as an antecedent to child academic achievement.
4.3.2. PSE as a mediator

Bandura et al. (2001), using path analyses, found that socioeconomic status did not have a direct
influence on child self-efficacy, child academic aspirations and achievement. Rather, the effect of
socioeconomic status was mediated by its influence on parental academic self-efficacy and parental
academic aspirations.
4.3.3. Contextual considerations

Considerations with regard to ethnicity and gender surfaced in a few studies. Ardelt and Eccles (2001)
noted the effect of PSE on child academic success was found for African American but not Caucasian
mothers. In addition, the researchers found that those families living in the most disadvantaged
circumstances were the ones for whom high PSE related directly to children’s efficacy beliefs and
indirectly to child academic performance via child self-efficacy. However, a greater proportion of African
American families in the sample was living in disadvantaged circumstances (Ardelt & Eccles, 2001).
With respect to gender, Bogenschneider et al. (1997) found that the relationship between grade point
average and PSE was significant for both boys and girls and their mothers but was only significant for
fathers and their sons (not daughters). Lynch (2002) found that parent and child gender influenced the
relationship between PSE for promoting child reading and child self-perceptions as readers and, in turn,
child reading achievement. The Bogenschneider et al., Lynch, and Ardelt and Eccles studies raise the
possibility that PSE may interact with contextual factors (e.g., ethnicity, economic disadvantage, parent
and child gender) in relation to child academic success.
4.4. The role of PSE in child maltreatment
Parental attributions are the parental cognitions that have been studied the most and that have received
the most empirical support for links to child maltreatment. There is relatively little evidence associating
PSE with child maltreatment. However, there are some relationships between PSE and other factors that
have been empirically linked to child maltreatment. It is possible that low PSE may serve as an
additional risk indicator for, as well as a target for prevention of, child maltreatment. Parents who feel
more confident in their abilities to parent successfully may be less apt to use harsh parenting practices
that might escalate into abuse.
4.4.1. Evidence
Mash, Johnston, and Kovitz (1983) found that abusive mothers had lower PSE compared with non-
abusive mothers. A study by Peterson, Tremblay, Ewigman, and Saldana (2003) aimed at preventing
child maltreatment demonstrated successful results in increasing PSE. Their preventive intervention
targeted PSE along with parenting skills, developmental awareness, beliefs, affect, problem-solving, and
use of instruction, to prevent child maltreatment in a group of high-risk families. Parents in the
intervention condition showed increases in PSE, while parents in the control condition showed stable
PSE from pre to post and at one-year follow-up. From pretreatment to one-year follow-up, there was a
significant time-by-treatment interaction effect for PSE. Similarly, the other targeted factors
demonstrated improvements in the expected direction.
The additional evidence that has linked PSE and child maltreatment seems to suggest an indirect
pathway, such that factors associated with PSE directly (e.g., parental depression, stress) are also
associated with increased risk for child maltreatment. For example, Mammen, Kolko, and Pilkonis
(2002) linked negative affect (e.g., depression) to child maltreatment and as discussed previously,
depression has also been related to PSE.
In some studies related to child maltreatment (e.g., Mash & Johnston, 1990), the variable of parental
perceived control has been identified as though it were synonymous with PSE. However, measures of
perceived control represent attributions that parents hold for the causes of parental successes and failures,
rather than parental self-efficacy per se (e.g., Bugental, Blue, & Cruzcosa, 1989). Bugental et al. (1989)
linked perceived control to abusive parents in that mothers with lower levels of perceived control over
caregiving failure have been found to be more abusive and to use more coercive parenting. It may be that
beliefs of low control over events or child behavior are very closely intertwined with perceptions of PSE,
but the relationship of these constructs has not yet been established.
5. Conclusions and recommendations
This review examined how PSE is related to parent and child adjustment. The areas in this critique
included parental competence and psychological functioning as well as child behaviors, socio-emotional
adjustment, school achievement, and child maltreatment. Substantial research supported multiple roles
that PSE may play with regard to parent and child adjustment. While evidence was found for PSE
associations and influence across the various areas of parent and child adjustment, the level and
consistency of empirical support varied somewhat across aspects of adjustment.
Building on Bandura’s theory about self-efficacy, the conceptual framework adopted in this review
considered PSE as a potential antecedent, consequence, mediator, or transactional variable in relation to
the other constructs that were examined. The research literature involving PSE is sufficiently complex in
supporting to some degree all four of these roles, depending on the context.
The available evidence strongly supports a link between PSE and parenting competence which takes
on multiple forms depending on the circumstance. With respect to the antecedent role, PSE does appear
to predict level of parenting competence, suggesting that parents with higher PSE tend subsequently to
demonstrate more effective parenting even in the face of challenging child behavior. Elevated PSE also
seems to be a potential consequence of increased parenting competence, as reflected by intervention
studies, but the intervention studies also demonstrate that PSE can be a predictor of outcomes to some
extent. Some evidence is available to support the role of PSE as a mediator, or at least as a partial
mediator. PSE has been shown to partially mediate a relationship between child behavior problems and
parenting competence, and also to partially mediate the impact of parental adjustment and environmental
context (e.g., low social support) on parental competence. A transactional relationship between PSE and
parenting competence is consistent with much of the available data but has not yet been fully
demonstrated.
One potential challenge to the established link between PSE and parenting competence comes from
heavy reliance on parental self-report for both constructs. However, studies in which parenting was
assessed by independent means (e.g., report by spouse, or systematic observation) replicated the
findings, suggesting that shared method variance does not account for the observed relationships
between constructs.
In comparison to PSE studies of parenting competence, fewer studies to date have examined
connections between PSE and parent psychological functioning. These studies also relied more often on
parental report without obtaining independent assessments of psychological functioning. Nonetheless,
the average effect size obtained in these studies was similar to that found in the studies relating PSE to
parenting competence. Of the various areas of parent psychological functioning, parental depression has
been examined the most in relation to PSE, including impressive longitudinal research that attempts to
tease out causal sequences. Overall, PSE is associated with lower parental depression and higher
satisfaction with the parenting role, and to a lesser extent with better coping and lower levels of stress.
Whether PSE is operating as an antecedent, a consequence, a mediator, or a transactional variable has not
been clearly delineated, possibly because multiple roles are occurring simultaneously (which tends to
suggest that a transactional relationship might be the most fruitful one to pursue).
The association of PSE with different areas of child adjustment was examined. While it is likely that
PSE impacts child adjustment indirectly via parenting practices and behaviors, direct links were also
found which would implicate an antecedent role. The relationship to child behavioral outcomes was
supported more strongly for infants and adolescents due to the methods employed in these studies.
Studies of other age groups have also demonstrated a connection but the support is more subject to
confounding because child behaviors and PSE both were measured via parental report. Evidence
suggested that PSE may be linked directly and indirectly to child psychosocial adjustment. Consistent
with social learning principles, children may learn beliefs about their own self-efficacy or self-worth by
listening and watching their parents. Parents with lower PSE may express doubts or frustrations
regarding their performance that may impact how their children view their own abilities. While several
studies found evidence of a direct link between PSE and academic performance for adolescents, other
studies suggested an indirect association. PSE was linked to either other parental or child beliefs or to
parental behaviors, which were then related to child academic success. Limited support was found
establishing the role of PSE in child maltreatment. While the influence of parental attributions has
received much attention, PSE has not been as well studied. It may, however, be an additional indicator of
risk correlates of maltreatment.
It is clear that contextual factors play a role in the relationships of PSE with parent and child variables.
Specifically, environmental circumstances, economic situation, and ethnicity have been related. It is likely
that difficult neighborhood and economic circumstances may trigger those parents with higher PSE to act
in more proactive ways to decrease potential negative effects of environmental risk on their children’s
development. However, for some parents difficult circumstances may lead to feelings of helplessness and
lack of control that may serve to decrease PSE. In addition, parent, family, and child factors may also
influence these relationships. For example, child temperament and behavior can influence PSE as well as
parents’ interpretations of their parenting and child response. Attributions of both parent and child
behaviors can feed into a parent’s evaluation of their performance, the result of which can either increase
or decrease their PSE. However, this hypothesis awaits a future study.
5.1. Implications
The roles of PSE vary across parents, children, and contextual factors. The influence of PSE, however,
cannot be overlooked, as it may be a predictor of parenting competence and child outcomes and in some
ways an indicator of risk. Under some circumstances PSE may operate directly on parent and child
adjustment. For those families living in difficult environmental situations, it may operate as a protective
factor against risk factors associated with poverty and elevated stress. Under such circumstances, when
alteration of environmental conditions is a long-term and difficult challenge, enhancing PSE may serve as
one potential mechanism by which to improve the well-being of parents and children. For these reasons,
PSE should be considered as one of the targets for prevention and intervention programs improve to
improve parenting and bolster child development.
5.2. Limitations
Limitations in the PSE literature include measurement variability in conceptualization and

operationalization of the construct, and heavy reliance on cross-sectional data. PSE research has drawn
heavily from Bandura’s conceptualization of self-efficacy, which has constrained to some extent
variations in construct definition. However, some researchers have used slightly different terminology,
such as parenting self-agency (e.g. Dumka et al., 1996), but define the term in the same way as parental
self-efficacy. The main variations are in the translation from theory to measurement. Although there was
considerable variation in the measures used to assess PSE making synthesis across studies more difficult,
the fact that many of the reviewed studies found demonstrable links for PSE suggests that there is some
broad and important construct being represented robustly by the various measures. Nonetheless,
researchers are operationalizing PSE in different ways, including general PSE focusing broadly on how
competent a parent feels in the parenting role, task-related PSE focusing on how a parent feels for
specific child-rearing tasks, and narrow-domain PSE focusing on one specific parenting domain (e.g.,
discipline, teaching, or communication). This review did not uncover systematic trends in substantive
findings that were attributable to one measurement strategy versus another. However, it is possible that
there have not been a sufficient number of studies using all three measurement types to be able to detect
whether the measurement method accounts for particular findings.
Much of the research on PSE involves correlational and cross-sectional designs. Prevailing theory
(Bandura, 1997) suggests that self-efficacy is dynamic and part of a transactional process. If self-efficacy
can impact behaviors such as the settings a person chooses to enter, the activities they attempt,
persistence in the face of adversity, barriers or stressful situations, and the amount of effort expended on
tasks, then it is not surprising when cross-sectional studies fail to capture the richness of this construct
and its impact. Observed relationships (or lack thereof) for PSE are limited to some extent by the reliance
on cross-sectional designs and might be better explicated using longitudinal designs. However, the field
has also not adequately studied the malleability of PSE to change over time, which could hamper the
implementation of such designs.
5.3. Future directions
There are several directions for future research about PSE. The first involves sharpening the
measurement of PSE. Thus far, only one group of researchers has explicitly examined general versus
task-related measures of PSE (Coleman & Karraker, 2000, 2003). Others have combined multiple
measures of PSE to form latent constructs (e.g., Elder et al., 1995; Shumow & Lomax, 2002). The field
could benefit from a systematic examination of variation in the measurement of PSE to better establish
the construct, and if appropriate, any sub-constructs.
Another measurement direction for future research relates to the issue of parental reporting bias.
Assessment of PSE relies on parent self-report. Some parents may inflate the reported PSE beyond their
experienced level of confidence so as to conform in a social desirable direction. Alternatively, parents
with high levels of confidence may lower their reported PSE as an act of humility. Systematic studies are
needed about parental bias in PSE reporting and how to manage any apparent biases.
Clearly, what is known about the roles and impact of PSE will be improved as more researchers
undertake longitudinal studies, including use of brief longitudinal designs, as well as experimental
designs that try to manipulate factors that may impact PSE in analogue studies. Intervention studies also
provide ways to experimentally test theoretical propositions about PSE. Causal sequence and
transactional processes necessitate going beyond cross-sectional designs.
Additionally, future research should include a closer examination of the potential predictors of PSE
(e.g., variables from the parent’s prior generation, preparation for parenting role, impact of specific
family experiences, family–work considerations, and family configuration), and also how PSE is related
to other areas of parental cognition such as attributions and sense of control.
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Mental Status Exam

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Clinical Psychology Review 25 (2005) 341 – 363

Potential roles of parental self-efficacy in parent

Keywords: Parental self-efficacy; Parenting; Parental competence; Child adjustment

T.L. Jones, R.J. Prinz / Clinical Psychology Review 25 (2005) 341–363

T.L. Jones, R.J. Prinz / Clinical Psychology Review 25 (2005) 341–363

3. Parental competence and adjustment

3.1. The role of PSE in parental competence

3.1.2. Intervention evidence

3.1.3. Null findings

3.1.4. Exploring discrepant findings

3.1.5. PSE as a mediator

3.1.6. Cultural and contextual considerations

3.2. The role of PSE in parental functioning

3.2.1. Evidence related to parental depression

3.2.2. Evidence related to parental stress

3.2.3. Evidence related to role satisfaction

3.2.4. Evidence related to parental coping

3.2.5. PSE as a moderator or mediator

4.1. The role of PSE in child behavior

4.1.2. Intervention evidence

4.1.3. Null findings

4.2. The role of PSE in child socio-emotional functioning

4.2.2. Null findings

4.2.3. Cultural considerations

4.3. The role of PSE in child academic achievement

4.3.2. PSE as a mediator

4.3.3. Contextual considerations

4.4. The role of PSE in child maltreatment

5. Conclusions and recommendations

Limitations in the PSE literature include measurement variability in conceptualization and

5.3. Future directions

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