CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

A quick return mechanism is a mechanism that converts rotary

motion into reciprocating motion at different rate for its two strokes.
When the time required for the working stroke is greater than that of the
return stroke, it is a quick return mechanism. It yields a significant
improvement in machining productivity. Currently, it is widely used in
machine tools, for instance, shaping machines, power-driven saws, and
other applications requiring a working stroke with intensive loading, and
a return stroke with non-intensive loading.
.
By using quick return mechanism in air compressor unit the time of
return stroke will be reduced, therefore the overall efficiency of air
compressor will be increased.

Several quick return mechanisms can be found in the literatures

including the offset crank-slider mechanism, the crank-shaper
mechanisms, the double crank mechanisms, and the Whitworth
mechanism. All of them are linkages. A linkage has its strengths and
weaknesses. It is inexpensive to make and easy to lubricate; however, it is
bulky and difficult to balance. In situations, if compact space is essential
to the design, then a linkage may not be a good choice.

1
 CHAPTER 2
QUICK RETURN MECHANISM

2
2.1 USAGE OF QUICK RETURN MECHANISM IN AIR COMPRESSOR

Quick return mechanism is used in shaping and slotting machines to cut

metals. Here we used this mechanism in air compressor to reducing the return
stroke of the piston. The return stroke is sucked the air from atmosphere and
forward stroke compressed it.

However the power required on return stroke is lesser then, power

required to move the piston in forward. So by reduce time taken of return
stroke is increase the efficiency of air compressor.

2.2 MECHANISM:

Here we used this mechanism in air compressor to reducing the return

stroke of the piston. The return stroke is sucked the air from atmosphere and
forward stroke compressed it.

Fig 2.1 Quick return mechanism

3
 Fig 2.2 Slider positions

2.2.1 FORWARD STROKE

Initially, the slider at point C1, then the point M will be on position
of connecting rod is extremely in left position then the crank rotate at counter
clockwise from C1 to C2 by covering of an angle K. By the results the pistons
connecting rod will move M to N in normal speed. The distance between M and
N is called stroke length. And the angle (K) between C1 and C2 called as
forward stroke angle.

2.2.2 RETURN STROKE

When the crank further rotates counter clockwise from C2 to C1 the slider
will be move N to M now the pistons connecting rod move backward. The angle
between C2 to C1 is known as the return stroke angle. Is denoted at L . The angle
L is lesser then the angle k. Due to this reduction of angle gives the quick return
motion comparing to forward motion.

4
 When the driving crank rotates at uniform angular speed (N), we
can write,

𝑲
Time for forward stroke=
𝟐𝝅𝑵

𝑳
Time for return stroke=
𝟐𝝅𝑵

Now the ratio of cutting stroke to return stroke time is given by,

𝑲
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒌𝒆 𝟐𝝅𝑵 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑲 𝑲 𝟑𝟔𝟎−𝑳
= 𝑳 = = =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒌𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑳 𝟑𝟔𝟎−𝑲 𝑳
𝟐𝝅𝑵

Where,

K - Angle of forward stroke

L-Angle of return stroke

5
CHAPTER 3
GEARS

6
3.1 GEARS

A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs,

which mesh with another toothed part to transmit torque. Geared devices can
change the speed, torque, and direction of a power source. Gears almost always
produce a change in torque, creating a mechanical advantage, through their gear
ratio, and thus may be considered a simple machine.

The teeth on the two meshing gears all have the same shape. Two or more
meshing gears, working in a sequence, are called a gear train or a transmission.
A gear can mesh with a linear toothed part, called a rack,
producing translation instead of rotation.

The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a crossed,

belt pulley system. An advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent
slippage.

When two gears mesh, if one gear is bigger than the other, a mechanical
advantage is produced, with the rotational speeds, and the torques, of the two
gears differing in proportion to their diameters.

In transmissions with multiple gear ratios such as bicycles, motorcycles,

and cars the term "gear" as in "first gear" refers to a gear ratio rather than an
actual physical gear.

The term describes similar devices, even when the gear ratio
is continuous rather than discrete, or when the device does not actually contain
gears, as in a continuously variable transmission.

7
3.2 TYPES OF GEARS

• SPUR GEAR
• HELICAL GEAR
• BEVEL GEAR
• SPIRAL BEVEL
• MAGNETIC GEAR

3.2.1 SPUR GEAR

Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist
of a cylinder or disk with teeth projecting radially. Though the teeth are not
straight-sided (but usually of special form to achieve a constant drive ratio,
mainly involutes but less commonly cycloid).

The edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of
rotation. These gears mesh together correctly only if fitted to parallel shafts.
No axial thrust is created by the tooth loads. Spur gears are excellent at
moderate speeds but tend to be noisy at high speeds.

Fig 3.1 Spur Gear

8
3.2.2 HELICAL GEAR

Helical or "dry fixed" gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The
leading edges of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an
angle. Since the gear is curved, this angling makes the tooth shape a segment of
a helix. Helical gears can be meshed in parallel or crossed orientations.

The angled teeth engage more gradually than do spur gear teeth, causing
them to run more smoothly and quietly. With parallel helical gears, each pair of
teeth first make contact at a single point at one side of the gear wheel; a moving
curve of contact then grows gradually across the tooth face to a maximum, then
recedes until the teeth break contact at a single point on the opposite side. In
spur gears, teeth suddenly meet at a line contact across their entire width,
causing stress and noise.

Spur gears make a characteristic whine at high speeds. For this reason
spur gears are used in low-speed applications and in situations where noise
control is not a problem, and helical gears are used in high-speed applications,
large power transmission, or where noise abatement is important. The speed is
considered high when the pitch line velocity exceeds 25 m/s.

Fig 3.2 Helical Gear

9
3.2.3 BEVEL GEAR

A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with most of its tip cut
off. When two bevel gears mesh, their imaginary vertices must occupy the same
point. Their shaft axes also intersect at this point, forming an arbitrary non-
straight angle between the shafts. The angle between the shafts can be anything
except zero or 180 degrees. Bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth and shaft
axes at 90 degrees are called miter gears.

The most familiar kinds of bevel gears have pitch angles of less than 90 degrees
and therefore are cone-shaped. This type of bevel gear is called external because
the gear teeth point outward. The pitch surfaces of meshed external bevel gears
are coaxial with the gear shafts; the apexes of the two surfaces are at the point
of intersection of the shaft axes.

Bevel gears that have pitch angles of exactly 90 degrees have teeth that point
outward parallel with the axis and resemble the points on a crown. That's why
this type of bevel gear is called a crown gear.

Fig 3.3 Bevel Gear

10
3.2.4 SPIRAL BEVEL

Spiral bevel gears can be manufactured as Gleason types (circular arc

with non-constant tooth depth), Oerlikon and Curvex types (circular arc with
constant tooth depth), Klingelnberg Cyclo-Palloid (Epicycloid with constant
tooth depth) or Klingelnberg Palloid. Spiral bevel gears have the same
advantages and disadvantages relative to their straight-cut cousins as helical
gears do to spur gears. Straight bevel gears are generally used only at speeds
below 5 m/s (1000 ft/min), or, for small gears, 1000 rpm.

The cylindrical gear tooth profile corresponds to an involutes, but the

bevel gear tooth profile to an octoid. All traditional bevel gear generators (like
Gleason, Klingelnberg, Heidenreich & Harbeck, WMW Modul) manufacture
bevel gears with an octoidal tooth profile.

IMPORTANT: For 5-axis milled bevel gear sets it is important to choose

the same calculation / layout like the conventional manufacturing method.
Simplified calculated bevel gears on the basis of an equivalent cylindrical gear
in normal section with an involutes tooth form show a deviant tooth form with
reduced tooth strength by 10-28% without offset and 45% with offset.
Furthermore, the "involutes bevel gear sets" cause more noise.

Fig 3.4 Spiral Bevel

11
3.2.5 NOMENCLATURE OF SPUR GEAR

The pitch circle shown in the figure will not be visible in an actual gear;
but the entire design of gear is based on the pitch circle diameter or the pitch
diameter. The pitch circles of a pair of meshing gears must be tangent to each
other. The circular pitch, p corresponds to the distance, measured on the pitch
circle, from a point on one tooth to a corresponding point on an adjacent tooth.
In other words, the circular pitch is equal to the sum of the thickness of a tooth
and the space between two adjacent teeth measured along the pitch circle.

Fig 3.5 Nomenclature of spur Gear

12
• Pitch surface : The surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder (cone, etc.)
that the toothed gear may be considered to replace.
• Pitch circle: A right section of the pitch surface.
• Addendum circle: A circle bounding the ends of the teeth, in a right section
of the gear.
• Root (or dedendum) circle: The circle bounding the spaces between the
teeth, in a right section of the gear.
• Addendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum
circle.
• Dedendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle.
• Clearance: The difference between the dedendum of one gear and the
addendum of the mating gear.
• Face of a tooth: That part of the tooth surface lying outside the pitch
surface.
• Flank of a tooth: The part of the tooth surface lying inside the pitch surface.
• Circular thickness (also called the tooth thickness) : The thickness of the
tooth measured on the pitch circle. It is the length of an arc and not the
length of a straight line.
• Tooth space: The distance between adjacent teeth measured on the pitch
circle.
• Backlash: The difference between the circle thickness of one gear and the
tooth space of the mating gear.
Backlash =Space width – Tooth thickness
• Circular pitch p: The width of a tooth and a space, measured on the pitch
circle.
• Diametral pitch P: The number of teeth of a gear per inch of its pitch
diameter. A toothed gear must have an integral number of teeth. The circular
pitch, therefore, equals the pitch circumference divided by the number of

13
 teeth. The diametral pitch is, by definition, the number of teeth divided by
the pitch diameter.
• Module m: Pitch diameter divided by number of teeth. The pitch diameter is
usually specified in inches or millimeters; in the former case the module is
the inverse of diametral pitch.
• Fillet : The small radius that connects the profile of a tooth to the root circle.
• Pinion: The smaller of any pair of mating gears. The larger of the pair is
called simply the gear.
• Velocity ratio: The ratio of the number of revolutions of the driving (or
input) gear to the number of revolutions of the driven (or output) gear, in a
unit of time.
• Pitch point: The point of tangency of the pitch circles of a pair of mating
gears.
• Common tangent: The line tangent to the pitch circle at the pitch point.
• Base circle : An imaginary circle used in involutes’ gearing to generate the
involutes that form the tooth profiles.

14
CHAPTER 4
BELT DRIVE

15
4.1 BELT DRIVE
A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more
rotating shafts mechanically, most often parallel. Belts may be used as a source
of motion, to transmit power efficiently or to track relative movement. Belts are
looped over pulleys and may have a twist between the pulleys, and the shafts
need not be parallel.

In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys normally in
one direction (the same if on parallel shafts), or the belt may be crossed, so that
the direction of the driven shaft is reversed (the opposite direction to the driver
if on parallel shafts). As a source of motion, a conveyor belt is one application
where the belt is adapted to carry a load continuously between two points.

4.2 TYPES OF BELT DRIVE

V belts
Flat belts
Round belts
Rope drives

4.2.1 V BELT

V belts (also style V-belts, or, less commonly, wedge rope) solved the
slippage and alignment problem. It is now the basic belt for power transmission.
They provide the best combination of traction, speed of movement, load of the
bearings, and long service life. They are generally endless, and their general
cross-section shape is roughly trapezoidal (hence the name "V"). The "V" shape
of the belt tracks in a mating groove in the pulley (or sheave), with the result
that the belt cannot slip off. The belt also tends to wedge into the groove as the
load increases the greater the load, the greater the wedging action
improving torque transmission and making the V-belt an effective solution,

16
needing less width and tension than flat belts. V-belts trump flat belts with their
small center distances and high reduction ratios.

The preferred center distance is larger than the largest pulley diameter,
but less than three times the sum of both pulleys. Optimal speed range is 1,000–
7,000 ft/min (300–2,130 m/min). V-belts need larger pulleys for their thicker
cross-section than flat belts.

For high-power requirements, two or more V-belts can be joined side-by-

side in an arrangement called a multi-V, running on matching multi-groove
sheaves. This is known as a multiple-V-belt drive (or sometimes a "classical V-
belt drive").

Fig 4.1 V Belt

17
4.3 V PULLEY

V-belt pulleys (also called v belt sheaves) are devices which transmit
power between axles by the use of a v-belt, a mechanical linkage with a
trapezoidal cross-section. Together these devices offer a high-speed power
transmission solution that is resistant to slipping and misalignment.

A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support

movement and change of direction of a taut cable or belt, or transfer of power
between the shaft and cable or belt. In the case of a pulley supported by a frame
or shell that does not transfer power to a shaft, but is used to guide the cable or
exert a force, the supporting shell is called a block, and the pulley may be called
a sheave.

A pulley may have a groove or grooves between flanges around its

circumference to locate the cable or belt. The drive element of a pulley system
can be a rope, cable, belt, or chain.

Fig 4.2 V Pulley

18
 CHAPTER 5
PNEUMATIC CYLINDER

19
5.1 PNEUMATIC CYLINDER

Many industrial applications require linear motion during their operating

sequence. One of the simplest and most cost effective ways to accomplish this is
with a pneumatic actuator, often referred to as an air cylinder. An actuator is a
device that translates a source of static power into useful output motion.

Pneumatic actuators are mechanical devices that use compressed air

acting on a piston inside a cylinder to move a load along a linear path. Unlike
their hydraulic alternatives, the operating fluid in a pneumatic actuator is simply
air, so leakage doesn’t drip and contaminate surrounding areas.

Fig 5.1 Pneumatic Cylinders

20
5.2 SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER

A single-acting cylinder in a reciprocating engine is a cylinder in which

the working fluid acts on one side of the piston only. A single-acting cylinder
relies on the load, springs, other cylinders, or the momentum of a flywheel, to
push the piston back in the other direction.

Single-acting cylinders are found in most kinds of reciprocating engine.

They are almost universal in internal combustion engines (e.g. petrol and diesel
engines) and are also used in many external combustion engines such as Stirling
engines and some steam engines. They are also found in pumps and hydraulic
rams.

Fig 5.2 Single Acting Cylinder

21
 CHAPTER 6

ELECTRIC MOTOR

22
6.1 MOTOR

An AC motor is an electric motor driven by an alternating current (AC).

The AC motor commonly consists of two basic parts, an outside stator having
coils supplied with alternating current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and
an inside rotor attached to the output shaft producing a second rotating magnetic
field. The rotor magnetic field may be produced by permanent magnets,
reluctance saliency, or DC or AC electrical windings.

Less common, AC linear motors operate on similar principles as rotating

motors but have their stationary and moving parts arranged in a straight line
configuration, producing linear motion instead of rotation.

6.2WORKING PRINCIPLE OF MOTOR

The two main types of AC motors are induction motors and synchronous
motors. The induction motor (or asynchronous motor) always relies on a small
difference in speed between the stator rotating magnetic field and the rotor shaft
speed called slip to induce rotor current in the rotor AC winding.

As a result, the induction motor cannot produce torque near synchronous

speed where induction (or slip) is irrelevant or ceases to exist. In contrast,
the synchronous motor does not rely on slip-induction for operation and uses
either permanent magnets, salient poles (having projecting magnetic poles), or
an independently excited rotor winding.

The synchronous motor produces its rated torque at exactly synchronous

speed. The brushless wound-rotor doubly fed synchronous motor system has an
independently excited rotor winding that does not rely on the principles of slip-
induction of current. The brushless wound-rotor doubly fed motor is

23
a synchronous motor that can function exactly at the supply frequency or sub to
super multiple of the supply frequency.

Other types of motors include eddy current motors, and AC and DC

mechanically commutated machines in which speed is dependent on voltage and
winding connection.

Fig 6.1 AC MOTOR

24
6.3 MOTOR BASICS

6.3.1 ROTOR

When a rotor bar is placed in the rotating field, a magnetic pole runs
through the rod. The magnetic field of the pole induces a current (Iw) in the
rotor bar which is only influenced by force (F).

This force is determined by the flux density (Φ), the induced current (Iw),
the length (l) of the rotor and the angle (Θ) between the force and the flux
density: F = Φ x Iw x l x sin Θ

If Θ is assumed to be = 90°, the force is: F = Φ x Iw x 1

6.3.2 STATOR

The stator is a fixed part of the stationary motor. It consists of a stator

housing (1), ball-bearings (2) that support the rotor (9), bearing blocks (3) for
positioning of the bearings and as a finish for the stator housing, fan (4) for
motor cooling and valve casing (5) as protection against the rotating fan. A box
for electrical connections (6) is located on the side of the stator housing.

6.3.3 MAIN SHAFT

The main shaft is a metal component that extends as a place to attach

some components. In addition to the coil rotor, the component attached to this
shaft is a drive pulley. Generally the main shaft is made of aluminum which is
anti-rust. In addition, this component must also be stable at high rotation and
temperature.

25
6.3.4 BRUSH

Brush is a copper brush that will connect a lithric current source with a
coil rotor. This brush is attached to a small rotor located at the end of the main
rotor. Friction that occurs will flow the current in the same direction even
though the rotor rotates. So that the rotation can be synchronous and continuous.
This friction will be supported by a spring located behind the copper brush. This
spring will always hit the brush so that this brush will always stick to the rotor
despite spinning at high RPM.
In a simple electric motor should be equipped with two brushes. This
brush will supply current and time for the coil rotor. In addition, this component
is a popular cause that causes electric motor to die. The crust attached to the
surface of the brush will cause the flow of the current to be inhibited. In
addition, the condition of the brush is worn because it continues to be rubbed
can also inhibit the flow of obstructed flow.
6.3.5 BEARING

Because this tool produces rotation, it is necessary a special component

that will be used as a pad for a smooth round. This is the function of the
bearing, as a bearing between the shaft surface and the motor housing. Bearing
generally made from aluminum that has a light friction style. So as not to inhibit
motor rotation.
6.3.5 PULLEY DRIVE

This component is located at the outer end of the main shaft. Its function
is to transfer motor rotation to other components. This component is generally
in the form of gear or pulley, which is ready to be connected with components
that need to be driven with this motor.

26
6.3.6 MOTOR HOUSING

Outside of the electric motor we will see an iron plate that is used to
protect all parts of the electric motor. In addition, motor housing also serves to
protect us as the user of a very high rotation rotors.

Brush is a copper brush that will connect a lithric current source with a
coil rotor. This brush is attached to a small rotor located at the end of the main
rotor. So that the rotation can be synchronous and continuous.
This friction will be supported by a spring located behind the copper brush. This
spring will always hit the brush so that this brush will always stick to the rotor
despite spinning at high RPM.

Because this tool produces rotation, it is necessary a special component

that will be used as a pad for a smooth round. This is the function of the
bearing, as a bearing between the shaft surface and the motor housing. Bearing
generally made from aluminum that has a light friction style.
So as not to inhibit motor rotation. This component is generally in the
form of gear or pulley, which is ready to be connected with components that
need to be driven with this motor.

27
6.4 MOTOR SPECIFICATION

QUANTITY RATING

Phase 1Ф

Capacity 0.5 HP

Voltage 230V

Current 4A

Speed 1500 rpm

28
 CHAPTER 7
MATERIAL USED

29
7.1 Bearing

A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the

desired motion, and reduces friction between moving parts. The design of the
bearing may, for example, provide for free linear movement of the moving part
or for free rotation around a fixed axis; or, it may prevent a motion by
controlling the vectors of normal forces that bear on the moving parts. Most
bearings facilitate the desired motion by minimizing friction. Bearings are
classified broadly according to the type of operation, the motions allowed, or to
the directions of the loads (forces) applied to the parts.

Rotary bearings hold rotating components such as shafts or axles within

mechanical systems, and transfer axial and radial loads from the source of the
load to the structure supporting it. The simplest form of bearing, the plain
bearing, consists of a shaft rotating in a hole. Lubrication is often used to reduce
friction. In the ball bearing and roller bearing, to prevent sliding friction, rolling
elements such as rollers or balls with a circular cross-section are located
between the races or journals of the bearing assembly. A wide variety of bearing
designs exists to allow the demands of the application to be correctly met for
maximum efficiency, reliability, durability and performance.

Fig 7.1 Bearing

30
7.2 STRUCTURAL STEEL

Structural steel is a category of steel used for making construction

materials in a variety of shapes. Many structural steel shapes take the form of an
elongated beam having a profile of a specific cross section. Structural steel
shapes, sizes, chemical composition, mechanical properties such as strengths,
storage practices, etc., are regulated by standards in most industrialized
countries.

Most structural steel shapes, such as I-beams, have high second moments
of area, which means they are very stiff in respect to their cross-sectional area
and thus can support a high load without excessive sagging.

7.3 C-Channel or Parallel Flange Channel

The structural channel, also known as a C-beam or Parallel Flange

Channel (PFC), is a type of (usually structural steel) beam, used primarily in
building construction and civil engineering. Its cross section consists of a wide
"web", usually but not always oriented vertically, and two "flanges" at the top
and bottom of the web, only sticking out on one side of the web. It is
distinguished from I-beam or H-beam or W-beam type steel cross sections in
that those have flanges on both sides of the web.

Fig 7.3‘C’ Channel

31
7.4 L –Channel

Steel Angles are the most basic type of roll-formed steel. They are
formed by bending a single angle in a piece of steel. Angle Steel is ‘L’ shaped;
the most common type of Steel Angles are at a 90 degree angle.

The legs of the “L” can be equal or unequal in length. Steel angles are
used for various purposes in a number of industries. Framing is one of the most
common uses for steel angles, but steel angles are also used for brackets, trim,
reinforcements, and many other uses. The larger the steel angle, the more
weight and stress it can bear.

Fig 7.4 ‘L’ Channel

32
 CHAPTER 8
METHODALOGY

33
8.1 WELDING

Welding is a way of heating pieces of metal using electricity or a flame so

that they melt and stick together. There are many kinds of welding,
including arc welding, resistance welding, and gas welding. The most common
type is arc welding.

Anyone who is near arc welding needs to wear a

special helmet or goggles because the arc is so bright. Looking at the arc
without visual protection may cause permanent eye damage.

It is also important to cover all your skin because it can give you
something like a sun burn. Hot sparks from the weld can burn any skin that is
showing.

One kind of welding that does not use an arc is Oxy-fuel welding (OFW),
sometimes called gas welding. OFW uses a flame to heat up the metal. There
are other kinds of welding that do not use an arc.

8.2 TYPES OF WELDING JOINTS

A welding joint is a point or edge where two or more pieces

of metal or plastic are joined together. They are formed by welding two or more
workpieces (metal or plastic) according to a particular geometry.

Five types of joints referred butt, corner, edge, lap, and tee. These
configurations may have various configurations at the joint where actual
welding can occur.

8.2.1 BUTT JOINT

Butt welds are welds where two pieces of metal to be joined are in the
same plane. These types of welds require only some preparation and are used
with thin sheet metals that can be welded with a single pass. Common issues

34
that can weaken a butt weld are the entrapment of slag, excessive porosity, or
cracking. For strong welds, the goal is to use the least amount of welding
material possible. Butt welds are prevalent in automated welding processes,
such as submerged-arc welding, due to their relative ease of preparation.

When metals are welded without human guidance, there is no operator to

make adjustments for non-ideal joint preparation. Because of this necessity, butt
welds can be utilized for their simplistic design to be fed through automated
welding machines efficiently.

Fig 8.1 Butt Joint

8.2.2 CORNER JOINT

Corner joints are used to joint members located approximately at right

angles to each other in the form of an L. The fillet weld corner joint is used in
the construction of boxes, box frames, and similar fabrications. The closed

35
corner joint is used on lighter sheets when high strength is not required at the
joint. In making the joint by oxyacetylene welding, the overlapping edge is
melted down, and little or no filler metal is added. When the closed joint is used
for heavy sections, the lapped plate is V-beveled or U-grooved to permit
penetration to the root of the joint. The open corner joint is used on heavier
sheets and plates.

Fig 8.2 Corner Joint

8.2.3 EDGE JOINT

Edge jointing or just jointing is the process of making the edge of

a wooden board straight and true in preparation for subsequent operations, often
ultimately leading to joining two or more components together. Traditionally,
jointing was performed using a jointer plane. Modern techniques include the use
of a jointer machine, a hand held router and straight edge, or a table-mounted
router.

Although the process derives its name from the primary task of
straightening an edge prior to joining, the term jointing is used whenever this
process is performed, regardless of the application.

When using a hand plane to perform this operation, two boards are often
clamped face to face in the vice and both jointed at once. This creates two edges
that are the mirror image of one another.

36
 In this way, even if the edges are not perfectly perpendicular to their
respective faces, when the two board edges are brought together, the result is a
flat panel because the error in each edge cancels the other out.

Fig 8.3 Edge Joint

8.2.4 LAP JOINT

A lap joint or overlap joint is a joint in which the members overlap. Lap
joints can be used to join wood, plastic, or metal.

A lap joint may be a full lap or half lap. In a full lap, no material is
removed from either of the members to be joined, resulting in a joint which is
the combined thickness of the two members.

In a half lap joint or halving joint, material is removed from both of the
members so that the resulting joint is the thickness of the thickest member. Most
commonly in half lap joints, the members are of the same thickness and half the
thickness of each is removed.

Also known simply as a pull lap, it is the basic form of the lap joint and is
used when joining members end to end either parallel or at right angles. When
the joint forms a corner, as in a rectangular frame, the joint is often called

37
a corner lap. This is the most common form of end lap and is used most in
framing.

Fig 8.4 Lap Joint

8.3 METAL CUTTING

In the context of machining, a cutting tool or cutter is any tool that is used
to remove material from the work piece by means of shear deformation. Cutting
may be accomplished by single-point or multipoint tools. Single-point tools are
used in turning, shaping, planning and similar operations, and remove material
by means of one cutting edge. Milling and drilling tools are often multipoint
tools. Grinding tools are also multipoint tools.

Cutting tool materials must be harder than the material which is to be cut,
and the tool must be able to withstand the heat generated in the metal-cutting
process. Also, the tool must have a specific geometry, with clearance
angles designed so that the cutting edge can contact the work piece without the
rest of the tool dragging on the work piece surface.

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 The angle of the cutting face is also important, as is the flute width,
number of flutes or teeth, and margin size. In order to have a long working life,
all of the above must be optimized, plus the speeds and feeds at which the tool
is run.

8.3.1 TYPES OF METAL CUTTING

Linear cutting tools include tool bits (single-point cutting tools)

and broaches. Rotary cutting tools include drill bits, counter sinks and counter
bores, taps and dies, milling cutters, reamers, and cold saw blades. Other cutting
tools, such as band saw blades, hacksaw blades, and fly cutters, combine aspects
of linear and rotary motion.

Turning: When a sharp point of a cutting tool is applied on the metal

surface and is rapidly spun by other supportive devices like a lathe, it is called
turning.

Grinding: The grinding machine with an abrasive wheel is applied on the

metal that has a smooth surface to wear it down effortlessly and with precision.

Drilling: A drilling machine is used when a perfectly sized hole is

required to be made on the metal surface and the same is done by applying a
combination of force and rotation over the metal surface.

Welding: When metal surfaces are heated to a specific temperature in

order to soften and break the surfaces along a carefully patterned line, it is
called welding or burning.

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 CHAPTER 9

COST ESTIMATION OF PROJECT WORK

40
S.NO PARTS PRIZE QTY TOTAL

750
PNEUMATIC
1 750 1
CYLINDER

2 MOTOR 1500 1 1500

3 GEAR 300 2 600

4 PULLEY 400 1 400

NON
5 RETURN 400 2 800
VALVE

TOTAL - 4050

TABLE 9.1

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