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energies
Article
Current Situation and Future Perspectives of the
Romanian Renewable Energy
Ştefan Dragoş Cîrstea 1, * , Claudia Steluţa Martiş 1 , Andreea Cîrstea 2 ,
Anca Constantinescu-Dobra 1 and Melinda Timea Fülöp 2
1 Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, 400114 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
claudia.martis@emd.utcluj.ro (C.S.M.); anca.constantinescu@enm.utcluj.ro (A.C.-D.)
2 Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Babes-Bolyai University, 400591 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
andreea.cirstea@econ.ubbcluj.ro (A.C.); melinda.fulop@econ.ubbcluj.ro (M.T.F.)
* Correspondence: stefan.cirstea@enm.utcluj.ro; Tel.: +40-745-301-093

Received: 28 October 2018; Accepted: 23 November 2018; Published: 25 November 2018
Abstract: In 2015, Romania was the first country in Europe that achieved EU targets regarding the
share of renewables in the generation mix, far ahead of the 2020 deadline. Starting with the energy
structure in Romania, the paper: (1) analyses the evolution of the main indicators in the renewable
energy sector, (2) discloses the perspectives of renewable energy in Romania synthesizing the main
trends of development in the field, and (3) analyses the challenges facing with the development
of renewable energy in Romania. Based on analyzing the exploratory data, the paper makes a
preliminary prediction of the development of the sector for future decades and proposes targeted
countermeasures and suggestions. Romania still has unexploited potential concerning renewable
energy sources. Since Romania registered continuous economic growth, the demand for electricity is
steadily growing, and this trend is expected to continue. Additionally, Romania could introduce a
support mechanism for developing the potential of unexploited existing resources. The results of the
present study may be useful for further research regarding public policies for the development of
renewable energy. Furthermore, it can represent a useful analysis in order to identify future trends of
renewable energy in Romania.
Keywords: renewable energy; future perspectives; renewable energy sources; Romania energy
structure; exploratory study
1. Introduction
The economic development of a state depends to a large extent on its ability to create and maintain
constant access to energy resources. Contemporary society is in a continuous transformation. Both the
current needs and the resources necessary for their satisfaction change rapidly, causing important
mutations in everyday life. Energy production sectors are exempted from continuous transformations.
Every day the need for energy is growing.
Energy security is the ability of a nation to deliver the energy resources needed to ensure its
welfare and implies secure supply and stable prices. The decision about ensuring energy security
are always taken over the long-term because it implies the implementation of large projects needing
enormous investments. Energy sources can be divided into three main categories: fossil fuels, nuclear
resources, and renewable energy sources [1]. Renewable energy sources can provide energy free of air
pollutants and greenhouse gasses by emitting zero or nearly 0% of these gasses [2].
European Court of Auditors (ECA) reveals in a report which are the main types of renewable
energy sources, relevant technologies and specific applications (Figure 1). They sustain that using
Energies 2018, 11, 3289; doi:10.3390/en11123289 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, 3289 2 of 22
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21
more renewable energy is crucial if the EU wants to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions to comply
more renewable energy is crucial if the EU wants to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions to comply
with the 2015 Paris Agreement on Climate Change [3].
with the 2015 Paris Agreement on Climate Change [3].
Figure 1. Renewable energy sources, technologies and applications; source: adapted from ECA,
Figure 1. Renewable energy sources, technologies and applications; source: adapted from ECA, 2018
2018 [3].
[3].
Globally, the energy sector has a significant impact on the environment, air pollution, water,
Globally,
soil pollution,the energy
and on sector
GHG hasemissions
a significant or impact
climateon the environment,
change. Between 2009 air pollution,
and 2013, water,
the soil
share of
pollution, and on GHG emissions or climate change. Between 2009 and 2013,
renewable energy sources (RES) in the EU’s energy generation mix increased from 9 to 16% and it is the share of renewable
energy sourcesto(RES)
expected growinup thetoEU's
20%energy
by 2020generation mix increased
[4]. RES progress fromallowed
since 2005 9 to 16%the and EUit to
is expected to fuel
cut its fossil
growuse up by
to 20%
11% by and2020 [4]. RES
its GHG progress
emissions bysince
10% 2005in 2015 allowed the the
[5]. Over EU last
to cut its fossil
decade, fuel use progress
significant by 11% has
and its GHG emissions by 10% in 2015 [5]. Over the last decade, significant
been made in the energy sector in Romania to limit the environmental impact. However, considerable progress has been made
in theefforts
energy sector in Romania to limit the environmental impact. However,
are still needed for the energy sector to contribute to Romania’s transition to an economy considerable efforts arebased
still needed for the energy
on the principles sector to development.
of sustainable contribute to Romania's transition to an economy based on the
principlesJudicious
of sustainable development.
value, energy resources contribute significantly to: (1) economic and social development,
Judicious value,
(2) improving the standard energy of resources
living of thecontribute
population, significantly
and (3) managingto: (1)strategic
economic and social
challenges/surprises.
development, (2) improving the standard of living of the population,
Overall, energy supply is essential, given that any gap in energy supply can have significant and (3) managing strategic
negative
challenges/surprises.
consequences on both socio-economics and the public. Romania fulfills the first condition ofcan
Overall, energy supply is essential, given that any gap in energy supply energy
have security,
significant negative consequences on both socio-economics and the public.
holding important energy resources that can support integrated cycles in certain industrial Romania fulfills the
first condition
branches. of energy security,
Theoretical potentialholding important
of RE largely energy
exceeds resources
all other energy that can support
forms [6]. In orderintegrated
to meet the
cycles in certain industrial branches. Theoretical potential of RE largely
world’s demand, an important factor that contributes to harvesting energy from renewable sources exceeds all other energy
formsand [6].toInuse
order
themtoasmeet the world's
the source of new,demand,
clean, and ansustainable
important energy
factor that contributes advancement
is technological to harvesting[7–9].
energy from renewable sources and to use them as the source of new, clean,
The shift to renewable energy is mandatory given that fossil fuel supplies 85.77% of the primary and sustainable energy energy
is technological advancement [7–9]. The shift to renewable energy is mandatory
consumption of the world [10,11]. Nowadays, a significant percentage (25.4% in 2014) of the total given that fossil fuel
supplies
energy85.77% of the primary
production in the EUenergy
comes consumption
from renewable of energy
the world [10,11].
sources [12].Nowadays,
In Romania, a significant
with more than
percentage (25.4% in 2014) of the total energy production in the EU comes
30% of its total electricity demand coming from RES [13], renewable energy production is significantly from renewable energy
sources [12]. In [14].
increasing Romania, with more than 30% of its total electricity demand coming from RES [13],
renewableRomaniaenergy production
has rich and is significantly
varied renewable increasingenergy[14].
resources: biomass, hydropower, geothermal
Romania has rich and varied renewable energy
potential, wind, concentrated solar power (CSP), and photovoltaic resources: biomass, hydropower,
energy. Theygeothermalare distributed
potential, wind, the
throughout concentrated
country andsolar can be power (CSP),
exploited on and photovoltaic
a wider scale as soon energy.
as theThey are distributed
performance-price ratio of
throughout
technologiesthe country and can
improves. Thisbelevelexploited
will onlyon abewider scaleby
achieved as maturing
soon as the newperformance-price ratio
generations of equipment
of technologies
and relatedimproves.
facilities. This
Romanialevelhaswilladvanced
only be achieved
the use of byamaturing
significant newpartgenerations
of the windofand equipment
photovoltaic
and related facilities. Romania has advanced the use of a significant part
energy potential. Evaluating the main renewable energy sources can be underlined that the least of the wind and photovoltaic
energy potential.
harmful to theEvaluating
environment theismain renewable
considered windenergy
energysources
[15,16]. can
At thebe same
underlined
time, itthat the least and
is sustainable
harmful to the environment
long-lasting, pollution-free,is considered wind energy
and eco-friendly [17–19].[15,16]. At the same time, it is sustainable
and long-lasting, pollution-free, and eco-friendly [17–19].
With a share of 24.7% in 2015, Romania has already achieved its 2020 target (24%) for renewable
energy due, in particular, to the size of its hydropower sector, which is responsible for about one
Energies 2018, 11, 3289 3 of 22
With a share of 24.7% in 2015, Romania has already achieved its 2020 target (24%) for renewable
energy due, in particular, to the size of its hydropower sector, which is responsible for about one third
of the installed power generation capacity, but also the evolution of wind energy (9.4% of the energy
generated in 2014) and the use of biomass for heating (16.6% of final energy consumption) [20]. As an
EU member state, Romania must achieve the target established by the EU that binds the member states
to reach a share of at least 27% of renewable energy in its gross final energy consumption [5].
The objectives of the article are: (1) to outline the energy structure in Romania; (2) to present
the evolution of the main renewable energy indicators in Romania; (3) to discuss the perspectives of
renewable energy in Romania when Romania intends to participate in achieving the European targets
for reducing CO2 emissions; (4) to indicate the challenges facing with the development of renewable
energy in Romania; and (5) to predict the development of renewable energy in Romania and propose
targeted countermeasures and suggestions.
The paper aims to present an overview of the different types of renewable energy resources,
their current and future states, their share in different economic sectors, and their benefits.
This study contributes to the existing body of knowledge in several ways. First, this paper is one
of the first contributions to the existing literature which shapes, in one review article, an overview
of the Romania energy sector, the impact and the development of renewable energy in Romania,
and outlines the future perspectives of this important economic sector. Secondly, this study is the
first attempt to investigate the overall renewable energy in Romania after the publication of Energy
Strategy of Romania 2016–2030 with the perspective of 2050, in the context of achieving the European
Union Climate change targets and UN Sustainable Development Goals.
2. Energy Structure in Romania

To have a complete overview of the Romanian energy structure, we choose to analyze the
evolution of the main energy indicators in comparison with other six former communist countries who
are also members of the EU. All the countries’ EU accessions were between 2004 and 2007, but they
have a different level of development. Romania has become an extremely exciting country in terms
of investment after EU accession. This is also due to the economic growth registered by this country
over the last period. The Romanian economy grew by 7% in 2017, compared to 2016, the largest
increase since 2008. In 2008, the Romanian economy grew by 7.1%, in real terms, compared to 2007.
In 2016, the Romanian economy grew by 4.8% and, in 2015, the Romanian economy advanced by 3.9%.
Though it can be observed that Romania’s gross energy consumption declined significantly after 1990,
reaching 377 TWh in 2015, equivalent to about 19 MWh per capita, and the final energy consumption
was 254 TWh. The modeling results estimate gross energy consumption in 2030 to 394 TWh (a 4%
increase) and final energy demand to 269 TWh (a 6% increase). Consumption of energy resources as
raw material is set to increase by 35% (6 TWh), while energy consumption and losses will decrease by
4 TWh.
The analysis of final energy consumption in 2015 (total 254 TWh) by type of energy consumption
brings to the fore the heating and cooling needs, estimated at 97 TWh (39%)—of which 76 TWh in
households and 21 TWh in the services sector (Figure 2). The consumption in industrial processes
(48 TWh) and in passenger transport (48 TWh) are the next ranked in descending order. The rest
of the industrial energy consumption is 27 TWh of final energy, and the freight transport consumes
the equivalent of 17 TWh. Electronic and household appliances, used by households and in services,
consumes 13 TWh (of which 10 TWh household consumption). Finally, the specific consumption of the
agricultural sector is 4 TWh.
Energies 2018, 11, 3289 4 of 22
100
100 87 86
87 86
80 75
80 75
65
65
60
60 48 45
48 45
40 35
40 28 35 27
26 28
26 27
20
20
0
0
2015 2030
Energy intensive industry 2015 Other industrial sectors 2030
Households
Energy intensive industry Other industrial sectors Households
Agriculture and services Transport
Agriculture and services Transport
2. Final energy demand by sectors in 2015 and 2030, Source:

Figure 2. Source: Own research based on National
Figure 2. Final energy demand by sectors in 2015 and 2030, Source: Own research based on National
Energy
Energy Regulatory
Regulatory Authority
Authority (ANRE)
(ANRE) data
data [20].
[20].
Energy Regulatory Authority (ANRE) data [20].
Natural
Natural gas,
gas, the
the main
main energy
energy resource
resource in in Romania,
Romania, hadhad aa share
share of of 29%
29% (111
(111 TWh)
TWh) in in the
the primary
primary
energy Natural
mix in gas, the
2015, main energy
followed by cruderesource
oil, in Romania,
with a share had
of 27%a share
(101 of 29% (Figure
TWh) (111 TWh) 3). in
A the primary
total of
energy mix in 2015, followed by crude oil, with a share of 27% (101 TWh) (Figure 3). A total of 65
65 energy
TWh of mix
coal in
(of 2015,
which followed
55 TWh by
of crude
lignite) oil,
and with
46 a
TWh share
as of 27%
biomass (101
were TWh) (Figure
consumed. 3).
NuclearA total
power of 65
TWh of coal (of which 55 TWh of lignite) and 46 TWh as biomass were consumed. Nuclear power
TWh of coal35(of
corresponds whichthe55 TWh of energy
lignite) andand 46 TWh as biomass were consumed. Nuclear power
corresponds to to 35 TWh
TWh inin the primary
primary energy mix mix and 26 26 TWh
TWh comes from
comes from RES to produce
RES to produce electricity
electricity
corresponds
(hydro, to 35 TWh in the primary energy mix and 26 TWh comes from RES to produce electricity
(hydro, wind,
wind, andand photovoltaic).
photovoltaic). The
The difference
difference between
between gross
gross energy
energy consumption
consumption and and the
the primary
primary
(hydro,
energy wind, and photovoltaic). The difference between gross energy consumption and the primary
energy mix
mix is
is given
given by the net
by the net export
export ofof electricity,
electricity, which
which cannot
cannot be be allocated
allocated by
by the
the type
type ofof resource.
resource.
energy mix is given by the net export of electricity, which cannot be allocated by the type of resource.
Renewable Coal
2030 – 394 TWh Renewable 10% Coal
energy
2030 – 394 TWh
22%energy 10%
Renewable 22% Coal
Renewable
energy 17% Coal
19%energy 17%
19%
Oil
Nuclear
25% Oil
9%Nuclear2015 – 377 TWh 25%
9% 2015 – 377 TWh
Oil
Nuclear 26% Oil
17%Nuclear 26%
17%
Natural gas
Natural gas
29%
29%
Natural gas
Natural gas
26%
26%
Figure 3. Structure of primary energy mix in 2015 and 2030, Source: Own research based on National
Figure 3. Structure of primary energy mix in 2015 and 2030, Source: Own research based on National
Energy Regulatory
Energy Regulatory Authority
Authority (ANRE)
(ANRE) data
data [20].
[20].
Energy Regulatory Authority (ANRE) data [20].
As
As can
canbe
beobserved
observedinin
Figure 4, biomass
Figure is the
4, biomass is most important
the most contributor
important in the renewable
contributor energy
in the renewable
As can be observed in Figure 4, biomass is the most important contributor in the renewable
mix in 2015,
energy mix with a share
in 2015, withofa63.9%.
share Almost oneAlmost
of 63.9%. third ofone
renewable
third ofenergy is provided
renewable energy by
is hydropower,
provided by
energy mix in 2015, with a share of 63.9%. Almost one third of renewable energy is provided by
ahydropower,
sector whichacan be extended
sector which caninbethe future, due
extended to the
in the fact due
future, that to
there
theare
factunfinished
that there investments in
are unfinished
hydropower, a sector which can be extended in the future, due to the fact that there are unfinished
this sector that were started before 1989.
investments in this sector that were started before 1989.
investments in this sector that were started before 1989.
Energies 2018, 11, x3289
FOR PEER REVIEW 55 of
of 21
22
0.6% 2.8%
9.7%
23.0%
63.9%
Geothermal Photovoltaic Wind Hydro Biomass/Waste
Figure 4. Structure of renewable energy mix in 2015, Source: Own research

Figure 4. Structure of renewable energy mix in 2015, Source: Own research
The latest Eurostat data (2016) shows that the final energy price in Romania is considerably
belowThethelatest Eurostat
European data (2016)
average for bothshows thatgas
natural theand
final energy price
electricity. in Romania
On electricity, is considerably
Romania had the
below the European average for both natural gas and electricity. On electricity,
sixth lowest EU average household price of 132 €/MWh, Bulgaria (96 €/MWh), Lithuania, Romania hadthe
theCzech
sixth
lowest
Republic,EUEstonia,
averageand household price€/MWh).
Croatia (131 of 132 €/MWh, Bulgariaconsumption,
For industrial (96 €/MWh),Romania
Lithuania,hadthe
theCzech
third
Republic, Estonia, and Croatia (131 €/MWh). For industrial consumption, Romania
lowest electricity price of 80 €/MWh, after Bulgaria and the Czech Republic (78 €/MWh), followed by had the third
lowest
Croatiaelectricity
(93 €/MWh) price
andof 80 €/MWh,
Estonia (96 after Bulgaria and the Czech Republic (78 €/MWh), followed by
€/MWh).
Croatia (93 €/MWh) and Estonia (96 €/MWh).
3. Main Renewable Energy Indicators Evolution
3. Main Renewable Energy Indicators Evolution
The selected indicators were analyzed in comparison with other six EU member countries to
The
obtain selected
a more indicators
significant were analyzed
overview. in comparison
The countries selected for with otherwere:
the study six EU member
Bulgaria, countries
Czech to
Republic,
obtain
Hungary,a more
Poland,significant
Slovenia, overview. TheAll
and Slovakia. countries selected
these states for the
are former study were:
communist Bulgaria,
countries Czech
in different
Republic, Hungary,development.
stages of economic Poland, Slovenia, and Slovakia. All these states are former communist countries
in different
One ofstages of economic
the most important development.
indicators in the field of renewable energy is Renewable Energy
Country Attractiveness Index (RECAI). Thein
One of the most important indicators the field
RECAI of 40
ranks renewable
countriesenergy
on the is Renewable Energy
attractiveness of their
Country
renewable Attractiveness Index (RECAI).
energy investment The RECAI
and deployment ranks 40 countries
opportunities [21]. Inon thesame
the attractiveness
time, RECAIof their
has
renewable
establishedenergy investment
itself as an industry andstandard
deploymentand opportunities
is widely regarded[21]. Inasthe same time,
providing RECAI
leading has
market
established
commentary,itself as an
analysis, andindustry
insights standard andrenewable
on the global is widelyenergy
regarded
sectoras[22].
providing
Analyzingleading market
this indicator
commentary,
(Table 1), it cananalysis, and that
be observed insights on the
Romania hasglobal renewable
an average energy regarding
attractiveness sector [22]. Analyzing
renewable this
energy.
indicator (Table 1), it can be observed that Romania has an average attractiveness regarding
renewable energy. Table 1. Romania scores in RECAI rankings.
Indicator name Value

Table 1. Romania scores in RECAI rankings.
All renewables 46
Indicator
Wind indexname Value 51
All renewables
Onshore index 46
55
Offshore index
Wind index 38
51
Solar index
Onshore index 33
55
Solar PV index
Offshore 45
38
Solar CSP
Solar index 330
Biomass 44
Solar PV 45
Geothermal 41
Solar CSP 0
Infrastructure 45
Biomass 44
Source: Own representation adapted from RECAI [22].
Geothermal 41
Infrastructure 45
To have an overview ofSource:
the renewable energy sector in Romania, we consider that a detailed
Own representation adapted from RECAI [22]
breakdown of the evolution of the main indicators is necessary. In terms of renewable energy, a series
To have has
of indicators an overview of the
been selected forrenewable energy
this research, sector in Romania, we consider that a detailed
including:
breakdown of the evolution of the main indicators is necessary. In terms of renewable energy, a series
1. indicators
of Renewable
has energies—primary production;
been selected for this research, including:
2. 1.Share
Renewable energies—primary production;
of renewables in electricity production;
2. Share of renewables in electricity production;
Energies
Energies 2018, 11,
11, x3289
FOR PEER REVIEW 66of
of21
22
3. 2018,
Renewable electricity output;
4.
3. Renewable electricity share
Renewable electricity of total electricity output; and
output;
3. 5.
4.Renewable electricity
Renewable
Renewable energy output;
consumption;
electricity share of total electricity output; and
4. Renewable electricity share of total electricity output; and
5. Renewable energy consumption;
3.1
5. Renewable Energies—Primary
Renewable Production
energy consumption;
According
3.1 Renewable to Eurostat, in renewable
Energies—Primary Productionenergy primary production are included all types of green
3.1. Renewable Energies—Primary Production
energy: wind, hydro, photovoltaic, bioenergy, and geothermal. At the EU level, renewable energy
According to Eurostat, in renewable energy primary production are included all types of green
According
primary to Eurostat,
production in renewable
is constantly increasingenergy primary
with an averageproduction
of 5%. Theare included
greatest all types
increase ofnoted
can be green
energy: wind, hydro, photovoltaic, bioenergy, and geothermal. At the EU level, renewable energy
energy:
in wind,
2012 and 2011hydro,
was thephotovoltaic, bioenergy,
only year when and geothermal.
this indicator decreases. At the EU level, renewable energy
primary production is constantly increasing with an average of 5%. The greatest increase can be noted
primary production
As can be seen isinconstantly increasing with
Figure 5, renewable an average
energy primaryof 5%. The greatest
production increaseincan
is increasing thebe noted
case of
in 2012 and 2011 was the only year when this indicator decreases.
in 2012 and 2011 was the only year when this indicator decreases.
Romania. Due to this fact, in Romania it was possible to achieve the EU targets in terms of share of
As can be seen in Figure 5, renewable energy primary production is increasing in the case of
As can
renewable be seen
since 2015.in
AtFigure 5, renewable
the level energy primary
of primary production from production
all productsisa constant
increasing in thestarting
decline case of
Romania. Due to this fact, in Romania it was possible to achieve the EU targets in terms of share of
Romania.
with Duebetomentioned.
2012 can this fact, in Romania it was possible to achieve the EU targets in terms of share of
renewable since 2015. At the level of primary production from all products a constant decline starting
renewable since 2015. At the level of primary production from all products a constant decline starting
with 2012 can be mentioned.
with 2012120,000
can be mentioned.
120,000
100,000
100,000
80,000
GWh GWh
80,000
60,000
60,000
40,000
40,000
20,000
20,000
0
Bulgaria Czechia Hungary Poland Romania Slovenia Slovakia
0
Bulgaria Czechia 2007Hungary
2010 Poland 2016
2013 Romania Slovenia Slovakia
2007 2010 2013 2016

Figure 5. Renewable energy primary production, Source: Own representation based on EUROSTAT
Figure
data 5. Renewable energy primary production, Source: Own representation based on EUROSTAT
[12].
Figure 5. Renewable energy primary production, Source: Own representation based on EUROSTAT
data [12].
data [12].
At the same time, it can be noticed that, compared to the other EU Member States, Romania
At the same time, it can be noticed that, compared to the other EU Member States, Romania
ranks second in terms of renewable energy primary production. Along with Poland, which ranks first
ranks Atsecond
the same time, of
in terms it can be noticed
renewable that,primary
energy compared to the other
production. EU with
Along Member States,
Poland, Romania
which ranks
in relation to this indicator, Romania is at a considerable distance from other former communist EU
ranks
first insecond in to
relation terms
thisof renewable
indicator, energyisprimary
Romania production.
at a considerable Along with
distance fromPoland, whichcommunist
other former ranks first
members.
in
EUrelation
members. to this indicator, Romania is at a considerable distance from other former communist EU
members.
3.2
3.2.Share
ShareofofRenewables
RenewablesininElectricity
ElectricityProduction
Production
The
3.2 Share
Theof share of
of renewable
Renewables
share energy
in Electricity
renewable energy sources
sources (Figure
Production (Figure 6)6) within
within the
the global
global power
power generation
generation mix
mix has
has
been growing
beenThegrowing quickly
quickly since
since the
the end
end of
of the
the 2000s
2000s [23].
[23].
share of renewable energy sources (Figure 6) within the global power generation mix has
been growing quickly since the end of the 2000s [23].
50.00
40.00
50.00
30.00
40.00
%
20.00
30.00
%
10.00
20.00
0.00
10.00
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
0.00
Share
Figure 6. 1997 1998 of
1999 renewables
2000 2001 2002in2003
electricity production
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 (%), worldwide
2009 2010 evolution,
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Source:
2016
Figure 6. Share of renewables in electricity production (%), worldwide evolution, Source: Own
Own representation based on Enerdata [23].
representation based on Enerdata [23].
Figure 6. Share of renewables in electricity production (%), worldwide evolution, Source: Own
representation based on Enerdata [23].
Energies 2018, 11, 3289 7 of 22
Between 2000 and 2016, the share of renewable energy registered an annual growth of 1.6%
Between 2000 and 2016, the share of renewable energy registered an annual growth of 1.6%
worldwide. The European Union recorded a 4.6% increase per year, which overtakes the increase by
worldwide. The European Union recorded a 4.6% increase per year, which overtakes the increase by
3.4%, reached by Europe as a continent.
3.4%, reached by Europe as a continent.
Romania did not exceed the EU average, having a 3.1%/year increase between 2000 and 2016.
Romania did not exceed the EU average, having a 3.1%/year increase between 2000 and 2016.
Analyzing the share of renewables in electricity production between 2015 and 2016, for Romania,
Analyzing the share of renewables in electricity production between 2015 and 2016, for Romania, it a
it a 7.8% increase can be observed. This value is 4.5% over the worldwide level, and 1.7% over the
7.8% increase can be observed. This value is 4.5% over the worldwide level, and 1.7% over the
European Union level, which indicates a significant involvement in renewable energy. At Romania’s
European Union level, which indicates a significant involvement in renewable energy. At Romania's
level, the fast expansion that took place at the EU level between 2006 and 2014 continues, even though
level, the fast expansion that took place at the EU level between 2006 and 2014 continues, even though
at the Union level the penetration of RES in the European Union power mix has been increasing more
at the Union level the penetration of RES in the European Union power mix has been increasing more
slowly since then.
slowly since then.
As can be observed in Figure 7, at the EU level, that the share of renewable energy in energy
As can be observed in Figure 7, at the EU level, that the share of renewable energy in energy
consumption is on an ascending trend. There are countries like Romania, Hungary, or Bulgaria that
consumption is on an ascending trend. There are countries like Romania, Hungary, or Bulgaria that
achieved the target share for 2020. It is expected that all the countries of the EU will achieve this limit
achieved the target share for 2020. It is expected that all the countries of the EU will achieve this limit
by the end of the current decade.
by the end of the current decade.
30
Share of renewable energy in energy
25
consumption (%)
20
2007
2010
15
2013
10 2016
TARGET
5
0
EU (28 Bulgaria Czechia Hungary Poland Romania Slovenia Slovakia
countries)
Figure 7. Share of renewable energy in energy consumption, Source: Own representation based on
Figure 7. Share of renewable energy in energy consumption, Source: Own representation based on
EUROSTAT data [12].
EUROSTAT data [12].
3.3. Renewable Electricity Output and Renewable Electricity Share of Total Electricity
3.3 Renewable Electricity Output and Renewable Electricity Share of Total Electricity
Renewable electricity is the quantity of electricity generated by renewable power plants in total
Renewable electricity isbythe
electricity generated allquantity
types ofofplants.
electricity
In generated
the renewable by renewable
power plantspowerareplants in total
included energy
electricity generated by all types of plants. In the renewable power plants are
generation factories that use renewable resources, including wind, solar PV, solar thermal, hydro, included energy
generation
marine,factories that use
geothermal, solidrenewable resources, municipal
biofuels, renewable including waste,
wind, liquid
solar PV, solar and
biofuels, thermal,
biogas.hydro,
Electricity
marine, geothermal,
production from solid
hydrobiofuels,
pumped renewable municipal[24].
storage is excluded waste, liquid biofuels,
The renewable and share
electricity biogas.
of total
Electricity production from hydro pumped storage is excluded [24]. The renewable electricity
electricity output (%) represents electricity generated by power plants using renewable resources as a share
of total electricity
share output (%)
of total electricity represents
output [24]. electricity generated by power plants using renewable
resources as a share has
Romania of total electricity
increased output [24].
its renewable energy output by 55% in the studied period, 1997–2014.
Romania has increased its renewable
The minimum output was in 2003, with energy output
a value of by
47.755% in the studied
PJ caused period,
by political 1997–2014.
tensions, economic
The minimum
stagnationoutput
and thewas agingin or
2003,
highwith
weara of
value of 47.7 capacities
production PJ caused(Figure
by political tensions,
8). From economicof the
the perspective
stagnation and the
renewable aging or
electricity high
share wear
with of production
respect capacities
to total electricity (Figure
output 8). From trend
a fluctuating the perspective of
can be highlighted.
the renewable electricity share with respect to total electricity output a fluctuating
The lowest point was also in 2003, 24%, when the renewable electricity share was affected by the same trend can be
highlighted.
causes asThe lowest point
renewable energywas also At
output. in the
2003, 24%,
level whenthe
of 2014, therenewable
renewable electricity
electricity share
share waswas
41.6% of
affected by the same causes as renewable energy output. At the level
total electricity output, with an ascending perspective for this indicator. of 2014, the renewable electricity
share was 41.6% of total electricity output, with an ascending perspective for this indicator.
Energies 2018, 11, 3289 8 of 22
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
100.0 97.7 8 of 21
90.0
68.0 72.8
80.0 73.1 72.5 97.7
100.0 66.1
63.1 65.8 62.0 58.7
70.0
90.0 57.8
53.7 59.5
72.8 56.0 53.7
60.0 68.0 57.6 73.1
80.0 53.2 47.7 72.5
65.8 66.1 62.0
50.0
70.0 63.1 58.7
53.7 57.8 59.5
40.0 56.0 53.7
60.0 57.6
30.0 53.2 47.7
50.0
20.0
40.0
10.0
30.0
0.0
20.0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
10.0
0.0 Renewable electricity output (PJ) Renewable electricity share of total electricity output (%)
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Figure 8. Renewable electricity
Renewable electricity output
output (PJ) evolution (TJ) vs renewable
Renewable electricity electricity
share of totalshare of total
electricity electricity
output (%)
output evolution (%), Source: Own representation based on EUROSTAT and World Bank data [12,24].
Figure
Figure 8. Renewable electricity
8. Renewable electricity output
output evolution
evolution (TJ)
(TJ) vs
vs renewable
renewable electricity
electricity share
share ofof total
total electricity
electricity
output evolution
output evolution (%), Source: Own representation based on EUROSTAT and World Bank data [12,24].
3.4 Renewable Energy (%), Source: Own representation based on EUROSTAT and World Bank data [12,24].
Consumption
3.4. Renewable
Renewable Energy
energyConsumption
consumption is the share of renewable energy in total final energy
3.4 Renewable Energy Consumption
consumption.
Renewable The first consumption
energy study, belonging is thetoshare
Kraftofand Kraft [25],
renewable energywhich investigates
in total final energy theconsumption.
relationship
Renewable
between energy energy consumption
consumption and is thegrowth,
economic share of renewable
started a segmentenergy that in
has total
been final energy
extensively
The first study, belonging to Kraft and Kraft [25], which investigates the relationship between energy
consumption. The first
researched. study, belonging to Kraftenergy
and Kraft [25], whichisinvestigates the relationship
consumptionApergis
and economicand Payne
growth, indicate
startedthat a segment that consumption
has been extensivelypositively associated
researched. with
Apergis
between
economic energy consumption and economic growth, started a segment that has been extensively
and Paynegrowth
indicate [26]. Contrariwise,
that energy consumptionin an empirical research
is positively for 27 European
associated countries,
with economic empirical
growth [26].
researched.
results do not Apergis
confirm and Payne
causality indicate
between that energy
renewable energy consumption
consumption is and
positively
gross associated
domestic with
product
Contrariwise, in an empirical research for 27 European countries, empirical results do not confirm
economic
(GDP) [27].growth [26]. Contrariwise, in an empirical research for 27 European countries, empirical
causality between renewable energy consumption and gross domestic product (GDP) [27].
results do
Energynot confirm causality abetween renewable energy consumption and gross domestic product
Energy consumption
consumption was was aspecial
specialissue issueresearched
researchedduringduringthe thetime.
time.A A significant
significant number
number of
(GDP) [27].
articles investigate the causal nexuses between CO emissions, economic growth and energy
of articles investigate the causal nexuses between CO2 emissions, economic growth and energy
2
Energy consumption
consumption was a special issue researched during renewable
the time. A significant number of
consumption [27–30].
[27–30]. Bhattacharya
Bhattacharya et et al.
al. investigate
investigate the the effects
effects of
of renewable energy energy consumption
consumption on on
articles
the investigate
economic growth the
of causal
major nexuses
renewable between
energy CO
consuming2 emissions, economic growth and energy
countries in the world [28]. In the same
the economic growth of major renewable energy consuming countries in the world [28]. In the same
consumption
time, Saidietet[27–30]. Bhattacharya the et al. investigate the effects of renewable
and CO2energy consumption on
time, Saidi al. al. investigate
investigate the impact impact of economic
of economic growth and growth
CO2 emissions emissions
on on energy
energy consumption
the economic
consumption growth
for aof of
global major renewable
panel of[30]. energy
58 countries [30]. consuming countries in the world [28]. In the same
for a global panel 58 countries
time,Renewable
Saidi et al. investigate the impact of economic growth and CO2consumption
emissions on energy
Renewable energy consumption isisthe
energy consumption the ratio
ratio between
between thethe gross
gross inland
inland consumption of energy
of energy from
consumption
from renewable forsources
a globalandpaneltheof 58 countries
total (primary) [30].
gross energy
inland consumption
energy consumption calculated for a
renewable sources and the total (primary) gross inland calculated for a calendar
Renewable[31].
calendar energy consumption is the ratio between the renewable
gross inland consumption ofa energy
year [31]. year
The share The share consumption
of energy of energy consumption
from renewable from energy provides energy provides
a broad indicationbroadof
from renewable
indication of sources
progress and the
towards total (primary)
reducing the gross inland
environmental energy
impact of consumption
energy calculated for a
consumption.
progress towards reducing the environmental impact of energy consumption.
calendar
As year [31]. The share Romania
of energy consumption from renewable energy renewable
provides a broad
As presented
presented in in Figure
Figure 9,9, Romania recorded recorded aa fluctuating
fluctuating trendtrend in in terms
terms of of renewable energy energy
indication
consumption. of progress
In the towards
period reducing
1997–2003, the
Romania environmental
was situated impact
below of
theenergy consumption.
worldwide average. Starting
consumption. In the period 1997–2003, Romania was situated below the worldwide average. Starting
with As presented2007,inRomania
Figure 9,beatRomania recorded
year athe fluctuating trend inThe terms of2007 renewable energy
with the year 2007,
the year Romania year after
beat year after year the world average.
world average. The year
year 2007 had had aa special
special
consumption.
significance In the period 1997–2003, Romania was situated below the worldwide average. Starting
significance for
for this
this country:
country: it it was
was thethe year
year of of Romania’s
Romania’s accession
accession to to the
the EU.
EU. For
For the
thestudied
studied period,
period,
with the year
1997–2014, 2007, Romania
Romania’s renewable beat year after
energy year the was
consumption world average.
above the EU The year 2007 had a special
average.
1997–2014, Romania’s renewable energy consumption was above the EU average.
significance for this country: it was the year of Romania’s accession to the EU. For the studied period,
1997–2014, Romania’s Romania renewable energy consumption World was above the EU average.
European Union
30.00 18.00
Romania World European Union 16.00
25.00
30.00 18.00
14.00
20.00 16.00
12.00
25.00
14.00
10.00
15.00
20.00 12.00
8.00
10.00 10.00
6.00
15.00
8.00
4.00
5.00
10.00 6.00
2.00
0.00 4.00
0.00
5.00
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2.00
0.00 0.00
Figure Renewable energy
9. Renewable energy consumption
consumption (% (% of total final energy
energy consumption),
consumption), Source:
Source: Own
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
representation based on World
World Bank
Bank data
data [24].
[24].
Figure 9. Renewable energy consumption (% of total final energy consumption), Source: Own
representation based on World Bank data [24].
Energies 2018, 11, 3289 9 of 22

Energies
Even if, 2018,
in11, x FORthis
2011, PEER REVIEW
indicator experienced a slight decrease (from 24.1% in 2010 to 21.1% 9 of in
21 2011)
due to the global

Even crisis,this
if, in 2011, after 2012 its
indicator trajectoryahas
experienced continually
slight improved.
decrease (from 24.1% inIn2010
2014tothe maximum
21.1% in 2011) value
Even if, in 2011, this indicator experienced a slight decrease (from 24.1% in 2010 to 21.1% in 2011)
due to
of renewablethe global crisis, after 2012 its trajectory has continually
energy consumption was reached for the studied period. improved. In 2014 the maximum value
due to the global crisis, after 2012 its trajectory has continually improved. In 2014 the maximum value
ofIn
renewable energy
Figure 10,energy consumption
can beconsumption was
highlightedwas reached
thatreached for
Romania the studied
records period.
theperiod.
second-best final energy consumption
of renewable for the studied
In Figure 10, can be highlighted that Romania records the second-best final energy consumption
after Poland. In almost all analyzed indicators, Romania
In Figure 10, can be highlighted that Romania records the second-best ranks second, in terms
final energy of renewable
consumption
after Poland. In almost all analyzed indicators, Romania ranks second, in terms of renewable energy
energy
afteramong
Poland.former
In almostcommunist
all analyzed countries.
indicators,ItRomania
can be outlined that in
ranks second, this country
terms tries toenergy
of renewable strengthen
among former communist countries. It can be outlined that this country tries to strengthen its
among former not
its performance
performance communist
only incountries.
the It cansector,
energy be outlined
but that regarding
also this countryitstries to strengthen
economic growth its and
not only in the energy sector, but also regarding its economic growth and environmental
performance
environmental not only in the energy sector, but also regarding its economic growth and environmental
performance.performance.
performance.
2016 2013 2010 2007
2016 2013 2010 2007
Slovakia
Slovakia
Slovenia
Slovenia
Romania
Romania
Poland
Poland
Hungary
Hungary
Czechia
Czechia
Bulgaria
Bulgaria
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000
Final energy consumption (GWh)
Final energy consumption (GWh)
Figure 10. Final energy consumption (GWh), Source: Own representation based on World Bank
Figure 10. Final energy consumption (GWh), Source: Own representation based on World Bank data [24].
data [24]. 10. Final energy consumption (GWh), Source: Own representation based on World Bank data [24].
Figure
3.5.3.4
Electrical
ElectricalCapacity
Capacity
3.4 Electrical Capacity
With With 11.16
11.16 GW GWinstalled
installedcapacity
capacity in 2016, Romania ranks firstfirst
of the seven EU countries analyzed
With 11.16 GW installed capacityin in2016, Romania
2016, Romania ranks
ranks first of of
thethe seven
seven EU countries
EU countries analyzed
analyzed
regarding
regarding renewable
renewable energyenergy installed
installed capacity
capacity (Figure(Figure
11). The11). The
weakest weakest installed
installedinstalled capacity
capacitycapacity
performance
regarding renewable energy installed capacity (Figure 11). The weakest
performance is recorded by Hungary, with only 1.12 GW, in 2016. Compared with 2005 a 622%
is recorded
performanceby Hungary,
is recorded with
by only 1.12 with
Hungary, GW, only
in 2016. Compared
1.12 GW, in 2016.with 2005 awith
Compared 622% increase
2005 a 622%of this
increase of this indicator is registered by Poland can be observed, especially between 2010 and 2013.
indicator
increaseis of
registered by Poland
this indicator can by
is registered bePoland
observed,
can beespecially
observed, between
especially 2010
between and20102013.and It reached
2013.
It reached 8.11 GW capacity in about 10 years, starting from 1.09 GW in 2005. In the case of Romania,
It reached
8.11renewable
GW capacity 8.11 GW capacity
in installed in
about 10capacityabout 10
years, startingyears, starting
from 46% from
1.09ofGW 1.09 GW in 2005. In the case of Romania,
energy means almost the in 2005.
entire In the capacity.
installed case of Romania, renewable
It is important
renewable
energy energy installed capacity means almost 46% ofinstalled
the entirecapacity.
installed capacity. It is important
to underline that all seven former communist countries made significant progress in termsunderline
installed capacity means almost 46% of the entire It is important to of
to
all underline
thatrenewable
sevenenergy that all
former seven former
communist communist
countries madecountries
significant made significant
progress progress
in terms in terms of
of renewable energy
installed capacity.
renewable energy installed capacity.
installed capacity.
12.00
12.00
10.00
10.00
8.00
8.00
GW
6.00
GW
6.00
4.00
4.00
2.00
2.00
0.00
0.00 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Figure 11. Renewable energy capacity evolution between 2005 and 2016 (GW), Source: Own
representation based on IRENA data [32].
Figure 11. Renewable energy capacity evolution between 2005 and 2016 (GW), Source: Own
Energies 2018, 11, 3289 10 of 22
representation based on IRENA data [32].
4. The Renewable Energy Sources and the Current Situation in Romania

4. The Renewable Energy Sources and the Current Situation in Romania
In the European Union, renewables account for 80% of new capacity and wind power becomes
In the European Union, renewables account for 80% of new capacity and wind power becomes
the leading source of electricity soon after 2030, due to strong growth both onshore and offshore [33].
the leading source of electricity soon after 2030, due to strong growth both onshore and offshore [33].
Renewable energy sources are steadily becoming a greater part of the global energy mix [34]. World
Renewable energy sources are steadily becoming a greater part of the global energy mix [34].
energy consumption rises 28% between 2015 and 2040 [35]. Renewables capture two-thirds of global
World energy consumption rises 28% between 2015 and 2040 [35]. Renewables capture two-thirds of
investment in power plants to 2040 as they become, for many countries, the least-cost source of the
global investment in power plants to 2040 as they become, for many countries, the least-cost source of
new generation [36].
the new generation [36].
The development of electricity production from renewable sources led to a decrease in GHG
The development of electricity production from renewable sources led to a decrease in GHG
emissions from the electricity generation process. The amount of greenhouse-gas emissions resulting
emissions from the electricity generation process. The amount of greenhouse-gas emissions resulting
from the production of electricity decreased from 438 g/kWh in 2011 to 326 g/kWh in 2015. The
from the production of electricity decreased from 438 g/kWh in 2011 to 326 g/kWh in 2015.
influence of renewable energy in domestic electricity was significant, mainly due to the replacement
The influence of renewable energy in domestic electricity was significant, mainly due to the replacement
of polluting fossil-fuel electricity.
of polluting fossil-fuel electricity.
Currently, the annual production of energy from renewable resources in Romania is
Currently, the annual production of energy from renewable resources in Romania is approximately
approximately 6550 ktoe (kilotons of oil equivalent). A technical potential of 8000 ktoe remains
6550 ktoe (kilotons of oil equivalent). A technical potential of 8000 ktoe remains unexploited,
unexploited, with biomass and biogas representing 47%, solar energy 19%, wind energy 19%,
with biomass and biogas representing 47%, solar energy 19%, wind energy 19%, hydropower energy
hydropower energy 14%, and geothermal energy 2%.
14%, and geothermal energy 2%.
4.1 Wind
4.1. Wind
Theshare
The shareofofwind
wind power
power in the
in the EU’s EU’s
totaltotal installed
installed powerpower capacity
capacity has increased
has increased from 6%fromin 6%
2005in
2005 to 18% in 2017. Having overtaken coal in 2016 as the second largest form
to 18% in 2017. Having overtaken coal in 2016 as the second largest form of power generation capacity of power generation
incapacity
the EU,in the EU,
wind powerwind power
is now is now
closely closelyup
catching catching up[33].
with gas with gas [33].
Wind energy generated by wind power remains advantageous, asasRomania
Wind energy generated by wind power remains advantageous, Romaniahas hasthe
thehighest
highest
potentialininSoutheast
potential SoutheastEurope
Europe inin the
the field
field ofof
windwind energy,
energy, andand Southeast
Southeast Dobrogea
Dobrogea is ranked
is ranked second
second in
in the continent. Wind turbines use a perpetual renewable energy that is
the continent. Wind turbines use a perpetual renewable energy that is never consumed and start fromnever consumed and start
afrom
windaspeed
wind of speed
onlyof3.5
only
m/s.3.5Inm/s. In Dobrogea
Dobrogea the speedthe speed is 7atm/s
is 7 m/s at a height
a height of 100ofmeters.
100 meters.
AsAscancanbe beobserved
observedininFigure
Figure12, 12,starting
startingwithwith2007,
2007,Romania
Romaniabeganbegantotoproduce
producewind-based
wind-based
energy. The primary production recorded a slight increase every year. If in
energy. The primary production recorded a slight increase every year. If in 2007 primary production 2007 primary production
was only 0.3 toe, in 2016 the primary production reached 566 toe. The greatest
was only 0.3 toe, in 2016 the primary production reached 566 toe. The greatest increase was registered increase was registered
inin2010
2010andandititconsists
consistsofofan
anenlarging
enlargingcapacity
capacitywith with3188%
3188%compared
comparedwith with2009.
2009.The
Theaverage
averageincrease
increase
of primary production in wind energy was 431% between 2007 and
of primary production in wind energy was 431% between 2007 and 2016. This trend was in accordance 2016. This trend was in
accordance
with withat
the increase the increase
the level ofatallthe level of all
renewable renewable
energy energy
sources. sources.
In 2016, In 2016,
a slight a slight
decrease decrease
of 7% in windof
7% in wind primary production can be highlighted. Simultaneously, wind
primary production can be highlighted. Simultaneously, wind gross inland production followed the gross inland production
followed
same trend.the same trend.
8000.0 80000
Renewable energies (GWh)
7000.0 70000
Primary production -
6000.0 60000
5000.0 50000
GWh
4000.0 40000
3000.0 30000
2000.0 20000
1000.0 10000
0.0 0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Gross inland consumption - Wind (GWh) Primary production - Wind (GWh)

Primary production - Renewable energies (GWh)
Figure 12.Main
Figure12. Mainwind
windindicators
indicatorsevolution
evolutionbetween
between2007
2007and
and2016,
2016,Source:
Source:Own
Ownresearch
researchbased
basedon
on
Eurostat data [12].
Eurostat data [12].
Energies 2018, 11, 3289 11 of 22
In Romania, five wind zones were identified, depending on the environmental and
In Romania, five wind zones were identified, depending on the environmental and topo-
topo-geographical conditions,
geographical conditions, considering
considering theoflevel
the level of thepotential
the energy energy potential of suchatresources
of such resources an averageat an
average height
height of 50 meters
of 50 meters and(Figure
and over over (Figure
13). 13).
Figure Romanian
13. 13.
Figure wind
Romanian windresources,
resources,Source:
Source: National Meteorological
National Meteorological Administration
Administration (ANM)
(ANM) [37].[37].
TheTheresults of the
results of recorded
the recordedmeasurements
measurements show thatthat
show Romania
Romaniais inisa temperate continental
in a temperate climate,
continental
withclimate,
high energy
with highpotential, especially
energy potential, in the littoral
especially and coastal
in the littoral areasareas
and coastal (mild climate),
(mild as as
climate), well
wellas in
as in
alpine alpine
areas areas
with with plateaus
plateaus and mountain
and mountain valleysvalleys (severe
(severe climate).
climate). It is Itestimated
is estimated that
that thethe annual
annual wind
wind
energy energy potential
potential in Romania in Romania
is aroundis around
23 TWh. 23 TWh.
In 2015,
In 2015, a total
a total of about
of about 27.327.3
GW GW of new
of new power
power generationcapacity
generation capacitywere wereconnected
connected inin the
the EU
EU and
and 18.2 GW were decommissioned, resulting in 9.1 GW of new net
18.2 GW were decommissioned, resulting in 9.1 GW of new net capacity. Renewable energy sourcescapacity. Renewable energy
sources (RES) accounted for 20.6 GW or 75.6% of all new power generation capacity [38].
(RES) accounted for 20.6 GW or 75.6% of all new power generation capacity [38].
Romania's wind potential is the highest in Southeast Europe [39]. The wind energy in Romania
Romania’s wind potential is the highest in Southeast Europe [39]. The wind energy in Romania
witnessed considerable development over the five-year period. A total of 75 wind farms with a power
witnessed considerable development over the five-year period. A total of 75 wind farms with a power
range from 0.008 to 600 MW and an average of 40 MW were built [39].
range from 0.008
At the to of
level 600 MW
2012, in and an average
Romania of 40 MW
were installed 923 were
MW that built [39].
represents an increase of 94% of the
At the
total windlevel of 2012,
power in Romania
capacity. Cumulative were installed
wind 923 MWofthat
power capacity represents
Romania an increase
has reached 1905 MW of 94%
at of
the total
the end of 2012, surpassing the estimates of ANRE and the National Action Plan for RenewableMW
wind power capacity. Cumulative wind power capacity of Romania has reached 1905
at the end of
Energy 2012,
[40]. surpassing the
Simultaneously, Tocanestimates of ANRE
has analyzed and investments
the main the National in Action Plan in
wind energy forRomania
Renewable
Energy
[40].[40]. Simultaneously,
Representative Tocan are
investments haspresented
analyzedin the main
Table 2. investments in wind energy in Romania [40].
Representative investments are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Major investments in Romanian wind energy production.
Table 2. Major investments in Romanian wind energy production.
Country of Capacity Total Investments
Company Place of Investment
Origin (MW) (EUR)Total Investments
Company Country of Origin Capacity (MW) Place of Investment
(EUR)
Cez Czech Republic 600 1.1 billion Fantanele-Cogealac
Cez Czech Republic 600 1.1 billion Fantanele-Cogealac
Tulcea and Caras Severin
Enel
Enel Green
Green Power
Power Italy
Italy 180180 330330
million
million Tulcea and Caras Severin County
County
GDF SUEZ France 48 80 million Braila County
GDF SUEZ France 48 80 million Braila County
Verbund Austria 100 320 million Tulcea County
Verbund Austria 100 320 million Tulcea County
Lukerg Russia & Italy 84 135 million Tulcea County
Lukerg
EDP Renewables Russia & Italy
Portugal 84 270 135200
million
million Tulcea County
Ialomita County
EDP Renewables Portugal 270 200 million Ialomita County
Source: Own research.
Source: Own research
As can be observed in the previous table, the main investor in wind energy in Romania is Cez.
On
Asthe
cansecond and third
be observed in place, both for table,
the previous installed
thecapacity and totalinofwind
main investor investments
energy are ranked Enel
in Romania is Cez.
Green Power and EDP Renewables.
On the second and third place, both for installed capacity and total of investments are ranked Enel
Green Power and EDP Renewables.
Dobrogea region became, in 2014, the largest wind farm in Central and Eastern Europe,
with hundreds of 2.5 MW wind turbines installed all over the Constanta County, in sites as:
Energies 2018, 11, 3289 12 of 22
Cogealac, Fantanele, Pestera, Independenta, Chirnogeni, Silistea, Targusor, and Crucea localities
and surrounding areas.
In April 2016 Romania’s electricity production accounted 23% of total energy production coming
from wind energy. According to the state-based transportation company, Transelectrica, the wind was
the second most important power source, after hydropower. In April 2016, the wind energy production
amounted to 1941 MW whereas hydropower reached 2192 MW, representing 26% of the total [41].
After 2017, one of the largest projects in the field is represented by the NERO Renewables project,
which intends to build in Romania three wind farms with 362 turbines and a total installed capacity of
about 1 GW, with 400 MW above the capacity of the Fântânele-Cogealac onshore park, currently the
largest of its kind in Europe [42]. Given that the Netherlands expects to miss the target of a 14% share
of renewable energy in total energy production for 2020 and Romania has already reached its 2020
target, NERO proposed to the Dutch Government to “adopt” the project in Romania. Thus, through the
European mechanism “joint projects” for cooperation in the renewable energy sector, the Netherlands
will be able to co-finance the wind farms developed by NERO in Romania, and the energy produced
by them will be included in the renewable energy production of the Netherlands. At the end of 2017,
Romania has 3209 MW installed wind power capacity. This means that 12.2% of the average annual
electricity demand is covered by wind [33].
Wind energy investments in 2017 were less geographically concentrated than in 2016. Wind energy
investments accounted for 52% of the new clean energy finance in 2017, compared to 86% in 2016.
Germany was the largest investor in 2017 with a total financing activity of €6.7 bn for the construction
of new onshore and offshore wind farms.
4.2. Photovoltaic
According to Romania Photovoltaic Market Outlook 2014–2025, Romania was one of the most
promising emerging markets for photovoltaic energy investments in 2013 amongst SEE countries [43].
Romania’s solar potential is widespread throughout the country. Romania benefits from about
210 sunny days per year. The southeastern region of Romania, the west, the center, and the east of the
country are the best places to place a solar park. Solar energy is quoted by many market specialists
with good chances to turn into the new boom in the green energy segment.
It is very difficult to assess the number of photovoltaic (PV) parks existing in Romania because no
institution centralizes this information and does not have a cumulative record. As of 2016, consulting
and comparing information from various sources, not all official, we found that 962 photovoltaic
power stations or photovoltaic parks with a combined installed capacity of 4871.66 MW were built up
to last year.
A total of 212 of them produce less than 1 MW and 112 have a production below 2 MW (Table 3).
Most PV parks are built in Ialomita county (59 parks), and the largest installed capacity is in Brasov
County, at 287.5 MW.
Table 3. No. of PV farms and installed capacity in Romania, 2016.
Region Number of PV Farms Installed Capacity (MW)

North-East 26 28.15
South-East 91 149.51
South Muntenia 302 827.95
Southwest Oltenia 134 393.47
West 96 148.85
Northwest 178 430.22
Center 110 568.93
Bucharest-Ilfov 25 17.58
Source: Own research
Energies 2018, 11, 3289 13 of 22
During
Duringthe
the1970s
1970sand and1980s,
1980s,Romania
Romaniawas wasananearly
earlyplayer
playerin
inthe
thesolar
solarpower
powerindustry,
industry,installing
installing
around
around 800,000
800,000 mm of
22 ofearly-technology
early-technologysolar solarcells,
cells,which
whichplaced
placedthe
thecountry
countrythird
thirdworldwide
worldwideas asfar
far
as
as the total surface of photovoltaic panels was concerned. Although the support scheme was oneof
the total surface of photovoltaic panels was concerned. Although the support scheme was one of
the
the main
main investment
investmentdrivers
driverslately,
lately, the
the solar
solar sector
sector has
has lagged.
lagged. In
In 2011
2011 the
the production
production ofof electricity
electricity
using
usingsolar
solarPV
PVwas
wasinsignificant
insignificantin
inRomania,
Romania,whilewhileininApril
April2012
2012only
onlytwotwoPV
PVplants
plantswere
wereoperational,
operational,
each
each amounting to 1 MW. The solar installed capacity recorded an increase from 500 kW in
amounting to 1 MW. The solar installed capacity recorded an increase from 500 kW in 2008
2008 toto
1.3
1.3 GW
GW inin 2016
2016 (Figure
(Figure 14).
14).
2 500
2 000
1 500
1 000
500
0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Electricity capacity (MW) Electricity generation (GWh)
Figure 14. Main photovoltaic indicators evolution between 2010 and 2016, Source: Own research based
Figure 14. Main photovoltaic indicators evolution between 2010 and 2016, Source: Own research
on Eurostat and IRENA data [32].
based on Eurostat and IRENA data [32].
The most important increase of the electricity capacity can be underlined between 2013 and 2014,
when Thethemost important
capacity increase
has grown from of the
761electricity
MW to 1293 capacity
MW. In can2013,
be underlined
the Romanian between 2013 and
incentive 2014,
structure
when the capacity
subsidizes up to a has totalgrown from 761
of six green MW to 1293
certificates MW. In 2013, the
per megawatt-hour of Romanian incentive structure
electricity produced. Demand
subsidizes up to a total of six green certificates per megawatt-hour
significantly exceeded expectations, and in response the Romanian Energy Regulatory Authority of electricity produced. Demand
significantly
(ANRE) recommendedexceeded expectations,
a reduction inand in certificates
green response the from Romanian
six to threeEnergy Regulatory
in March 2013. Authority
(ANRE) Therecommended a reduction
result of this incentive was in agreen
3361%certificates
increase fromin solarsix installations
to three in March over 2013.
the 30 megawatts
The result of this incentive was a 3361% increase in
installed in 2012. Romania’s rise is a byproduct of the longstanding forces governing solar installations over the 30PV megawatts
demand,
installed in 2012. Romania’s rise is a byproduct of the longstanding
which shifted development from region to region based on rapid changes to incentives. With an forces governing PV demand,
which shifted
attractive development
incentive program,from regioninsolation
acceptable to regionand based on rapid
geographic changes tofor
accessibility incentives.
vendors and With an
EPCs,
attractive incentive program, acceptable insolation and geographic
Romania met all the criteria for a strong PV market. However, similar to other markets, a rapid accessibility for vendors and
EPCs, Romania
phase-out met all the
of incentives criteria
caused for a strong
a significant PV in
drop market. However, similar to other markets, a rapid
installations.
phase-out of incentives caused a significant drop in installations.
4.3. Hydropower
4.3 Hydropower
Hydropower is one of the main contributors to the total electricity generation in Romania, with a
Hydropower
contribution of around is one30%of the main
of the totalcontributors to the total
power delivered to theelectricity
grid. In 2010generation in Romania,
hydropower witha
plants had
atotal
contribution of around 30% of the total power delivered
installed capacity of over 6400 MW and produced 19.8 TWh electricity [44]. to the grid. In 2010 hydropower plants had
a totalCompared
installed capacity
to 2008, of over 6400
in 2016 MW and produced
the hydropower installed19.8 TWh electricity
capacity [44]. from 6.38 GW to
slightly increase
Compared to 2008, in 2016 the hydropower installed
6.71 GW. Additionally, in the same period, a drop of the hydropower production, from capacity slightly increase from
1.466.38 GW to
Mtoe/year
6.71 GW.
in 2008 to Additionally,
1.25 Mtoe/year ininthe2016 same
can be period, a drop
remarked. Theoflargest
the hydropower
company in production,
the hydropower fromsector
1.46
Mtoe/year in 2008 to 1.25 Mtoe/year in 2016 can be remarked. The
is a state-owned company named Hidroelectrica. In 2017, this company produced 14.04 TWh in 208 largest company in the hydropower
sector is a state-owned
hydropower plants with company
6444 MW named Hidroelectrica.
installed power. At the In 2017,
level this company
of 2017, producedposted
Hidroelectrica 14.04 TWh
EUR
in
260208 hydropower
million gross profitplantsinwiththe 6444
first MWnine installed
months of power. At thewhen
this year, level its
of 2017, Hidroelectrica
turnover stood at EUR posted
525
EUR 260 million gross profit in the first nine months of this year, when
million [45]. At the level of 2016, the values of the produced energy and of the power installed in the its turnover stood at EUR 525
million
hydropower[45]. At the level
facilities in of 2016, theinvalues
operation Romaniaof the
areproduced
represented energy and4.
in Table of the power installed in the
hydropower facilities in operation in Romania are represented in Table 4.
Energies 2018,
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11, 3289
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22
Table 4. Hydropower facilities in operation, 2016.

Type of Facility Number of Plants Installed Power (MW) Energy Produced (GWh/year)
Largeofhydropower
Type Facility Number 107
of Plants 6104.5
Installed Power (MW) Energy Produced16,630.00 (GWh/year)
Type of Facility
Pump Number of5 Plants Installed Power91.5 (MW) Energy Produced n/a(GWh/year)
Large hydropower 107 6104.5 16,630.00
Small
Large hydropower
hydropower
Pump 418
1075 573.2
6104.5
91.5 1458.00
16,630.00
n/a
Pump
Small hydropower Total 5418 6769.7
91.5573.2 18,088.00
n/a
1458.00
Small hydropower Total 418 573.2
Source: Own 6769.7
research 1458.00
18,088.00
Total
In Romania, hydropower capacity has grown 6769.7
from year
Source: Own research to year. If in 18,088.00
2000 the electricity capacity
was 6120 MW, in 2016 it reached 6734 MW.Source: Own research
This means a 10% increase in capacity in 15 years (Figure
15).In Romania, hydropower capacity has grown from year to year. If in 2000 the electricity capacity
was 6120 MW, in 2016
In Romania, it reachedcapacity
hydropower 6734 MW.hasThis means
grown froma 10%
year increase
to year. Ifinincapacity
2000 theinelectricity
15 years (Figure
capacity
15).
was 6120 MW, in 2016 it reached 6734 MW. This means a 10% increase in capacity in 15 years (Figure8015).
25 000
70
2520 000
000 8060
7050
2015 000
000
6040
1510 000
000 5030
4020
5 000
10 000 3010
200
5 000 0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 10
0 Electricity capacity (MW) Electricity generation (GWh) Electricity production (TWh) 0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Electricity
Figure 15. capacity (MW) indicatorsElectricity
Main hydropower evolution generation
between(GWh)
2000 and 2016,Electricity
Source: production (TWh) after
Own research
Eurostat
Figure 15.data
Main[12].
hydropower indicators evolution between 2000 and 2016, Source: Own research after
Figure 15. Main hydropower
Eurostat data [12]. indicators evolution between 2000 and 2016, Source: Own research after
Eurostat
At the data
level[12].
of 2005, a slight decrease in electricity capacity was recorded, –7 MW. In 2014 the
Atincrease
largest the levelinofelectricity
2005, a slight decrease
capacity of 117inMWelectricity
added forcapacity was recorded,
the analyzed –7 MW.
period can In 2014 the
be remarked.
At
largest the level
increase
World Energyof 2005, a
in electricity slight
Trilemmacapacity decrease in
of 117 MW
2016 considers electricity
thatadded capacity
for the
emerging was recorded,
analyzedhave
economies period –7
thecanMW. In 2014
be remarked.
potential the
to double
largest
energy increase
World in electricity
Energy Trilemma
production capacity of 117
2016 considers
by 2050, including MW added for
that emerging
low-power the
hydropower analyzed
economies period
plantshave
[46].thecan be remarked.
In potential
the sametoreport
doubleis
World
energy Energy
production Trilemma
by 2050, 2016 considers
including that
low-power emerging economies
hydropower plantshave the
[46].
highlighted that hydropower contributes more than 16% of total energy needs and supplies 76% of Inpotential
the sameto double
report is
energy production
highlighted
total energy producedby 2050,
that hydropower including
from renewable low-power
contributes hydropower
moreInthan
sources. 16% of
Romania, plants
total
in 2016, the [46].
energy In theand
needs
exploitable same report
supplies
potential is
76%
reached
highlighted
of
69–75% of that
total energy hydropower
produced
its capacity. Anfrom contributes
renewable
important more
share of than
sources. 16% of total
In Romania,
the remaining energy needs
in 2016,
exploitable theand supplies
exploitable
potential, 76% of
potential
representing 6–8
total energy
reached produced
69–75% of its from renewable
capacity. An sources.
important In
shareRomania,
of the in 2016,
remaining the exploitable
exploitable potential
potential,
TWh/year, can be valued in the future. This represents a new installed capacity of approx. 1700–2700 reached
representing
69–75%
6–8 of its capacity.
MWTWh/year,
(Figure 16). can be Anvalued
important share
in the of theThis
future. remaining exploitable
represents potential,capacity
a new installed representing 6–8
of approx.
TWh/year,
1700–2700can MW be(Figure
valued16).in the future. This represents a new installed capacity of approx. 1700–2700
MW (Figure 16).
Technically Economically
Exploitable - In operation -
feasible - feasible - 9000-
8500-9500 MW 6769 MW
14435 MW
Technically 10000MW
Economically
Exploitable - In operation -
feasible - feasible - 9000-
8500-9500 MW 6769 MW
14435
Figure 16.MW 10000MW
Romanian hydropower potential, Source: Own research based on ANRE data [20].
Figure 16. Romanian hydropower potential, Source: Own research based on ANRE data [20].
To extend the hydropower network in Romania, the national authorities could speed the
completion of16.
ToFigure
extend various
Romanianplants at various
hydropower
the hydropower stagesinofSource:
potential,
network execution.
Romania,OwntheThere arebased
research
national14 authorities
large hydropower
on ANRE data [20].plants
could speed and
the
eight small hydropower plants with an installed capacity of 416 MW and an annual
completion of various plants at various stages of execution. There are 14 large hydropower plants energy output of
1329.40
To MWh/year,
extend the which were
hydropower started
network before
in 1989.
Romania, the national authorities
and eight small hydropower plants with an installed capacity of 416 MW and an annual energy could speed the
completion of various
output of 1329.40 plants atwhich
MWh/year, various stages
were of execution.
started before 1989.There are 14 large hydropower plants
4.4. Bioenergy
and eight small hydropower plants with an installed capacity of 416 MW and an annual energy
output of 1329.40isMWh/year,
4.4 Bioenergy
Romania the state ofwhich
Europewere
beststarted
suitedbefore 1989.
for bio-economy with a localization coefficient of
3.9. This means that the share of people working in the Romanian bio-economy is almost four
4.4 Romania is the state of Europe best suited for bio-economy with a localization coefficient of 3.9.
Bioenergy
times the share of those working in the bio-economy of the rest of the European Union. In fact,
This means that the share of people working in the Romanian bio-economy is almost four times the
thisRomania
"concentration"
is the in the
state ofbio-economy
Europe is mainly
best suited due
forof to a very large concentration
bio-economy of the laborofmarket
share of those working in the bio-economy the rest ofwiththe aEuropean
localization coefficient
Union. In fact,3.9.
this
This means that the share of people working in the Romanian bio-economy is almost four times the
share of those working in the bio-economy of the rest of the European Union. In fact, this
Energies 2018, 11, 3289 15 of 22
"concentration" in the bio-economy is mainly due to a very large concentration of the labor market in
agriculture in Romania.
in agriculture in Romania. One Oneof theofmost important
the most importantaspect that bio-economy
aspect that bio-economy refersrefers
to is bioenergy.
to is bioenergy.In
the
In category
the categoryof bioenergy
of bioenergy can becanincluded:
be included:(1) Solid biomass
(1) Solid biomassincluding
includingwaste; (2) Biogas
waste; and (3)
(2) Biogas and
Liquid Biofuels.
(3) Liquid Biofuels.
Biomass
Biomassisisand andwillwillremain
remainthe themain
maintype
typeofofRESRESininRomania.
Romania.The The main
main form
formofof energy
energybiomass
biomass
produced
producedininRomania
Romaniaisisfirewood
firewood(95%),(95%),being
beingananimportant
importantgenerator
generatorofofGHG.GHG.Data Dataonon solid
solidbiomass
biomass
production presents
production presents a higha high degree of uncertainty (about 20%) compared to a
of uncertainty (about 20%) compared to a central estimate of 42central estimate ofTWh
42
TWh in 2015,
in 2015, uncertainty
uncertainty also reflected
also reflected in heating
in heating consumptionconsumption
and energy andbalances
energy of balances
Romania. of Romania.
Household
Household firewood consumption is estimated at 36 TWh; with the mention
firewood consumption is estimated at 36 TWh; with the mention that the predominant biomass is used that the predominant
biomass is used inofthe
in the production production
heat, respectively of heat,
heat and respectively
electricity heat and electricity
in cogeneration. Thein cogeneration.
modeling results The
show
modeling resultsin
a 20% decrease show a 20%consumption
firewood decrease in firewood consumption
by 2030, which will leadby to2030, which
a slight will lead
decrease to a slightto
in production
decrease
39 TWh.in production to 39 TWh.
WeWeare arecloser
closertotothethetruth
truthconsidering
consideringbiomassbiomassasasa abridgebridgebetween
betweenfossilfossilresources
resourcesand andtruly
truly
non-polluting
non-pollutingresources—so,
resources—so,atatbest; best;the
theuseuseofofbiomass
biomass can
can mean
mean a period
a period ofoftransition,
transition, long
longenough,
enough,
towards
towardsa atrulytrulynon-polluting
non-pollutingenergy energysystem.
system.For Fornow,
now,the theEuropean
EuropeanCommission's
Commission’sreport reportonlyonly
succeeds
succeedsininhighlighting
highlightingthe thebenefits
benefitsofofbiomass
biomassover overthetheuseuseofoffossil
fossilresources,
resources,but butatatthe
thesame
sametime time
highlights
highlightsthe thepossible large-scale risks
possible large-scale risksthat
thatinefficient
inefficient useuse of biomass
of biomass can bring.
can bring. Thus,Thus,
it wouldit would
require
require a reassessment
a reassessment of the importance
of the importance biomass biomass
has to hashavetoinhave in theof
the plans plans
the EU of the EU countries.
countries.
Starting
Startinginin2009,
2009,a acontinuous
continuousgrowth growthboth bothforforelectricity
electricitycapacity
capacityand andelectricity
electricitygeneration
generationcan can
bebeobserved (Figure 17). The greatest growth of this indicator can be highlighted
observed (Figure 17). The greatest growth of this indicator can be highlighted between 2013 and between 2013 and
2014,
2014,atat126%.
126%.This Thisincrease
increase is is
due
duetotoseveral
severalmajormajorinvestments
investments ininthe
thefield
fieldofofbiomass
biomassofofwhich whicha a
significant
significant one inaugurated is Genesis BIOPARTNER. It is a Romanian holding company formedinin
one inaugurated is Genesis BIOPARTNER. It is a Romanian holding company formed
partnership
partnershipwith withBaupartner
BaupartnerRomania Romaniaand andVireo
VireoEnergy
Energyfrom fromSweden
Swedenwith withaacapacity
capacityofof11MW/h MW/h
electric
electricand
and 1.2 MW/h heat
1.2 MW/h heatand andprocess
process 49 49
tonstons
dailydaily
amountamount of organic
of organic substrate.
substrate. The involved
The project project
involved an investment
an investment of approximately
of approximately 5 million5EUR million[47].EUR [47]. Another
Another major investment
major investment in the
in the field, field,
11 million
11EUR,
million EUR, was made, starting in
was made, starting in 2012, by KDF Energy. 2012, by KDF Energy.
4,500.0 500
4,000.0 450
3,500.0 400
350
3,000.0
300
2,500.0
250
2,000.0
200
1,500.0
150
1,000.0 100
500.0 50
0.0 0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Biomass - Gross inland consumption Biomass - Electricity capacity (MW) Biomass - Electricity generation (GWh)
Figure 17. Main indicators evolution for biomass, 2000–2016, Source: Own research based on Eurostat
Figure 17. Main indicators evolution for biomass, 2000–2016, Source: Own research based on Eurostat
data [12].
data [12].
In terms of biomass electricity generation, the most important increase can be observed between
2009 Inand
terms of biomass
2010. If in 2009electricity
the valuegeneration, the most
of this indicator was important
10 GWh, inincrease can be observed
2010 it reached 110 GWh.between
Another
2009 and 2010. If in 2009 the value of this indicator was 10 GWh,
significant increase was between 2013 and 2014, from 202 GWh to 454 GWh. in 2010 it reached 110 GWh. Another
significant increase
Starting was from
in 2010, between
the 2013 and 2014,
perspective of from 202 GWh
primary to 454 and
production GWh. gross inland consumption,
Starting
it can be seenina2010, fromcorrelation
negative the perspective
(Figureof18).
primary production
A bigger value of and
grossgross inland
inland consumption,
consumption is dueitto
can
imports in the field of liquid biofuels, because major companies in fuel distribution are foreigndue
be seen a negative correlation (Figure 18). A bigger value of gross inland consumption is to
entities.
imports
For the in the field
analyzed of liquid
period, biofuels,
the total amount because
of biogas major companies
production in fuel distribution
was consumed are foreign
by the domestic market.
entities. For the analyzed period, the total amount of biogas production
Since 2014, biogas primary production is decreased from 19.3 to 17.7 Mtoe in 2016. was consumed by the
domestic market. Since 2014, biogas primary production is decreased from 19.3 to 17.7 Mtoe in 2016.
Energies 2018, 11, 3289 16 of 22
300.0 30.0
27.3
257.1
250.0 25.0
224.8 202.9
203.3
200.0 19.3 20.0
186.6 18.3
19.6
17.7
165.1 167.1
150.0 15.0
116.1 13.1
128.0
100.0 10.0
78.8
50.0 5.0
3.1
0.6
1.3
0.0 1.1 0.0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Liquid biofuels - Primary production Liquid biofuels - Gross inland consumption
Biogas - Primary production
Figure 18. Main indicators evolution for biofuels and biogas, 2007–2016, Source: Own research based
Figure 18. Main indicators evolution for biofuels and biogas, 2007–2016, Source: Own research based
on Eurostat data [12].
on Eurostat data [12].
The Bio-Based Industries Consortium (BIC) report has identified the main local biomass sources
The Bio-Based Industries Consortium (BIC) report has identified the main local biomass sources
that could be used as sustainable raw materials for bio-industries as well as key actors in relevant
that could be used as sustainable raw materials for bio-industries as well as key actors in relevant
sectors and industry-based development opportunities based on these activities [48].
sectors and industry-based development opportunities based on these activities [48].
According to the same report, agriculture and forestry, together with other industries, such as
According to the same report, agriculture and forestry, together with other industries, such as
food processing, the wood industry, and the paper and pulp industry, can produce large quantities of
food processing, the wood industry, and the paper and pulp industry, can produce large quantities
waste and other unused or less used materials, being available as raw material for biomass processing
of waste and other unused or less used materials, being available as raw material for biomass
industries [48].
processing industries [48].
In 2012, Transelectrica reported that there are about 35 MW using agricultural or forestry waste to
In 2012, Transelectrica reported that there are about 35 MW using agricultural or forestry waste
produce light, which means that the field has already attracted investments of 70 million EUR.
to produce light, which means that the field has already attracted investments of 70 million EUR.
In 2017, a new state aid scheme to support investments in ‘less exploited’ renewable resources,
In 2017, a new state aid scheme to support investments in ‘less exploited’ renewable resources,
such as biogas, biomass and geothermal energy, has been approved in Romania. The new support
such as biogas, biomass and geothermal energy, has been approved in Romania. The new support
scheme from the Romanian government has a total budget of over EUR 100,000 ($107,000). A total
scheme from the Romanian government has a total budget of over EUR 100,000 ($107,000). A total of
of 85% of the budget comes from the European fund for regional development and 15% from the
85% of the budget comes from the European fund for regional development and 15% from the state’s
state’s funds.
funds.
5. Perspectives on Renewable Energy Development
5. Perspectives on Renewable Energy Development
The renewable energy sources to be stimulated in Romania for the period 2030–2050 are: wind
Thehydropower,
energy, renewable energy sourcesenergy,
geothermal to be stimulated
biomass, in Romania
and for the period
solar energy. 2030–2050
As previous are: wind
research has
energy, hydropower, geothermal energy, biomass, and solar energy. As previous
underlined, Romania has the potential for green energy production as follows: 65% for biomass, research has
underlined,
17% for wind Romania
energy, has
12%the
forpotential for green
solar energy, 4% forenergy
smallproduction
hydropower as plants,
follows:and
65%2% forfor
biomass, 17%
geothermal
for wind
energy energy, 12% for solar energy, 4% for small hydropower plants, and 2% for geothermal
[49].
energy [49].
Moreover, the European Parliament voted for a project that requires 35% of Europe’s energy
Moreover,inthe
consumption European
2030 Parliament
to be renewable. voted
Each for a project
Member that
State will requires
have 35%
a target of Europe's
from which it energy
will be
consumption in 2030 to be renewable. Each Member State will have a target from which
able to deviate by a maximum of 10%, under certain conditions, including Romania. In 2030, each EU it will be
able to deviate by a maximum of 10%, under certain conditions, including Romania. In 2030,
Member State will have to ensure that 12% of the energy consumed in the transport sector comes from each EU
Member
renewable State will have to ensure that 12% of the energy consumed in the transport sector comes
sources.
from According
renewable to sources.
a map compiled by the National Meteorological Administration, this potential is
According to a map compiled by the National Meteorological Administration, this potential is
allocated zonal as follows:
allocated zonal as follows:
1. Danube Delta—photovoltaic;
1. Danube Delta—photovoltaic;
2. Dobrogea—wind and photovoltaic;
2. Dobrogea—wind and photovoltaic;
3. Moldova—small hydropower, wind and biomass;
Energies 2018, 11, 3289 17 of 22

3. Moldova—small hydropower, wind and biomass;
4. 4. Carpathians
Carpathians Mountains—biomassMountains—biomass and small hydropower;
and small hydropower;
5. 5. Transylvania—small
Transylvania—small hydropower; hydropower;
6. Western Plain—geothermal;
6. Western Plain—geothermal;
7. Subcarpathian—biomass and small hydropower; and
7. Subcarpathian—biomass and small hydropower; and
8. Romanian plain—biomass, geothermal and photovoltaic.
8. Romanian plain—biomass, geothermal and photovoltaic.
In order to encourage companies and householders to develop such systems, the Romanian
In order to encourage
government has createdcompanies
support tools and such
householders
as the green to develop suchmarket,
certificates systems, the Romanian
investment financing
government has created support tools
solutions, or incentive regulatory framework. such as the green certificates market, investment financing
solutions,Policies
or incentive
continueregulatory framework.
to support renewable electricity worldwide, increasingly through competitive
Policies continue to support renewable
auctions rather than feed-in tariffs, and electricity worldwide, increasingly
the transformation of the powerthrough sector competitive
is amplified by
auctions
millions of households, communities and businesses investing directly in distributedby
rather than feed-in tariffs, and the transformation of the power sector is amplified millions
solar PV.
of households, communities and businesses investing directly in distributed
The electricity produced in Romania, between 2011 and 2015, increased by approximately 4.5%, solar PV.
The the
and electricity
reduction produced in Romania,emissions
in greenhouse-gas between 2011 fromand the 2015, increased
electricity by approximately
production 4.5%, by
process decreased
and 5.8
the million
reduction tons. This decrease reflects the change-over in the electricity production process,byfrom
in greenhouse-gas emissions from the electricity production process decreased
5.8 million
fossil fuels, This
tons. decreasecoal,
particularly reflects
to the change-over
electricity in thefrom
generated electricity production
renewable sources,process, from fossilwind
in particular,
fuels,power.
particularly coal, to electricity generated from renewable sources, in particular, wind power.
For 2030, the estimations
For 2030, the estimations show a more
show significant
a more increase
significant increaseonlyonly
for energy
for energyconsumption
consumption in thein the
machine, machinery, and equipment industry, respectively, in freight
machine, machinery, and equipment industry, respectively, in freight transport. Heating transport. Heating consumption
is likely to decrease
consumption is slightly
likely toby increasing
decrease energy
slightly by efficiency.
increasing energy efficiency.
In the medium and long term, an
In the medium and long term, an increase increase in e-mobility
in e-mobility is expected, eliminating
is expected, exhaust
eliminating fumes,
exhaust fumes,
especially in the urban environment. For the electric vehicle to contribute
especially in the urban environment. For the electric vehicle to contribute substantially to reducing substantially to reducing
air pollution, the energy
air pollution, the energytransition to renewable
transition to renewable energy sources
energy and and
sources otherother
low-emission
low-emission electricity
electricity
technologies,
technologies,or sustainable
or sustainable technologies
technologies for for
storing significant
storing significant amounts
amounts of of
electricity,
electricity,will have
will havetoto be
be completed.
completed.
For For
the year
the year2030, an an
2030, optimal
optimal scenario
scenario shows
shows a decrease
a decreaseininnaturalnaturalgas gastoto106
106 TWh
TWh (27%),
(27%), the
the maintenance of crude oil consumption (26%) and the reduction of
maintenance of crude oil consumption (26%) and the reduction of coal's contribution. Instead, the coal’s contribution. Instead,
the contribution
contributionofofnuclear
nuclearenergy
energy is is
doubled
doubled and andenergy
energy fromfrom biomass
biomass(including
(including biogas) increases
biogas) to to
increases
51 TWh. Renewable energy capacities in electricity generation grow
51 TWh. Renewable energy capacities in electricity generation grow to 37 TWh (Figure 19). to 37 TWh (Figure 19).
Biomass/Waste
Hydro
Wind
Photovoltaic
Geothermal 2030 (GWh) 2015 (GWh)
Figure
Figure 19. Renewable
19. Renewable energy
energy mix evolution
mix evolution between
between 2015 2015 and 2030,
and 2030, Source:
Source: OwnOwn research
research basedbased
on on
ANREANRE data [20].
data [20].
For For
Romania, frequent
Romania, changes
frequent changesto the Green
to the Certificates
Green support
Certificates scheme
support in recent
scheme years,
in recent years,
aggregated with the country-specific risk of an emerging economy, place the cost of RES
aggregated with the country-specific risk of an emerging economy, place the cost of RES capital at capital
at one ofof
one the highest
the highestlevels inin
levels the EU.
the EU.Therefore,
Therefore,there is is
there a risk that
a risk Romania’s
that Romania'sequitable
equitableparticipation
participation in
in meeting
meetingthe EU’s
the EU'scommon
common targets forfor
targets RES
RESinin
2030 will
2030 willbebe
costly.
costly.
Access to the current green certificates support scheme closed at the end of 2016, so new
investments in wind, photovoltaic, micro-hydro power, or biomass capacities are unlikely in the
period 2017–2020, except those receiving co-financing from European Structural Funds.
Energies 2018, 11, 3289 18 of 22
Access to the current green certificates support scheme closed at the end of 2016, so new
investments in wind, photovoltaic, micro-hydro power, or biomass capacities are unlikely in the
period 2017–2020, except those receiving co-financing from European Structural Funds.
In an optimistic scenario, after 2020, Romania is succeeding in attracting investment in
new RES-based capacities by reducing capital costs without the need for new support schemes.
This development enhances competitiveness in attracting investment in related industries. Under low
capital cost and without a support scheme, a gradual increase of 1500 MW wind power and 1400 MW
of photovoltaic capacity over the 2020–2030 period is projected. In total, the increase in RES-based
capacity between 2017 and 2030 will be lower than in 2011–2016.
Biomass occupies a central place in the electricity mix, but the development potential is still
high, especially through efficiency and the introduction of new technologies such as biorefineries and
biogas production capacities. Judicious management of the forest fund is a basic condition for the
energetic use of wood. Geothermal and solar resources are only marginally exploited in Romania,
with substantial potential for increasing the use of these resources in the future decades.
Biomass is the main form of RES in Romania’s energy mix and will retain this role in the long
run. After 2030, the analysis of the potential for biomass development at European level indicates the
possibility of a considerable increase of the surface area used in Romania effectively in annual and
perennial lignocelluloses cultures. Total biomass production in Romania could increase from 47 TWh
in 2015 to 184 TWh in 2050, of which 119 TWh are lignocellulose biomass cultures. Thus, biomass
could become Romania’s main energy product, as much of it could be for exports, after transformation
into finished energy products with high added value. The problem of waste management will be
solved by transforming into energy products, biogas production, and energy-producing oils, but the
resulting volume is lower than the potential of lignocelluloses plants.
A 45 TWh increase in RES is allocated, almost equal between wind, solar, and geothermal.
Hydropower is not expected to increase substantially, but growth is not excluded if new investments
are made in hydroelectric power plants on the main water courses—the greatest potential is still on
the Danube.
There is also a need for strategies to ensure energy security. Thus, by 2030, Romania should
streamline the capacity and the way of electricity production. Modern and flexible technologies are
required to deliver optimal energy and reduce carbon emissions. The digitization of the entire sector,
especially in terms of transport and distribution of energy should be considered.
The production of biofuels and biogas has a high potential. In 2015, the production was 1500 GWh
for biofuels and 450 GWh for biogas. For 2030, the modeling results indicate an increase of 4100 GWh
of biofuels, amid the development of the agricultural sector and, to a lesser extent, the upgrading of
sewage treatment plants. These values can help to reach the national required target for 2020 of 10%
RES share in the transport sector.
Waste energy production may increase in Romania, but the focus should be on selective collection,
recycling, and recycling of raw materials rather than incineration.
In the short term, the following measures are proposed to ensure the development of the energy
sector: strategic stocks and enough capacity reserves; ensuring the calibration of the National Energy
System; balancing, backup, and storage systems; protection of critical infrastructure from cyber-attacks
or terrorism.
Long-term domestic measures refer to: increasing the capacity of energy governance—legislation,
regulations, and administrative acts; maintaining a diversified and balanced energy mix as well as a
high level of demand-side coverage with internal resources; maintaining an integrated nuclear cycle
and providing expertise in the nuclear field; completing investment in transport and distribution
networks in order to increase their efficiency and achieve the transition to smart grids; and reducing
energy poverty, including by increasing energy efficiency for vulnerable consumers.
From the GHG reduction perspective, Romania can propose a series of targets that can be achieved
by 2050 with the improvements and adjustments presented below (Table 5).
Energies 2018, 11, 3289 19 of 22
Table 5. Decarbonization targets for 2020, 2030, and 2050.
Indicator Unit 2015 2020 2030 2050

GHG reduction % compared to 1990 54 55 62 75
GHG reduction—non-ETS
% compared to 2005 8 0 2 30
(Emission Trading System)
Share of RES % 26.3 24 27 47
Share of RES–energy % 43.7 44 55 78
Share of RES–transportation % 4.6 10 13 60
Energy intensity toe/mil €2013 319 300 170 50
Source: Own research based on Eurostat, World Bank and IRENA data [24,32]
Based on actual perspectives of development for the energy sector, the GHG reduction compared
to 1990 will be only 75%. The European target for this indicator is 80%, but Romania can have a
reasonable contribution. It is expected that Romania reaches the 10% target for the share of RES in
transportation by 2020. If by 2020, the increase in the RES–transportation share will be supported
by the biofuel mix in petrol and diesel until the 10% target is reached; in 2020–2030, the share of
RES–transportation will grow especially because of the increase in the share of electric mobility, on the
railway and road segments.
For Romania, an 80% GHG reduction by 2050 is not excluded, but it is possible only by
maturing new technologies, along with cost savings. The energy sector contributes essentially to
the development of Romania through its profound influence on the competitiveness of the economy,
the quality of life, and the environment. The Romanian energy sector needs to become more robust
economically, technologically advanced, and less polluting in order to sustain long-term consumer
expectations. There are five major themes that are highlighted that should be developed until 2030,
including: (1) storage and energy mix; (2) infrastructure; (3) the role of biomass in households heating;
(4) increasing buildings energy efficiency; or (5) mitigating energy poverty.
6. Conclusions
Several factors are making Romania emerge as an attractive and alternative location for renewable
energy investors who are increasingly concerned about lower returns from more established markets
in the Western European countries.
It can be observed that electricity demand in Romania declined starting with the 1990s and several
older thermal power stations have been decommissioned. In the last years, due to the fact that Romania
registered a continuous economic growth, the economy expands, and the demand is steadily growing.
This trend is expected to continue in future decades. Therefore, Romania was able to meet its target of
covering 24% of its final energy consumption from renewable sources much in advance (2013) of the
2020 deadline.
A 7% primary energy demand is estimated between 2030 and 2050, from 394 to 365 TWh. The share
of fossil fuels in the primary energy mix also drops, from 61% to 47%, being replaced by RES, increasing
from 22% to 35%.
Romania cannot assume an ambitious RES target for 2030, the target proposed to the European
Commission is 27%. A faster increase in the share of RES is possible, but it could compromise the
objective of raising the quality of life in rural areas.
Romania could introduce a support mechanism for developing the potential of biomass in modern
and efficient forms, but further development of photovoltaic and solar photovoltaic parks will continue
only when the cost of these technologies makes them competitive without support schemes. This is
expected to take place in the next decade, so new photovoltaic and photovoltaic capacities will be
built in Romania even in the absence of a support scheme after 2020. The modeling results confirm a
gradual but more sustained increase in capacity wind and photovoltaic for the entire 2020–2030 period.
Energies 2018, 11, 3289 20 of 22
Author Contributions: Conceptualization: Ş.D.C. and A.C.; data curation: A.C.-D.; formal analysis: M.T.F.;
funding acquisition: C.S.M.; investigation: A.C. and A.C.-D.; methodology: Ş.D.C. and A.C.; project
administration: Ş.D.C. and A.C.; Resources, C.S.M., A.C., A.C.-D., and M.T.F.; supervision: Ş.D.C.; validation:
C.S.M.; Visualization, C.S.M. and M.T.F.; writing—original draft: A.C. and A.C.-D.; writing—review and editing:
Ş.D.C. and C.S.M.
Funding: This research and the APC was funded by the project “ESPESA—Electromechanical Systems and Power
Electronics for Sustainable Applications”, Horizon 2020, project number 692224.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Current Situation and Future Perspectives of the Romanian Renewable

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Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21

2. Energy Structure in Romania

2. Final energy demand by sectors in 2015 and 2030, Source:

Geothermal Photovoltaic Wind Hydro Biomass/Waste

Figure 4. Structure of renewable energy mix in 2015, Source: Own research

Indicator name Value

2007 2010 2013 2016

Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 21

Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 21

due to the global

4. The Renewable Energy Sources and the Current Situation in Romania

Gross inland consumption - Wind (GWh) Primary production - Wind (GWh)

Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 21

Table 3. No. of PV farms and installed capacity in Romania, 2016.

Region Number of PV Farms Installed Capacity (MW)

Electricity capacity (MW) Electricity generation (GWh)

Table 4. Hydropower facilities in operation, 2016.

0 Electricity capacity (MW) Electricity generation (GWh) Electricity production (TWh) 0

Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 21

Geothermal 2030 (GWh) 2015 (GWh)

Table 5. Decarbonization targets for 2020, 2030, and 2050.

Indicator Unit 2015 2020 2030 2050

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