Structures: Reinforced Concrete Masonry Cantilever Retaining Walls

Structures
Concrete Retaining
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Design and Construction Guide
MA51
EDITION
E1, December 2008
ISBN Concrete Masonry

0 909407 56 8 Association of Australia
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INSTRUCTIONS PREFACE This guide describes the design and
construction of gravity earth retaining
Place cursor over symbols in navigation Standards Australia has published structures, consisting of a reinforced
bars above to show function, click to AS 4678:2002 for the design of earth concrete footing and a reinforced concrete
activate. retaining structures, including reinforced masonry cantilever stem. It includes:
To copy and paste text and diagrams or concrete masonry cantilever retaining
■ A description of the principal features of
to print pages, press ‘esc’ key to show walls. It encompasses the following
the Australian Standard
Acrobat tools. features:
■ A description of the analysis method
■ Limit state design
■ Design tables for a limited range of soil
■ Partial loading and material factors
conditions and wall geometry
■ Compatibility with the general approach
■ A design example which demonstrates
REINFORCED CONCRETE taken in AS 1170 Structural design
the use of the Australian Standard and
MASONRY CANTILEVER actions(Note 1)
analysis method
RETAINING WALLS ■ Compatibility with the structures
■ Analysis of cohesive soils
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION GUIDE standards such as AS 3600 Concrete
structures(Note 2) and AS 3700 Masonry ■ A site investigation check list
structures. ■ A detailed construction specification
This guide provides Australian designers ■ A study of the reliability of AS 4678.

and contractors with a comprehensive
Edition E1, December 2008 approach to the design and construction
Supersedes all previous editions of reinforced concrete masonry cantilever
retaining walls based on:
© 2008
■ The design and construction rules set
Concrete Masonry Association of Australia.
out in AS 4678:2002
Except where the Copyright Act allows ■ An analysis method developed by
otherwise, no part of this publication may be
the Concrete Masonry Association
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system in any
of Australia (CMAA) to fit Australian
form or transmitted by any means without prior
permission in writing of the Concrete Masonry experience.
Association of Australia.
NOTES:
The information provided in this publication 1 When published in early 2002, AS 4678
is intended for general guidance only and in included load factors which were compatible
no way replaces the services of professional with the load factors on the version of
consultants on particular projects. No liability AS 1170 that was then current. However,
can therefore be accepted by the Concrete changes to AS 1170 in late 2002 have meant
Masonry Association of Australia for its use. that exact similarity of load factors no longer
It is the responsibility of the user of this Guide exists.
to check the Concrete Masonry Association of 2 Design of the concrete base is based on
Australia web site (www.cmaa.com.au) for the Cement Concrete and Aggregates Australia
latest amendments and revisions. and Standards Australia Reinforced Concrete
Design Handbook, HB71–2002.
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Click on item to go to it.
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION 2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 3 DESIGN TABLES
1.1 General 2.1 Scope 3.1 General
1.2 Glossary 2.2 Limit State Design 3.2 Concrete and Masonry Properties
1.3 Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Masonry 2.3 Partial Loading and Material Factors 3.3 Lean Back
Cantilever Retaining Walls 2.4 Load Combinations and Factors for Stability 3.4 Backfill Slope
1.4 Importance of a Geotechnical Report 2.5 Load Combinations and Factors for Strength 3.5 Live Loads
1.5 Safety and Protection of Existing Structures of Components
3.6 Earthquake Loads
1.6 Global Slip Failure 2.6 Live Loads
3.7 Position of Key
1.7 Differential Settlement 2.7 Earthquake Loads
3.8 Stem Dimensions
1.8 Importance of Drainage 2.8 Wind Loads
3.9 Control Joints
2.9 Hydraulic Loads
3.10 Hob
2.10 Drained Vs Undrained Parameters
3.11 Foundation Material
2.11 Capacity Reduction Factors
3.12 Retained Soils and Infill Material
2.12 Soil Analysis Model
2.13 Active Pressure
2.14 Pressure at Rest
2.15 Passive Pressure
2.16 Bearing Failure 4 APPENDICES
2.17 Sliding Failure Appendix A – Design Tables
2.18 Overturning Appendix B – Design Example
2.19 Global slip Appendix C – Analysis of Cohesive Soils
Appendix D – Site Investigation
Appendix E – Construction Specification
Appendix F – Reliability of AS 4678
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1 INTRODUCTION Standards Australia AS 4678:2002 is 1.2 GLOSSARY Components:
generally consistent with the CMAA Guide
Loads and limit states: Concrete masonry units Concrete blocks
1.1 GENERAL No 4 approach (with some modifications to
manufactured to provide an attractive,
factors), and applies to reinforced masonry Design life The time over which the
For many years, reinforced concrete durable, stable face to a retaining wall.
gravity retaining walls, dry-stacked structure is required to fulfil its function
masonry gravity retaining walls, relying They are commonly “H” or “Double U”
masonry gravity retaining structures and remain serviceable.
on gravity loads to resist the overturning configuration.
and dry-stacked masonry reinforced soil
forces due to soil pressure, have been Dead load(Note 1) The self-weight of the
structures. Geotextile A permeable, polymeric
constructed using a reinforced concrete structure and the retained soil or rock.
material, which may be woven, non-woven
masonry stem (steel reinforcement grouted This guide describes the design and
Live load(Note 1) Loads that arise from the or knitted. It is commonly used to separate
into hollow concrete blockwork), which is construction of gravity earth retaining
intended use of the structure, including drainage material from other soil.
built on a reinforced concrete footing. structures, consisting of a reinforced
distributed, concentrated, impact and
concrete footing and a reinforced concrete Retained material The natural soil or rock,
In 1990 the Concrete Masonry Association inertia loads. It includes construction loads,
masonry cantilever stem. intended to be retained by a retaining wall.
of Australia (CMAA) published Masonry but excludes wind and earthquake loads.
Walling Guide No 4: Design For Earth Loads - Foundation material The natural soil or
Wind load The force exerted on the
Retaining Walls, which set out a design rock material under a retaining wall.
structure by wind, acting on either or both
methodology and safe load tables for these the face of the retaining wall and any other Infill material The soil material placed
structures. It included: structure supported by the retaining wall. behind the retaining wall facing. Often
■ Ultimate load design with material retained soil is used for this purpose.
Earthquake load The force exerted on the
factors based on characteristic soil
structure by earthquake action, acting on Drainage material The crushed rock,
properties, partial load factors consistent
either or both the face of the retaining wall gravel or similar material placed behind
with AS 1170.1 and structure designs to
and any other structure supported by the a retaining wall to convey ground water
AS 3700 and AS 3600.
retaining wall. away from the wall and foundations. It is
■ Coulomb analysis of the back-fill. commonly used in conjunction with other
Stability limit state A limit state of loss
■ Bearing analysis using the Meyerhoff drainage media, such as agricultural pipes.
of static equilibrium of a structure or part
approach (including tilt and inclined
thereof, when considered as a rigid body. Soil types:
load factors).
■ Sliding analyses that account for friction, Strength limit state A limit state of Cohesive fill Naturally-occurring or
passive pressure and (if appropriate) collapse or loss of structural integrity of the processed materials with greater than 50%
base adhesion. components of the retaining wall. passing the 75 µm Australian standard
sieve, a plasticity index of less than 30%
These design and analysis features were Serviceability limit state A limit state for
and a liquid limit of less than 45%.
considerable improvement on the working acceptable in-service conditions. The most
stress/assumed bearing capacity/Rankine common serviceability states are excessive
analysis that was then in common use. differential settlement and forward
movement of the retaining wall.
NOTES:
1 This Guide uses the terminology “dead
load” to indicate permanent actions and
“live load” to indicate imposed actions.
This terminology is consistent with the
convention adopted in AS 4678:2002.
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Controlled fill Class I Soil, rock or other GW Well-graded gravel as defined by 1.3 BEHAVIOUR OF REINFORCED The retained soil exerts an active pressure
inert material that has been placed at the Cassegrande extended classification CONCRETE MASONRY on the infill material above the heel of the
a site in a controlled fashion and under system. Generally in the range of 2 mm to CANTILEVER RETAINING base (in Type 1) and this, in turn, exerts
appropriate supervision to ensure the 60 mm, and graded such that the smaller WALLS an active force on the stem of the wall. In
resultant material is consistent in character, particles pack into the spaces between Type 2, the retained soil exerts an active
If unrestrained, a soil embankment will
placed and compacted to an average the larger ones, giving a dense mass of pressure directly on the stem. Overturning
slump to its angle of repose. Some soils,
density equivalent to 98% (and no test interlocking particles with a high shear is resisted by the vertical load of the
such as clays, have cohesion that enables
result below 95%) of the maximum dry strength and low compressibility. structure and, where applicable,the soil
vertical and near-vertical faces to remain
density (standard compactive effort) for above the heel. It is usual to disregard any
SW Well-graded sand as defined by the partially intact, but even these may slump
the material when tested in accordance resistance to overturning provided by live
Cassegrande extended classification under the softening influence of ground
with AS 1289.5.1.1. For cohesionless soils, loads.
system. Generally in the range of 0.6 mm water. When an earth-retaining structure
material compacted to at least 75% Density
to 2 mm, and graded such that the smaller is constructed, it restricts this slumping.
index is satisfactory.
particles pack into the spaces between The soil exerts an active pressure on the
Controlled fill Class II Soil, rock or other the larger ones, giving a dense mass of structure, which deflects a little and is then Retained soil
inert material that has been placed interlocking particles with a high shear restrained by the friction and adhesion Infil material
in specified layers and in a controlled strength and low compressibility. between the base and soil beneath, Reinforced concrete masonry
fashion to ensure the resultant material passive soil pressures in front of the stem
GP Poorly-graded gravel as defined by Drainage system
is consistent in character, placed and structure and the bearing capacity of the
the Cassegrande extended classification
compacted to an average density soil beneath the toe of the structure. Reinforced insitu concrete
system. Generally in the range of 2 mm to base
equivalent to 95% (and no test result
60 mm, and of a single size. This material If water is trapped behind the retaining TYPE 1
below 92%) of the maximum dry density
has good drainage properties provided it structure, it exerts an additional hydraulic
(standard compactive effort) for the
is protected from infiltration by silts and pressure. This ground water also reduces
material when tested in accordance with
clays. the adhesion and bearing resistance.
AS 1289.5.1.1. For cohesionless soils, Retained soil
If massive rock formations are present
material compacted to at least 75% Density
immediately behind the structure, these Reinforced concrete masonry
index is satisfactory. Generally the layer stem
will restrict the volume of soil which can be
thickness is specified as a maximum of
mobilised and thus reduce the pressure. Drainage system
300 mm.
The walls described in this guide are Reinforced insitu concrete
Uncontrolled fill Soil, rock or other inert base
gravity earth-retaining structures,
material that has been placed at a site and TYPE 2
consisting of a reinforced concrete footing
does not satisfy the materials included
and a reinforced concrete masonry
above. Figure 1.1 Typical Arrangements of
cantilever stem (Figure 1.1).
Reinforced Concrete Masonry Cantilever
Insitu material Natural soil, weathered Retaining Walls
rock and rock materials.
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1.4 IMPORTANCE OF A 1.5 SAFETY AND PROTECTION OF 1.6 GLOBAL SLIP FAILURE 1.7 DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT
GEOTECHNICAL REPORT EXISTING STRUCTURES
Soil retaining structures must be checked Techniques to reduce or control the effects
The design of a retaining wall includes two Whenever soil is excavated or for global slip failure around all potential of differential settlement and the possibility
essential parts: embankments are constructed, there is a slip surfaces or circles (Figure 1.2). of cracking include:
■ Analysis of the adjacent ground for danger of collapse. This may occur through ■ Articulation of the wall (by discontinuing
Designers often reduce the heights of
global slip, settlement, drainage and movement of the soil and any associated the normal stretcher bond) at
retaining walls by splitting a single wall
similar global considerations; and structures by: convenient intervals along the length.
into two (or more) walls, thus terracing the
■ Analysis and design of retaining wall ■ rotation around an external failure plane site. Whilst this may assist in the design of ■ Excavating, replacing and compacting
structure for strength. that encompasses the structure, the individual walls, it will not necessarily areas of soft soil.
■ slipping down an inclined plane, reduce the tendency for global slip failure ■ Limiting the stepping of the base to a
These analyses must be based on an
■ sliding forward, or around surfaces encompassing all or some maximum of 200 mm.
accurate and complete knowledge of the
of the retaining walls.
soil properties, slope stability, potential slip ■ local bearing failure or settlement.
problems and groundwater. A geotechnical The designer should also take into account
These problems may be exacerbated by
report by a qualified and experienced the effects of rock below or behind the
the intrusion of surface water or disruption
geotechnical engineer should be obtained. structure in resisting slip failure.
of the water table, which increase pore
Such a report must address the following water pressures and thus diminish the soil’s Analysis for global slip is not included in
considerations, as well as any other ability to stand without collapse. this guide and it is recommended that
pertinent points not listed. designers carry out a separate check using
The safety of workers and protection of
■ Soil properties; commercially available software.
existing structures during construction
■ Extent and quality of any rock, including must be of prime concern and should
floaters and bedrock; be considered by both designers and
■ Global slip and other stability problems; constructors. All excavations should be
carried out in a safe manner in accordance Global
■ Bedding plane slope, particularly if they slip plane
with the relevant regulations, to prevent
slope towards the cut;
collapse that may endanger life or
■ Effect of prolonged wet weather and property. Adjacent structures must be Secondary
the consequence of the excavation founded either beyond or below the zone global slip
remaining open for extended periods; of influence of the excavation. Where there plane
■ Effect of ground water; is risk of global slip, for example around Primary
global slip plane
■ Steep back slopes and the effect of a slip plane encompassing the proposed
terracing; retaining wall or other structures, or where Figure 1.2 Global Slip Failure
there is risk of inundation by ground water
■ Effect of any structures founded within a
or surface water, construction should not
zone of influence.
proceed until the advice of a properly-
qualified and experienced Geotechnical
Engineer has been obtained and remedial
action has been carried out.
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1.8 IMPORTANCE OF DRAINAGE 100-mm-deep catch drain with a minimum grade of
1 in 100 connected to the site drainage system
This guide assumes that a properly-
functioning drainage system is effective in Optional
removing hydraulic pressure. If this is not capping
Surface seal of not less than 150-mm-thick compacted clay
the case, the designer will be required to (not less than 300-mm thick in applications subject to
design for an appropriate hydraulic load. significant groundwater) in accordance with AS 4768
Based on an effective drainage system, it

is common to use drained soil properties. Retained soil
For other situations, the designer must
determine whether drained or undrained Infill material
Concrete
properties are appropriate. In particular, masonry
sea walls that may be subject to rapid stem Geotextile separation layer between drainage fill material
and retained fill material
draw-down (not covered in this guide)
require design using undrained soil
10-mm crushed rock drainage fill material placed around
properties. the drainage pipe for a minimum of 300 mm and extending
up the back of the wall
Hob 100-mm-dia. slotted PVC agricultural pipe wrapped in

geotextile sock, laid to a minimum uniform grade of 1 in 100
Base over 15-m length. The low end of each run is to be drained
through the hob to a stormwater system. The upper end of
each run is to be brought to the surface and capped
50-mm-dia. weepholes through hob at 1200 mm centres

Figure 1.3 Typical Drainage System
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2 DESIGN 2.3 PARTIAL LOADING AND 2.4 LOAD COMBINATIONS AND QC = parts of the live load tending to
MATERIAL FACTORS FACTORS FOR STABILITY cause instability.
CONSIDERATIONS This includes all removable
Partial-loading and partial-material factors The following load combinations and
loads such as temporary
2.1 SCOPE enable the designer to assign various levels factors should be applied when checking
loadings, live loadings applied
of confidence to assumed or measured soil the stability of the structure. This includes
This guide considers retaining walls from adjacent buildings,
strengths, material strengths and resistance analysis for:
founded on undisturbed material that construction traffic and soil
to deterioration, predictability of loads ■ Global slip
is firm and dry and achieves the friction compaction loads and an
and consequence of failure of various
angle and cohesion noted for each ■ Overturning allowance for the temporary
structures.
particular soil type. It does not cover ■ Bearing capacity of the foundation stacking of soil of not less than
foundations exhibiting any of the following There are several reasons for compatibility under the toe of the base 5 kPa, except for Structure
characteristics: of loading factors between AS 4678:2002 Classification 3.
■ Sliding resistance of the foundation
■ Softness and AS 1170 Structural design actions, WCu = parts of the wind load tending
under the base(Note 2).
which applies to buildings(Note 1). to cause instability.
■ Poor drainage
■ Buildings are often constructed close (i) 1.25 GC+ 1.5 QC < 0.8 GR+ (F R) The factors are such that load
■ Fill
to retaining walls, and therefore apply (ii) 1.25 GC + yc QC+ WCu < 0.8 GR+ (F R) combination (ii) involving wind
■ Organic matter loads on them. loading, will not be the
■ Variable conditions (iii) 1.25 GC + yc QC + 1.0 FCeq governing case when the effect
■ Parts of buildings such as basement
< 0.8(G + yc Q)R + (F R) due to wind, WCu is less than
■ Heavily-cracked rock walls are often required to withstand
loads imposed by earth and soil. Where: (1.5 - yc ) times the effect due
■ Aggressive soils.
GC = parts of the dead load tending to to live load, QC. For example, for
■ The adoption of common load factors
If these conditions are present, they must cause instability. a wall that does not support
be considered by the designer. assists the rational comparison of the
This includes: the weight of the another exposed structure and
levels of safety and probability of failure
retained soil, which causes for a minimum live load
2.2 LIMIT STATE DESIGN of retaining walls and other structures.
horizontal pressures on the surcharge of QC = 5 kPa, an
■ The design of concrete, masonry, steel
The design limit states considered are: stem, thus tending to cause active pressure coefficient of
and timber components of earth- Ka = 0.3 and a live load
■ strengths of the various components
forward sliding, bearing failure
retaining structures is determined using combination factor of yc =0.6,
subject to ultimate factored loads; or overturning, or the weight of
Australian Standards which are based on a wind load on the face of
the infill soil, which causes
■ stability of the structure as a whole limit state concepts and loading factors the retaining wall less than
horizontal pressures on the
subject to ultimate factored loads; and from AS 1170. 1.35 kPa will not be the
facing, thus tending to cause
■ serviceability of the structure and its ■ Most structural engineers are familiar stem rupture. governing case. However, if
components subject to service loads. with the loading factors of AS 1170. the wind load is applied to
some supported structure such
NOTES: as a building or a fence, the
effect would be more
1 When published in early 2002, AS 4678 2 Design for bearing capacity and external
sliding resistance, involve the factoring-down pronounced.
included load factors which were compatible
with the load factors on the version of of the soil properties (density, friction angle
AS 1170 that was then current. However, and/or cohesion) which are providing the
changes to AS 1170 in late 2002 have meant resistance to instability.
that exact similarity of load factors no longer
exists.
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FCeq = parts of the earthquake load 2.5 LOAD COMBINATIONS AND 2.6 LIVE LOADS 2.9 HYDRAULIC LOADS
tending to cause instability. FACTORS FOR STRENGTH OF
The appropriate values for live load must The design example is based on the
For earthquake categories Ae COMPONENTS
be determined by the design engineer. assumption that a properly-functioning
and Be, design for static loads
The following load combinations and AS 4678:2002 specifies a minimum live drainage system is effective in removing
without further specific analysis
factors should be applied when checking loading of 5 kPa for walls of any height of hydraulic pressure.
is deemed adequate. For
the strength of the structure components, Structure Classifications 1 and 2.
earthquake category Ce, a dead
including strength of any associated 2.10 DRAINED V UNDRAINED
load factor of 1.5 (instead For walls under 1.5 metres high which are
concrete, masonry and reinforcement. PARAMETERS
of 1.25) should be used and of Structure Classification 3, the following
specific design for earthquake (i) 1.25 G + 1.5 Q minimum live loads are applicable. Based on an effective drainage system,
may be neglected. For Slope of retained soil £ 1:4 2.5 kPa the design example uses drained soil
(ii) 1.25 G + Wu + yc Q
earthquake categories De and properties. For other situations, the
Slope of retained soil >1:4 1.5 kPa
Ee, the structures should be (iii) 1.25 G + 1.0 Feq + yc Q designer must determine whether drained
designed and analysed in or undrained properties are appropriate.
(iv) 0.8 G + 1.5 Q 2.7 EARTHQUAKE LOADS
accordance with the detailed
method set out in AS 4678, (v) 0.8 G + Wu The appropriate earthquake loads must be 2.11 CAPACITY REDUCTION
Appendix I. determined by the designer. If earthquake FACTORS
(vi) 0.8 (G + yc Q) + 1.0 Feq
load acts on some supported structure
GR = parts of the dead load tending to The material strength factors from AS 4678
Where: such as a building or a fence, the effect
resist instability. Table 5.1 have been used.
G = dead load must be considered.
This includes the self-weight of
the structure and the weight of Q = live load 2.12 SOIL ANALYSIS MODEL
2.8 WIND LOADS
soil in front of the structure. Wu = wind load AS 4678 does not specify an analysis
The load factors are such that load
F R = the factored design capacity of method. This guide uses the Coulomb
Feq = earthquake load combination (ii) involving wind loading,
the structural component. Method to analyse the structure.
will not be the governing case when
This includes calculated bearing yc = live load combination factor taken
the effect due to wind, WCu is less than
capacity, sliding resistance, as 0.4 for parking or storage and
(1.5 - yc) times the effect due to live load,
calculated pull-out strength, 0.6 for other common applications
QC.
etc. on retaining walls.
For example, for a wall that does not
yc = live load combination factor. support another exposed structure and for
This is taken as 0.4 for parking a minimum live load surcharge of
or storage and 0.6 for other QC = 5 kPa, an active pressure coefficient
common applications on of Ka = 0.3 and a live load combination
retaining walls. factor of yc = 0.6, a wind load on the face
(G + ycQ)R = those components of dead of the retaining wall less than 1.35 kPa will
and live load which can not not be the governing case. However, if the
be removed from the wind load is applied to some supported
structure, which are resisting structure such as a building or a fence, the
instability. effect must be considered.
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2.13 ACTIVE PRESSURE 2.14 PRESSURE AT REST 2.15 PASSIVE PRESSURE
In response to soil pressure, the wall will If the wall is unable to move away from the If the structure pushes into the soil, as is
move away from the soil, thus partially soil embankment, as may be the case for the case at the toe of a retaining wall, the
relieving the pressure. This reduced a propped cantilever basement wall, there resistance by the soil is greater than the
pressure is the active pressure. The will be no relief of the pressure and the soil pressure at rest. This is the passive pressure,
Coulomb equation for active pressure will exert the full pressure at rest. given by the following equation. If the soil
coefficient (Ka) can account for slope of the in front of the toe is disturbed or loose, the
po = soil pressure at rest
wall and slope of the backfill. The slope of full passive pressure may not be mobilised.
= Ko γ H
the wall should be restricted to less than
pp = passive soil pressure (kPa)
external angle of friction (d) to ensure Where:
= Kp γ He
that there is no upward component of Ko = coefficient for soil at rest
earth pressure which would reduce sliding = 1.0 Where:
resistance (ie the equation applies when Kp = passive pressure coefficient
γ = factored value of soil density
wall slope is less than 15° for good quality (1 + sin f)
(kN/m3) =
granular backfills in contact with concrete). (1 - sin f)
H = height of soil behind the wall (m)
f = factored value of internal friction
pa = active pressure on the wall at depth of H
angle (degrees)
= Ka g H
Where: γ = factored value of soil density
Ka = active pressure coefficient (kN/m3)
cos2(f + w) He = depth of undisturbed soil to the
=
sin(f + d) sin(f - b) 2 underside of the base, key or
cos2w cos(w - d) 1+
√cos(w - d) cos(w + b) bearing pad as appropriate (m)
f = factored value of internal friction angle

(degrees)
d = external friction angle (degrees)
2f
=
3
where f is the smaller of the friction
angles at the particular interface
At any interface with a geotextile, the
external friction angle should be
taken from test data. If no data is
available, it should be assumed to be
zero.
w = slope of the wall (degrees)
b = slope of the backfill (degrees)
g = factored value of soil density (kN/m3)
H = height of soil behind the wall (m)
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2.16 BEARING FAILURE Where: 2.17 SLIDING FAILURE 2.18 OVERTURNING
qav = average bearing capacity based
As soil and water pressure are applied As soil and water pressure are applied to AS 4678:2002 does not specify an analysis
on factored soil properties (kPa)
to the rear face of the structure, it will the rear face of the structure, the footing method. This guide considers overturning
= c Nc zc zci zct + γ He Nq zq zqi zqt
tilt forward and the soil under the toe may slide forward. Such sliding action about a point level with the underside of
is subjected to high bearing pressures. + 0.5 γ B Ng zg zgi zgt is resisted by the friction and adhesion the key and a nominated distance behind
Bearing is often the critical mode of failure. between the foundation material and the the toe of the structure. If this nominated
B = actual base width (m)
The following theoretical approach is used footing, and the passive resistance of any distance is one third of the base width and
to analyse this region for bearing pressure LB = effective width of base (m) soil in front of the toe. the factor against overturning is calculated
failure and is based on the Meyerhof c = factored value of drained as 1.0, this corresponds to the reaction
When considering passive resistance, note
method. This gives consideration to footing cohesion (kPa) being situated within the middle third of
that material can be inadvertently removed
width, footing tilt and angle of applied load the base at ultimate loads.
f = factored value of friction angle from the toe of the wall.
and is explained in a paper by Vesic titled
Bearing Capacity of Shallow Footings in the (radians) F = Sliding resistance based on factored 2.19 GLOBAL SLIP
Foundation Engineering Handbook. g = factored value of soil density characteristic soil properties
AS 4678:2002 Clause 3.2 requires stability
(kN/m3) = Friction + adhesion + passive resistance
(including rotation) to be checked.
Q = Bearing capacity of foundation (kN)
= Q* tan d + c B + Kp 0.5 g He2
= qav LB He = depth of undisturbed soil to the
The design example and design tables do
underside of the base, key or Where:
not include analysis for global slip.
bearing pad as appropriate (m)
Q* = vertical load based on factored
Nc = (Nq - 1)cot f loads and soil properties
Nq = ep tan f tan2[p/4 + f/2] d = external friction angle of the
Ng = 2(Nq + 1)tan f soil calculated from the factored
internal friction angle, assuming
Shape factors: a smooth base-to-soil interface
zc = 1.0 zq = 1.0 zg = 1.0 (if a rough base-to-soil interface
Factors for inclined load: is present, a friction angle of f
zci = zqi - (1 - zqi)/(Nc tan f) may be used)
zqi = [1 - P*/(Q* + LB c cot f)]2
B = actual base width (m)
zgi = [1 - P*/(Q* + LB c cot f)]3
c = factored value of adhesion (kPa)
Factors for sloping bases
(all = 1.0 for level bases): Kp = passive pressure coefficient
zct = zqt - (1 - zqt)/(Nc tan f)
g = factored value of soil density
zqt = (1 - a tan f)2
zgt = (1 - a tan f)2 (kN/m3)
Q* = vertical load based on factored He = depth of undisturbed soil to the

loads and soil properties underside of the base, key or
bearing pad as appropriate (m)
P* = horizontal load based on factored
loads and soil properties
a = angle of base in radians
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3 DESIGN TABLES TYPE 2: 3.2 CONCRETE AND MASONRY 3.5 LIVE LOADS
PROPERTIES
Hw = Masonry The Tables in this Guide have been
3.1 GENERAL stem height The Design Tables are based on: calculated for a live loading of 2.5 kPa
� � � � �� on walls up to 1.5 metres high and 5 kPa
This section describes the design� H = Total wall � ■ Hollow �concrete blocks with
parameters covered by the Design Tables characteristic compressive strength, f’uc, on other tabulated walls. A live load of
height
�� set out in Appendix A.��The Tables apply �� of at least 15 MPa; 10 kPa has also been tabulated for all
to Structure Classification B, and for B = Total base walls. The case of 10 kPa on a 1 in 4 slope
■ Mortar Type M3;
retaining walls under 1.5 m high, Structure � width � � (14°) is generally not practical, but has
■ Reinforcement grade 500 MPa; been included to permit interpolation.
Classification A (see Site Investigation,
��Appendix D). ■ Concrete with characteristic For other cases of live loads including
�
��
��
■ Base width
��
��
� is 0.7 times the total wall
��
compressive strength, f’c, of at least Structure Classification C, traffic loading
This Guide provides tables for suitable height 20 MPa. and construction loading, the appropriate
combinations of loads, geometry and ■ Base width is 1.0 times the total wall values must be determined by the
soil properties, for six arrangements of 3.3 LEAN-BACK�
�� height ��
designer.
� Reinforced Concrete Masonry Cantilever
� � � �
■ Base width is 1.3 times the total wall
�
Retaining Walls. Consistent with AS 4678, this Guide does
height 3.6 EARTHQUAKE LOADS
not cover the design of revetments with a
�� TYPE 1: ��
It is suggested that the designer carry out lean-back of 20° or more from vertical. The The Tables in this Guide have been
� the following steps: �
tabulated typical wall� details are applicable calculated for AS 4678 earthquake
Hw = Masonry for “vertical” walls, with a maximum lean- categories Ae or Be and therefore are
stem height ■ Determine which of these six types of
back of 1 in 40 (1.4°). based on design for static loads without
�� retaining wall geometry
�� most likely
H = Total wall � � the intended earth retaining
represents further specific analysis. For other cases,
height 3.4 BACKFILL SLOPE the appropriate earthquake loads must be
system.
The Tables in this Guide have been determined by the designer. If earthquake
B = Total base ■ Read from the Tables the suitable
load acts on some supported structure
width combinations of loads, geometry and calculated for retained soil and infill
� � such as a building or a fence, the effect
soil properties for the� selected type. soil, which is either level (0°) or 1 in 4
must be considered.
slope (14°). For other cases, the designer
■ Determine whether actual combinations
�� ■ ��
Base width is 0.7 times the wall total �� must perform calculations similar to
of loads, geometry and soil properties, 3.7 POSITION OF KEY
height those shown in the Design Example
existing in practice, correspond to these
■ Base width is 1.0 times the wall total Appendix B. The Tables in this Guide have been based
suitable combinations.
height on placing the key (if required) at the rear
�� ■ Carry out a detailed��design check of the base. This ensures that the bearing
■ � the wall total
Base width is 1.3 times �
against AS 4678, using proprietary pad, or soil under the base and in front of
height software. the key, is able to resist forward sliding. It
also simplifies excavation and simplifies
� � � the reinforcement arrangement. Other
key positions may be more appropriate in
particular applications. If other locations
are adopted, calculations will be required
to check the stability.
�
3.8 STEM DIMENSIONS 3.11 FOUNDATION MATERIAL 3.12 RETAINED SOILS AND INFILL The tables provide for (see Figure 3.1):
MATERIAL ■ Cohesionless retained soil, where the
The Tables in this Guide include the The properties of foundation soils vary
following stem types: widely, with combinations of internal The properties of retained soils vary cohesion is assumed to be zero and
friction, external friction and cohesion. It widely, with combinations of internal the required internal friction angle is
■ 140 mm hollow block
is a common design practice to ignore friction, external friction and cohesion. It tabulated.
■ 190 mm hollow block
cohesion, although this should be done in is a common design practice to ignore ■ Cohesive retained soil, where the
■ 290 mm hollow block the context of close consideration of the cohesion. See Analysis of Cohesive Soils internal friction angle is assumed to be
■ Two leaves of 190 mm hollow block, corresponding friction angles. See Analysis Appendix C. 25°. In this case the active soil pressure
separated by a cavity of 80 mm and of Cohesive Soils Appendix C. is based on the Coulomb formula, with
In the Tables, it is assumed that any infill
joined by steel ties to prevent spreading the cohesion assumed to be zero.
The Tables are based on two types of soil (between the wall and the retained
during the grouting process, or peeling Important Note
foundation soil (Figure 3.1): soil) is the same as the retained soil; and
of the thin stem away form the thick The tabulated values are intended to
■ Cohesionless foundation soil, where that both are the same as the foundation demonstrate some possible combinations of
stem.This arrangement gives a total
the cohesion is assumed to be zero and soil. The designer must consider the suitable soil properties, but the list is neither
width of 460 mm.
the required internal friction angle is validity of both assumptions during the comprehensive nor intended to serve as
The stem width may be progressively design process. recommendations.
tabulated.
increased down the wall to cater for The Design Example Appendix B indicates how
■ Cohesive foundation soil, where the to design for different retained soils and infill
increasing loads.
internal friction angle is assumed to material.
be 25° and the required cohesion
3.9 CONTROL JOINTS
is tabulated. In those cases where
Control joints should be included in the cohesion in excess of 10 kPa is required,
stem at centres up to 16.0 m, depending the table is left blank.
Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) 800
on the soil type and quantity of horizontal Important Note
reinforcement that is incorporated. The tabulated values are intended to Total height, H (mm) 1150
demonstrate some possible combinations of Total width, B (mm) 1150
3.10 HOB suitable soil properties, but the list is neither Retained soil slope, b Level 1 in 4 KEY
comprehensive nor intended to serve as Live load surcharge, ql (kPa) 2.5 10 2.5 10 Columns 1 = Cohesive
Reinforced concrete footings for retaining recommendations. soils
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) 20 20 25 26 25 26 – 31
walls should include a means of positively In some cases, foundations with low friction
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 0 0 0 0 – 0 Columns 2 = Cohesionless
locating the steel starter bars accurately angles require either wide bases or deep keys.
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 20 20 25 26 25 26 – 31 soils
and a means of providing drainage To avoid this situation, one design option is to
remove any material with a low friction angle Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 0 0 1 0 1 0 – 0
through the wall at the level of the base. and replace it with a more suitable material with
Both requirements may be achieved by a characteristic internal friction angle of at least Columns: 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
including a concrete hob (or up-stand), 35°. Typically, compacted road base would be
suitable in such an application. The foundation Where it is demonstrated This indicates the system
through which vertical starter bars are
soil should be excavated and replaced with that a soil with a low friction will not work for this
placed and on which the masonry is Suitable Suitable
compacted road base to a depth such that angle (below 25°) is suitable, combination.
built. Horizontal 50-mm diameter weep sliding and bearing resistance can be achieved. cohesive cohesionless
that minimum value for
holes may pass through the hob at 1.2 m In all cases, an experienced civil or geotechnical soil values soil values
friction angle has been
maximum centres. engineer should be engaged to determine the for system for system
appropriate soil properties. tabulated for both cohesive
The Tables are based on a rough interface and cohesionless soils.
between the base and the foundation, such that
the internal angle of friction, f, is applicable. Figure 3.1 Sample of Design Tables and their Interpretation
�
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Ap p e n d i x A – DESIGN TABLES FOR REINFORCED CONCRE TE MA S O N RY C A N T I L E V E R R E TA I N I N G WA L L S
INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE TYPE 1 WALLS TYPE 2 WALLS

1 Determine the type of retaining wall geometry that most likely represents the intended
earth retaining system.
■ Click on appropriate exposed stem height for the wall Type you require.
■ You will be presented with a suitably-detailed wall and a set of variables ��
��
■ The primary set of variables is the overall height-to-base ratio
(three options are given) ��
��
■ The next set of variables is loading in the form of slope of retained fill and ��
live load surcharges
■ Finally, there are the required soil properties to make the selection work
■ The details should be read in conjunction with the Common Details and the
Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) Exposed stem height, Hw (mm)
Construction Speciﬁcation
2 Read from the Tables (see sample below) the suitable combinations of loads, geometry 800 800
and soil properties for the selected type. 1000 1000
3 Determine whether actual combinations of loads, geometry and soil properties, 1200 1200
existing in practice, correspond to these suitable combinations.
1400 1400
4 Carry out a detailed design check against AS 4678, using proprietary software.
1600 1600
Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) 800 1800 1800
Total height, H (mm) 1150 2000 2000
Total width, B (mm) 1150
Retained soil slope, b Level 1 in 4 KEY
2200 2200
Live load surcharge, ql (kPa) 2.5 10 2.5 10 Columns 1 = Cohesive 2400 2400
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) 20 20 25 26 25 26 – 31 soils
2600 2600
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 0 0 0 0 – 0 Columns 2 = Cohesionless
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 20 20 25 26 25 26 – 31 soils 2800 2800
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 0 0 1 0 1 0 – 0 3000 3000
Columns: 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 3200 3200
Where it is demonstrated This indicates the system 3400 3400
that a soil with a low friction will not work for this
angle (below 25°) is suitable, Suitable Suitable combination. 3600 3600
that minimum value for cohesive cohesionless
friction angle has been soil values soil values
tabulated for both cohesive for system for system
and cohesionless soils. READING THE TABLES
�
D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 1 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 800 m m

General arrangement Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) 800 General details
Total height, H (mm) 1150
��
��
�� Retained soil slope, b ��
Level 1 in 4
��
�� Live load�surcharge, ql (kPa) 2.5 ��10 2.5 10 ��
�
� � � ��
��
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) 25 ��
25 25 31 25 30 – 36 ��
�� Retained ��cohesion, cr (kPa)
soil 0 � 0 0�� 0 0 0 – 0
� � � ��
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 25 25 25 31 25 30 – 36
��
� Foundation
� cohesion, cf (kPa) 0 � 0 10 0 9 0 – 0 ��
��
�� arrangement
General ��
Exposed
�
stem height, Hw (mm) 800��
� ��
��
Total height, H (mm) 1150 ��
��
Total width, B (mm) 1150 ��
��
��Retained soil slope, b Level 1 in 4
� � � ��
��
�� Live load� surcharge, ql (kPa) 2.5 ��10 2.5 10
�
� � �
�� Retained soil
� cohesion,
� cr (kPa) 0 0 0� � 0 0 0 – 0 NOTES:
� �
� � �
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 20 20 25 26 25 26 – 31 All cores to be fully grouted.
��
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 0 0 1 0 1 0 – 0 This detail to be read in conjunction with Common Details
regarding reinforcement placement and drainage design.
��
�
General arrangement Exposed stem�height, Hw (mm) 800 � See also, Construction Specification for further details.
��
� � Total height, H (mm) 1150
�
��
�� Total
� width, B (mm) 1495 ��
�
� � �
Retained soil slope, b Level 1 in 4
�� Live load� surcharge,
� ql (kPa) 2.5 ��10
� 2.5 10
�
� � �
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) 18 18 23 23 24 24 25 28
� � �
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 18 18 23 23 24 24 25 28
� � �
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0
�

��
��
�� Retained soil slope, b
��
Level 1 in 4
��
�
� � � ��
��
25 25 31 25 31 – 35
��
soil 0 � 0 0�� 0 0 0 – 0
� �
��
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 25 25 25 31 25 31 – 35 �
��
� Foundation
� cohesion, cf (kPa) 0 � 0 10 0 10 0 – 0 ��
��
��
��
General arrangement ��
Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) 1000��
��
��
��
� ��
� � Retained soil slope, b � Level 1 in 4 ��
��
�
� � �
� cohesion,
� cr (kPa) 0 0 0� � 0 0 0 – 0
� �
� � � NOTES:
�� All cores to be fully grouted.
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 0 0 0 0 2 0 – 0
This detail to be read in conjunction with Common Details
�� regarding reinforcement placement and drainage design.
�
General arrangement Exposed stem �height, Hw (mm) 1000 �
�� See also, Construction Specification for further details.
�
��
�� Total
� width, B (mm) 1755 ��
�
� � �
�� Live load�surcharge,
� ql (kPa) 2.5 ��10
� 2.5 10
�
� � �
� � �
� � �
�

��
��
Level 1 in 4 ��
��
�� Live load� surcharge, ql (kPa) 2.5 ��10 2.5 10 ��
�
� � �
��
26 25 30 – 31 – 35 ��
soil 0 � 0 0�� 0 – 0 – 0 �
� �
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 25 26 25 30 – 31 – 35 ��
��
��
� Foundation
� cohesion, cf (kPa) 1 � 0 9 0 – 0 – 0
��
��
�
�� arrangement ��
General Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) 1200 ��
��
��
�
� � Level
�� 1 in 4 ��
�� Live load�surcharge, ql (kPa) 2.5 ��10 2.5 10
� ��
� � �
� �� Retained soil
� cohesion,
� cr (kPa) 0 0 0�� 0 0 0 – 0
� �
� � �
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 20 20 25 25 25 27 – 31 NOTES:
��
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 0 0 0 0 2 0 – 0 All cores to be fully grouted.
�� This detail to be read in conjunction with Common Details
�
General arrangement Exposed stem�height, Hw (mm) 1200 �
��
� ��
� See also, Construction Specification for further details.
��
�� Total
� width, B (mm) 2015 ��
�
� � �
� ql (kPa) 2.5 ��10
� 2.5 10
�
� � �
� � �
� � �
�

��
��
��
Level 1 in 4
��
�
� � � ��
��
26 25 30 – 31 – 35
��
soil 0 � 0 0�� 0 – 0 – 0
� � �
��
� Foundation
� cohesion, cf (kPa) 1 � 0 9 0 – 0 – 0
��
��
��
��
��
��
�� Live load�surcharge, ql (kPa) 2.5 ��10 2.5 10
� ��
� � �
Retained soil cr (kPa) ��
�� cohesion,
� �
0 0 0� �
�
0 0 0 – 0
� � �
��
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 0 0 0 0 3 0 – 0 NOTES:

�
�
��
Total width, B (mm) 2275 See also, Construction Specification for further details.
��
� � �
� ql (kPa) 2.5 ��10
� 2.5 10
�
� � �
� � �
� � �
�

��
��
Level 1 in 4 ��
Live load�surcharge, ql (kPa) 5 ��

�� 10 5 10 ��
� � �
��
28 – 31 – 33 – 35 ��
�� cohesion, cr (kPa) ��
�
Retained
�
soil 0 � 0 –�� 0 – 0 – 0
�
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 25 28 – 31 – 33 – 35
��
� Foundation
� cohesion, cf (kPa) 5 � 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 ��
�
�� arrangement ��
General Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) 1600
��
��
��
�
� � Level
�� 1 in 4
��
�� Live load�surcharge, ql (kPa) 5 ��10 5 10 ��
�
� � �
��
� cohesion,
� cr (kPa) 0 0 0� � 0 0 0 – 0
� �
� � � ��
��
NOTES:
��
�
General arrangement Exposed stem�height, Hw (mm) 1600 � All cores to be fully grouted.
�
�� Total
� width, B (mm) 2535 ��
� See also, Construction Specification for further details.
� � �
� ql (kPa) 5 �� 10
� 5 10
�
� � �
� � �
� � �
�

��
��
Level 1 in 4
��
��
�� Live load�surcharge, ql (kPa) 5 ��10 5 10
� �
�
� ��
��
28 – 30 – 33 – 35 ��
soil 0 � 0 –�� 0 – 0 – 0 �
� �
��
� Foundation
� cohesion, cf (kPa) 5 � 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
�� Live load�surcharge, ql (kPa) 5 ��10 5 10
� �
�
� ��
Retained soil cr (kPa) ��
�� cohesion,
� �
0 0 0� �
�
0 0 0 – 0
� � �
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 23 23 25 25 25 29 – 31 ��
��
�� NOTES:
�
All cores to be fully grouted.
��
� ��
�
�� Total
� width, B (mm) 2795 �� regarding reinforcement placement and drainage design.
�
� � �
Retained soil slope, b Level 1 in 4 See also, Construction Specification for further details.
� ql (kPa) 5 ��10
� 5 10
�
� � �
� � �
� � �
�

��

�� Level 1 in 4 ��
��
�� Live load surcharge,
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
�
� � ��
��
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) 25 28 – 30 – 32 – 34
��
�� Retained soil �cohesion,
� cr (kPa) 0 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
� �
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 25 28 – 30 – 32 – 34 �
��
� Foundation
� cohesion, cf (kPa) 5 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 ��
��
��
General arrangement Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) 2000 ��
��
��
� � Retained soil slope, b Level 1 in 4 ��
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
�
� �
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) 22 22 24 24 25 28 – 30 ��
Retained soil �cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 0 0 0 0 – 0 ��
��
� �
��
� �
��
��
�
General arrangement �
Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) 2000 ��
��
�� NOTES:
�� width, B (mm)
Total
�
3185
� � All cores to be fully grouted.
� � ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 regarding reinforcement placement and drainage design.
�
� �
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) 21 21 21 22 25 26 25 28 See also, Construction Specification for further details.
� �
� �
�

��
�� Level 1 in 4 ��
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
� ��
� �
��
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) 25 28 – 30 – 33 – 34 ��
� cr (kPa) 0 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 �
� � ��
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 25 28 – 30 – 33 – 34 ��
��
� Foundation
� cohesion, cf (kPa) 5 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 ��
��
��
��
��
��
Live load surcharge, ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
��
� �
� cr (kPa) 0 0 0 0 0 0 – 0 ��
�
� �
��
��
��
�
��
�� NOTES:
Total
�
3445
�
� �
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) 21 21 22 22 25 26 25 28 See also, Construction Specification for further details.
� �
� �
�

��
��
�� Level 1 in 4 ��
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
� ��
� �
��
� cr (kPa) 0 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
� � �
��
��
� Foundation
� cohesion, cf (kPa) 5 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
��
� � ��
��
��
��
��
� � Retained soil slope, b Level 1 in 4
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
�
� � ��
��
� cr (kPa) 0 0 0 0 0 0 – 0 ��
�
� �
��
��
��
�
��
� � Total height, H (mm) 2850 ��
�� NOTES:
Total
�
3705
�
� �
See also, Construction Specification for further details.
� �
� �
�

��
�� Level 1 in 4 ��
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
� ��
� �
��
� cr (kPa) 0 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
� � �
��
� Foundation
� cohesion, cf (kPa) 6 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10
�
� � ��
��
� cr (kPa) 0 0 0 0 0 0 – 0 ��
�
� �
��
��
�
��
� � Total� height, H (mm) 3050
��
��
Total
�
3965 NOTES:
� �
Retained soil slope, b Level 1 in 4 All cores to be fully grouted.
� � ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10
� This detail to be read in conjunction with Common Details
� �
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) 21 21 22 22 25 26 25 28 regarding reinforcement placement and drainage design.
� �
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 See also, Construction Specification for further details.
� �
�

��
�� Level 1 in 4 ��
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
� ��
� �
��
� cr (kPa) 0 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
� � �
��
� Foundation
� cohesion, cf (kPa) 6 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 ��
��
��
General arrangement Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) 2800
��
��
��
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10
�
� � ��
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) 23 23 24 24 – 28 – 30 ��
��
��
� cr (kPa) 0 0 0 0 – 0 – 0
�
� �
��
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 0 0 0 0 – 0 – 0 ��
��
��
�
��
��
Total
�
4225
� � ��
� � ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 NOTES:
�
� �
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) 21 21 23 23 25 26 25 29 All cores to be fully grouted.
� �
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 This detail to be read in conjunction with Common Details
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 21 21 23 23 25 26 25 29 regarding reinforcement placement and drainage design.
� �
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 0 0 0 0 4 0 8 0 See also, Construction Specification for further details.
�

��
�� Level 1 in 4 ��
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
� ��
� �
��
� cr (kPa) 0 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
� � �
��
� Foundation
� cohesion, cf (kPa) 6 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
��
��

��
��
��
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
�
� �
��
� cr (kPa) 0 0 0 0 – 0 – 0 ��
�
� � ��
��
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 0 0 0 0 – 0 – 0
��
��
�
��
��
Total
�
4485
��
� �
��
� � ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10
�
� � NOTES:
� �
�

��
��
�� Level 1 in 4 ��
��
� �
��
��
�
Retained
�
soil �cohesion,
� cr (kPa) 0 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
��
��
��
� Foundation
� cohesion, cf (kPa) 7 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
� � ��
��
Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) 3.200 ��
��
��
��
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
�
� �
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) 24 24 25 25 – 29 – 30
��
� cr (kPa) 0 0 0 0 – 0 – 0 ��
� �
� ��
��
��
�
��
��
Total
�
4745
� �
Retained soil slope, b Level 1 in 4 ��
�� NOTES:
� �
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 21 21 23 23 25 26 25 29 regarding reinforcement placement and drainage design.
� �
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 0 0 0 0 4 0 8 0 See also, Construction Specification for further details.
�

��
��
��
�� Level 1 in 4
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
�
� �
��
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) 25 28 – 29 – 33 – 34 �
� cr (kPa) 0 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
� �
��
� Foundation
� cohesion, cf (kPa) 7 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 ��
��
��
��
��
��
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
�
� �
Retained soil �cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 0 0 – 0 – 0 ��
��
� � ��
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 24 24 25 25 – 29 – 32
��
� �
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 0 0 0 0 – 0 – 0 ��
��

�
��
��
Total
�
5005 ��
� �
� � ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
�
� � NOTES:
� �
�

General arrangement Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) 3600 General details ��
��
��
�� Retained soil slope, b Level 1 in 4 ��
��
�� Live load surcharge, ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10
� �
�� Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) 25 27 – 29 – 32 – 33
�� Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
� ��
� ��
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 6 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 ��
�
� ��
�� arrangement
General Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) 3600 ��
��
��
� Retained soil slope, b Level 1 in 4
��
� ��
��
�� Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 0 0 – 0 – 0
� ��
��
��
��
�
��
� Total height, H (mm) 4200
��
�� Total width, B (mm) 5460
�
��
� NOTES:
� All cores to be fully grouted.
�
�

��
��
��
Level 1 in 4 ��
��
�� surcharge, ql (kPa)
Live load
�
2.5 �� 10 2.5 10 ��
� � �
�� friction, fr (°)
Retained soil internal 25 30 ��
– 37 25 33 – 39 � ��
��
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 – �� 0 0 0 – 0 ��
� � � ��
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 25 30 – 37 25 33 – 39 ��
� � ��
�
�� Foundation
�
��
cohesion, cf (kPa) 3 0 �
–� ��0 10 0 – 0 ��
��
��
��
��
��
� � Retained soil slope, b � Level 1 in 4
��
� ql (kPa) 2.5 �10 2.5 10
� �
�
�
� NOTES:
� �� Retained �soil cohesion,
� cr (kPa) 0 0 �0 ��0 0 0 – 0
� � �
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 25 26 25 33 25 30 – 36 regarding reinforcement placement and drainage design.
��
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 1 0 6 � 0 4 0 – 0 See also, Construction Specification for further details.
��
�
Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) 800 �
��
� � Total height, H (mm) � 1150
��
Total
�
1495 ��
� � �
� �� Live load
� surcharge,
� ql (kPa) 2.5 � 10� 2.5 10
� �
� � �
� Retained soil�cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 0� 0 0 0 0 0
� � �
�

��
��
��
Level 1 in 4 ��
��
Live load
�
2.5 �� 10 2.5 10 ��
� � �
– 37 – 34 – 40
��
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 – �� 0 – 0 – 0 � ��
� � �
��
� � ��
�
�� Foundation
�
��
–� ��0 – 0 – 0 ��
��
��
��
� � � ��
��
Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) ��
1000 ��
��
��
��
��
� ql (kPa) 2.5 �10 2.5 10
� �
� � �
NOTES:
� cohesion,
� cr (kPa) 0 0 �0 ��0 0 0 – 0
� All cores to be fully grouted.
� � �
� �
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 2 0 7 � 0 6 0 – 0 regarding reinforcement placement and drainage design.
�
��
��
Total
�
1755 ��
� � �
� surcharge,
� ql (kPa) 2.5 � 10� 2.5 10
� �
� � �
� � �
�

��
��
��
Level 1 in 4 ��
��
Live load
�
2.5 �� 10 2.5 10 ��
� � �
– 38 – 35 – 40 �
��
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 – �� 0 – 0 – 0
� � � ��
��
� �
�
�� Foundation
�
��
–� ��0 – 0 – 0 ��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
Live load surcharge, ql (kPa) 2.5 ��
�� 10
�
2.5 10
� � �
� cohesion,
� cr (kPa) 0 0 �0 ��0 0 0 – 0 NOTES:
�
� � �
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 25 30 25 34 25 32 – 37 All cores to be fully grouted.
��
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 4 0 8 � 0 7 0 – 0 This detail to be read in conjunction with Common Details
��
�
Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) 1200 � See also, Construction Specification for further details.
��
��
Total
�
2015 ��
� � �
� surcharge,
� ql (kPa) 2.5 � 10� 2.5 10
� �
� � �
� � �
�

��
��
��
Level 1 in 4 ��
��
Live load
�
2.5 �� 10 2.5 10 ��
� � �
�� internal friction, fr (°)
Retained soil �� 25 32 ��
– 37 – 35 – 40 �
��
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 – �� 0 – 0 – 0 ��
� � � ��
� �� 0 ��
�
Foundation
�
– – 0 – 0
��
��
��
��
��
��
� ql (kPa) 2.5 �10 2.5 10
� �
� � � ��
� cohesion,
� cr (kPa) 0 0 �0 ��0 0 0 – 0
�
� � �
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 25 30 25 34 25 33 – 37 NOTES:
��
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 4 0 9 0 8 0 – 0 All cores to be fully grouted.
�
Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) 1400 � regarding reinforcement placement and drainage design.
��
� � Total height, H (mm) � 1750 See also, Construction Specification for further details.
��
Total
�
2275 ��
� � �
� surcharge,
� ql (kPa) 2.5 � 10� 2.5 10
� �
� � �
� Retained soil�cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 0� 0 0 0 – 0
� � �
�

��
��
��
Level 1 in 4 ��
��
Live load
�
5 �� 10 5 10 ��
� � �
Retained soil internal – 36 ��
– 39 – 38 – 41 �
��
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) – 0 – �� 0 – 0 – 0
� � � ��
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) – 36 – 39 – 38 – 41 ��
� �
�
�� Foundation
�
��
cohesion, cf (kPa) – 0 �
–� ��0 – 0 – 0 ��
��
��
��
��
��
��
Live load surcharge, ql (kPa) 5 ��
�� 10
�
5 10 ��
� � �
� �� Retained �soil cohesion,
� cr (kPa) 0 0 �– ��0 – 0 – 0
�
� � �
�� NOTES:
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 9 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
�
Total
�
2535 ��
� � �
� surcharge,
� ql (kPa) 5 � 10� 5 10
� �
� � �
� Retained soil�cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 0� 0 0 0 – 0
� � �
�

��
��
��
Level 1 in 4 ��
��
Live load
�
5 �� 10 5 10 ��
� � �
Retained soil internal – 36 ��
– 39 – 39 – 41 �
��
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) – 0 – �� 0 – 0 – 0
� � �
� �� 0 ��
�
Foundation
�
cohesion, cf (kPa) – 0 �
– – 0 – 0
��
��
� � � ��
��
Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) ��
1800 ��
��
��
��
��
� ql (kPa) 5 �10 5 10
� �
� � � ��
� cohesion,
� cr (kPa) 0 0 �– ��0 – 0 – 0 ��
�
� � �
��
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 10 0 – � 0 – 0 – 0
NOTES:
��
�
Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) 1800 � All cores to be fully grouted.
Total
�
2795 �� See also, Construction Specification for further details.
� � �
� surcharge,
� ql (kPa) 5 � 10� 5 10
� �
� � �
� Retained soil�cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 0� 0 – 0 – 0
� � �
�

��
��
�� Level 1 in 4 ��
��
Live load
�
5 10 5 10
��
� �
�� Retained soil internal friction, fr (°)
�� – 34 – 37 – 37 – 39 ��
��
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
� �
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) – 34 – 37 – 37 – 39 �
��
� ��
�
Foundation
�
cohesion, cf (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
��
��
��
��
�
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
� ��
� �
��
� cohesion,
� cr (kPa) 0 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
�
� �
��
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) 9 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 ��
��
�
General arrangement � Hw (mm)
Exposed stem height, 2000
�� NOTES:
Total
�
3185
� �
Retained soil slope, b Level 1 in 4 regarding reinforcement placement and drainage design.
� surcharge,
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 See also, Construction Specification for further details.
�
� �
� �
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 0 0 – 0 – 0
� �
�

��
��
�� Level 1 in 4 ��
��
Live load
�
5 10 5 10
��
� �
�� – 35 – 37 – 38 – 40 ��
��
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 �
� �
��
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) – 35 – 37 – 38 – 40
��
� ��
�
Foundation
�
cohesion, cf (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 ��
��
��
��
��
��
��
� �
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) – 33 – 35 – 36 – 37 ��
� cohesion,
� cr (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 ��
� ��
� �
��
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
��
�
��
� � Total height, H (mm) 2650 NOTES:
��
� width, B (mm)
Total 3445 All cores to be fully grouted.
��
� �
Retained soil slope, b Level 1 in 4 This detail to be read in conjunction with Common Details
� surcharge,
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10
�
� � See also, Construction Specification for further details.
� �
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 0 0 – 0 – 0
� �
�

��
��
�� Level 1 in 4 ��
��
Live load
�
5 10 5 10
��
� �
�� – 36 – 38 – 38 – 40 ��
��
� � �
��
� ��
�
Foundation
�
cohesion, cf (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
��
� � ��
��
��
��
� � ��
��
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
�
� � ��
� cohesion,
� cr (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 ��
�
� �
��
��
��
�
Exposed stem height, 2400 ��
��
��
NOTES:
Total
�
3705
� Live load
� surcharge, ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 This detail to be read in conjunction with Common Details
� �
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
� �
�

��
��
�� Level 1 in 4 ��
��
Live load
�
5 10 5 10
��
� �
�� – 36 – 38 – 39 – 41 ��
��
� � �
� ��
�
Foundation
�
cohesion, cf (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
��
��
��
��
��
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
�
� �
��
� cohesion,
� cr (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
�
� �
��
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 ��
��

�
��
��
Total
�
3965
NOTES:
� �
� surcharge,
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10
� �
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) 25 34 – 35 – 36 – 37 regarding reinforcement placement and drainage design.
� �
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 See also, Construction Specification for further details.
� �
�

��
�� Level 1 in 4 ��
��
Live load
�
5 10 5 10 ��
� � ��
�� – 37 – 39 – 39 – 41
��
� �
� ��
�
Foundation
�
cohesion, cf (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
��
��
General arrangement Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) 2800
��
��
��
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10
� ��
� �
��
� cohesion,
� cr (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
� ��
� �
��
��
��
�
��
��
Total
�
4225
� �
Retained soil slope, b Level 1 in 4 NOTES:
� surcharge,
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 All cores to be fully grouted.
�
� �
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) 25 34 – 36 – 36 – 38 This detail to be read in conjunction with Common Details
� �
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) 0 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 regarding reinforcement placement and drainage design.
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) 25 34 – 36 – 36 – 38 See also, Construction Specification for further details.
� �
�

��
�� Level 1 in 4 ��
��
Live load
�
5 10 5 10 ��
� � ��
�� – 37 – 39 – 40 – 41
��
� �
� ��
�
Foundation
�
cohesion, cf (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 ��
��
��
��
��
�
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10
�
� � ��
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) – 36 – 37 – 38 – 39
��
� cohesion,
� cr (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 ��
�
� �
��
��
��
�
��
� � Total height, H (mm) 3450 ��
��
Total
�
4485 ��
� �
� Live load
� surcharge, ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 NOTES:
��
� �
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) – 35 – 36 – 37 – 38 All cores to be fully grouted.
� �
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 This detail to be read in conjunction with Common Details
�

��
Retained soil slope, b ��

�� Level 1 in 4 ��
��
Live load
�
5 10 5 10
��
� �
�� – 38 – 39 – 40 – 42
��
� �
��
��
� ��
�
Foundation
�
cohesion, cf (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
� � ��
��
��
��
��
�
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
�
� �
��
� cohesion,
� cr (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 ��
�
� �
��
��
��
�
��
��
Total
�
4745
� �
� surcharge,
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10
� �
� NOTES:
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) – 35 – 37 – 37 – 39 regarding reinforcement placement and drainage design.
� �
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 See also, Construction Specification for further details.
�

��
��
��
�� Level 1 in 4 ��
��
Live load
�
5 10 5 10 ��
� �
�� – 38 – 40 – 40 – 42 �
��
� �
� ��
�
Foundation
�
cohesion, cf (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
��
��
��
��
��
��
�
��
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
�
� � ��
� Retained soil
� cohesion, cr (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 ��
��
� � ��
��
��

�
��
��
Total
�
5005 ��
� �
��
� surcharge,
� ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10
�
� � NOTES:
� �
Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 All cores to be fully grouted.
Foundation internal friction, ff (°) – 36 – 37 – 38 – 39 This detail to be read in conjunction with Common Details
� � regarding reinforcement placement and drainage design.
�

General arrangement Exposed stem height, Hw (mm) 3600 General details ��
��
��
�� Retained soil slope, b Level 1 in 4 ��
��
� �
�� Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) – 36 – 37 – 38 – 39
�� Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 ��
� ��
��
� ��
�
� ��
��
��
��
��
� Retained soil slope, b Level 1 in 4 ��
��
� ��
��
� �� Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0
� ��
��
��
��
�
��
� Total height, H (mm) 4200 ��
��
�� Total width, B (mm) 5460
�
��
� �� Live load surcharge, ql (kPa) 5 10 5 10 ��
�
Retained soil internal friction, fr (°) – 33 – 34 – 35 – 36 NOTES:
� Retained soil cohesion, cr (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 All cores and cavity to be fully grouted.
�
Foundation cohesion, cf (kPa) – 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 regarding reinforcement placement and drainage design.
�
APPENDIX B – Location, Service and Environmental � �� Dead horizontal line load
Conditions DH = 0.1 kN/m
DESIGN EXAMPLE Service life
Live horizontal line load
Yserv = 60 years
INTRODUCTION �� LH = 0.1 kN/m
Ambient temperature at surface b�
The following example demonstrates the b� Wind horizontal line load
method used by the CMAA to design T = 30° C
WH = qw (Hbarrier+ H)
retaining walls in accordance with AS 4678. Location w
= 0.9 (1.80 + 3.0)
External Design. The external design Sydney
= 4.3 kN/m
(for sliding, bearing and overturning) is Underlying soil ��
applicable to: Earthquake horizontal line load
Not more than 30 m of stiff hard clay
EH = 0.6 kN/m
■ Segmental Concrete Gravity Retaining
Wind load
Walls �� Position of Line Loads
qw = 0.9 kPa Determined from
■ Segmental Concrete Reinforced Soils
(Measured from ground level in front of
AS/NZS 1170.2
Retaining Walls embankment. See Figure B2)
Groundwater
■ Reinforced Concrete Masonry Cantilever Figure B1 Profile and Supported Height of horizontal line dead load
Allow for partial inadequacy of drainage
Retaining Walls Structure yDH = 3.900 m (At top of barrier)
system during rapid drawdown of water in
Internal Design. The internal design is front of wall. Height of horizontal line live load
specific to Reinforced Concrete Masonry Loads yEH = 3.900 m (At top of barrier)
Height of water table in front of wall Dead load vertical surcharge
Cantilever Retaining Walls
(from soil surface at toe) qd = 2.5 kPa Height of horizontal line wind load
Hw front = 0.100 m yWH = 2.400 m (At mid-height of
DESIGN BRIEF Live load vertical surcharge combined barrier and retaining wall)
Geometric Data Height of water table behind wall ql = 5.0 kPa
(from soil surface at toe) Height of horizontal line earthquake load
Exposed height of retaining wall
Hw rear = 0.400 m Wind vertical surcharge yEH = 3.900 m (At top of barrier)
H1 = 3.000 m
qw = 0.1 kPa
Slope of retaining wall (measured from Supported Structures Horizontal lever arm to vertical line dead
Barrier is 140 mm reinforced concrete Earthquake vertical surcharge load
vertical)
blockwork on 450 mm x 300 mm qe = 0.1 kPa xDV = 0.400 m (Constructed behind
w = 1.43° (1 in 40 from vertical)
reinforced concrete footing Dead vertical line load the retaining wall facing)
Slope of retained soil close to retaining wall
Height of barrier Dv = Hbarrier Tbarrier gbarrier + Horizontal lever arm of vertical line live
(measured from horizontal)
Hbarrier = 1.800 m Hfooting Tfooting (gfooting – gsoil) load
b1 = 14.04° (1 in 4 from horizontal)
= (1.80 x 0.14 x 22) + (0.45 x 0.30) x xLV = 0.400 m (Constructed behind
Length of slope at wall the retaining wall facing)
Lslope 1 = 3.000 m (24 – 20)
= 6.0 kN/m
Slope of retained soil at distance from
retaining wall (measured from horizontal) Live vertical line load
b2 = 1.43° (1 in 40 from horizontal) Lv = 0.1 kN/m
Length of slope at distance from wal

Lslope 2 = 1.000 m
�
��
��
��
��
��
�� b
�� b
��
��
��
�
��
b� b�
� �
b
��
w ��
��
w ��
��
��
��
��
� ��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��

��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
Figure B2 Dimensions for External Design Figure B3 Dimensions for Internal Design
�
Retained Soil Properties Properties of Earth Retaining GEOMETRY OF THE Retaining Structure Dimensions
The retained soil is an Insitu soil of one of Structure Total width of retaining structure (at the
the following types: Gravity wall density
RETAINING STRUCTURE base) selected by trial and error based
Stiff sandy clays, gravelly clays, compact gi = 20.0 kN/m3 (ie, facing and any System is a gravity wall, of one of the on approximately 0.7 times the exposed
clayey sands and sandy silts, compact confined soil) following types: height (see Figures B2 and B3).
clay fill (Class 2) ■ Segmental Concrete Gravity Retaining Wuc = 0.7(H1 + Hemb)
In order to simplify the comparison of the
Wall = 0.7 x (3.0 + 0.2)
Retained soil density three alternative retaining wall systems, an
= 2.240 m
gr = 20 kN/m3 average density 20.0 kN/m3 has been ■ Segmental Concrete Reinforced Soils
adopted in this worked example, for Retaining Wall Width of infill behind facing at the base of
Retained soil conservative estimate of the
both the retaining wall facing and the infill ■ Type 1(Note 1) Reinforced Concrete the retaining structure
mean internal friction angle
material, including no-fines concrete. Masonry Cantilever Retaining Wall. Wc = Wuc - Wu
fr = 30°
More common values are: = 2.240 -0.3
Retained soil conservative estimate of the = 1.940 m
• Dense concrete footings 24.0 kN/m3
mean cohesion
• Dense concrete masonry 22.0 kN/m3 Length of infill behind facing at the base of
cr = 5.0 kPa
(This should be reduced to allow for the retaining structure
Except in those cases of relatively low voids in the facing that cannot be filled) L’ = 1.940 m
retaining walls where the Rankine-Bell
• Compacted soil infill 20.0 kN/m3 L’ is commonly the same as Wc (i.e. the
method is used, cohesion of the retained
• No-fines concrete infill 18.0 kN/m3 depth into the embankment of the
soil will be assumed to be zero.
retaining structure is the same at the
Foundation Soil Properties Infill soil density top as at the bottom). However, this is not
The foundation soil is an Insitu soil of one gi = 20 kN/m3 necessarily always the case.
of the following types: See note above. Width increase due to backfill slope
Stiff sandy clays, gravelly clays, compact
L” = [L’. tan(b1) tan(w)]/[1 – tan(b1).tan(w)]
clayey sands and sandy silts, compact
= [1.940 x tan(14.04°) tan(1.43°)] /
clay fill (Class 2)
[1 – tan(14.04°) tan(1.43°)]
Foundation soil density = 0.012 m
gf = 20 kN/m3
Width at top of backfill slope
Foundation soil conservative estimate of Lb = L’ + L”
the mean internal friction angle NOTES: = 1.940 + 0.012
ff = 30° 1 Type 1 structures have an elongated heel = 1.952 m
extending behind the wall under the infill
Foundation soil conservative estimate of soil, which contributes to the weight of the Height from top of wall to top of slope
the mean cohesion total structure. h = Lb tan(b1)
cf = 5.0 kPa Type 2 has an elongated toe extending = 1.952 x tan(14.04°)
in front of the wall, but not supporting = 0.488 m
Designer must determine whether this any soil. Because the total weight of
value should be used. Type 2 structures (including the infill soil)
is less than Type 1 structures of similar
dimensions, the resistance to sliding and
overturning is lower. Type 2 structures must
be designed for this reduced resistance.
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Embedment (including footings, if Bearing Pad Dimensions Earthquake Considerations If a Mononobe-Okabe Pseudo-Static
applicable, but excluding bearing pad The actual width of the bearing pad should Acceleration coefficient Analysis for earthquake loads were to be
Hemb = 0.200 m be selected to be just greater than that a = 0.08 carried out, the following factors would be
required by the analysis below. applicable.
In the case of a reinforced concrete Site factor
masonry cantilever gravity retaining Bearing pad thickness S = 1.0 Nominal horizontal acceleration
wall of this height, the thickness of the Hbp = 270 mm ah = 0.04 m/s
Local acceleration
reinforced concrete base would be of the
Factor for the spread of load through the aS = a S Nominal vertical acceleration
order of 0.350 m. However, a value of
bearing pad. = 0.08 x 1.0 av = 0.00 m/s
0.200 m has been adopted to maintain
The following assumptions are made to = 0.08
consistency between the worked examples Average amplified horizontal acceleration
determine how effective the bearing pad is
for varoius systems of retaining wall. Earthquake design category within the retained soil
in spreading load down to the foundation.
Ceq = Ber amh = If [ah < 0.45, (1.45- ah)ah , ah]
Height of wall (including embedment)
Kbp = 2 for compacted road base = 0.056 m/s
H = H1 + h + Hemb There is no need to use increased factors or
= 4 for cement-stabilised
= 3.000 + 0.488 + 0.200 particular analysis for earthquake. Average amplified vertical acceleration
compacted road base
= 3.688 m within the retained soil
= 8 for reinforced concrete.
amv = If [av < 0.45, (1.45- av) av, av)
Effective slope of retained soil (measured
Actual width of bearing pad = 0.00 m/s
from horizontal)
Bact = 3.400 m
β = tan-1[{Lslope 1 tan(b1) + Lslope 2 Horizontal seismic coefficient
tan(b2)}/(Lslope 1 + Lslope 2)] Depth of bearing pad kh = 0.056
= tan-1[{3.0 x tan(14.04°) + 1.0 x Hbp = 0.270 m
Vertical seismic coefficient
tan(1.43°)}/(3.0 + 1.0)]
Maximum potential effective width of a kv = 0.0
= 11.0°
bearing pad
Earthquake factors
Angle of underside of base (measured from B = min [Bact, (Wuc + Kbp Hbp)]
qeq = Max [tan-1(kh /(1- kv)),
horizontal) = min [3.400, (2.240 + 4 x 0.270)]
tan-1(kh/(1+ kv)]
a = 0° Horizontal = 3.320 m
= Max [tan-1(0.056 /(1- 0)),
This is the width of bearing pad into which tan-1(0.056 /(1+ 0)]
the vertical load (without lateral load) = 3.2°
could be distributed, if it were central
under the retaining structure, giving
consideration to the particular material, its
strength and stiffness.
Facing/Stem
In order to simplify the comparison of the
three alternative retaining wall systems,
an average density 20.0 kN/m3 has been
adopted in this worked example, for both
the retaining wall facing and the infill
material, including no-fines concrete.
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ULTIMATE LOAD (LIMIT Table B1 Partial Load Factors and Material Factors
STATE) CALCULATIONS IN Long-term
Ultimate Short-term serviceability serviceability
ACCORDANCE
AS 4678:2002 Load case U (i) U (ii) U (iii) SS (i) SS (ii) SS (iii) SS (iv) SS (v) LS (i)
Partial Load Factors and Material Overturning (active) soil loads Gdos 1.25 1.25 1.25 NA NA 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Factors Overturning dead loads Gdo 1.25 1.25 1.25 NA NA 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
This design is based on AS 4678. Overturning live loads Glo 1.50 0.60 0.60 NA NA 0.00 0.60 0.60 0.00
Table B1 sets out the load combinations
that should be checked, together with the Overturning wind loads Gwo 0.00 1.00 0.00 NA NA 1.00 0.00 1.00 0.00
corresponding load and materials factors. Overturning earthquake loads Geo 0.00 0.00 1.00 NA NA 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
In this worked example, only the Ultimate Resisting dead loads Gdr 0.80 0.80 0.80 NA NA 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Case, U (i) has been checked. Resisting live loads
(eg over infill material) Glr 0.00 0.00 0.00 NA NA 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water in tension cracks and
groundwater Gv 1.00 1.00 1.00 NA NA 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Partial factors on tan(phi) Ftan(q)
Class 1 controlled fill 0.95 0.95 0.95 NA NA 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Uncontrolled fill 0.75 0.75 0.75 NA NA 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90
Insitu natural soil 0.85 0.85 0.85 NA NA 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Partial factors on cohesion Fc
Uncontrolled fill 0.50 0.50 0.50 NA NA 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65
Insitu natural soil 0.70 0.70 0.70 NA NA 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85
Structure classification factor Fn 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
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Soil Design Properties Retained soil design cohesion
Retained soil c*r = Fcr .cr
In this case, the retained soil is “insitu” material. = 0.70 x 5.0
Any gap between the retaining structure and the retained soil should be = 3.5 kPa
filled with compacted infill-material. However, because failure planes may
Except in those cases of relatively low retaining walls where the Rankine-Bell method is used, cohesion of the
still form in the insitu material, the design in this example will be based on
retained soil will be assumed to be zero.
the retained soil.
Alternatively, the insitu material could be excavated and replaced to such Orientation of failure plane
a depth that any failure planes are forced to form in the infill material. -tan(f*r - b) + tan(f*r - b) [tan(f*r - b) + cot(f*r + w)].[1 + tan(d*r – w) cot(f*r + w)]
air = f*r + tan-1
1 + tan(d*r – w) . tan(f*r - b) + cot(f*r + w)
Retained soil partial factor on tan(f)
F tan(fr) = 0.85 = 47.5°
Retained soil partial factor on cohesion Active pressure coefficient
Fcr = 0.70 cos2(f*r + w)
Kar =
cos2(w)cos(w - d*r) + d*r)sin(f*r - b) 2
Retained soil design internal friction angle 1 + sin(f*r
f*r = tan-1[F tan(fr) .tan(fr)] cos(w - d*r)cos(w + b)
= tan-1[0.85 x tan(30°)] 2
= cos (26.1° + 1.43°)
= 26.1° cos2(1.43°)cos(1.43° - 26.1°) 2
sin(26.1° + 26.1°)sin(26.1° - 11°)
1+
Retained soil design external friction angle cos(1.43° - 26.1°)cos(1.43° + 11°)
d*r = 0.667f*r = 0.394
= 0.667 x 26.1°
= 17.4°
against relatively smooth concrete
= 1.0f*r
= 1.0 x 26.1°
= 26.1°
against no-fines concrete
= 1.0f*r
= 1.0 x 26.1°
= 26.1°
against compacted infill soil
Allowance should be made for the effect of any geotextile or geocomposite
that is incorporated into the structure.
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Foundation Soil Active pressure coefficient of foundation soil
In this case, the retained soil is “insitu” material. cos2(f + w)
Any over-excavation should be filled with compacted cement-stabilised road base. Kaf =
sin(f + d) sin(f - b) 2
Foundation soil partial factor on tan(f) cos2w cos(w - d) 1+
F tan(fr) = 0.85 √cos(w - d) cos(w + b)
cos2(26.1° + 1.43°)
Foundation soil partial factor on cohesion =
2
Fcf = 0.70 sin(26.1° + 26.1°) sin(26.1° - 11.0°)
cos21.43° cos(1.43° - 26.1°) 1+
Foundation soil design internal friction angle √cos(1.43° - 26.1°) cos(1.43° + 11.0°)
f*f = tan-1[F tan(ff) .tan(ff)] = 0.394
= tan-1[0.85 x tan(30°)]
This is assumed to be the same as the active pressure coefficient for the retained soil,
= 26.1°
including:
Foundation soil design cohesion • soil to rough surface or soil to soil
c*f = Fcf .cf • consideration of lay-back
= 0.70 x 5.0 • consideration of slope of retained soil.
= 3.5 kPa
Passive pressure coefficient of foundation soil
Foundation soil design external friction angle 1 + sin(f*f)
d*f = 0.667f*f Kpf =
1 - sin(f*f)
= 0.667 x 26.1°
= 17.4° 1 + sin(26.1°)
=
against relatively smooth concrete 1 - sin(26.1°)
= 1.0f*f = 2.58
= 1.0 x 26.1°
= 26.1°
= 1.0f*f
= 1.0 x 26.1°
= 26.1°
Allowance should be made for the effect of any geotextile or geocomposite that is
incorporated into the structure.
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Infill Soil Infill soil design external friction angle
Depending on the type of earth retaining structure and the profile of the d*i = 0.667f*i
existing embankment to be retained, it may be necessary to place infill = 0.667 x 29.4°
soil between the embankment and the structure. In this case, the infill soil = 19.6°
will be specified as one of the following: against relatively smooth concrete
gravelly and compacted sands,
= 1.0f*i
controlled crushed sandstone and
= 1.0 x 29.4°
gravel fills (Class 1),
= 29.4°
dense well graded sands.
The infill material will be compacted to Class C2 (Refer AS 4678 for
definition of the compaction). = 1.0f*i
= 1.0 x 29.4°
Infill soil density
= 29.4°
gi = 20 kN/m3
Infill soil conservative estimate of the mean internal friction angle
Allowance should be made for the effect of any geotextile or geocomposite that is incorporated into the
fi = 32°
structure.
Infill soil conservative estimate of the mean cohesion
Orientation of failure plane
ci = 3.0 kPa
-tan(f*i - b) + tan(f*i - b) [tan(f*i - b) + cot(f*i + w)].[1 + tan(d*i – w) cot(f*i + w)]
aii = f*i + tan-1
Infill soil partial factor on tan(f) 1 + tan(d*i – w) . tan(f*i - b) + cot(f*i + w)
F tan(fi) = 0.90
= 50.6°
Infill soil partial factor on cohesion
Active pressure coefficient
Fci = 0.75
cos2(f*i + w)
Kai =
Infill soil design internal friction angle cos2(w)cos(w - d*i) * d* 2
1 + sin(f i + i)sin(f i - b)
*
f*i = tan-1[F tan(fi) .tan(fi)] cos(w - d*i)cos(w + b)
= tan-1[0.90 x tan(32°)]
2
= 29.4° = cos (29.4° + 1.43°)
cos2(1.43°)cos(1.43° - 19.6°) 2
Infill soil design cohesion 1 + sin(29.4° + 19.6°)sin(29.4° - 14.04°)
c*i = Fci .ci cos(1.43° - 19.6°)cos(1.43° + 14.04°)
= 0.75 x 3.0 = 0.362
= 2.3 kPa
A value of zero will be used in the design.
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Bearing Pad Bearing pad design external friction
In this case, the bearing pad shall consist of angle(Note 1)
compacted controlled fill, with 5% cement- d*b = 0.667f*b
stabilised crushed rock, WET when base is = 0.667 x 38.6
laid. = 25.7°
against relatively smooth concrete
Specified compressive strength
f’c = 5.0 MPa = 1.0 f*b
= 1.0 x 38.6°
Bearing pad density
= 38.6°
gb = 20 kN/m3
Bearing pad conservative estimate of the
= 1.0 f*f
mean internal friction angle
= 1.0 x 26.1°
fb = 40°
= 26.1°
Bearing pad conservative estimate of the against compacted foundation soil
mean cohesion (foundation soil governs)
cb = 0.1 kPa
Bearing pad design cohesion
For a granular base, the cohesion is c*b = Fcb.cb
normally zero, and the adhesion is = 0.90 x 0.1
therefore also zero. In this example, a = 0.09 kPa
small nominal value of 0.1 kPa has been
assumed for both adhesion and cohesion
to demonstrate the method. In practice,
it is common for a designer to ignore this
value.
Bearing pad partial factor on tan(f)
F tan(fb) = 0.95
Bearing pad partial factor on cohesion
Fcb = 0.90
Bearing pad design internal friction angle
f*b = tan-1[F tan(fb) .tan(fb)]
= tan-1[0.95 x tan(40°)]
= 38.6°
NOTES
1 The values above are reasonably consistent
with the NCMA approach, which uses the
following:
Sliding resistance coefficient of levelling
pad to other soil, Cds b = 1.0
Sliding resistance coefficient of levelling
pad to smooth masonry, mb = 0.68
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EXTERNAL STABILITY AT ULTIMATE LOADS AND RESISTANCES Total horizontal forces causing forward movement (at the interface between the retaining
structure and bearing pad)
Horizontal Forces
Pb H = Pq H + Ps H + Pw front + Pw rear + PD H + PL H + PW H + PE H + Pwc H
Horizontal active force due to surcharge
= 14.0 + 60.8 -0.44 + 1.77 + 0.13 + 0.15 + 0.0 + 0.0 + 0.0
Pq H = Kar [Gdo qd + Glo ql + Gwo qw + Geo qe] H cos(d*r – w)
= 76.4 kN/m
= 0.394 [(1.25 x 2.5) + (1.5 x 5.0) + (0 x 0.1) + (0 x 0.1)] 3.688 x cos(26.1° – 1.43°)
= 14.0 kN/m Horizontal active force due to surcharge on bearing pad
Pbpq H = Kar [Gdo qd + Glo ql + Gwo qw + Geo qe] Hbp cos (d*r)
Horizontal active force due to soil
= 0.394 [(1.25 x 2.5) + (1.5 x 5.0) + (0 x 0.1) + (0 x 0.1)] 0.270 x cos (26.1°)
Ps H = Kar 0.5 (Gdo g*r) H2 cos (d*r – w)
= 1.0 kN/m
= 0.394 x 0.5 (1.25 x 20.0) 3.6882 x cos (26.1° – 1.43°)
= 60.8 kN/m The same active pressure coefficent as is applicable for the upper part of the retaining
structure, Kar, has been used. This is based on:
Horizontal force due to water in front of wall
Pw front = - [0.5 g*w (Hw front + Hemb)2] • The internal friction angle for retained soil (acting against bearing pad granular material)
= - [0.5 x 9.81 x (0.100 + 0.200)2] • The layback of the upper structure, w. (Slightly non-conservative assumption)
= -0.44 kN/m Horizontal active force due to soil on bearing pad
Horizontal force due to water behind infill Pbps H = Kar Gdos gb 0.5 [(H + Hbp)2 - H2] cos (d*r)
Pw rear = 0.5 g*w (Hw rear + Hemb)2 = 0.394 x 1.25 x 20.0 x 0.5 x [(3.688 + 0.270)2 - 3.6882] x cos (26.1°)
= 0.5 x 9.81 x (0.400 + 0.200)2 = 9.1 kN/m
= 1.77 kN/m The average pressure, acting on the thickness of bearing pad, Hbp, is at a depth of
Horizontal force due to dead line load 0.5 [H + (H + Hbp)]
PD H = Gdo DH The same active pressure coefficent as is applicable for the upper part of the retaining
= 1.25 x 0.1 structure, Kar, has been used. See comment above.
= 0.13 kN/m
Horizontal force due to water in front of bearing pad
Horizontal force due to live line load at top Pbw front = - 0.5 γ*w [(Hw front + Hemb + Hbp)2 - [(Hw front + Hemb)2]
PL H = Glo LH = - [0.5 x 9.81 x [(0.100 + 0.200 + 0.270)2 - [(100 + 200)2] ]
= 1. 5 x 0.1 = -1.15 kN/m
= 0.15 kN/m
Horizontal force due to water behind bearing pad
Horizontal force due to wind line load at top Pbw rear = 0.5 g*w [(Hw rear + Hemb + Hbp)2 - (Hw rear + Hemb)2]
PW H = Gwo WH = 0.5 x 9.81 x [(0.400 + 0.200 + 0.270)2 - (0.400 + 0.200)2]
= 0 x 4.3 = 1.95 kN/m
= 0.0 kN/m
Total horizontal forces causing forward movement (at the interface between the bearing
Horizontal force due to earthquake line load at top pad and foundation)
PE H = Geo EH Pf H = Pb H + Pbpq H + Pbps H + Pbw front + Pbw rear
= 0 x 0.6 = 76.4 + 1.0 + 9.1 - 1.15 + 1.95
= 0.0 kN/m = 87.3 kN/m
Horizontal active force due to water in tension cracks
Pwc H = 0.0 kN/m
This force will only apply in some cases of cohesive soil (when using Rankine-Bell method),
where the fill is not protected against ingress of water.
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Vertical Forces Vertical friction component of active surcharge load acting on the retained soil behind the structure
Weight of thin stem Pq V = Kar[Gdo qd + Glo ql + Gwo qw + Geo qe] H sin (g*r – w)
P1 V = Gdr gmasonry H7 T1 = 0.394 [(1.25 x 2.5) + (1.5 x 5.0) + (0 x 0.1) + (0 x 0.1)] 3.688 x sin (26.1° – 1.43°)
= 0.8 x 22.7 x 1.800 x 0.190 = 6.45 kN/m
= 6.21 kN/m Vertical friction component of active soil load behind the structure
Weight of thick stem (including hob) Ps V = Kar 0.5 (Gdo g*r) H2 sin (g*r – w)
P2 V = Gdr gmasonry H8 T2 = 0.394 x 0.5 (1.25 x 20.0) 3.6882 x sin (26.1° – 1.43°)
= 0.8 x 22.7 x 1.050 x 0.460 = 27.97 kN/m
= 8.77 kN/m Vertical line dead load (on wall stem and infill)
PD V = Gdr Dv
Weight of soil above thick stem
= 0.8 X 6.0
P3 V = Gdr g*i H7 (T2 - T1)
= 4.80 kN/m
= 0.8 x 20.0 x 1.800 x (0.460 – 0.190)
= 7.78 kN/m Vertical line live load (on wall stem and infill)
PL V = Glr Lv
Weight of soil block = 0.0 X 0.1
P5 V = Gdr g*i (B1 - B4 - T2)Hsoil = 0.00 kN/m
= 0.8 x 20.0 x (2.240 – 0.110 – 0.460) x 2.850
Vertical uplift force of ground-water displaced by the retaining structure
= 76.15 kN/m
Pw V = -g*w [0.5 (Hw front + Hw rear) + Hemb] Wuc
Weight of base = -9.81 x [0.5 x (0.100 + 0.400 ) + 0.200] x 2.240
P6 V = Gdr g*c B1 H2 = -9.89 kN/m
= 0.8 x 25.0 x 2.240 x 0.350 It is assumed that the water table varies linearly from the rear of the retaining structure to the front
= 15.68 kN/m
Total vertical force at the interface of the retaining structure and bearing pad
Check: PV = Pf V + Pf slope V + Pq V + Ps V + PD V + PL V + Pw V
Vertical weight of the gravity structure = 114.1 + 7.62 + 6.45 + 27.97 + 4.80 + 0.00 - 9.89
Pf V = P1 V + P2 V + P3 V + P5 V + P6 V = 151.1 kN/m
= 6.21 + 8.77 + 7.78 + 76.15 + 15.68 Weight of bearing pad
= 114.6 kN/m Pbp V = Gdr g*b Hbp (B - Bk)
Vertical load due to sloping soil above the structure = 0.80 x 20.0 x 0.270 x (3.320 - 0.300)
Pf slopeV = Gdr gsu 0.5 Lb h = 13.05 kN/m
= 0.8 x 20 x 0.5 x (2.240 – 0.300) x 0.488 The weight of the bearing pad has been calculated on the following basis.
= 7.62 kN/m • The effective width of the bearing pad, B, with includes allowance for the spread of load from the underside of
the retaining structure, down through the bearing pad.
• For reinforced concrete masonry cantilever gravity retaining walls, which include a key (positioned at the rear
of the base), the width of the bearing pad is the total width, B, less the width of the key, Bk.
• The effective width of the bearing pad, B, can not exceed the actual width of the bearing pad, Bact.
• Weights and reactions outside the extent of the effective width of the bearing pad, B, are considered to balance
each other and are disregarded in the calculations.
• Provided that the effective width of the bearing pad, B, does not extend behind the rear of the structure, the
assumptions above will be valid.
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Weight of key Vertical Lever Arms
Pk V = Gdr g*c H3 B3 Vertical lever arm of horizontal surcharge load above toe
= 0.80 x 25.0 x 0.270 x 0.300 yqh = 0.5 H
= 1.62 kN/m = 0.5 x 3.688
= 1.844 m
Vertical uplift force of ground-water displaced by the bearing pad
Pbp w V = -[g*w Hbp B] Vertical lever arm of horizontal soil load above toe
= -[9.81 x 0.270 x 3.320] ysh = 0.333 H
= -8.79 kN/m = 0.333 x 3.688
= 1.229 m
It is assumed that:
Vertical lever arm of horizontal force due to water in front of wall
• The water table varies linearly from the rear of the retaining structure to the front
ywf = 0.333 (Hw front + Hemb)
• The volume of water is that which is displaced by the part of the bearing pad which = 0.333 x (0.100 + 0.200)
participates in supporting the loads of the structure, ie, depth of bearing pad submerged x = 0.100 m
effective width under bearing pad, B.
Vertical lever arm of horizontal force due to water behind infill
Vertical friction component of active surcharge force acting on the bearing pad ywb = 0.333 (Hw rear + Hemb)
Pbp q V = Kar [Gdo qd + Glo ql + Gwo qw + Geo qe] Hbp sin (g*r) = 0.333 x (0.400 + 0.200)
= 0.394 [(1.25 x 2.5) + (1.5 x 5.0) + (0 x 0.1) + (0 x 0.1)] 0.27 x sin (26.1°) = 0.200 m
= 0.5 kN/m
Vertical lever arm of dead line loads above toe
Vertical friction component of active soil load acting on the bearing pad yDh = yDH + Hemb
Pbp s V = 0.5 Kar (Gdos gb) (2 H + Hbp) Hbp sin (d*r) = 3.900 + 0.200
= 0.5 x 0.394 x 1.25 x 20.0 x [(2 x 3.688) + 0.270] x 0.270 x sin (26.1°) = 4.100 m
= 4.5 kN/m
Vertical lever arm of live line loads above toe
Total vertical forces at the interface between the bearing pad and foundation yLh = yLH + Hemb
Pf V = PV + Pbp V + Pk V + Pbp w V + Pbp q V + Pbp s V = 3.900 + 0.200
= 151.1 + 13.05 + 1.62 - 8.79 + 0.5 + 4.5 = 4.100 m
= 162.0 kN/m
Vertical lever arm of wind line loads above toe
yWh = yWH + Hemb
= 0.5 (H1 + Hbarrier) + Hemb
= 0.5 x (3.000 + 1.800) + 0.200
= 2.600 m
Vertical lever arm of earthquake line loads above toe
yEh = yLH + Hemb
= 3.900 + 0.200
= 4.100 m
Vertical lever arm on passive pressure in front of embedment
yp = 0.333 Hemb
= 0.333 x 0.200
= 0.067 m
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Depth of tension cracks in fissured Horizontal Lever Arms Horizontal lever arm to vertical line dead Sliding Resistance of Structure on
cohesive soil Horizontal lever arms may be calculated load Bearing Pad
The following approach is applicable to the from any point, and the toe is commonly xDV = 0.400 m Friction resistance of structure on bearing
application of water in tension cracks in selected as the reference point. A check of Nominated in design brief pad
cohesive soils. overturning about the centroid of reaction Pbf = Pv tan(f*b) Fn
Horizontal lever arm of vertical line live
will be carried out later, but at this stage = 151.6 x tan(38.6°) x 1.0
2 c’ load
Hc = in the calculations, the eccentricity is = 120.8 KN/m
(g Kar 0.5) - (Gdo qd + Glo ql) xLV = 0.400 m
unknown.
Gdo g Nominated in design brief The vertical load, Pv, is the sum of vertical
Horizontal lever arm of thin stem loads that have already been factored by
=0m Horizontal lever arm from toe for water
X1v = B4 + T1 /2 the relevant load factor for resisting loads,
uplift
Vertical lever arm of horizontal water in = 0.110 + 0.190 /2 Gdrs.
xfv wu = 0.5 Wuc
tension cracks = 0.205 m
= 0.5 x 2.240 In this case, the key at the back of the
yqh = H1 – 0.667 Hc
Horizontal lever arm of thick stem = 1.120 m footing “captures” the bearing pad
=0m
X2v = B4 + T2 /2 material, mobilising the internal friction of
= 0.110 + 0.460 /2 the bearing pad material to resist forward
= 0.340 m sliding.
Horizontal lever arm of soil above thick In other retaining systems (eg reinforced
stem soils) it is assumed that the interface
X3v = B4 + T1 + (T2 - T1) /2 between the retaining structure (granular
= 0.110 + 0.190 + (0.460 – 0.190) /2 soil fill in hollow concrete facing units
= 0.435 m plus either compacted infill soil of no-
fines concrete) is rough. Therefore the
Horizontal lever arm of soil above heel
appropriate external friction angle is the
X5v = B4 + T2 + (B1 - B4 - T2)/2
minimum of the internal friction angles of
= 0.110 + 0.460 + (2.240 - 0.110 - 0.460)/2
the structure and the bearing pad.
= 1.405 m
If the retaining structure surface had been
Horizontal lever arm of sloping soil
substantially smooth concrete and no key,
xf slope v = Wu + 0.667 L’ + (H1 + Hemb + 0.5 h) tan w
the appropriate external friction angle
= 0.3 + (0.667 x 1.940) + [(3.000 + 0.200 + (0.5 x 0.488)] tan (1.43°)
would be some lesser value, approximately
= 1.679 m
two thirds of the internal friction angle.
Horizontal lever arm for vertical surcharge load
Base adhesion of structure on bearing pad
xqv = Wu + B + 0.5 H tan w
Pba = (Gdrs c*bv Wuc Fn
= 0.300 + 1.940 + [0.5 x 3.688 x tan (1.43°)]
= (0.80 x 0.09) x 2.24 x 1.0
= 2.286 m
= 0.16 KN/m
Horizontal lever arm for vertical soil load
The adhesion of a retaining structure
xsv = Wu + B + 0.333 H tan w
on a bearing pad is the minimum of
= 0.300 + 1.940 + [0.333 x 3.688 x tan (1.43°)]
the adhesion (stickiness) of the interface
= 2.271 m
and the cohesion of the bearing pad
material. For a granular base, the cohesion
�
is normally zero, and the adhesion is Sliding Resistance of Bearing Pad on Resisting passive earth pressure on
therefore also zero. For a cement-stabilized Foundation structure
material where the units are laid before the Friction resistance of bearing pad on Pfp = 0.5 Kpb(Gdrs gb)(Hemb + Hbp)2 Fn
cement has hydrated, there may be some foundation = 0.5 x 2.58 x 0.80 x 20.0 x (0.200 + 0.270)2 x 1.0
small value of adhesion. In this example, Pff = Pf V tan(f*b) Fn = 4.55 KN/m
a small nominal value has been assumed = 162.0 x tan(26.1°) x 1.0
to demonstrate the method. In practice, = 79.6 KN/m It is the designer’s choice of whether or not
it is common for a designer to ignore this to use passive resistance, giving consideration
The appropriate external friction angle is
value. to issues of disturbance, erosion and poor
the lesser of the values for the bearing pad
compaction of the material in front of the
The components of base adhesion have and the foundation.
structure. It is common practice to ignore
not already been factored by the relevant
Base adhesion of structure on bearing pad passive resistance.
load factor for resisting loads, Gdrs , which
Pfa = (Gdrs c*bv Wuc Fn The components of passive resistance have
should be included in this formula.
= (0.80 x 3.5) x 2.24 x 1.0 not already been factored by the relevant
Resisting passive earth pressure on = 6.27 KN/m load factor for resisting loads, Gdrs, which
structure should be included in this formula.
The adhesion of a bearing pad on the
Pbp = 0.5 Kpb (Gdrs gb) Hemb2 Fn
foundation approximates the cohesion Total sliding resistance of facing on bearing
= 0.5 x 2.58 x 0.80 x 20.0 x 0.2002 x 1.0
of the foundation. In this example, a pad
= 0.82 KN/m
small nominal value has been assumed Rf = Pff + Pfa + Pfp
It is the designer’s choice of whether to demonstrate the method. In practice, = 79.6 + 6.27 + 4.55
or not to use passive resistance, giving it is common for a designer to ignore this = 90.4 kN/m
consideration to issues of disturbance, value.
> Pf H = 87.3 kN/m OK
erosion and poor compaction of the The components of foundation adhesion
material in front of the structure. It is have not already been factored by the Factor against sliding = Rf /Pf H
common practice to ignore passive relevant load factor for resisting loads, = 90.4/87.3
resistance. Gdrs, which should be included in this = 1.04
formula.
The components of passive resistance have
not already been factored by the relevant
load factor for resisting loads, Gdrs, which
should be included in this formula.
Total sliding resistance of facing on bearing
pad
Rb = Pbf + Pba + Pbp
= 120.8 + 0.16 + 0.82
= 121.8 kN/m
> Pb H = 76.4 kN/m OK
Factor against sliding = Rb/Pb H
= 121.8/76.4
= 1.59
�
Eccentricity of Reaction Bearing Capacity at the Interface
Take moments about the toe between the Bearing Pad and the
Foundation
Overturning moment about the toe
The bearing capacity at the interface
Mo = Pq H yqh + Ps H ysh + Pw front ywf + Pw rear ywb + PD H yDh + PL H yLh + PW H yWh + PE H yEh + Pwc H yqh
between the bearing pad and the
= (14.0 x 1.844) + (60.8 x 1.229) + (-0.44 x 0.100) + (1.77 x 0.200) + (0.13 x 4.100) + (0.15 x 4.100) + (0.0 x 2.600) + (0.0 x 4.100) + (0.00 x 0.0)
foundation is determined by Terzagghi
= 101.9 kN.m/m
analysis, modified by Vesic factors inclined
Restoring moment about the toe load etc.
Mr = P1V x1V + P2V x2V + P3V x3V + P5V x5V + P6V x6V + Pf slope V xf slope V + Pq V xqv + Ps V xsv + PDv xDV + PLv xLV + Pw V xfv wu
Effective width of bearing pad
= (6.21 x 0.205) + (8.77 x 0.255) + (7.78 x 0.350) + (76.15 x 1.485) + (15.68 x 1.120) + (7.58 x 1.679) + (6.45 x 2.286) + (28.0 x 2.271) +
B’ = B – 2e
(4.80 x 0.400) + (0.00 x 0.400) + (-9.89 x 1.120)
= 3.320 – (2 x 0.350)
= 218.6 kNm/m
= 2.620 m
Vertical weight of the gravity structure
This is the width of bearing pad into
Pf V = P1V + P2V + P3V + P5V + P6V
which the vertical load is distributed,
= 6.21 + 8.77 + 7.78 + 76.15 + 15.68
giving consideration to the effect of the
= 114.6 kN/m
lateral load and the particular material, its
Eccentricity of reaction (measured from toe) strength and stiffness.
x’ = (Mr – Mo)/Pv
= (218.6 – 101.9)/151.6 Nq = eptan f*f tan2 [p/4 + f*f /2]
= 0.770 m = e3.14tan(26.1) tan2 [(3.14/4) + (26.1°/2)]
��
= 12.0
> 0.333 Wuc ��
= 0.333 x 2.240 Nc = (Nq - 1) cot f*f
= 0.746 mm OK The reaction is in the middle third. = (12.0 – 1) cot (26.1°)
= 22.5
Eccentricity of reaction (measured from centreline)
e = 0.5 Wuc – x’ �� Ng = 2(Nq + 1) tan f*f
= (0.5 x 2.240) – 0.770 = 2 (12.0 + 1) tan (26.1°)
= 0.350 m = 12.8
��
�� Shape factors
xc = 1.0
xq = 1.0
�� xg = 1.0
��
��
��
��
Figure B4 Bearing Pad Details

�
Factors for inclined load INTERNAL DESIGN Required clear cover to steel from face shell
xqi = [1 - PH /(Pv + B’ c*f cot f*f )]2 cc.req = Max (20 mm aggregate,
= [1 – 76.4/{151.5 + 2.620 x 3.5 x cot (26.1°)}]2 Masonry Properties 15 mm cover)
= 0.304 Block height = 20 mm AS 3700 Clause 10.7.2.5
hu = 190 mm Table 5.1
xci = xqi - (1 - xqi)/(Nc tan f*f )
= 0.295 – [(1 – 0.304)/(22.5 x tan (26.1°)] Mortar joint thickness Width of web
= 0.241 tj = 10 mm bw = 1000 mm
xgi = [1 - PH /(Pv + B’ c cot f*f )]3 Height ratio Capacity reduction factor
= [1 – 76.4/{151.5 + 2.620 x 3.5 x cot (26.1°)}]3 hu /tj = 190/10 f = 0.75 AS 3700 Table 4.1
= 0.167 = 19.0
Factors for sloping bases Compressive strength factor Thin-Stem Strengths
xqt = (1 - a tan f*f )2 kh = 1.3 AS 3700 Table 3.2
= 1.0 for level base Blockwork width
Masonry factor for face-shell-bedded T1 = 190 mm
xct = xqt - (1 - xqt)/(Nc tan f*f ) concrete units
= 1.0 for level base km = 1.6 AS 3700 Table 3.1 Face-shell thickness
ts1 = 30 mm
xgt = (1 - a tan f*f )2 Mortar type
= 1.0 for level base M3 (1:5 + water thickener) Block core taper
tt1 = 3 mm
Average bearing capacity based on factored soil properties Characteristic unconfined unit strength
qav = c Nc xc xci xct + g (Hemb + Hbp) Nq xq xqi xqt + 0.5 g B Ng xg xgi xgt f’uc = 15 MPa Steel reinforcement N16 bars at 400-mm
= (3.5 x 22.5 x 1.0 x 0.241 x 1.0) + (20.0 x [0.200 + 0.270) x 12.0 x 1.0 x 0.304 x 1.0) + centres
(0.5 x 20.0 x 3.320 x 12.8 x 1.0 x 0.167 x 1.0) Characteristic masonry strength for Diameter of reinforcement
= 101.1 kPa 76-mm-high units Rdia 1 = 16 mm
f’mb = km (f’uc)0.5 AS 3700 Clause
Bearing capacity of the foundation = 1.6 (15.0)0.5 3.3.2(a)(i) Required cover to steel centreline
Pv cap = qav B’ = 6.20 MPa creq 1 = cc.req + Rdia 1 /2 + tt1 + ts1
= 101.1 x 2.620 = 20 + 16/2 + 3 + 30
= 320.1 kN Characteristic unconfined compressive = 61 mm
masonry strength
> 161.8 kN OK f’m = kh f’mb AS 3700 Clause Specify cover to steel centreline
= 1.3 x 6.20 3.3.2(a)(i) c = 65 mm (ie from rear face of block)
Factor of Safety against bearing failure
= 8.06 MPa > 61 mm OK
Fbearing = Pv cap /Pv
= 320.1/161.8 Characteristic shear strength Effective depth
= 1.98 f’ms = 0.35 MPa d1 = T1 - c1
(at interface) AS 3700 Cl 3.3.4(d) = 190 - 65
f’vm = 0.35 MPa AS 3700 Cl 8.6.3 = 125 mm
Reinforcement strength
fsy = 500 MPa AS 3700 Table 3.7
Design shear strength
fvs = 17.5 MPa AS 3700 Cl 8.6.3
�
Cross-sectional area of reinforcement 1000 Thick-Stem Strengths
Ast 1 = 200 x 1000/400
Blockwork width
= 500 mm2/m
T2 = 460 mm
< 0.02 bw d AS 3700 Cl 8.6.3
Face-shell thickness
= 0.02 x 1000 x 125
ts2 = 30 mm
= 2500 mm2 OK
Block core taper
Cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement
tt2 = 3 mm
Asv 1 = 0 (no stirrups)
Steel reinforcement - N20 bars at 400-mm centres
Spacing of shear reinforcement
Diameter of reinforcement
S1 = NA (no stirrups)
Rdia 2 = 20 mm
Out-of-plane shear capacity AS 3700 Cl 8.6.3
Required cover to steel centreline
fV1 = min [f{f’vm bw d1 + fvs Ast + fsy Asv d1} or min (S, 4 f f’vm bw d1)]
creq 2 = cc.req + Rdia 2/2 + tt1 + ts1
= 0.75{0.35 x 1000 x 125) + (17.5 x 500) + 0} or (1000) or (4 x 0.75 x 0.35 x 1000 x 125)
= 20 + 20/2 + 3 + 30
= 39.4 kN/m
= 62 mm
Design area of reinforcement
Specify cover to steel centreline
Asd 1 = Ast 1
c = 95 mm (ie in centre of rear block)
= 500 mm2/m
> 63 mm OK
< (0.29) 1.3 f’m b d1/f’sy AS 3700 Cl 8.3.5
Effective depth
= 0.29 x 1.3 x 8.06 x 1000 x 125/500
d2 = T2 - c2
= 759 mm2 OK
= 460 - 95
> 0.0013 b d AS 3700 Cl 8.5 = 365 mm
= 0.0013 x 1000 x 125
Cross-sectional area of reinforcement 1000
= 162 mm2 OK
Ast 2 = 310 x 1000 / 400
fM1 = f fsy Asd1 d1[1 - 0.6 fsy Asd 1 d1/(1.3 f’m b d1)] = 775 mm2/m
= 0.75 x 500 x 500 x 125 [1 - (0.6 x 500 x 500)/(1.3 x 8.06 x 125 x 1000)]/106
< 0.02 bw d AS 3700 Cl 8.6.3
= 20.8 kN.m/m
= 0.02 x 1000 x 365
= 7300 mm2 OK
Cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement
Asv 2 = 0 (no stirrups)
Spacing of shear reinforcement
S2 = NA (no stirrups)
Out-of-plane shear capacity AS 3700 Cl 8.6.3
fV2 = min [f{f’vm bw d2 + fvs Ast + fsy Asv d2} or min (S, 4 f f’vm bw d2)]
= 0.75{0.35 x 1000 x 365) + (17.5 x 775) + 0} or (1000) or (4 x 0.75 x 0.35 x 1000 x 365)
= 106.0 kN/m
�
Design area of reinforcement Base Strengths Characteristic flexural tensile strength
Asd 2 = Ast 2 f’cf = 0.6 (f’c)0.5 AS 3600 Clause
Satisfactory shear and bending moment
= 775 mm2/m = 0.6 x 250.5 6.1.1.3
capacity can be achieved by using the
< (0.29) 1.3 f’m b d2 /f’sy AS 3700 Cl 8.3.5 = 3.0 MPa
same reinforcement in the base as is
= 0.29 x 1.3 x 8.06 x 1000 x 365/500
required in the stem and ensuring the Footing will be cast against ground
= 2218 mm2 OK
depth of the section of the base is greater without membrane.
> 0.0013 b d AS 3700 Cl 8.5 than the thicknes of the stem, provided Required clear cover to steel from face of
= 0.0013 x 1000 x 365 reinforcement limits are observed. The concrete
= 475 mm2 OK capacity can be checked as follows. cc.req = 30 + 20 AS 3600 Tables
= 50 mm 4.10.3.2, 4.10.3.3
fM2 = f fsy Asd2 d2 [1 - 0.6 fsy Asd 1 d2 /(1.3 f’m b d2)] Base depth
= 0.75 x 500 x 775 x 365 [1 - (0.6 x 500 x 775)/(1.3 x 8.06 x 365 x 1000)]/106 H2 = 350 mm Required cover to steel centreline
= 99.6 kN.m/m < 460 mm (thick stem) creq = cc.req + Rb/2
= 50 + 20/2
Thick-stem/Thin-stem Connection It is normally good practice to make the
= 60 mm
base slightly thicker than the bottom part
At the connection of the thick stem to the thin stem, there exists the
of the stem (thick stem). In this example, Specified cover to steel centreline
possibility that the thin stem could shear away from the thick stem.
this has not been achieved, and could c = 80 mm (Allows for some variation
To prevent this, use 1-N10 tie at 400-mm centres, with sufficient strength
indicate a potential problem. However, this in placing)
to transfer the load from the top part of the wall to the bottom part.
example demonstrates that the adoption
> 60 mm OK
Reinforcement strength of an unusually wide thick stem (for
fsy = 500 MPa reasons of block availability etc) should Effective depth
not necessarily force the adoption of an d = H2 - c
Diameter of reinforcement
abnormally thick stem. = 350 - 80
Rtie = 10 mm
= 270 mm
Steel reinforcement
Cross-sectional area of tie
N20 bars at 400-mm centres Capacity-reduction factor for bending
Atie = (3.14 x 102/4) x 78.5 x 1,000/400
fb = 0.8 AS 3600 Table 2.3
= 196 mm2/m Reinforcement strength
fsy = 500 MPa Capacity-reduction factor for shear
Capacity reduction factor
fv = 0.7 AS 3600 Table 2.3
f = 0.75 Diameter of reinforcement
Rb = 20 mm Area of tensile steel
Capacity of tie
Ast = 310 x 1000/400
f Vtie = f fsy Atie Surface of member in contact with non-
= 775 mm2/m
0.75 x 500 x 196/1,000 aggressive soil
= 74 kN/m Exposure classification Tensile steel ratio
A2 AS 3600 Table 4.3 Ast/bd = 775/(1,000 x 270)
= 0.00287
Concrete strength grade
≥ 0.22 (D/d)2 f’cf/fsy
f’c = 25 MPa AS 3600 Clause 4.4
= 0.22 (350/430)2 3/500
= 0.000875 OK
�
Shear reinforcement Thin Stem Design
Asv = 0
Height of thin stem
Shear coefficients H7 = 1.8 m
b1 = 1.1(1.6 - do/1,000) AS 3600 Clause 8.2.7.1
= 1.1(1.6 - 270/1,000)
Pq H thin = Kar [Gdo qd + Glo ql + Gwo qw + Geo qe) H7 cos (d*i – w)
= 1.46
= 0.362 [(1.25 x 2.5) + (1.5 x 5.0) + (0 x 0.1) + (0 x 0.1)] 1.8 x cos (19.4° – 1.43°)
≥ 1.1 OK = 6.58 kN/m
b2 = 1.0 AS 3600 Clause 8.2.7.1 Horizontal active force due to soil
Ps H thin = Kar 0.5 (Gdo g*i) H72 cos (d*i – w)
b3 = 1.0 AS 3600 Clause 8.2.7.1
= 0.362 x 0.5 (1.25 x 20.0) 1.82 x cos (19.4° – 1.43°)
Ultimate shear strength excluding reinforcement = 13.91 kN/m
Vuc = b1 b2 b3 bv do [Ast f’c /bv do] 0.333 AS 3600 Clause 8.2.7.1
Horizontal force due to dead line load
= 1.46 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 1000 x 270 x [775 x 25 / (1,000 x 270)]0.333
PD H thin = Gdo DH
= 162 kN
= 1.25 x 0.1
Vus = 0 AS 3600 Clause 8.2.10 = 0.13 kN/m
Shear capacity Horizontal force due to live line load at top
fVu = f(Vuc + Vus) AS 3600 Clause 8.2.2 PL H thin = Glo LH
= 0.7(162 + 0) = 1. 5 x 0.1
= 113 kN/m = 0.15 kN/m
Ratio of depth of assumed compression block Horizontal force due to wind line load at top
g = 0.85 - 0.007(f’c - 28) AS 3600 Clause 8.1.2.2 PW H = Gwo WH
= 0.85 - 0.007(25 - 28) = 0 x 4.3
= 0.87 = 0.0 kN/m
> 0.65 OK Use moment capacity formula based on 0.85 Horizontal force due to earthquake line load at top
PE H = Geo EH
Bending ratio
= 0 x 0.6
q = Ast fsy /b d f’c AS 3600 Clause 8.1.2.2
= 0.0 kN/m
= 775 x 500 /(1000 x 270 x 25)
= 0.0574 Total horizontal forces on thin stem
PH thin = Pq H thin + Ps H thin + PD H thin + PL H thin + PW H thin + PE H thin
Bending capacity RC Design Handbook Clause 4.2.2*
= 6.58 + 13.91 + 0.13 + 0.15 + 0.0 + 0.0
fM = fb f’c q(1 - q/1.7)b d2
= 20.8 kN/m
= 0.8 x 25 x 0.0574(1 – 0.0574/1.7) x 1,000 x 2702 /106
= 80.8 kNm/m < 39.4 kN/m (reinforced blockwork) OK
< 74.0 kN/m (tie to thick stem) OK
*Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook, jointly published by Cement Concrete and

Aggregates Australia and Standards Australia.
�
Vertical lever arm of horizontal active force due to surcharge Thick Stem Design
gq H thin = 0.5 H7
Height of stem (including hob)
= 0.5 x 1.800
H8 = 2.85 m
= 0.900 m
Vertical lever arm of horizontal active force due to soil
Pq H thick = Kar (Gdo qd + Glo ql + Gwo qw + Geo qe) H8 cos (d*i – w)
gs H thin = 0.333 H7
= 0.362 [(1.25 x 2.5) + (1.5 x 5.0) + (0 x 0.1) + (0 x 0.1)] 2.850 x cos (19.4° – 1.43°)
= 0.333 x 1.800
= 10.43 kN/m
= 0.600 m
Horizontal active force due to soil
Vertical lever arm of horizontal force due to dead line load
Ps H thick = Kar 0.5 (Gdo g*i) H82 cos (d*i – w)
gD H thin = gDH – H1 + H7
= 0.362 x 0.5 (1.25 x 20.0) 2.8502 x cos (19.4° – 1.43°)
= 3.900 – 3.000 +1.800
= 34.96 kN/m
= 2.700 m
Horizontal force due to dead line load
Vertical lever arm of horizontal force due to live line load at top
PD H thick = Gdo DH
gL H thin = gLH – H1 + H7
= 1.25 x 0.1
= 3.900 – 3.000 +1.800
= 0.13 kN/m
= 2.700 m
Horizontal force due to live line load at top
Vertical lever arm of horizontal force due to wind line load at top
PL H thick = Glo LH
gW H thin = gWH – H1 + H7
= 1. 5 x 0.1
= 2.600 – 3.000 +1.800
= 0.15 kN/m
= 1.400 m
Horizontal force due to wind line load at top
Vertical lever arm of horizontal force due to earthquake line load at top
PW H thick = Gwo WH
gE H thin = gDH – H1 + H7
= 0 x 4.3
= 3.900 – 3.000 +1.800
= 0.0 kN/m
= 2.700 m
Horizontal force due to earthquake line load at top
Maximum bending moment at base of thin stem
PE H thick = Geo EH
M*H thin = Pq H thin gq H thin + Ps H thin gs H thin + PD H thin gD H thin + PL H thin gL H thin +
= 0 x 0.6
PW H thin gW H thin + PE H thin gE H thin
= 0.0 kN/m
= (6.58 x 0.900) + (13.91 x 0.600) + (0.13 x 2.700) + ( 0.15 x 2.700) +
Total horizontal forces on thick stem
(0 x 1.400) + (0 x 2.700)
PH thick = Pq H thick + Ps H thick + PD H thick + PL H thick + PW H thick + PE H thick
= 15.0 kN.m/m
= 10.43 + 34.96 + 0.13 + 0.15 + 0.0 + 0.0
< 20.8 kN.m/m OK = 45.6 kN/m
< 106.0 kN/m (reinforced blockwork) OK
�
Vertical lever arm of horizontal active force due to surcharge Base Design
gq H thick = 0.5 H8
Upper-bound estimates of the shear force and bending moments
= 0.5 x 2.850
in the heel of the base may be calculated as follows.
= 1.425 m
Upper-bound bending moment
Vertical lever arm of horizontal active force due to soil
M*base = M*thick
gs H thick = 0.333 H8
= 49.0 kNm/m
= 0.333 x 2.850
= 0.949 m < 80.8 kNm/m OK
Vertical lever arm of horizontal force due to dead line load Upper-bound shear force
gD H thick = gDH – H1 + H8 V*base = M*base /(0.5 B1)
= 3.900 – 3.000 +2.850 = 49.0 /(0.5 x 2.240)
= 3.750 m = 43.8 kN/m
Vertical lever arm of horizontal force due to live line load at top < 113 kN/m OK
gL H thick = gLH – H1 + H8
= 3.900 – 3.000 +2.850
= 3.750 m
Vertical lever arm of horizontal force due to wind line load at top
gW H thick = gWH – H1 + H8
= 2.600 – 3.000 +2.850
= 2.450 m
Vertical lever arm of horizontal force due to earthquake line load at top
gE H thick = gDH – H1 + H8
= 3.900 – 3.000 +2.850
= 3.750 m
Maximum bending moment at base of thick stem
M*thick = Pq H thick gq H thick + Ps H thick gs H thick + PD H thick gD H thick +
PL H thick gL H thick + PW H thick gW H thick + PE H thick gE H thick
= (10.42 x 1.425) + (34.96 x 0.949) + (0.13 x 3.750) +
( 0.15 x 3.750) + (0 x 2.450) + (0 x 3.750)
= 49.0 kN.m/m
< 99.6 kN.m/m OK
■ END
�
APPENDIX C – Typical Soils Table C1 Soil Classification and their Properties [After AS 4678]
ANALYSIS OF COHESIVE Most soils include both internal friction and Soil parameters
SOILS cohesion, but in varying proportions.
■ Sands, gravels and the like, which Internal
Soil Properties have low cohesion or no cohesion, are Soil Cohesion friction
group Typical soils in group (kPa) (degrees)
described as “cohesionless”. Retaining
The stability of an embankment is Poor Soft and firm clay of medium to high plasticity, silty clays,
structures in such soils are normally
influenced by loading, ground water and loose variable clayey fill, loose sandy silts 0 to 5 17 to 25
designed assuming cohesion of zero.
soil properties. The most common soil
properties used for design are: ■ Clays, silts and the like, which have Average Stiff sandy clays, gravelly clays, compact clayey sands and
low internal friction and substantial sandy silts, compacted clay fill (Class II) 0 to 10 26 to 32
■ Density
cohesion, are generally described as Good Gravelly sands, compacted sands, controlled crushed
■ External friction “cohesive”. sandstone and gravel fills (Class I), dense well-graded sands 0 to 5 32 to 37
■ Internal friction
Table C1, from AS 4678, describes the Very good Weak weathered rock, controlled fills (Class I) of roadbase,
■ Cohesion. internal friction angle and cohesion for a gravel and recycled concrete 0 to 25 36 to 43
The two common properties representing range of typical soils.
soil “strength” are internal friction and
cohesion. Foundation Sliding Resistance and Horizontal Forces due to Retained Soil Problems Associated with Design
Bearing Capacity Based on Cohesion
■ A broad description of “internal friction” ■ The Coulomb formula (used for the
of a soil is its resistance to rupture, The sliding resistance, applied by a determination of lateral soil loads in There are practical limitations in respect
which is proportional to an applied foundation soil to a structure, results from the Appendix A Design Tables and in of the use of cohesion, including its
external pressure. It is expressed as a combination of external friction (closely the Appendix B Design Example) does unpredictability, particularly when there is
an angle, the tangent of which gives related to internal friction), cohesion and not consider cohesion. This is most groundwater present or when water can
the increase in strength relative to (in some cases) passive resistance. The appropriate for cohesionless soils, such fill tension cracks in fissured clay. Extreme
a corresponding increase in applied bearing capacity of a foundation soil results as sands, gravels and the like. caution should be exercised by the
pressure. from a combination of internal friction, ■ The Coulomb formula may also be used design engineer in these circumstances.
■ “Cohesion” results for several diverse density and cohesion. In this Guide, to determine lateral soil loads exerted Notwithstanding these limitations, it
factors, but is a taken in this Guide cohesion is considered for both sliding on retaining walls by cohesive soils, is instructive to consider the effect of
to include the combined effect of all resistance and bearing capacity, although such as clay, silt and the like, provided cohesion in the case of relatively low
properties that resist soil rupture at zero its contribution has been capped at a sensible value for internal friction is retaining walls in some soils. If one
internal friction. 10 kPa. This is to maintain consistency with assumed. (See further comment below) describes the soil in an embankment in
AS 4678 Table D4 (see Table C1). terms of both friction and cohesion (either
■ Alternatively, there are other approaches
that could be used to account for based on test results and/or observation),
cohesion, including Rankine-Bell and then ignores the cohesion component,
Analysis and General Wedge Analysis. the performance of the embankment will
This Guide does not seek to differentiate probably be underestimated.
between these methods, or to comment
on their relative reliabilities. Caution is
strongly recommended if a designer
should choose to use either of the
methods that consider cohesion.
�
Selection of the Appropriate Soil ■ The design shall be only applicable
Properties for Design �� f�� to retaining walls that incorporate an
�� f��
impermeable surface membrane and
Experience and desk research have shown
�� drainage system, such that there can
that the selection of appropriate soil f�� be no ingress of any water into the soil
properties is critical to sensible design, �� behind the retaining wall. Structures
particularly in the case of cohesive soils.
�� that do not incorporate an impermeable
Cohesion is often taken as the intercept on
surface membrane and drainage system,
the vertical axis of a linear extrapolation
��t
�� such that there can be no ingress of any
of the plot of shear strength at a limited
f�� water into the soil behind the retaining
range of normal stress (Figure C1). f�� wall, are deemed to be outside the
�� scope of the design.
��t ■ Retained soil shall have a Plasticity Index,
��
PI, less than 20.
■ The design shall be applicable to cuts
in insitu soils. The design shall not be
�� applicable to cohesive fill.
�� ■ The design shall be based on a 0.8
�� factor on the vertical component of
f��
�
soil friction, for both permanent and
��s� ��s� imposed soil and surcharge loads.
Figure C1 Method for Determining Figure C2 Effect of Non-linear Soil Failure Envelope [After Hong Kong Geoguide]
Cohesion
Having been so determined, the cohesion Limitations on the use of Cohesion in ■ All retaining walls shall comply with
is often then assumed to be zero, and the Determining Lateral Loads AS 4678 Structure Classification A.
internal friction angle is used alone in the The design shall be applicable for for
This Guide does not consider cohesion
design process. However, if the relationship a maximum imposed load of 2.5 kPa.
in determining lateral loads, as would
is not linear, then the value of internal If imposed loads greater than 2.5 kPa
be the case if the Rankine-Bell method,
friction angle so determined would be are expected, the design shall not be
General Wedge theory or similar were
incorrect. Caution should be exercised appropriate.
used. However, if a designer does opt to
when making assumptions about the shear consider cohesion, the following limitations ■ Retaining soil heights shall be within the
strength at low levels of normal stress. This (adapted from CMAA MA 53 Appendix D) range 800 mm to 1200 mm.
point is demonstrated by the following should be applied. ■ All retaining walls shall have level
diagram (Figure C2), reproduced from backfill. If the backfill has a slope greater
■ All retaining walls shall be designed to
the Hong Kong Geoguide, in which the than 1 in 8, the design shall not be
AS 4678 (Including Amendment 1).
effective friction angle at low normal applicable.
stresses (low retaining walls) is shown to
be considerably higher than that at high
normal stresses (high retaining walls).
�
APPENDIX D – SITE INVESTIGATION
SITE INVESTIGATION Date: Soil Properties
Effective
Report Density internal angle Cohesion
prepared by: Soil (kg/m3) of friction (°) (kPa) Soil type*
Client: Insitu foundation
Project: Imported foundation material
Location: Insitu retained soil
Use for which retaining wall is intended: Infill soil
Proximity of other structures and loads to the face of the retaining wall: * Please indicate the appropriate type(s) and add any other notes.
Structure or load Distance (m) Hard rock, sandstone, gravel, sand, silty sand, clayey sand, stiff clay, weak clay, other
Distance of live loads from top of wall
Distance of dead loads from top of wall Are soil strength tests required? (yes/no)
Distance of other structures from base of wall
Is there ground water seepage present? Now ( yes/no ) After heavy rain (yes/no)
Structure classification:
If yes, how much?
For guidance refer AS 4678, Table 1.1
Structure Classification Examples
C Where failure would result in significant damage or risk to life Is it practical to install subsurface drainage (yes/no) and surface drainage (yes/no)?
B Where failure would result in moderate damage and loss of services
A Where failure would result in minimal damage and loss of access
How will the drainage system affect the site?
Required design life:
For guidance refer AS 4678, Table 3.1
Type of Structure Design life (years)
What is the effect of excavation or filling?
Temporary site works 5
Mine structures 10
Industrial structures 30
River and marine structures 60
Residential dwellings 60 Are there obvious global stability problems? (yes/no)
Minor public works 90
Major public works 120
What is the effect of ground movement?
Required wall type:
Exposed height of retaining wall stem: m

General description of site topography
(Sketch, site plan, and photographs where possible to be attached).
Slope of wall: 1 horizontal in vertical
Slope of backfill: 1 vertical in horizontal
Specified surcharge loading (if any) or other loads: kPa

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APPENDIX E – AS 3600 Concrete Structures ■ Sufficient permeability to maximise the This will depend in part, on whether the
amount of water passing through the soil is particularly coarse or particularly
CONSTRUCTION AS 3700 Masonry structures
outer surface fine. In this specification, a value
SPECIFICATION AS 3798 Guidelines on earthworks for ■ Sufficient void size, under load, to permeability, k, of the geotextile not less
commercial and residential developments convey the required water flow to the than 1 times the permeability of the soil
stormwater system. has been adopted. In the case of important
AS/NZS 4671 Steel reinforcing materials
SUPERVISION structures, or those where the permeability
■ Pore size small enough to block fine
AS 3972 Portland and blended cements of the geotextile is critical, more precise
The Contractor shall ensure that the work material from entering the drainage
is performed and directly supervised by AS 1672.1 Limes and limestone - Limes for methods and different specifications
system, without compromising the
appropriately-experienced personnel. building should be employed. This specification
permeability requirements
is not suitable for fine clay, and may not
AS 4455.1 Masonry units ■ Strength, toughness and abrasion match the flow of water through coarse
QUALITY ASSURANCE resistance to resist damage during
AS 2001.2.3.1 Methods of test for textiles - sands and gravels. The designer must
Suppliers and contractors shall provide construction and service consider variations to this specification in
Determination of maximum force and
assurance of the quality of all goods, Geocomposites shall comply with the these circumstances.
elongation at maximum force using the strip
materials and services to be provided. specification “Geotextiles for Filters and
method Opening Size
The following are deemed to meet this Drains”.
requirement: AS 3706.2 Geotextiles - Methods of test Several authors provide recommendations
- Determination of tensile properties – Wide Notes: for determining the maximum opening
■ a quality assurance system complying
strip method Permeability, Permittivity and Flow size of a filter. To prevent piping (drawing
with AS/NZS ISO 9001, or of fine soil particles into the filter), Calhoun
The permeability test measures the water
■ a quality control system approved by AS 3706.3 Geotextiles - Methods of test flow through a sample of the subject recommends that the O95 of the geotextile
the Builder. - Determination of tearing strength - geotextile under constant head filter should be not more than the D15 of
Trapezoidal method coarse soils and not more than 200 μm of
BUILDING REGULATIONS AND ● Thickness of the sample t cohesive soils. The general limits adopted
AS 3706.4 Geotextiles - Methods of test -
STANDARDS Head during test h = 100 mm in this specification are as follows:
Determination of burst strength - California ●
All materials and construction shall comply bearing ratio (CBR) - Plunger method ● Flow rate under 100 mm of head ● For cohesive soil (D20 soil ≤ 75 μm),
with the most recent version of: Q100 O95 geotextile should be between
AS 3706.7 Geotextiles - Methods of test -
■ the relevant parts of the Building Determination of pore size distribution - Dry 150 μm and 250 μm.
Regulations; ● Permittivity y = Q100/h
sieving method ● For non-cohesive soil (D20 soil > 75 μm),
■ the Standards referred to therein; ● Permeability k=yt O95 geotextile should be between
AS 3706.9 Geotextiles - Methods of test
■ other Standards nominated in this - Determination of permittivity, permeability Flow may be unidirectional (only 80 μm and 250 μm.
specification; and and flow rate perpendicular to the geotextile) or may To minimize clogging of a geotextile filter,
■ other relevant Regulations. be multidirectional. This specification the O95 opening size should be not less
MATERIALS deals only with unidirectional flow and than 3 times the D15 of the soil.
Relevant Standards does not deal with problem soils. Several
AS 4678 Earth retaining structures Geocomposites authors (Calhoun, Ogink, McKeand, An alternative specification to minimize
Geocomposites shall comply with the Giroud, Schober and Teinol) provide clogging is to require the Austroads
AS 2758.1 Aggregates and rock for
Drawings, Building Regulations and recommendations for specifying the G Rating (if available) to be less than 3.
engineering purposes - Concrete aggregates
relevant Standard (AS 3706). Unless stated permeability, k, of a filter, ranging from 0.1
otherwise, geocomposites shall exhibit: to 10 times the permeability of the soil.
�
Geotextiles for Filters and Drains Function Filter and drainage Drainage Fill
Geotextiles for filters and drains shall Drainage fill material shall comply with
Drain soil behind retaining walls and
comply with the Drawings, Building the Drawings, Building Regulations and
Typical location structures
Regulations and relevant Standard relevant Standard (AS 2758.1). Unless
(AS 3706). Unless stated otherwise, The geotextile shall be protected against tear stated otherwise, drainage fill material shall
geotextiles for filters and drains shall Protection to geotextile or puncture. Note 2 be GP (poorly graded gravel) single-sized
exhibit: Cohesive and other gravel of nominal size 10 mm to 20 mm
■ Sufficient permeability to maximise the fine grained soils such Cohesionless soils complying with the following specification.
amount of water passing through the as silts and some such as some Sieve (mm) Percent Passing
Soil TypeNote 1 claysNote 3 sandsNote 3
outer surface 26.5 100
■ Sufficient void size, under load, to Where required by the Engineer: Minimum Wide Strip
Tensile Strength shall be as high as practical, but not 19.0 70 - 100
convey the required water flow to the
less thanNote 2… 7.5 kN/m 7.5 kN/m 13.2 0 - 100
stormwater system.
Minimum Trapezoidal Tear Strength shall be as high as 9.52 0–0
■ Pore size small enough to block fine
practical, but not less thanNote 2… 210 N 210 N Concrete
material from entering the drainage
system, without compromising the Where required by the Engineer: Minimum CBR Burst Concrete shall comply with the Drawings,
permeability requirements Strength shall be as high as practical, but not less Building Regulations and relevant Standard
thanNote 2… 1,500 N 1,500 N (AS 3600). Unless stated otherwise,
■ Strength, toughness and abrasion
resistance to resist damage during Pore Size O95 by dry sieving, shall be in the range… 150 mm to 250 mm 80 mm to 250 mm properties shall be not less than:
construction and service. Permittivity, shall be as high as practical, but not less ■ Characteristic compressive strength of
than… 2.0 sec-1 0.7 sec-1 20 MPa (Strength grade N20)
Geocomposites shall comply with the
specification “Geotextiles for Filters and Flow Rate under 100 mm Head shall be as high as ■ Maximum aggregate size of 20 mm
Drains”. practical, but not less than… 100 l/m2/sec 70 l/m2/sec ■ Of sufficient slump to facilitate the
Coefficient of Permeability shall be as high as practical, 0.00001 m/sec 0.003 m/sec nominated means of placement
but not less thanNote 3… (1 x 10-5 m/sec) (3 x 10-4 m/sec) Note: Superplasticied cohesive concrete
with a slump of not less than 200 mm
Notes: and a spread of 400 to 600 mm (using a
1. This specification does not apply to “problem soils”, defined as exhibiting one or more of the
following: slump cone) is considered suitable.
• Silty soils with hydraulic gradients greater than 3 ■ Subject to plant control testing.
• Widely-graded or gap-graded particle size distribution
• Dispersive clays and silts
• Uniform silts and sands with a coefficient of uniformity under 3.
2. The geotextile shall be protected against tear or puncture by either:
• Avoiding fill with sharp angular aggregate, heavy compaction (over 95% standard) and fill
depths over 3.0 m, or
• Providing a protective layer of drainage aggregate not less than 50 mm thick.
If these criteria are not met, the specified strength properties must be at least doubled.
3. In this specification, permeability, k, of the geotextile not less than 1 times the permeability of
the soil has been adopted. In the case of important structures, or those where the
permeability of the geotextile is critical, more precise methods and different specifications
should be employed. This specification is not suitable for fine clay, and may not match the
flow of water through coarse sands and gravels. The designer must consider variations to this
specification in these circumstances.
�
Reinforcement Joint Material ■ Rebate Moulds shall be constructed Concrete Blocks for Reinforced
Reinforcement shall comply with the Joint material shall comply with the of a rigid PVC material and form a true Masonry Applications
Drawings, Building Regulations and Drawings, Building Regulations and square or rectangular rebate. Concrete blocks for reinforced masonry
relevant Standard (AS/NZS 4671). Unless relevant Standard (AS 4678). Unless stated ■ Dowel Sleeves shall include provision applications shall comply with the
stated otherwise, properties shall be not otherwise: for longitudinal expansion in the ends Drawings, Building Regulations and
less than: ■ Backing rod for control joints, expansion of all sleeves, stiffening ribs to minimise relevant Standard (AS/NZS 4455.1). Unless
■ Deformed bars - 500 MPa, normal joints and articulation joints shall be distortion, end clips to ensure correct stated otherwise, properties shall be not
ductility (N) expanded polystyrene tube or bead or, alignment during pour and end closures less than:
■ Square fabric, rectangular fabric and rigid steel backing profile with closed to prevent entering of slurry. ■ Dimensional category DW4
trench mesh - 500 MPa, low (L) or cell foam adhered to the metal profile ■ Expansion Caps shall fit a variety ■ Salt attack resistance grade shall be:
normal (N) ductility ribbed wires face. of dowel sizes and provide internal General Purpose except as listed
■ Fitments - 500 MPa, low (L) or normal (N) ■ Joint sealant shall be gun-grade multi- compression pins for longitudinal below for Exposure Grade where the
ductility ribbed wires purpose polyurethane sealant. expansion. masonry is:
■ Round bar (eg R250 N10 for dowels) - Expansion Joints for Continuous Pours ■ Permanent Flexible Plastic Capping shall • subject to saline wetting and
250 MPa round. Expansion joints for continuous pours be UV-treated PVC material and provide drying; or
shall comply with the Drawings, Building a bevelled edge to the joint. • in aggressive soils; or
Bar Chairs
Bar chairs shall comply with the Drawings, Regulations and relevant Standard ■ Removable Capping shall be PVC • in a severe marine environment; or
Building Regulations and relevant Standard. (AS 4678). Unless stated otherwise, material and provide a bevelled edge to • subject to saline or contaminated
Unless stated otherwise, properties shall expansion joints in continuous pour the joint. water, including tidal spash zones; or
such that: applications shall provide a full depth ■ Foam Filler compression strips shall be • in especially aggressive
■ Reinforcement is positioned in the top
straight joint and a purpose built dowelling closed-cell polyethylene foam. environments. e.g. subject to attack
half of the concrete slab system to provide positive load transfer by corrosive liquids or gasses,
■ Key Joint Joiners shall provide
across the finished slab. or within 1 km of industry in which
■ Reinforcement in footings has 40 mm accurate alignment of key joints in
in concrete in contact with unprotected Concrete Jointing Accessories both horizontal and vertical directions chemical pollutants are produced.
ground and 30 mm to a sealed vapour Concrete jointing accessories shall comply without interrupting the capping line. ■ Minimum characteristic compressive
barrier. with the Drawings, Building Regulations strength shall be as nominated by the
and relevant Standard (AS 4678). Unless engineer and not less than 15 MPa.
Formwork
stated otherwise, concrete jointing The required strength depends on the
Formwork shall comply with the Drawings,
accessories shall have appropriate the particular application. Refer to the
Building Regulations and relevant Standard
properties to ensure they fulfil their manufacturer’s design literature for
(AS 3610).
intended function and can be accurately guidance.
Curing Compounds installed.
Curing compounds shall comply with ■ Dowel Cradles shall provide accurate
the Drawings, Building Regulations horizontal and vertical alignment of
and relevant Standards. Unless stated dowels.
otherwise, curing compounds shall be
■ Crack Inducers shall provide an
hydrocarbon, solvent-based acrylic, water-
based acrylic or wax-based acrylic. Wax- adequate crack to relieve contraction
based compounds shall not be used in stresses.
areas requiring the subsequent application
of curing adhesives.
�
■ Dimensions and core configuration shall Definitions Water Thickener Concrete Grout
be such that: Dimensional Category DW4 - For Water thickener shall be methyl-cellulose Concrete grout shall comply with the
• If units are intended to incorporate a sample of 20 units, the standard based. Drawings, Building Regulations and
both horizontal and vertical deviation of work sizes shall be not more relevant Standard (AS 3700). Unless stated
Sand
reinforcement and are not than 2 mm, and the difference between otherwise, properties shall be:
Sand shall be well-graded and free from
protected both sides by a the mean and the work size shall be ■ a minimum portland cement content of
salts, vegetable matter and impurities.
waterproof membrane, they shall not more than 3 mm. For split faces, the 300 kg/cubic metre;
Sand shall not contain more than 10% of
be: dimensional deviations shall not apply
the material passing the 75 micron sieve. ■ a maximum aggregate size of 10 mm;
- “H” or “Double U” configuration to the width of the unit, provided the
Sand within the following grading limits ■ sufficient slump to completely fill the
with appropriate web rebates average width is not less than 90% of
complies with this requirement and is cores; and
for horizontal reinforcement; or the work size.
deemed suitable for concrete masonry.
General Purpose Salt Attack Resistance ■ a minimum compressive cylinder
- if flush-ended, have web rebates
Grade - Performance such that it is Sieve Percent Passing strength of 20 MPa.
not less than 35 mm deep and
be constructed such that all possible to demonstrate that the 4.76 mm 100 Surface Sealing Material
horizontal reinformcement has product has a history of surviving under 2.36 mm 95–100 The material used to seal the surface of the
at least 30 mm cover then units non-saline environmental conditions 1.18 mm 60–100 fill shall be compacted clay.
are laid with the rebates similar to those existing at the site
considered, but not expected to meet 600 µm 30–100 Alternatively, a 0.2 mm thick PVC
coinciding
the mass loss criterion for Exposure 300 µm 10–50 membrane or a needle-punched bentonite
• Units may be fully grouted and liner overlaid by at least 150 mm of bulk fill
Grade Salt Attack Resistance Grade. 150 µm 0–10
may be reinforced both vertically material may be used in lieu of the clay.
and horizontally; Exposure Grade Salt Attack Resistance 75 µm 0–4
Grade - Performance such that it is Bulk Fill Material
• Grout must flow easily around and Joint Material
possible to demonstrate that the Bulk fill material shall be uniform and of
enclose the reinforcement in all Joint material shall comply with the
product has a history of surviving under maximum particle size of 100 mm.
cores; and Drawings, Building Regulations and
saline environmental conditions similar
• Cover is consistent with the to those existing at the site considered; relevant Standard (AS 3700). Unless stated
requirements for durability, strength and less than 0.2 grams mass loss in otherwise:
and fire resistance as appropriate. 40 cycles in AS/NZS 4456.10, Method B ■ Backing rod for control joints, expansion
■ Mean Coefficient of Residual Drying test. joints and articulation joints shall be
Contraction shall be not more than expanded polystyrene tube or bead or,
Cement rigid steel backing profile with closed-
0.6 mm/m.
Cement shall be Type GP portland cement cell foam adhered to the metal profile
■ If intended for face applications and or GB blended cement complying with the
exposed to the weather: face.
relevant Standard (AS 3972).
• Permeability shall be not more than ■ Joint sealant shall be gun-grade multi-
2 mm/minute Lime purpose polyurethane sealant.
Lime shall be hydrated building lime ■ Control joints and articulation joints
• Efflorescence Potential shall be Nil
complying with complying with the shall incorporate de-bonding tape.
or Slight
relevant Standard (AS 1672).
• Colour and texture shall be within
an agreed range.
�
CONSTRUCTION Maximum Maximum permissible specification is deemed satisfactory for
height of cut unpropped batter this application.
Safety and Protection of Existing
Structures Natural material (m) (Vertical : Horizontal) Nominal Size: 20 mm
All excavations shall be carried out in a safe Stable rock, sandstone, firm shale etc where AS Sieve % Passing
0 to 3.2 1 : 0.4
manner in accordance with the relevant bedding planes do not slope towards the 26.5 mm 100
regulations, to prevent collapse that may excavation Over 3.2 Seek advice of Engineer 19.0 mm 95 -100
endanger life or property. Before major Materials with both significant cohesion and 13.2 mm 78 - 92
0 to 2.6 1 : 0.8
excavation and shoring is undertaken, friction in its undisturbed natural compacted 9.5 mm 68 - 83
a survey of cracks in adjacent building state Over 2.6 Seek advice of Engineer
shall be undertaken and recorded. In the 4.75 mm 44 - 64
absence of regulations to the contrary, the 0 to 2.0 1 : 1.2 2.36 mm 29 - 47
Cohesive soils,
following may be applied where e.g. clay, silts Over 2.0 Seek advice of Engineer 425 mm 12 - 20
■ Excavation is performed and remains 75 mm 2–6
0 to 1.4 1 : 1.6
open only in dry weather, Liquid Limit not exceeding 20.
Cohesionless soils, e.g. Loose gravel, sand Over 1.4 Seek advice Engineer
■ There is no significant ground water Plasticity Index not exceeding 6.
seepage, Compaction shall be by mechanical plate
■ The excavation remains open for no vibrator to a minimum of 100% Standard
Temporary Shoring of Excavations enlarged bearing pad with the following
longer than two weeks, All temporary shoring shall comply with properties. Compaction. Where there are significant
■ The back slope of the natural ground drawings and specifications produced Lean-mix concrete variations of foundation material or
does not exceed 1 vertical in 6 by a suitably-qualified and experienced Mass concrete with a compressive compaction, soft spots, or where there is
horizontal, Civil Engineer based on geotechnical strength f’c of not less than15 MPa; or ponding of ground water, the material shall
■ Bedding planes do not slope towards advice. Consideration shall be given to be removed, replaced and compacted in
Cement-Stabilized Crushed Rock layers not exceeding 150 mm at a moisture
the cut, and the settlement effects from the removal of
Crushed rock conforming with the content within 2% of Optimum Moisture
■ There are no structures founded within
ground water by de-watering the site.
specification below with an additional Content (OMC) to achieve 100% Standard
a zone of influence defined by a line Foundation and Bearing Pad 5% by mass of GP Portland cement Compaction.
from the toe of the cut at 30 degrees for A qualified and experienced Geotechnical thoroughly mixed, moistened and
cohesionless material and 45 degrees for or Civil Engineer shall determine the compacted; or Trenches and footing excavations shall be
other material. capacity of the foundation material to resist Compacted Crushed Rock dewatered and cleaned prior to placement
global slip and to simultaneously support • Compacted density such that a of drainage material or footings such that
In all other cases, the advice of the
the horizontal and vertical loads, noted conservative estimate of the mean no softened or loosened material remains.
Engineer shall be sought.
in the design schedule annexed to this is at least 2000 kg/m3 Place and compact the material in layers
Adjacent structures must be founded specification. This shall be assessed when not exceeding 150 mm, to make up the
either beyond or below the zone of • Effective internal friction angle levels. The levels beneath the wall shall not
the excavation has revealed the nature and
influence. Where there is risk of global slip such that a conservative estimate of be made up with bedding sand or other
extent of the foundation material.
around a slip plane encompassing the the mean is at least 35° poorly-graded granular material that may
proposed retaining wall or other structures, If the existing foundation material does not • Effective cohesion such that a permit ground water to permeate under
or where there is risk of inundation by have these properties or has insufficient conservative estimate of the mean the base of the retaining wall, except
ground water or surface water, retaining friction angle and cohesion to provide the is at least 3 kPa. where drainage material is specified and an
wall construction shall not proceed until requisite sliding and bearing capacity, it adequate drainage system is designed.
A well-graded, low-plasticity crushed
remedial action has been carried out. shall be removed and be replaced with an
rock complying with the following
�
Retained Soil Constructing Drainage Fill Depending on the volume of groundwater All concrete shall be compacted by
If the existing retained material, within an Drainage fill shall be: expected, assessed by the Engineer at the mechanical immersion vibrator.
envelope at 45° (1 : 1 batter) from a point ■ Placed and compacted, by mechanical time of construction, a geotextile sock may
Unless noted otherwise on the drawings,
300 mm behind proposed heel of the plate vibrator, to a minimum of 95% be required. If required, geotextiles shall
reinforced concrete footings for retaining
structure, does not have the properties Standard Compaction comply with the specification “Geotextiles
walls shall include a level concrete hob (or
specified in the design, or has insufficient for Filters and Drains”.
■ Above and beside the drainage pipe up-stand), through which vertical starter
friction angle and cohesion to remain
with a minimum cover of 150 mm Positioning Reinforcement bars are placed and on which the masonry
stable at the design batter, it shall be
■ Behind the wall to a minimum width of Starter bars shall be tied into position to is built. Horizontal 50 mm diameter weep
removed and replaced with a material
300 mm to within 300 mm of the top provide the specified lap above the top holes shall pass through the hob at
that is stable. These properties may be
surface of the footing. The starter bars 1.2 m maximum centres. The top of the
achieved by modification of suitable site ■ Protected by a geotextile envelope that
shall be held in position by a timber hob footing immediately behind the hob shall
materials (as advised by a suitably-qualified completely isolates the drainage fill from
form and controlled within a tolerance of be sloped at 1 in 100 to provide for the
Geotechnical Engineer) provided the the retained fill
± 5 mm through the wall and ± 50 mm drainage pipe.
properties are not injurious to any of the ■ Adequately drained away from the along the wall.
other materials in the structure. retaining structures by the drainage Finishing Concrete
system. Bar chairs shall be placed at one metre Concrete surfaces shall be finished as
Drainage System
centres both ways to give the following noted below unless specified otherwise in
The drainage system shall comply with Constructing the Drainage System clear cover. Chair bases shall be used the Drawings.
the Drawings, Building Regulations and The drainage pipe shall be positioned in to prevent sinking of the chairs. Unless ■ Floor slabs - Steel float
relevant Standard (AS 4678). Unless stated the drainage fill at a minimum uniform specified otherwise on the drawings,
otherwise, the drainage system shall grade of 1 in 100 over a length not ■ External paths, driveways and parking
structural laps and cover shall be as follows.
consist of: exceeding 15 metres. It shall be connected areas at less than 10% slope - Fine
■ Horizontal 50-mm diameter weep holes to the storm-water system at the lower Required Cover broomed steel float
passing through a hob (or the reinforced end of each run and shall drain positively ■ 40 mm in concrete in contact with ■ External paths, driveways and parking
masonry stem if appropriate) at 1.2 m away from base of the retaining wall. The unprotected ground areas at greater than 10% slope - Coarse
maximum centres. drainage pipe shall be brought to the ■ 40 mm in concrete exposed externally broomed steel float
■ A permeable drainage layer not less surface at the upper end of each run to ■ Vertical surfaces exposed in the
■ 30 mm to a sealed vapour barrier
than 300 mm wide adjacent to the stem facilitate future flushing, capped and its completed building – All voids filled
positioned marked. ■ 20 mm to the internal surface.
of the wall. and rubbed back to provide a smooth
■ A 100-mm slotted PVC agricultural pipe Sub-surface Drainage Reinforcement Required Laps surface
Sub-surface drainage shall comply with Bars 500 mm ■ Vertical surfaces not exposed in the
■ For applications with high water table,
200-mm wide geocomposite strips at the Drawings, Building Regulations and Fabric 2 cross wires overlapping completed building - Off form finish.
2.0 m centres at the existing 1 : 1 batter, relevant Standard. Unless stated otherwise, Trench mesh 500 mm Curing Concrete
connected to the agricultural pipe sub-surface drainage shall consist of one of
Two N12 corner bars 1.0 metre long shall All concrete shall be cured using a sprayed
drainage system. the following:
be placed at all re-entrant corners. curing compound.
■ Slotted PVC agricultural pipe, of
diameter nominated on the drawings Placing Concrete Wax-based compounds shall not be
and not less than 100 mm; or Trenches and footing excavations shall be used in areas requiring the subsequent
dewatered and cleaned prior to concrete application of curing adhesives.
■ Polypropylene drainage cell, of diameter
placement so that no softened or loosened
nominated on the drawings and not less
material remains.
than 30 mm.
�
Stripping Formwork Constructing the Reinforced Masonry If the retaining consists of two leaves of Concrete grout shall be placed in the cores
Unless adverse weather or the use of Stem cavity construction, suitable cavity ties shall either by pumping or, for small projects,
retarders delays the hardening of concrete, The first course of a reinforced masonry be built in at centres such that the wet by bucket. Grout shall be compacted so
the minimum stripping time for formwork wall shall consist of clean-out blocks grout pressure does not cause spreading that there are no voids, using either a high
shall be 3 days. (with only one face shell) to permit the of the cavity. Ties shall incorporate 100 frequency pencil vibrator or by rodding.
subsequent removal of debris and mortar cogs at each end that shall bear snugly (The main vertical bars shall not be moved
Mortar
fins. The opening of the clean-out blocks against the rebate in the blocks and shall to compact the grout.)
For general applications (except as listed
shall face the soil embankment, except be securely fixed by embedment in mortar.
for M4), Type M3 mortar shall be used, and On completion of the grouting, capping
where there is insufficient access. The The following combinations are deemed to
shall consist by volume of: blocks shall be installed (if required) and
blocks shall be positioned to provide meet this requirement:
1 part GP or GB cement, 1 part lime, any control joints finished.
55-mm cover from the face of the bar to Maximum Tie
6 parts sand (water thickener optional) the rear face of the blockwork. (This will Constructing Bulk Fill Material
grout (Grade Maximum spacing
1 part GP or GB cement, 5 parts sand allow 35 mm for the face shells of upper height 250) (Vertical x Horizontal) Bulk fill material shall be uniform and of
plus water thickener courses and 20 mm of cover within the maximum particle size of 100 mm.
2.0 metres R6 400 mm x 400 mm
1 part masonry cement, 4 parts sand grout).
Bulk filling material shall be placed and in
Where a retaining wall consists of a single-
For the applications listed below, Type M4 Provide drainage through the stem of the layers not exceeding 200 mm at a moisture
leaf stem supported by a cavity stem, links
mortar shall be used, and shall consist by wall by; content within 2% of Optimum Moisture
shall be provided in the first joint below
volume of: ■ Horizontal 50-mm diameter weep holes Content (OMC) to achieve 85% Standard
the junction of cavity stem and single leaf
at 1,200 mm maximum centres through Compaction.
1 part GP or GB cement, 0.5 part lime, stem to prevent widening of the cavity.
4.5 parts sand (water thickener optional) a hob, or The following reinforcement is deemed to At the end of each day’s construction, the
1 part GP or GB cement, 4 parts sand ■ Horizontal 50-mm diameter weep holes meet this requirement: infill material shall be sloped such that any
plus water thickener at 1,200 mm maximum centres through rainwater is directed away from the face of
Maximum Shear reinforcement of
the reinforced masonry stem. the retaining wall and to a temporary (or
1 part GP or GB cement, 0-0.25 parts height single-leaf stem
permanent) drainage system.
lime, 3 parts sand (water thickener Subsequent courses shall consist of 2.0 metres SL62 Fabric
optional) H-Block or Double U-Block. Horizontal Constructing Surface Sealing Material
reinforcement shall be placed centrally Debris and mortar fins shall be removed by and Catch Drain
■ Elements in interior environments
on the webs during the laying of the rodding and hosing out the cores. The whole of the disturbed fill surface shall
subject to saline wetting and drying
blockwork. If blocks with webs flush Vertical steel reinforcement shall be be sealed and drained by compacting a
■ Elements below a damp-proof course
with the ends are to be used, horizontal positioned towards the rear of the cores to layer of surface-sealing material of suficient
or in contact with ground in aggressive
reinforcement shall be suspended above provide the cover noted above. thickness to ensure that groundwater does
soils
the webs on 30 mm mortar pack on the not seep into the fill material. It shall be not
■ Elements in severe marine environments centre web only. Vertical steel reinforcement shall be tied less than 150-mm thick and not less than
■ Elements in saline or contaminated through clean-out openings with wire 300-mm thick in applications subject to
Mortar joints shall be 10-mm-thick and ties to the steel starter bars and fixed in
water including tidal splash zones significant groundwater flow and shall be
shall be face-shell-bedded and ironed position at the top of the wall by plastic
■ Elements within 1 km of an industry in accordance with the relevant Standard
(unless a flush joint is specified for clips before the placing of any grout.
producing chemical pollutants. (or AS 4768).
aesthetic reasons). Control joints shall
be built into the masonry at joints in When cleaning out and tying of steel are The drainage shall shed water away from
the footing, at significant changes in complete, the opening shall be blanked the retaining wall structure. This may be
wall profile or at centres not exceeding off with a timber form suitably propped to achieved by constructing a 100-mm deep
16 metres. prevent movement. Alternatively blocks catch drain to drain to the site drainage
which incorporate purpose-designed system at a minimum slope of 1 in 100.
blanks may be used.
�
Hold or
Tolerances Inspections and Tests Item or Product Inspection Required Accept Criteria Witness
Unless specified otherwise for reasons of When work reaches a stage of requiring Inspect controlled Controlled copy of
aesthetics or by the client or architect, all inspection, (eg footing reinforcement, Drawings & Specifications documents latest issue on site Hold
construction shall be within the following geogrids and drainage) the Contractor shall Foundation & retained soil
Density Density meter *
tolerances: advise the Engineer, before proceeding
Friction angle Shear box * As specified Hold
to cover, close or complete the work. The Cohesion Shear box *
following inspections shall be performed. Levelling pad
Width Spot check + 10%, - 2% Hold
Vertical Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Depth Spot check + 10%, - 2% Hold
Element Position Position Alignment Alignment Density Density meter * As specified Hold
Friction angle Shear box * As specified Hold
Soil surface ± 100 mm - - - Cohesion Shear box * As specified Hold
Facings and ± 20 mm ± 20 mm Footing dimensions
Width Spot check + 10%, - 2% Hold
wall structures ± 50 mm ± 50 mm in 3 m in 3 m Length Spot check + 10%, - 2% Hold
Footings and ± 20 mm ± 20 mm Reinforcement cover Check chair size As specified Hold
Edge forms Check all edges ± 20 mm Hold
supports ± 50 mm ± 50 mm in 3 m in 3 m
Level on soil Spot check levels + 10 mm, -50 mm Hold
Footing Reinforcement
Reinforcement grade Spot check markings As specified Hold
Reinforcement diameter Spot check diameter As specified Hold
Reinforcement spacing Spot check ± 10% Hold
Reinforcement laps Spot check ± 10% Hold
Reinforcement ligature spacing Spot check ± 10% Hold
Concrete strength Spot check dockets As specified Witness
Concrete curing Spot check As specified Witness
Masonry units
Type Spot check As specified Hold
Dimensions Spot check As specified Witness
Strength Spot check dockets As specified Witness
Mortar mix Spot check As specified Witness
Weep holes Spot check As detailed Hold
Cover Spot check As spec >15 mm Hold
Wall Reinforcement
Reinforcement grade Spot check markings As specified Hold
Reinforcement diameter Spot check markings As specified Hold
Reinforcement spacing Spot check ± 10% Hold
Editable Specification Reinforcement laps Spot check ± 10% Hold
Concrete grout strength Spot check dockets As specified Witness
This specification is provided by Notes:
Cleaning Visual As per test panel Witness
Electronic Blueprint for use by Concrete All tolerances shall be as shown,
except where overridden by Drainage system Flush pipes Positive 1 in 100 Hold
Masonry Association of Australia.
architectural or regulatory Granular fill Visual Grading Hold
For an editiable electronic version go to: requirements. Geotextile Visual As specified Hold
www.electronicblueprint.com.au The Engineer may relax Fill Visual Grading Witness
requirements marked *, if other
satisfactory controls are in Sealing and surface drains Visual Located to drawing Witness
place.
�
APPENDIX F – 2 The spreadsheet then was checked BENCHMARK CONSTRUCTION RETAINING WALLS STUDIED
by worked example. To make this
RELIABILITY OF AS 4678 comparison meaningful for all three
In order to calibrate AS 4678 and the External design considerations are
CMAA Manuals, it iwas necessary to common to all types of gravity walls,
structures, an idealised structure has
BACKGROUND adopt benchmarks of acceptable designs including:
been selected that best mimics all
that have a long history of satisfactory ■ Concrete Segmental Reinforced Soil
The design of gravity structures (including three, and, most important, is able to
performance, which can be justified by a Structures
Concrete Segmental Reinforced Soil be checked by working stress to Code
combination of theory and experience.
Structures, Segmental Concrete Gravity of Practice CP2. This involves constant ■ Concrete Segmental Gravity Retaining
The CMAA chose the working stress design
Retaining Walls and Reinforced Concrete density (20 kN/m3), idealised block (also Walls (with or without no-fines concrete)
method(Note 1) and soil properties set out
Masonry Cantilever Retaining Walls) 20 kN/m3), level slope of retained soil, ■ Type 1 Reinforced Concrete Masonry
in:
was previously governed principally by near vertical face, embedment of H/15, Cantilever Retaining Walls.
overturning about the toe. However, external friction 30 degrees, internal Civil Engineering Code of Practice No 2
design for forward sliding or bearing now friction 30 degrees, and live load of (1951) Earth Retaining Structures, The The following idealised structure, which
often governs the design process. This 5.0 kPa. Institution of Structural Engineers (UK). best fits all three types, has been analysed.
has major implications for the economy 3 The next step was to compare design to Code of Practice No 2 was published in �
of all gravity structures. AS 4768 indicates AS 4678 with design to Code of Practice 1951, reprinted in 1975 and the methods �
that most structures in cohesive soils �
CP2 for a series of idealised structures of described therein remained in common
have difficulty in meeting the sliding different heights, soils, slopes, and water use to the turn of the century. Thus, for
(external design) limit state, for the types table. over fifty years it has provided the basis �
of soil parameters commonly assumed by of design of most retaining walls in the ��
4 The final step was to investigate any ��
Australian design engineers. English speaking world, including Australia.
peculiarities related to any particular � ��
The Concrete Masonry Association of system, ie: Whilst there are sound reasons to ��
Australia has prepared a detailed study ● Slope of RSS and Gravity Walls deviate from Code of Practice No 2 for
of the implications of external design for ● Toe in front for Type 2 Cantilever uncommon consequence of failure or for
sliding, overturning and bearing, common Walls uncommon levels of workmanship, it still
to all gravity retaining wall systems. remains an acceptable starting point for
● Reduced density of no-fines ��
1 The first step in the investigation was segmental gravity walls the benchmarking process for the most
to create a spreadsheet that can handle ● Key in Type 1 and Type 2 Cantilever common situations. ��
all practical variables; ie structure walls ��
density, wall slope, backfill slope, soil ��
properties, bearing pad, distributed ��
loads, line loads, water table, wind and
��
earthquake. ��
��
��
Notes: Figure F1 Idealised Structure and

1 The reasons for adopting a new approach Cases used in the Analysis
(eg adopting a limit state standard instead
of working stress standard) relate to
flexibility and application, and are explained
later in this paper.
�
■ The assumed shape of the gravity Table F1 Minimum Uniform Imposed Load (kPA) Table F2 Heights Analysed
structure is a parallelogram, with
horizontal base and horizontal top, with Backfill Slope (Horizontal : Vertical) Exposed Embedment Total
slightly sloping front face and parallel height depth height
Classification Height Steeper than 4:1 4:1 of flatter
rear surface. Both front and rear faces (m) (m) (m)
are at 1.43° (I in 40) to vertical. B, C Any 2.5 kPa 5.0 kPa
1.50 0.10 1.60
■ Density of the gravity structure is a A ≤1.5 mNote 1 1.5 kPa 2.5 kPa
3.00 0.20 3.20
uniform value, approximating the Notes
average density of the soil and concrete, 1 Classification ‘A’ retaining walls must be equal to or less than 1.5 m high. 4.50 0.30 4.80
and taken as 20 kN/m3 (Note 1) 6.00 0.40 6.40
■ Embedment of the structure is taken as
the exposed height divided by 15.(Note 2)
Table F3 Structure Classification Analysed Table F4 Load Cases Analysed
■ Minimum imposed (live) load of 1.5 kPa,
except in Load Case 3 (Table F4) where Exposed heights Total heights Imposed Height of
a minimum of 10 kPa is specified.(Note 3) assumed assumed Slope of Load water table
In the case of walls designed to AS 4678, Structure applicable applicable Load retained Surcharge behind
the minimum values of imposed (live) Consequence of failure Classification (m) (m) Case soil (kPa) structure
surcharge are given in Table F1.
Failure results in minimal damage and 1 Nil 1.5 Nil
■ Because the purpose of the study was loss of access ANote 1 1.50 1.60
to determine the broad effects of the 2 1 in 4 1.5 Nil
various design standards, possible Failure results in moderate damage and
3 Nil 10.0 Nil
loss of service B 3.00 & 4.50 3.20 & 4.80
pragmatic construction expedients to 4 Nil 1.5 Half wall height
make the structures more economic Failure results in significant damage or
were ignored. For example, the following risk to life C 6.00 6.40
expedients, although considered to be Notes
“good engineering” were not assumed: 1 Definitions and height limit for A are taken from AS 4678.
● Excavation and replacement of weak
foundation material (Soil type 2 and 3).
● Draining the water table (Load case 4).
Notes
● Sloping the face more than the 1.43°
1 If the face is vertical and density of gravity structure is assumed equal to the density of retained soil, the benchmark designs will be quite
(I in 40). accurate for Concrete Segmental Reinforced Soil Structures, Concrete Segmental Gravity Walls (without no-fines concrete) and Type 1 Reinforced
Concrete Cantilever Gravity Walls. However, the benchmark designs will be a little non-conservative for Concrete Segmental Gravity Walls (with
no-fines concrete), and quite non-conservative for Type 2 Reinforced Concrete Cantilever Gravity Walls. These two cases should be considered
independently.
2 Reinforced soils generally require total height /20. Low-height segmental gravity walls may be built with zero embedment. Type 1 cantilever walls
often require 300 + mm depth to cover the footing. The selected compromise embedment is exposed height /15.
3 Although CP2 and the NCMA method do not specify a minimum imposed (live) load, it is impossible to have a “zero imposed load” case. There
will always be at least some (perhaps unspecified) imposed (live) load that a designer must consider. Failure of a designer to formally assume
at least some value for imposed (live) surcharge would leave the designer exposed in any potential litigation, and a competent designer using
CP2 or the NCMA method would always adopt some value. The question is, “What is a reasonable minimum value?” AS 4678 assumes a general
minimum of 5 kPa (except in low-risk walls). In this analysis, a much more optimistic minimum value of 1.5 kPa has been assumed.
�
Table F5 Soil Types Analysed CONCLUSIONS ■ These observations lead to the following
broad conclusions:
The study provided the following
Effective angle of Effective angle of Effective ● AS 4678 is not conservative when
conclusions:
Soil internal friction external friction cohesion compared to traditional working
Type Soil Description f (degrees) d (degrees) co (kPa) ■ The ultimate-load, limit-state method of
stress methods. To the contrary, it is
AS 4678 generally yields a more liberal
1 Cohesionless soil, moist backing 35 20 0.0 consistently slightly more liberal.
design than the historical working stress
2 Cohesive soil, silt with both friction method of Code of Practice CP 2. ● Unlike traditional working stress
and cohesion 20 0 7.2 methods, AS 4678 caters, to some

■ The difference lies in the ability of
extent, for the need for greater safety
3 Cohesive soil, non-fissured clay 0 0 14.3 AS 478 to take advantage of a stiff
in structures with high consequence
Note: bearing pad to allow the point of
of failure and lower safety in
The soil properties and water table to be checked are from Appendix D of Code of Practice No 2. rotation to approach the toe of the
structures with low consequence of
retaining wall and to spread the load
failure.
deep into the foundation. The working
stress method limits this reaction to ● There are some marginal savings in
ANALYSES UNDERTAKEN
within the middle third of the footing. structure volume to be derived from
It was necessary to determine whether or using AS 4678, when compared to
■ Load Case 1. (cohesionless soil) is limited
not there is any mandatory requirements in traditional working stress methods.
by overturning for both methods,
AS 4678, the CMAA Manuals (MA 51, MA 52 ● The difficulties in designing for
although AS 4678 has an advantage.
or MA 53), or the NCMA Method that lead cohesive soils derive not from
to either unsafe or uneconomical design. ■ Load Case 2 (silt) shows close
AS 4678, but from the assumptions
The following steps were undertaken. relationship between both methods,
made in respect to soil properties.
generally limited by forward sliding.
■ For a range of heights and soil types
(Tables F2 and F5) determine the ■ Load Case 3 (non-fissured clay) can not
required width of gravity structure be sensibly designed in either case,
necessary to satisfy Code of Practice because the clay foundation can not
CP2, AS 4678 and NCMA Method. prevent forward sliding. This leads to the
logical conclusion that such foundations
■ Calculate the Reliability Indices, b,
should replaced by material with high
for each of the preliminary designs
friction.
for sliding, bearing and overturning
(including premature bearing).(Note 1)
■ Determine initial Target Reliability
Indices, btarget, for particular
The study is available on application from
applications, based on ISO 2394
Concrete Masonry Association of Australia.
Table E1.
Concrete Masonry Association of Australia
PO Box 572 St Leonards NSW 1590
Notes: TELEPHONE 02 9903 7760
1 Sliding may occur independently of both overturning and bearing failure. Bearing failure may FACSIMILE 02 9437 9703
occur independently of both sliding and overturning. Overturning may occur about the toe
under conditions of adequate bearing. However, if bearing failure occurs, it causes overturning For details of masonry manufacturers, see
failure. Therefore the Reliability Index for overturning is the minimum of the indices calculated CMAA Web Site: www.cmaa.com.au
for overturning about the toe and that calculated for bearing failure.

Structures: Reinforced Concrete Masonry Cantilever Retaining Walls

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ISBN Concrete Masonry

This guide provides Australian designers ■ A study of the reliability of AS 4678.

Based on an effective drainage system, it

Hob 100-mm-dia. slotted PVC agricultural pipe wrapped in

50-mm-dia. weepholes through hob at 1200 mm centres

f = factored value of internal friction angle

Q* = vertical load based on factored He = depth of undisturbed soil to the

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Ap p e n d i x A – DESIGN TABLES FOR REINFORCED CONCRE TE MA S O N RY C A N T I L E V E R R E TA I N I N G WA L L S

INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE TYPE 1 WALLS TYPE 2 WALLS

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 1 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 800 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 1 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 1000 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 1 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 1200 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 1 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 1400 m m

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D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 1 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 1600 m m

Live load�surcharge, ql (kPa) 5 ��� ���

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 1 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 1800 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 1 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 2000 m m

�������� Retained soil slope, b

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 1 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 2200 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 1 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 2400 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 1 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 2600 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 1 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 2800 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 1 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 3000 m m

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D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 1 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 3200 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 1 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 3400 m m

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D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 1 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 3600 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 2 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 800 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 2 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 1000 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 2 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 1200 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 2 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 1400 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 2 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 1600 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 2 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 1800 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 2 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 2000 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 2 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 2200 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 2 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 2400 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 2 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 2600 m m

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D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 2 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 2800 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 2 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 3000 m m

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 2 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 3200 m m

Retained soil slope, b ���

D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 2 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 3400 m m

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D E S I G N DATA FOR T YP E 2 C ANTILE VER RE TAINING WALL WITH EXP O S E D S T E M H E I G H T, H w , O F 3600 m m

Length of slope at distance from wal

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Figure B4 Bearing Pad Details

*Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook, jointly published by Cement Concrete and

Client: Insitu foundation

Project: Imported foundation material

Location: Insitu retained soil

Use for which retaining wall is intended: Infill soil

Exposed height of retaining wall stem: m

Slope of backfill: 1 vertical in horizontal

Specified surcharge loading (if any) or other loads: kPa

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�� All cores to be fully grouted.

Live load�surcharge, ql (kPa) 5 ��

�� Retained soil slope, b

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Retained soil slope, b ��

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