3 Steel in stadium engineering
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Structural steelwork, in all its various forms, has the
versatility that enables architects and engineers to give full
vent to their imagination and produce safe, innovative,
attractive and highly diverse design concepts.
Due to the reliability and consistency of its manufacturing
quality, steel is one of the most versatile of the traditional
construction materials available today. Due to its inherent
strength-to-weight ratio, it can span long distances grace-
fully and economically. This, allied with its reduced need
for internal supporting columns, achieves flexibility for
future occupancy in stadia construction.
Using modern corrosion protection systems, steel con-
struction can provide a structure with a relatively long life
span. Also a significant residual value can be achieved –
when the life of the structure is at an end, the steel frame
can be recycled.
In stadia projects, in particular, the frame can be pre-
fabricated off-site and, at the same time, the foundation
work can be carried out. This enables shorter construction
periods to be achieved, leading to earlier completion
dates.
Structural steel is a material which has a wide capability. It
is compatible with, and can be joined efficiently with, almost
all other construction materials.
One advantage that can be exploited, particularly in
grandstands, is the use of steel with precast concrete
elements. Significant economies can be achieved through
the interaction of these materials by designers who use the
advantages of both, while suppressing their disadvantages.
With both materials having virtually identical coefficients
of thermal expansion, differential movements due to
changes in temperature are not a major problem when the
two materials are combined.
Advantages of using steel include:
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Peter Culley and John Pascoe
1. Steel frames are fast to erect, which can lead to rapid
revenue return. With many sports having a ‘closed’ part
of the season, or important annual events, speed of
construction is essential.
2. Lighter overall weight of the structure can result in sav-
ings in foundation costs, a particular advantage in poor
ground conditions.
3. Long-span capability and clear floor areas can be easily
achieved.
4. Steel is a material of guaranteed high quality, with the
structural elements prefabricated in a factory environ-
ment.
5. Delivery and erection of elements often require little
space, time or inconvenience, and noise is seldom a
problem.
6. Because of the ductility of steel, it is beneficial for long-
term integrity if subjected to dynamic loading.
7. The framework affords a light, strong material for fixings,
and will accept a wide range of cladding materials.
8. Steel construction can be aesthetically impressive, with its
clean lines and slenderness appealing to the public.
Steel for structural use is normally hot-rolled from billets
in the form of plates, flat, or sections in various shapes, at
the mills.
Fabrication of sections can involve operations such as
sawing, shearing, punching, grinding, drilling, bending
and welding. Therefore, the steel must be suitable for
all these processes without degradation of its required
properties.
The sections being used must possess reliable and pre-
dictable strength properties in order that the structures can
be safely designed to carry any specified loading. It is gener-
ally economic to use high-grade steel – S355J2 – due to its
 STEEL IN STADIUM ENGINEERING
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Table 3.1 Summary of leading properties for steels to Table 3.2 Summary of leading properties for steels to
BS EN10025 BS EN10210

Grade Thickness Design Charpy Grade Design strength: N/mm Charpy test 27 joules
up to and strength test
including: BS 5950, 27 joules S275 275 20 8C
mm 2000: N/mm S355 355 20 8C

S275 16 275 –
40 265 20 8C
63 255 0 8C system, or galvanizing, dependent on the environment
80 245 20 8C conditions and the access for future maintenance. On
100 235 20 8C stadium roof structures, where future maintenance costs
150 225 30 8C may be high due to difficult access, designers may choose
S355 16 355 – weathering steels for their increased atmospheric corrosion
40 345 20 8C
resistance. Provided certain criteria are adhered to, such as
63 335 0 8C
80 325 20 8C siting, design and fabrication, weathering steels can offer a
100 315 20 8C long service life with minimal maintenance.
150 295 30 8C With weathering steels, the process of rusting is initiated
in the same way as for low-carbon steels, that is by oxidation.
But with the specific alloying elements, such as chromium,
favourable cost : strength ratio, compared with lower-grade copper, vanadium and phosphorus, they produce a rust
steel – S275J2. This choice leads typically to a 20% advantage. film much less porous and much more adherent to the
Where deflection limitations are the criteria, it may be more base metal. The system develops with time, becomes pro-
economic to use the lower-grade steel, which can also be tective by impeding further access of oxygen and moisture
advantageous for very small projects or where the weight to the metal surface and, therefore, reduces considerably
in a particular size is less than five tonnes (in which case the rate of rust growth. Over a period of time the steel
the material can be obtained from a stockholder at short weathers to a shade of dark brown or purple, dependent
notice). upon the atmospheric conditions local to the project. In
Table 3.1 refers to hot-rolled products of non-alloy struc- order to enhance the external appearance, and to weather
tural steels. evenly, it is suggested that the material is shot-blasted after
Table 3.2 refers to hot-rolled hollow sections. fabrication.

Other properties of steel:

Modulus of elasticity Structural sections

E ¼ 205
10 N/mm3 (205 kg/mm) – BS 5950; 2000 Hot-rolled sections are produced in the form of universal
Coefficient of thermal expansion beams (UB), universal columns (UC), asymmetric beams
0:12
104 per 8C (ASB), channels and rolled steel angles to BS 4, and BS
Density or mass EN 10056. Less frequently used are structural tees, cut from
7850 kg/mm3 (7.85 tonnes/m or 78.5 kN/m) universal beams and columns.
Elongation to fracture (200 mm gauge length) Structural hollow sections are produced in circular (CHS),
Grade 275 20% square (SHS) and rectangular (RHS) and also oval shapes.
Grade 355 18% They are used as columns and struts and where clean
appearance is a criterion, such as in exposed structures. As
wind resistance is less on hollow sections than on open sec-
Weather-resistant steels tions, an advantage is gained in open-braced structures such
In order to prevent the formation of rust on low-carbon as long-span roof trusses on stadia.
equivalent steels, which are exposed to the atmosphere, The range of universal beams and columns offers a
some form of protective coating must be applied. This can number of section weights within each serial size (depth D
take the form of a combination of metal spray and a paint and breadth B). Heavier sections are produced with the

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 STADIUM ENGINEERING
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Table 3.3 Details of structural shapes

Shape UK size range: mm Use

B
D
kg=m
Universal beam (UB) 127
76
13 to Beams
1016
305
487

Universal column (UC) 152
152
23 to Columns

H-pile 356
406
634 Shallow beams
Bearing piles Heavy truss members

Joist 76
76
15 to Small beams

254
203
82

Parallel flange channel 100
50
10 to Bracings, ties

430
100
64 Small beams

B
D
t
Equal angle (RSA) 90
90
7 to Bracings
200
200
24 Truss members
Purlins
Sheeting rails

Unequal angle (RSA) 100
65
7 to

200
150
18

B
T
kg=m
Structural tee (UB) 133
102
13 to 178
102
37 Truss chords
(UC) 152
76
12 to 305
152
79 Plate stiffeners

Asymmetric beam (ASB) 280 ASB 74 to Structural floors

300 ASB(FE) 249

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 STEEL IN STADIUM ENGINEERING
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Table 3.3 Continued

Shape UK size range Use

D
t
Circular hollow sections (CHS) and 26:9
3:2 to 508
16 Columns
tubes Tubes up to 2134
22:2 Truss members
Bracings, piles

D
B
t
Rectangular hollow sections (RHS) 50
30
3:2 to Columns
500
300
20 Warren girders
Vierendeel girders

Square hollow sections (SHS) 40
40
3:0 to As above

800
800
60

H
B
t
Oval sections 150
75
3:2 to Architectural features
500
300
20

All the above hollow section members are hot-finished to EN 10210.

Similar sizes of hollow section members can be obtained cold formed to EN 10219.

finishing rolls further apart such that the overall depth and
breadth increases, but with the clear distance between the
flanges remaining constant, as shown in Table 3.3. Structural
hollow sections are also produced hot-rolled, in a number
of different thicknesses. But while the overall external
dimensions remain the same for each serial size, designers
can benefit from using the range of wall thicknesses available
for each serial size. There is also available an extensive range
of European, North American and Japanese section sizes.
Many other structural sections can be fabricated using
the above sections, together with plates. These include
plate girders, box girders and composite sections, using
both steel and concrete.
References
British Standards Institution (BSI) (2004) BS EN 10 025 Parts 1–6: Hot
rolled products of non-alloy structural steels, London: British
Standards Institution.
British Standards Institution (BSI) (1994) BS EN 10 210: Hot finished
structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain structural
steels, London: British Standards Institution.

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