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14.
Aeronautics and Space
PARTS 1 TO 59
Revised as of January 1, 1975
* Ú) 14
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Cº CONTAINING
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OF GENERAL APPLICABILITY

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AND FUTURE EFFECT

AS OF JANUARY 1, 1975
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With Ancillaries
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Published by
I| the Office of the Federal Register

(º National Archives and Records Service

General Services Administration

º as a Special Edition of
the Federal Register

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 Table of Contents
Page
Explanation • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - V

Title 14:

Chapter I—Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Trans

portation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3

Finding Aids:
Table of CFR Titles, Chapters, and Parts . . . . . . . . . . 655

Alphabetical List of CFR Subtitles and Chapters . . . . . . . 667

Redesignation Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675

List of CFR Sections Affected . . . . . . . . . . . . = 699

Cite this Code C F R

thus: 14 CFR 1.1

iv.
 Explanation
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Table V–Guide to Record Retention Re
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Table of Proclamations and Executive or
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Table of Finding Aids and location in Fed
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Table of Acts with Statutory and U.S.C.
citations.
Index-digest of Federal laws and rules re
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Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(This book contains Parts 1 to 59)

Part
CHAPTER 1—Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Transporta
tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CRoss REFERENces: Department of the Air Force; Use of Air Force installations by other
than U.S. Department of Defense aircraft: See National Defense, 32 CFR Part 855.
º Communications
art 87.
Commission, aviation services: See Telecommunication, 47 CFR
CHAPTER –FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION,
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
(Parts 1–59)

SUBCHAPTER A-DEFINITIONS
Part
1 Definitions and abbreviations.

SUBCHAPTER B–PROCEDURAL RULES

11 General rule-making procedures.

13 Enforcement procedures.
SUBCHAPTER C–AIRCRAFT

21 Certification procedures for products and parts.

23 Airworthiness standards: normal, utility, and acrobatic category airplanes.
25 Airworthiness standards: transport category airplanes.
27 Airworthiness standards: normal category rotorcraft.
29 Airworthiness standards: transport category rotorcraft.
31 Airworthiness standards: manned free balloons.
33 Airworthiness standards; aircraft engines.
35 Airworthiness standards; propellers.
36 Noise standards: aircraft type and airworthiness certification.
37 Technical standard order authorizations.
39 Airworthiness directives.
40–42 [Reserved]
43 Maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, and alteration.
45 Identification and registration marking.
47 Aircraft registration.
49 Recording of aircraft titles and security documents.
50–59 [Reserved]
SUBCHAPTER D–AIRMEN

60 [Reserved]
61 Certification: pilots and flight instructors.
63 Certification: flight crew members other than pilots.
65 Certification: airmen other than flight crewmembers.
67 Medical standards and certification.
3
 Title 14—Aeronautics cºnd Space

SUBCHAPTER E–AIRSPACE
Part
71 Designation of Federal airways, controlled airspace, and reporting points.
73 Special use airspace.
75 Establishment of jet routes.
77 Objects affecting navigable airspace.
SUBCHAPTER F-AIR TRAFFIC AND GENERAL OPERATING RULES º

91 General operating and flight rules.

93 Special air traffic rules and airport traffic patterns.
95 IFR altitudes.
97 Standard instrument approach procedures. º

99 Security control of air traffic. -

101 Moored balloons, kites, unmanned rockets and unmanned balloons.

103 Transportation of dangerous articles and magnetized materials.
105 Parachute jumping.

SUBCHAPTER G–AIR CARRIERS, AIR TRAVEL CLUBS, AND OPERATORS FOR

COMPENSATION OR HIRE - CERTIFICATION AND OPERATIONS

121 Certification and operations: domestic, flag, and supplemental air carriers
and commercial operators of large aircraft.
123 Certification and operations: air travel clubs using large airplanes.
127 Certification and operations of scheduled air carriers with helicopters.
129 Operations of foreign air carriers.
133 Rotorcraft external-load operations.
135 Air taxi operators and commercial operators of small aircraft.
137 Agricultural aircraft operations.
SUBCHAPTER H–SCHOOLS AND OTHER CERTIFICATED AGENCIES

141 Pilot schools.

143 Ground instructors.
145 Repair stations.
147 Mechanic schools.
149 Parachute lofts.

SUBCHAPTER I-AIRPORTS

151 Federal aid to airports.

153 Acquisition of U.S. land for public airports. s
155 Release of airport property from surplus property disposal restrictions.
157 Notice of construction, alteration, activation, or deactivation of airports.
159 National capital airports.
165 Wake Island code.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration $1.1

Part
167 Annette Island, Alaska, Airport.
169 Expenditure of Federal funds for nonmilitary airports or air navigation
facilities thereon.

subCHAPTER J–NAVIGATIONAL FACILITIES

171 Non-Federal navigation facilities.

SUBCHAPTER K–ADMINISTRATIVE REGULATIONS

183 Representatives of the Administrator.

185 Testimony by employees and production of records in legal proceedings.
187 Fees.
189 Use of Federal Aviation Administration communications system,
190–197 [Reserved]

SUBCHAPTER N–WAR RISK INSURANCE

198 War risk insurance.

SUBCHAPTER O—AIRCRAFT LOAN GUARANTEE PROGRAM

199 Aircraft loan guarantee program.

SUBCHAPTER A–DEFINITIONS
PART 1–DEFINITIONS AND
ABBREVIATIONS
Sec
1.1 General definitions.
-
12 Abbreviations and symbols.
1.3 Rules of construction.
AUTHoRITY: The provisions of this Part 1
issued under sec. 313(a), 72 Stat. 752, 49
U.S.C. 1354(a).
§ 1.1 General definitions.
As used in subchapters A through K of
this chapter:
“Accelerate-stop distance” means the
distance required to accelerate an air
plane to a specified Speed and, assuming
failure of the critical engine at the in
stant that speed (V1) is attained, to
bring the airplane to a stop.
“Administrator” means the Federal
Aviation Administrator or any person to
whom he has delegated his authority in
the matter concerned.
“Aerodynamic coefficients” means non
dimensional coefficients for aerodynamic
forces and moments.
“Air carrier” means a person who un
dertakes directly by lease, or other ar
i.ement. to engage in air transporta
On.
“Air commerce” means interstate.
OverSeaS, or foreign air commerce or the
transportation of mail by aircraft or
any Operation or navigation of aircraft
within the limits of any Federal alrway
Or any Operation or navigation of air
craft which directly affects, or which
may endanger safety in, interstate, over
Seas, or foreign air commerce.
“Aircraft” means a device that is used
or intended to be used for flight in the
air.
“Aircraft engine” means an engine
that is used or intended to be used for
propelling aircraft. It includes turbo
Superchargers, appurtenances, and ac
cessories necessary for its functioning,
but does not include propellers.
“Airframe” means the fuselage, booms.
nacelles, cowlings, fairings, airfoil sur
faces (including rotors but excluding
propellers and rotating airfoils of en
gines), and landing gear of an aircraft
and their accessories and controls.
“Airplane” means an engine-driven
fixed-wing aircraft heavier than air, that
§ 1.1 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
is supported in flight by the dynamic re
action of the air against its wings.
“Airport” means an area of land or
water that is used or intended to be used
for the landing and takeoff of aircraft,
and includes its buildings and facilities,
if any.
“Airport traffic area” means, unless
otherwise specifically designated in Part
93, that airspace Within a horizontal ra
dius of 5 statute miles from the geo
graphical center of any airport at which
a control tower is operating, extending
from the surface up to, but not including,
an altitude of 3,000 feet above the eleva
tion of the airport.
“Airship” means an engine-driven
lighter-than-air aircraft that can be
Steered.
“Air traffic” means aircraft operating
in the air or on an airport surface, ex
clusive of loading ramps and parking
area.S.
“Air traffic clearance” means an au
thorization by air traffic control, for the
purpose of preventing collision between
known aircraft, for an aircraft to pro
ceed under specified traffic conditions
Within controlled airSpace.
“Air traffic control” means a Service
operated by appropriate authority to
promote the safe, orderly, and expedi
tious flow of air traffic.
“Air transportation” means interstate,
overseas, or foreign air transportation or
the transportation of mail by aircraft.
“Alternate airport” means an airport
at which an aircraft may land if a land
ing at the intended airport becomes
inadvisable.
“Appliance” means any instrument,
mechanism, equipment, part, apparatus,
appurtenance, or accessory, including
communications equipment, that is used
or intended to be used in operating or
controlling an aircraft in flight, is in
stalled in or attached to the aircraft, and
is not part of an airframe, engine, or
propeller.
“Approved”, unless used with reference
to another person, means approved by
the Administrator.
“Area navigation (RNAV)" means a
method of navigation that permits air
craft operations on any desired course
within the coverage of station-referenced
navigation signals or within the limits
of self-contained system capability.
“Area navigation iow route” means
an area navigation route within the air
space extending upward from 1,200 feet
above the surface of the earth to, but
not including, 18,000 feet MSL.
“Area navigation high route” means
an area navigation route within the air
Space extending upward from, and in
jºins. 18,000 feet MSL to flight level
“Armed Forces” means the Army
Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, and
Coast Guard, including their regular and
reserve COmponents and members Serv
ing without component status.
“Autorotation” means a rotorcraft
flight condition in which the lifting rotor
is driven entirely by action of the air
when the rotorcraft is in motion.
“Auxiliary rotor” means a rotor that
Serves either to counteract the effect of
the main rotor torque on a rotorcraft or
to maneuver the rotorcraft about one or
more of its three principal axes.
“Balloon” means a lighter-than-air
aircraft that is not engine driven.
“Brake horsepower” means the power
delivered at the propeller shaft (main
drive or main output) of an aircraft
engine.
“Calibrated airspeed” means the indi
cated airspeed of an aircraft, corrected
for position and instrument error.
Calibrated airspeed is equal to true air
Speed in standard atmosphere at sea
level.
“Category”:
(1) As used with respect to the cer
tification, ratings, privileges, and limi
tations of airmen, means a broad clas
sification of aircraft. Examples include:
airplane; rotorcraft; glider; and lighter
than-air; and
(2) AS used with respect to the cer
tification of aircraft, means a grouping
of aircraft based upon intended use or
operating limitations. Examples in
clude: transport, normal, utility, acro
batic, limited, restricted, and provisional.
“Category II operations,” with respect
to the operation of aircraft, means a
straight-in ILS approach to the runway
of an airport under a Category II ILS
instrument approach procedure issued by
the Administrator or other appropriate
authority.
“Ceiling” means the height above the
earth's surface of the lowest layer of
clouds or obscuring phenomena that is
reported as “broken”, “overcast”, or “ob
Scuration”, and not classified as “thin”
or “partial”.
“Civil aircraft” means aircraft other
than public aircraft. s
 Chapter l–Federal Aviation Administration
- “Class”:
(1) As used with respect to the cer
tification, ratings, privileges, and limi
tations of airmen, means a classification
of aircraft within a category having simi
lar operating characteristics. Examples
include: single engine; multiengine;
land; water; gyroplane; helicopter; air
ship; and free balloon; and
(2) As used with respect to the Cer
tification of aircraft, means a broad
grouping of aircraft having similar char
acteristics of propulsion, flight, or land
ing. Examples include: airplane; rotor
craft; glider; balloon; landplane; and
seaplane.
“Clearway” means:
(1) For turbine engine powered air
planes certificated after August 29, 1959,
an area beyond the runway, not less than
500 feet wide, centrally located about the
extended centerline of the runway, and
under the control of the airport authori
ties. The clearway is expressed in terms
of a clearway plane, extending from the
end of the runway with an upward slope
not exceeding 1.25 percent, above which
no object nor any terrain protrudes.
However, threshold lights may protrude
above the plane if their height above
the end of the runway is 26 inches or
less and if they are located to each side
of the runway.
(2) For turbine engine powered air
planes certificated after September 30,
1958, but before August 30, 1959, an area
beyond the takeoff runway extending no
less than 300 feet on either side of the ex
tended centerline of the runway, at an
elevation no higher than the elevation
of the end of the runway, clear of all
fixed obstacles, and under the control of
the airport authorities.
“Commercial operator” means a per
son who, for compensation or hire, en
gages in the carriage by aircraft in air
commerce of persons or property, other
than as an air carrier or foreign air car
rier or under the authority of Part 375 of
this Title. Where it is doubtful that an
operation is for “compensation or hire”,
the test applied is whether the carriage
by air is merely incidental to the person's
other business or is, in itself, a major
enterprise for profit.
“Controlled airSpace” means airspace
designated as a continental control area,
control area, control Zone, terminal con
trol area, or transition area, within
which some or all aircraft may be subject
to air traffic control.
7
$1.1
“Crewmember” means a person as
signed to perform duty in an aircraft
during flight time.
“Critical altitude” means the maxi
mum altitude at which, in standard at
mosphere, it is possible to maintain, at
a specified rotational speed, a specified
power or a specified manifold pressure.
Unless otherwise stated, the critical al
titude is the maximum altitude at which
it is possible to maintain, at the maxi
mum continuous rotational speed, one
of the following:
(1) The maximum continuous power,
in the case of engines for which this
power rating is the same at Sea level and
at the rated altitude.
(2) The maximum continuous rated
manifold pressure, in the case of en
gines, the maximum conitnuous power
of which is governed by a constant man
ifold pressure.
“Critical engine” means the engine
whose failure would most adversely af
fect the performance or handling quall
ties of an aircraft.
“Decision height,” with respect to the
operation of aircraft, means the height
at which a decision must be made, dur
ing an ILS or PAR instrument approach,
to either continue the approach or to
execute a missed approach.
“Equivalent airspeed” means the call
brated airspeed of an aircraft corrected
for adiabatic compressible flow for the
particular altitude. Equivalent airspeed
is equal to calibrated airspeed in stand
ard atmosphere at sea level.
“Extended over-water operation”
In earls—
(1) With respect to aircraft other
than helicopters, and Operation over
water at a horizontal distance of more
than 50 nautical miles from the nearest
shoreline; and
(2) With respect to helicopters, an
operation over water at a horizontal dis
tance of more than 50 nautical miles
from the nearest shoreline and more than
50 nautical miles from an off-shore heli
port structure.
“External load” means a load that is
carried, or extends, outside of the air
craft fuselage.
“External-load attaching means”
means the structural components used to
attach an external load to an aircraft,
including external-load containers, the
backup structure at the attachment
points, and any quick-release device used
to jettison the external load.
§ 1.1 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
“Fireproof”—
(1) With respect to materials and
parts used to confine fire in a designated
fire zone, means the capacity to with
stand at least as well as steel in dimen
sions appropriate for the purpose for
which they are used, the heat produced
when there is a severe fire of extended
duration in that Zone; and
(2) With respect to other materials
and parts, means the capacity to With
stand the heat associated with fire at
least as well as steel in dimensions ap
propriate for the purpose for which they
are used.
“Fire resistant"—
(1) With respect to sheet or struc
tural members means the capacity to
withstand the heat associated with fire
at least as well as aluminum alloy in
dimensions appropriate for the purpose
for which they are used; and
(2) With respect to fluid-carrying
lines, fluid system parts, wiring, air
ducts, fittings, and powerplant controls,
means the capacity to perform the in
tended functions under the heat and
other conditions likely to occur When
there is a fire at the place concerned.
“Flame resistant” means not suscep
tible to combustion to the point of prop
agating a flame, beyond safe limits, after
the ignition source is removed.
“Flammable”, with respect to a fluid
or gas, means susceptible to igniting
readily or to exploding.
“Flap extended speed” means the
highest speed permissible with wing
flaps in a prescribed extended position.
“Flash resistant” means not suscep
tible to burning violently when ignited.
“Flight crew member” means a pilot,
flight engineer, or flight navigator as
signed to duty in an aircraft during
flight time.
“Flight level” means a level of con
stant atmospheric pressure related to a
reference datum of 29.92 inches of mer
cury. Each is stated in three digits that
represent hundreds of feet. For example,
flight level 250 represents a barometric
altimeter indication of 25,000 feet; flight
level 255, an indication of 25,500 feet.
“Flight plan” means specified infor
mation, relating to the intended flight
of an aircraft, that is filed orally or in
writing with air traffic control.
“Flight time” means the time from
the moment the aircraft first moves un
der its own power for the purpose of
flight until the moment it comes to rest
S
at the next point of landing. (“Block-to
block” time.)
“Flight visibility” means the average
forward horizontal distance, from the
cockpit of an aircraft in flight, at which
prominent unlighted objects may be
seen and identified by day and prominent
lighted objects may be seen and identi
fied by night.
“Foreign air carrier” means any per
Son other than a citizen of the United
States, who undertakes directly, by lease
Or Other arrangement, to engage in air
transportation.
“Foreign air commerce” means the
carriage by aircraft of persons or prop
erty for compensation or hire, or the
carriage of mail by aircraft, or the opera
tion or navigation of aircraft in the con
duct or furtherance of a business or
vocation, in commerce between a place in
the United States and any place outside
thereof; whether such commerce moves
wholly by aircraft or partly by aircraft
and partly by other forms of transpor
tation.
“Foreign air transportation” means
the carriage by aircraft of persons or
property as a common carrier for Com
pensation or hire, or the carriage of
mail by aircraft, in commerce between
a place in the United States and any
place outside of the United States,
whether that commerce moves wholly by
aircraft or partly by aircraft and partly
by other forms of transportation.
“Glider” means a heavier-than-air
aircraft, that is supported in flight by
the dynamic reaction of the air against
its lifting surfaces and whose free flight
does not depend principally on an en
glne.
“Ground visibility” means prevailing
horizontal visibility near the earth's
surface as reported by the United
States National Weather Service or an
accredited observer.
“Gyrodyne” means a rotorcraft whose
rotors are normally engine-driven for
takeoff, hovering, and landing, and for
forward flight through part of its speed
range, and whose means of propulsion,
consisting usually of conventional pro
pellers, is independent of the rotor sys
tem.
“Gyroplane” means a rotorcraft whose
rotors are not engine-driven, except for
initial starting, but are made to rotate
by action of the air when the rotorcraft
is moving; and whose means of propul
Sion, consisting usually of conventional
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
propellers, is independent of the rotor
System.
“Helicopter” means a rotorcraft that,
for its horizontal motion, depends prin
cipally on its engine-driven rotors.
“Heliport” means an area of land,
water, or structure used or intended to
be used for the landing and takeoff of
helicopters.
“Idle thrust” means the jet thrust ob
tained with the engine power control
level set at the stop for the least thrust
position at which it can be placed.
“DFR conditions” means Weather con
ditions below the minimum for flight
under visual flight rules.
“IFR over-the-top”, with respect to
the operation of aircraft, means the op
eration of an aircraft. Over-the-top on
an IFR flight plan when cleared by air
traffic control to maintain “VFR condi
tions” or “VFR conditions on top”.
“Indicated airspeed” means the Speed
of an aircraft as shown on its pitot static
airspeed indicator calibrated to reflect
standard atmosphere adiabatic compres
sible flow at sea level uncorrected for
airspeed System errors.
“Instrument” means a device using an
internal mechanism to show visually or
aurally the attitude, altitude, or opera
tion of an aircraft or aircraft part. It in
cludes electronic devices for automati
cally controlling an aircraft in flight.
“Interstate air commerce” means the
carriage by aircraft of persons or prop
erty for compensation or hire, or the
carriage of mail by aircraft, or the opera
tion or navigation of aircraft in the con
duct or furtherance of a business or vo
cation, in commerce between a place in
any State of the United States, or the
District of Columbia, and a place in any
other State of the United States, or the
District of Columbia; or between places
in the same State of the United States
through the airspace over any place out
side thereof; or between places in the
same territory or possession of the United
States, or the District of Columbia.
“Interstate air transportation” means
the carriage by aircraft of persons or
property as a common carrier for com
pensation or hire, or the carriage of mail
by aircraft in commerce:
(1) Between a place in a State or the
District of Columbia and another place
in another State or the District of
Columbia;
(2) Between places in the same State
through the airspace over any place out
side that State; or
9
39–059–75–2
§ 1'1
(3) Between places in the same posses
Sion of the United States;
Whether that commerce moves wholly
by aircraft or partly by aircraft and
partly by other forms of transportation.
“Kite” means a framework, covered
with paper, cloth, metal, or other ma
terial, intended to be flown at the end
of a rope or cable, and having as its
only support the force of the wind mov
ing past its surfaces.
“Landing gear extended speed” means
the maximum speed at which an aircraft
can be safely flown with the landing gear
extended.
“Landing gear operating speed” means
the maximum speed at which the land
ing gear can be safely extended or
Tetracted.
“Large aircraft” means aircraft of
more than 12,500 pounds, maximum
certificated takeoff weight.
“Lighter-than-air aircraft” means air
craft that can rise and remain suspended
by using contained gas weighing less
than the air that is displaced by the gas.
“Load factor” means the ratio of a
Specified load to the total weight of the
aircraft. The specified load is expressed
in terms of any of the following: aero
dynamic forces, inertia forces, or ground
Or Water reactions.
“Mach number” means the ratio of
true airspeed to the speed of sound.
“Main rotor” means the rotor that sup
plies the principal lift to a rotorcraft.
“Maintenance” means inspection,
overhaul, repair, preservation, and the
replacement of parts, but excludes pre
Ventive maintenance.
“Major alteration” means an altera
tion not listed in the aircraft, aircraft
engine, or propeller specifications—
(1) That might appreciably affect
weight, balance, structural strength, per
formance, powerplant operation, flight
characteristics, or other qualities affect
ing airworthiness; or
(2) That is not done according to ac
cepted practices or cannot be done by
elementary operations.
“Major repair” means a repair:
(1) That, if improperly done, might
appreciably affect weight, balance, struc
tural strength, performance, powerplant
operation, flight characteristics, or other
qualities affecting airworthiness; or
(2) That is not done according to ac
cepted practices or cannot be done by
elementary operations.
“Manifold pressure” means absolute
pressure as measured at the appropriate
§ 1.1 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
point in the induction system and usually
expressed in inches of mercury.
“Medical certificate” means acceptable
evidence of physical fitness on a form
prescribed by the Administrator.
“Minimum descent altitude” means
the lowest altitude, expressed in feet
above mean sea level, to which descent
is authorized on final approach or during
circle-to-land maneuvering in execution
of a standard instrument approach pro
cedure, where no electronic glide slope is
provided.
“Minor alteration” means an altera
tion other than a major alteration.
“Minor repair” means a repair other
than a major repair.
“Navigable airspace” means airSpace
at and above the minimum flight alti
tudes prescribed by or under this chapter,
including airspace needed for safe take
off and landing.
“Night” means the time between the
end of evening civil twilight and the be
ginning of morning civil twilight, as pub
lished in the American Air Almanac, Con
verted to local time.
“Nonprecision approach procedure”
means a standard instrument approach
procedure in which no electronic glide
slope is provided.
“Operate,” with respect to aircraft,
means use, cause to use or authorize to
use aircraft, for the purpose (except as
provided in § 91.10 of this chapter) of
air navigation including the piloting of
aircraft, with or without the right of
legal control (as owner, lessee, or other
Wise).
“Operational control”, with respect to
a flight, means the exercise of authority
over initiating, conducting, or terminat
ing a flight.
“Overseas air commerce” means the
carriage by aircraft of persons or prop
erty for compensation or hire, or the
carriage of mail by aircraft, or the oper
ation or navigation of aircraft in the
conduct or furtherance of a business or
vocation, in commerce between a place
in any State of the United States, or the
District of Columbia, and any place in
a territory or possession of the United
States; or between a place in a ter
ritory or possession of the United States,
and a place in any other territory or pos
Session of the United States.
“Oversea air transportation” means
the carriage by aircraft of persons or
property as a common carrier for com
pensation or hire, or the carriage of mail
by aircraft, in commerce:
10
(1) Between a place in a State or the
District of Columbia and a place in a
possession of the United States; or
(2) Between a place in a possession of
the United States and a place in an
other possession of the United States;
whether that commerce moves wholly by
aircraft or partly by aircraft and partly
by other forms of transportation.
“Over-the-top” means above the layer
of clouds or other obscuring phenomena
forming the ceiling.
“Parachute” means a device used or
intended to be used to retard the fall
of a body or object through the air.
“Person” means an individual, firm,
partnership, corporation, company, as
Sociation, joint-stock association, or gov
ernmental entity. It includes a trustee,
receiver, assignee, or similar representa
tive of any of them.
“Pilotage” means navigation by visual
reference to landmarks.
“Pilot in command” means the pilot
responsible for the operation and safety
of an aircraft during flight time.
“Pitch setting” means the propeller
blade setting as determined by the blade
angle measured in a manner, and at
a radius, Specified by the instruction
manual for the propeller.
“Positive control” means control of all
air traffic, within designated airspace, by
air traffic control.
“Precision approach procedure” means
a standard instrument approach pro
cedure in which an electronic glide slope
is provided, such as ILS and PAR.
“Preventive maintenance” means sim
ple or minor preservation operations and
the replacement of small standard parts
not involving complex assembly opera
tions.
“Prohibited area” means designated
airspace within which the flight of air
Craft is prohibited.
“Propeller” means a device for pro
pelling an aircraft that has blades on an
engine-driven shaft and that, when ro
tated, produces by its action on the air,
a thrust approximately perpendicular to
its plane of rotation. It includes control
components normally supplied by its
manufacturer, but does not include main
and auxiliary rotors or rotating airfoils
Of engines.
“Public aircraft” means aircraft used
only in the service of a government, or
a political subdivision. It does not in
clude any government-owned aircraft
engaged in carrying persons or property
for commercial purposes.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
“Rated maximum continuous aug
mented thrust”, with respect to turbo
jet engine type certification, means the
approved jet thrust that is developed
statically or in flight, in standard atmos
phere at a specified altitude, with fluid
injection or with the burning of fuel in
a separate combustion chamber, within
the engine operating limitations estab
lished under Part 33 of this chapter, and
approved for unrestricted periods of use.
“Rated maximum continuous power,”
with respect to reciprocating, turbopro
peller, and turboshaft engines, means the
approved brake horsepower that is de
veloped statically or in flight, in standard
atmosphere at a specified altitude, with
in the engine operating limitations estab
lished under Part 33, and approved for
unrestricted periods of use.
“Rated maximum continuous thrust”,
with respect to turbojet engine type cer
tification, means the approved jet thrust
that is developed statically or in flight,
in standard atmosphere at a specified
altitude, without fluid injection and
without the burning of fuel in a separate
combustion chamber, within the engine
operating limitations established under
Part 33 of this chapter, and approved
for unrestricted periods of use. . “RNAV way point (W/P)” means a
“Rated takeoff augmented thrust”,
with respect to turbojet engine type cer
tification, means the approved jet thrust
that is developed statically under stand
ard sea level conditions, with fluid injec
tion or with the burning of fuel in a Sep
arate combustion chamber, within the
engine operating limitations established
under Part 33 of this chapter, and limited
in use to periods of not over 5 minutes for
takeoff Operation.
“Rated takeoff power,” with respect to
reciprocating, turbopropeller, and turbo
shaft engine type certification, means the
approved brake horsepower that is de
veloped statically under standard sea
level conditions, within the engine oper
ating limitations established under Part
33, and limited in use to periods of not
over 5 minutes for takeoff operation.
“Rated takeoff thrust”, with respect to
turbojet engine type certification, means
the approved jet thrust that is developed
statically under standard sea level con
ditions, without fluid injection and with
out the burning of fuel in a separate
combustion chamber, within the engine
operating limitations established under
Part 33 of this chapter, and limited in
use to periods of not over 5 minutes for
takeoff operation.
11
§ 1.1
Rated “30-minute power”, with respect
to helicopter turbine engines, means the
maximum brake horsepower, developed
under static conditions at specified alti
tudes and atmospheric temperatures,
under the maximum conditions of rotor
shaft rotational Speed and gas tempera
ture, and limited in use to periods of not
over 30 minutes as shown on the engine
data sheet.
Rated “2% minute power”, with re
Spect to helicopter turbine engines,
means the brake horsepower, developed
statically in standard atmosphere at Sea
level, or at a specified altitude, for One
engine-out operation of multiengine
helicopters for 2% minutes at rotor shaft
rotation Speed and gas temperature es
tablished for this rating.
“Rating” means a Statement that, as
a part of a certificate, sets forth special
conditions, privileges, or limitations.
“Reporting point” means a geographi
cal location in relation to which the posi
tion of an aircraft is reported.
“Restricted area” means airspace des
ignated under Part 73 of this chapter
within which the flight of aircraft, while
not wholly prohibited, is subject to
restriction.
predetermined geographical position
used for route or instrument approach
definition or progress reporting purposes
that is defined relative to a VORTAC
Station position.
“Rocket” means an aircraft propelled
by ejected expanding gases generated
in the engine from Self-contained pro
pellants and not dependent on the in
take of outside substances. It includes
any part which becomes separated dur
ing the Operation.
“Rotorcraft” means a heavier-than
air aircraft that depends principally for
its support in flight on the lift generated
by one or more rotors.
“Rotorcraft-load combination” means
the combination of a rotorcraft and an
external load, including the external
load attaching means. Rotorcraft-load
combinations are designated as Class A,
Class B, and Class C, as follows:
(1) “Class A rotorcraft-load combi
nation” means one in which the external
load cannot move freely, cannot be
jettisoned, and does not extend below
the landing gear.
(2) “Class B rotorcraft-load combi
nation” means one in which the external
load is jettisonable and is lifted free of
§ 1.1 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
land or water during the rotorcraft
Operation.
(3) “Class C rotorcraft-load combina
tion” means one in which the external
load is jettisonable and remains in con
tact with land or Water during the rotor
craft operation. - maintenance time records, means the
“Route segment” means a part of a
route. Each end of that part is identi
fied by:
(1) A continental or insular geo
graphical location; or
(2) A point at which a definite radio
fix can be established.
“Second in command” means a pilot
Who is designated to be second in corn
mand of an aircraft during flight time.
“Show”, unless the context otherwise
requires, means to show to the satisfac
tion of the Administrator.
“Small aircraft” means aircraft of
12,500 pounds or less, maximum certifl
cated takeoff weight.
“Standard atmosphere” means the
atmosphere defined in U.S. Standard
Atmosphere, 1962 (Geopotential altitude
tables).
“Stopway” means an area beyond the
takeoff runway, no less wide than the
runway and centered upon the extended
centerline of the runway, able to support
the airplane during an aborted takeoff,
without causing structural damage to
the airplane, and designated by the air
port authorities for use in decelerating
the airplane during an aborted takeoff.
“Takeoff power”:
(1) With respect to reciprocating en
gines, means the brake horsepower that
is developed under standard sea level
conditions, and under the maximum
conditions of crankshaft rotational
speed and engine manifold pressure ap
proved for the normal takeoff, and lim
ited in continuous use to the period of
time shown in the approved engine spec
ification; and
(2) With respect to turbine engines,
means the brake horsepower that is de
veloped under static conditions at a spec
ified altitude and atmospheric tempera
ture, and under the maximum conditions
of rotor shaft rotational speed and gas
temperature approved for the normal
takeoff, and limited in continuous use to
the period of time shown in the approved
engine specification.
“Takeoff thrust”, with respect to tur
bine engines, means the jet thrust that
is developed under static conditions at a
Specific altitude and atmospheric tem
perature under the maximum conditions
of rotorshaft rotational speed and gas
temperature approved for the normal
takeoff, and limited in continuous use
to the period of time shown in the ap
proved engine specification.
“Time in service”, with respect to
time from the moment an aircraft leaves
the Surface of the earth until it touches
it at the next point of landing.
“True airspeed” means the airspeed of
an aircraft relative to undisturbed air.
True airspeed is equal to equivalent air
speed multiplied by (p6/p) 1/2.
“Traffic pattern” means the traffic
flow that is prescribed for aircraft land
ing at, taxiing on, or taking off from, an
airport.
“Type”:
(1) As used with respect to the certi
fication, ratings, privileges, and limita
tions of airmen, means a specific make
and basic model of aircraft, including
modifications thereto that do not change
its handling or flight characteristics.
Examples include: DC–7, 1049, and
F–27; and
(2) As used with respect to the certi
fication of aircraft, means those air
craft, which are similar in design. Ex
amples include: DC-7 and DC-7C; 1049G
and 1049 H.; and F-27 and F-27F.
(3) As used with respect to the cer
tification of aircraft engines means those
engines which are similar in design. For
example, JT8D and JT8D-7 are engines
of the same type, and JT9D–3A and
JT9D-7 are engines of the same type.
“United States”, in a geographical
Sense, means (1) the States, the District
of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the pos
sessions, including the territorial waters,
and (2) the airspace of those areas.
“United States air carrier" means a
citizen of the United States who under
takes directly by lease, or other arrange
ment, to engage in air transportation.
“VFR over-the-top”, with respect to
the operation of aircraft, means the op
eration of an aircraft over-the-top
under VFR when it is not being operated
on an IFR flight plan.
(Secs. 307, 601–603, 72 stat. 749, 775, 776, 49
U.S.C. 1348, 1421–1423) [Doc. No. 1150, 27
F.R. 4588. May 15, 1962, as amended by
Amdt. 1–1, 28 F.R. 6703, June 29, 1963:
Amdt. 1–2, 29 F.R. 603, Jan. 24, 1964: Amdt.
1–3, 29 F.R. 2991, Mar. 6, 1964; Amdt. 1–4,
29 F.R. 5450, Apr. 23, 1964: Amdt. 1–5, 29
F.R. 7453, June 10, 1964; Amdt. 1–6, 29 F.R.
18290, Dec. 24, 1964: Amdt. 1–7, 29 F R.
19188, Dec. 31, 1964: Amdt. 1–8, 30 FIR.
3638, Mar. 19, 1965; Amdt. 1–9, 30 F.R. 8257.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration § 1.2

June 29, 1965; Amdt. 1–10, 31 F.R. 5055, “MDA” means minimum descent alti
Mar. 29, 1966; Amdt. 1–11, 32 F.R. 3735, Mar. tude.
4, 1967; Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769, Apr. 11, “MEA” means minimum en route IFR
1967; Amdt. 1–12, 32 FJR. 6905, May 5, 1967; altitude.
Amdt. 1–13, 32 F.R. 9641, July 4, 1967; Amdt.
“MM” means ILS middle marker.
1–13, 32 F.R. 10250, July 12, 1967; Amdt.
1–14, 32 F.R. 13910, Oct. 6, 1967; Amdt. 1–16, “MOCA” means minimum obstruction
35 F.R. 5671, Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. 1–17, 35 F.R. clearance altitude.
7784, May 21, 1970; Amdt. 1–19, 35 F.R. 14610, “MRA” means minimum reception
Sept. 18, 1970; Amdt. 1–20, 36 F.R. 43, Jan. 5, altitude.
1971; Amdt. 1–21, 36 F.R. 13911, July 28, 1971; “MSL” means mean sea level.
Amdt. 1–22, 37 FR 7386, Apr. 14, 1972; Amdt. “NDB (ADF)" means nondirectional
1–23, 39 FR 35459, Oct. 1, 1974] beacon (automatic direction finder).
§ 1.2 Abbreviations and symbols. “NOPT’’ means no procedure turn
required.
In subchapters A through K of this “OM” means ILS outer marker.
chapter:
“ALS" means approach light System. “PAR” means precision approach
radar.
“ASR” means airport Surveillance
radar.
“RAIL” means runway alignment indi
“ATC” means air traffic control. cator light System.
“RBN” means radio beacon.
“CAS” means calibrated airspeed.
“CAT II” means Category II.
“RCLM” means runway centerline
“CONSOL or CONSOLAN” means a marking.
kind of low or medium frequency long “RCLS” means runway centerline
range navigational aid. light system.
“DH” means decision height. “REIL” means runway end identifica
“DME” means distance measuring tion lights.
equipment compatible with TACAN. “RR" means low or medium frequency
radio range station.
“EAS” means equivalent airspeed.
“FAA” means Federal A v i a ti on “RVR’’ means runway visual range as
Administration. measured in the touchdown zone area.
“FM” means fan marker. “SALS" means short approach light
“GS” means glide slope. System.
“HIRL" means high-intensity runway “SSALS” means simplified short ap
light system. proach light System.
“IAS” means indicated airspeed. “SSALSR,” means simplified short ap
“ICAO” means International Civil proach light system with runway align
Aviation Organization. ment indicator lights.
“IFR,” means instrument flight rules. “TACAN” means ultra-high frequency
“ILS” means instrument landing Sys tactical air navigational aid.
tem. “TAS” means true airspeed.
“IM” means ILS inner marker. “TDZL” means touchdown zone lights.
“INT" means interSection. “TVOR” means very high frequency
“LDA” means localizer-type directional terminal omnirange station.
aid. V, means design maneuvering speed.
“LFR” means low-frequency radio Va means design speed for maximum
Iange. gust intensity.
“LMM” means compass locator at mid
dle marker. Wo means design cruising speed.
“LOC” means ILS localizer. Vo means design diving speed.
“LOM” means compass locator at outer Wor/Mor means demonstrated flight
marker. diving speed.
“M” means mach number. VF means design flap speed.
“MAA” means maximum authorized
IFR altitude.
Vro/Mro means maximum speed for sta
bility characteristics.
“MALS” means medium intensity ap
proach light System. Vre means maximum flap extended
“MALSR” means medium intensity speed.
approach light system with runway Wu means maximum speed in level flight
alignment indicator lights. with maximum continuous power.
“MCA” means minimum crossing alti Vze means maximum landing gear ex
tude. tended Speed.
13
$1.3 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
Vro means maximum landing gear op
erating Speed.
Vtor means lift-off speed.
Vro means minimum control speed with
the critical engine inoperative.
Viro/Muro means maximum operating
limit speed.
Warp means minimum unstick speed.
Wve means never-exceed speed.
VR means rotation speed.
Vs means the stalling speed or the min
imum steady flight Speed at Which the
airplane is controllable.
Vs, means the stalling speed or the min
imum steady flight Speed in the land
ing configuration.
Vs, means the stalling speed or the min
imum steady flight speed obtained in
a Specified configuration.
Wr means speed for best angle of climb.
Wr means speed for best rate of climb.
V, means critical-engine-failure speed.
V, means takeoff safety speed.
W, nº means minimum takeoff safety
speed.
“VFR” means visual flight rules.
“VHF" means very high frequency.
“WOR” means very high frequency
Omnirange station.
“VORTAC” means Collocated VOR and
TACAN.
(Sec. 6(c), 49 U.S.C. 1655(c): secs. 307, 601–
603, 72 Stat. 749, 775, 776, 49 U.S.C. 1848,
SUBCHAPTER B–PROCEDURAL RULES
PART 11–GENERAL RULE-MAKING
PROCEDURES
SPECIAL FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS
grab No. 27 FUEL VENTING AND Exhaust EMIS
sIon REQUIREMENTS FOR TURBINE ENGINE
POWERED AIRPLANES, EFFECTIVE FEBRUARY 1,
1974
Subpart A–General
Sec.
11.1 Applicability.
11.11 Docket.
11.15 Emergency exemptions.
Subpart B–Rules Other Than Airspace
Assignment and Use
11.21 Scope.
11.23 Initiating rule-making procedures.
11.25 Petitions for rule making or exemp
tions.
11.27 Action on petitions for rule making or
exemptions.
11.29 Notice of proposed rule making.
11.31 Participation of interested persons in
rule-making procedures.
14
1421–1423) [Doc. No. 1150, 27 F.R. 4590,
May 15, 1962, as amended by Amdt. 1–1, 28
F.R. 6704, June 29, 1963; Amdt. 1–6, 29 F.R.
18290, Dec. 24, 1964; Amdt. 1–10, 31 F.R. 5055,
Mar. 29, 1966; Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769.
Apr. 11, 1967; Amdt. 1–2, 32 F.R. 6905, May 5,
1967; Amdt. 1–14, 32 F.R. 13910, Oct. 6, 1967;
Amdt. 1–15, 33 F.R. 962, Jan. 26, 1968; Amdt.
1–18, 35 F.R. 13115, Aug. 18, 1970)
§ 1.3 Rules of construction.
(a) In subchapters A through K of
this chapter, unless the context requires
otherwise:
(1) Words importing the singular in
clude the plural:
(2) Words importing the plural in
clude the singular; and
(3) Words importing the masculine
gender include the feminine.
(b) In subchapters A through K of
this chapter, the Word:
(1) “Shall” is used in an imperative
Sense:
(2) “May” is used in a permissive
Sense to state authority or permission to
do the act prescribed, and the words “no
person may * * *” or “a person may
not * * *” mean that no person is re
quired, authorized, or permitted to do.
the act prescribed; and
(3) “Includes” means “includes but
is not limited to”.
[Doc. No. 1150, 27 F.R. 4590, May 15, 1962.
as amended by Amdt. 1–10, 31 F.R. 5055, Mar.
29, 1966]
Sec.
11.88 Additional rule-making proceedings.
11.35 Participation by Civil Aeronautics
Board in rule-making proceedings.
11.37 Requests for informal appearances.
Subport C–Processing of Rules Other Than Air
worthiness Directives and Airspace Assign
ment and Use
11.41 Scope.
11.43 Processing of petitions for rule mak
ing or exemption from parts of this
chapter, except Part 67.
11.45 Issue of notice of proposed rule
making.
11.47 Proceedings after notice of proposed
rule making.
11.49 Adoption of final rules.
11.51 Denial of petition for rule making.
11.53 Grant or denial of exemption.
Subpart D–Rules and Procedures for Airspace
Assignment and Use
11.61 Scope.
11.63 Filing of proposals.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
Sec.
11.65 Issue of notice of proposed rule
making.
11.67 Hearings.
11.69 Adoption of rules or orders.
11.71 Exemptions.
11.78 Petitions for rehearing or reconsider
ation of rules or orders.
11.75 Petitions for revoking or modifying
rules or orders.
Subpart E-Processing of Airworthiness Directives
11.81 Scope.
11.83 Processing of petitions for rule making
or exemption.
11.85 Issue of notice of proposed rule
making.
11.87 Proceedings after notice of proposed
rule making.
11.89 Adoption of final rules.
11.91 Grant or denial of exemption.
11.93 Petitions for reconsideration of rules.
AUTHORITY: The provisions of this Part 11
issued under secs. 303(d), 313(a), 501-506,
601–608, and 1001, 72 Stat. 747, 752, 771, 772,
774–776, 778–779, 788; 49 U.S.C. 1344(d),
1854(a), 1401–1405, 1421–1428, 1481, unless
otherwise noted.
Source: The provisions of this Part 11
contained in Docket No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9586,
Sept. 28, 1962, unless otherwise noted.
Nore: Nomenclature changes affecting this
Part 11 appear at 38 FR 26444, Sept. 21, 1973.
SPECIAL FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS
SFAR No. 27—FUEL VENTING AND ExhAUST
EMISSION REQUIREMENTS FOR TURBINE EN
GINE Power ED AIRPLANEs, EFFECTIVE FEB
RUARY 1, 1974
Section 1 Applicability—(a) U.S. air
planes. This Special Federal Aviation Regula
tion (SFAR) applies to civil airplanes that
are powered by aircraft gas turbine engines
of the classes specified herein and that have
U.S. Standard Airworthiness Certificates.
(b) Foreign airplanes. Pursuant to the
definition of “aircraft” in 40 CFR 87.1(3),
this SFAR applies to civil airplanes that are
powered by aircraft gas turbine engines of
the classes specified herein and that have
foreign airworthiness certificates that are
equivalent to U.S. Standard Airworthiness
Certificates. This includes only those foreign
civil airplanes that, if registered in the
United States, would be required by appli
cable Federal Aviation Regulations to have a
U.S. standard airworthiness certificate
order to conduct the operations intended for
the airplane.
Pursuant to 40 CFR 87.3 (c), this SFAR
does not apply where inconsistent with an
obligation assumed by the United States to
a foreign country in a treaty, convention, or
agreement.
Sec. 3 Relation to 40 CFR Part 87. (a) Ref
erence in this regulation to 40 CFR Part 87
refer to Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regu
lations, Chapter I—Environmental Protec
Part 11
-
tion Agency, Part 87, Control of Air Pollu
tion from Aircraft and Aircraft Engines (40
CFR Part 87), issued on July 6, 1973, and
published in the FEDERAL REGISTER (88 FR
19088) on July 17, 1973.
(b) This SFAR contains regulations to en
sure compliance with certain standards in
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 40
CFR Part 87. If EPA takes any action, in
cluding the issuance of an exemption or is
suance of a revised or alternate procedure,
test method, or other regulation, the effect
of which is to relax, or delay the effective
date of, any provision of 40 CFR Part 87 that
is made applicable to an aircraft under this
SFAR, the new, relaxed EPA requirement,
upon its effective date, is incorporated by
reference in this SFAR and supersedes the
provisions of this SFAR that are based on
the provisions of 40 CFR Part 87 that were
relaxed by such action.
(c) Unless otherwise stated, all termi
nology and abbreviations in this SFAR that
are defined in 40 CFR Part 87 have the mean
ing specified in that part, and all terms in 40
CFR Part 87 that are not defined in that
Part but that are used in this SFAR have the
meaning given them in the Clean Air Act, as
amended by Public Law 91-604.
(d) All interpretations of 40 CFR Part 87
that are rendered by EPA also apply to this
SFAR.
Sec. 5 Additional EPA approvals and pro
cedures. (a) If EPA, under 40 CFR 87.3(a),
approves or accepts any testing and sampling
procedures or methods, analytical tech
niques, and related equipment not identical
to those specified in EPA Part 87, this SFAR
requires a showing that such alternate,
equivalent, or otherwise nonidentical proce
dures have been complied with, and that
such alternate equipment was used to show
compliance, unless the applicant elects to
comply fully with 40 CFR Part 87.
(b) If EPA, under 40 CFR 87.5, prescribes
special test procedures for any aircraft or
aircraft engine that is not susceptible to
satisfactory testing by the procedures in
40 CFR Part 87, this SFAR requires a show
ing that those special test procedures have
been complied with.
(c) Wherever 40 CFR Part 87 requires
agreement, acceptance, or approval by the
Administrator of EPA, this SFAR requires a
showing that such agreement or approval
has been obtained.
Sec. 7 Relation to State and local regula
in tions. (a) Pursuant to 42 U.S.C. 1857 f—11,
no state or political subdivision thereof may
adopt or attempt to enforce any standard
respecting emissions of any air pollutant
from any aircraft or engine thereof unless
that Standard is identical to a standard made
applicable to the aircraft by the terms of this
SFAR.
(b) If EPA, by regulation or exemption, re
laxes a provision of 40 CFR Part 87 that is
implemented in this SFAR, no state or politi
cal subdivision thereof may adopt or attempt
 Part 11 Title 14—Aeronautics cºnd Space
to enforce the terms of this SFAR that are
superseded by the relaxed requirement.
(c) Consistent with $ 87.6 of 40 CFR Part
87, if the FAA Administrator determines that
any emission control regulation cannot be
safely applied to an aircraft, that provision
may not be adopted or enforced, against that
aircraft, by a state or political subdivision
thereof, even if it is in this SFAR.
(d) If any provision of this SFAR is ren
dered inapplicable to a foreign aircraft as
provided in 40 CFR 87.3 (c), and section 1 (b)
of this SFAR, that provision may not be
adopted or enforced against that foreign air
craft by a state or political subdivision
thereof.
Sec. 9 Petitions for rulemaking or eremp
tion. (a) Notwithstanding Part 11 of the
Federal Aviation Regulations (14 CFR Part
11), all petitions for rulemaking or exemp
tion involving either the substance of an
emission standard or test procedure pre
scribed by EPA that is incorporated in this
SFAR, or the compliance date for such stand
ard or procedure, must be submitted to EPA.
Information copies of such petitions are in
vited by the FAA.
(b) Petitions for rule making or exemp
tion involving provisions of this SFAR that
do not affect the substance or the compli
ance date of an emission standard or test
procedure that is prescribed by EPA are sub
ject to Part 11 of the Federal Aviation Regu
lations (14 CFR Part 11).
Sec. 11 Compliance with airworthiness reg
ulations It must be shown that the airplane
meets the airworthiness regulations consti
tuting the type certification basis of the air
plane under all conditions in which com
pliance with this SFAR is shown.
Sec. 13 Engine classes and test configura
tion. (a) Consistent with section 3 (c) of this
SFAR, the following definitions in 40 CFR
87.1 apply:
(1) “Aircraft engine” means a propulsion
engine which is installed in or which is
manufactured for installation in an aircraft.
(2) “Class T2” means turbofan or turbojet
aircraft engines except engines of Class T3,
T4, and T5 of rated power of 8,000 pounds
thrust or greater.
(3) “Class T3” means aircraft gas turbine
engines of the JT3D model family.
(4) “Class T4” means aircraft gas turbine
engines of the JT8D model family.
(5) “Class T5” means aircraft gas turbine
engines for propulsion of aircraft designed
to operate at supersonic speeds.
(6) “Class T1" means all aircraft turbofan
or turbojet engines (except engines of Class
T5) of rated power less than 8,000 pounds
thrust.
(7) “Class P2” means all aircraft turbo
prop engines.
(b) As prescribed in 40 CFR 87.4, the com
plete engine as configured for final accept
ance testing, including all accessories that
Imight reasonably be expected to influence
emissions to the atmosphere excluding auxil
iary gearbox-mounted components required
16
to drive aircraft systems and service air bleed,
must be functional for all testing under this
SFAR.
Sec. 14 Acceptable means of compliance.
(a) Compliance with the fuel venting emis
sions requirements of this SFAR that apply
beginning on February 1, 1974 and beginning
on January 1, 1975 may be shown by any
means of compliance, applied to the air
frame or the engine, that prevents the in
tentional discharge of fuel from fuel nozzle
manifolds after the engines are shut down.
Acceptable means of compliance include the
following:
(1) Incorporation of an FAA approved sys
tem that recirculates the fuel back into the
fuel system.
(2) Capping or securing the pressurization
and drain valve.
(3) Manually draining the fuel from a
holding tank into a container.
(b) Compliance with the exhaust emis
sions requirements of this SFAR that apply
to Class T-4 engines beginning on February 1,
1974 is shown if the engine is either a JT8D
11 or JT8D-15 engine or if the engine is a
JT8D-1, JT8D-7, or JT8D-9 engine that was
modified in accordance With Pratt and Whit
ney Engineering Change No. 197707 or in
corporates burners installed in accordance
with Pratt and Whitney Service Bulletin 2417
or burners modified in accordance with Pratt
and Whitney Service Bulletin 2531. These
Pratt and Whitney documents are incor
porated herein.
(c) Continued compliance with the ex
haust emissions requirements of this SFAR
that apply beginning on February 1, 1974
is shown if the engine is maintained in ac
cordance with applicable maintenance re
quirements.
Section 15 Type certificates. Notwithstand
ing Part 21 of the Federal Aviation Regula
tions and irrespective of the date of applica
tion, no type certificate is issued, on and
after the dates specified in paragraphs (a)
through (c) of this section, for the airplanes
specified therein, unless—
(a) For airplanes powered by engines of
Class T2, Class T3, Class T4, or Class T5, the
airframe or engine complies with the fuel
venting emissions requirements and related
test procedures of 40 CFR Part 87 that apply
beginning February 1, 1974;
(b) For airplanes powered by engines of
Class T4, each engine complies with the ex
haust emission requirements and related test
procedures of 40 CFR Part 87 that apply
beginning February 1, 1974; and
(c) For airplanes powered by engines of
Class T1 or Class P2, the airframe or engine
complies with the fuel venting emissions re
quirements and related test procedures of 40
CFR Part 87 that apply beginning January 1,
1975.
Section 17 Supplemental or amended type
certificates. Notwithstanding Part 21 of the
Federal Aviation Regulations and irrespec
tive of date of application, no supplemental
or amended type certificate is issued, on and
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
after the date specified in paragraphs (a)
through (c) of this section, for the airplanes
specified therein, unless—
(a) For airplanes powered by engines of
Class T2, Class T3, Class T4, or Class T5, the
airframe or engine complies with the fuel
venting emissions requirements and related
test procedures of 40 CFR Part 87 that apply
beginning February 1, 1974;
(b) For airplanes powered by engines of
Class T4, each engine complies with the
exhaust emissions requirements and related
test procedures of 40 CFR Part 87 that apply
beginning February 1, 1974; and
(c) For airplanes powered by engines of
Class T1 or Class P2, the airframe or engine
complies with the fuel venting emissions
requirements and related test procedures of
40 CFR Part 87 that apply beginning Janu
ary 1, 1975.
Section 19 Airworthiness approval tags.
Notwithstanding Part 21 of the Federal Avia
tion Regulations, no airworthiness approval
tag (FAA Form 8130–3) is issued on and
after February 1, 1974, for an engine of Class
T4 unless the engine complies with the
exhaust emissions requirements and related
test procedures of 40 CFR Part 87 that apply
beginning February 1, 1974.
Section 21 Standard airworthiness certifi
cates. Notwithstanding Part 21 of the Federal
Aviation Regulations and irrespective of
the date of application, no standard air
worthiness certificate is issued, on and after
the dates specified in paragraph (a) through
(c) of this section, for the airplanes speci
fied therein, unless—
(a) For airplanes powered by engines of
Class T2, Class T3, Class T4, or Class T5, the
airframe or engine complies with the fuel
venting emissions requirements and related
test procedures of 40 CFR Part 87 that apply
beginning February 1, 1974;
(b) For airplanes powered by engines of
Class T4, each engine complies with the
exhaust emissions requirements and related
test procedures of 40 CFR Part 87 that apply
beginning February 1, 1974; and
(c) For airplanes powered by engines of
Class T1 or Class P2, the airframe or engine
complies with the fuel venting emissions
requirements and related test procedures of
40 CFR Part 87 that apply beginning Janu
ary 1, 1975.
Section 25 Operation. On and after the
dates specified in paragraphs (a) through (c)
of this section, no person may, within the
United States, operate an airplane specified
in those paragraphs unless—
(a) For airplanes powered by engines of
Class T2, Class T3, Class T4, or Class T5, the
airframe or the engine complies with the fuel
venting emissions requirements and related
test procedures of 40 CFR Part 87 that apply
beginning February 1, 1974;
(b) For airplanes powered by engines of
Class T4, each engine complies with the
exhaust emissions requirements and related
test procedures of 40 CFR Part 87 that apply
beginning February 1, 1974; and
17
§ 11.11
(c) For airplanes powered by engines of
Class T1 or Class P2, the airframe or engine
complies with the fuel venting emissions
requirements and related test procedures of
40 CFR Part 87 that apply beginning Janu
ary 1, 1975.
(Secs. 232 and 233 of the Clean Air Act, as
amended December 31, 1970, Pub. L. 91-604,
sec. 11(a)(1), 84 Stat. 1704 (42 U.S.C. 1857
f–10, f-11), as delegated 36 FR 8733; 40 CFR
Part 87 (38 FR 19088); secs. 307 (c), 313(a),
601, and 603 of the Federal Aviation Act of
1958 (49 U.S.C. 1348(c), 1354(a), 1421, and
1423); sec. 6(c) of the Department of
Transportation Act (49 U.S.C. 1655(c)))
[38 FR 35440, Dec. 28, 1974; Doc. No. 13883,
Amdt. SFAR 27–1, 39 FR 45009, Dec. 30,
1974]
NotE: Incorporation by reference pro
visions (Pratt and Whitney Engineering
Change 1977.07 and Service Bulletins 2417 and
2531) approved by the Director of the Fed
eral Register, December 27, 1973.
Subpart A–General
§ 11.1 Applicability.
This part applies to the issue, amend
ment, and repeal of—
(a) Rules and orders for airspace as
signment and use issued under section
307 (a) of the Federal Aviation Act of
1958 (49 U.S.C. 1348(a)); and
(b) Other substantive rules, includ
ing those applicable to a class of per
Sons, and those addressed to and served
on named persons whenever the Admin
istrator decides to use public rule-mak
ing procedures in such a case.
§ 11.11 Docket.
Official FAA records relating to rule
making actions, including proposals,
notices of proposed rule making, written
material received in response to notices,
petitions for rule making and exemp
tions, petitions for rehearing or recon
sideration, petitions for modification or
revocation, notices granting or denying
exemptions, reports of proceedings con
ducted under § 11.47, notices denying
proposals, and final rules or orders are
maintained in current docket form in
the Office of the Chief Counsel. A
public docket relating to rule making ac
tions taken by each Regional Director on
petitions for exemption filed under Part
139 of this chapter is maintained in the
office of the Regional Counsel for that
region. A public docket relating to rule
making actions taken by Regional Direc
tors under Subparts D and E of this Part
is maintained in the office of the Regional
Counsel. Any interested person may ex
amine any docketed material at that
§ 11.15 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
office, at any time after the docket is es
tablished, except material that is ordered
Withheld from the public under section
1104 of the Federal Aviation Act of 1958
(49 U.S.C. 1504), and may obtain a photo
static or duplicate copy of it upon paying
the cost of the copy.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9586, Sept. 28, 1962,
as amended by Amdt. 11–4, 29 F.R. 15074,
Nov. 7, 1964; Amdt. 11–6, 31 F.R. 13697, Oct.
25, 1966; Amdt. 11–12, 37 F.R. 19354, Sept. 20,
1972]
§ 11.15 Emergency exemptions.
If, as a result of enemy attack on the
United States, communication with
Washington headquarters of FAA is or
may be disrupted or materially impaired,
petitions for exemptions from any rule
issued under Titles III or VI of the Fed
eral Aviation Act of 1958 (air safety
rules and air traffic and airspace rules)
may also be filed at the nearest FAA
Regional Office, Area Office, air traffic
control facility or office, Air Carrier Dis
trict Office, General Aviation District Of
fice, International Field Office or FAA
Representative in the Europe, Africa, and
Middle East Region, or in the Pacific
Region. The procedural requirements of
§§ 11.53, 11.71, and 11.91 need not be
followed. Under these emergency con
ditions, the FAA inspectors or officers in
charge of these offices may grant, in
whole or in part and subject to reason
able conditions or limitation, such ex
emptions or may deny petitions for such
exemptions; may issue such exemptions
to named persons or in blanket form on
their own initiative; and may limit or
terminate exemptions so issued by them
or by offices whose jurisdiction they may
have assumed. Exemptions issued under
these circumstances are at all times sub
ject to modification and termination by
the Director or Acting Director or officer
in charge of the Region concerned, Sub
ject to ultimate action by the Director
or Acting Director of the Service con
Cerned.
(49 U.S.C. 1344, 1348, 1854, 1430) [Amdt.
11–2, 29 F.R. 7091, May 29, 1964, as amended
by Amdt. 11–5, 31 F.R. 11091, Aug. 20, 1966;
Amdt. 11–10, 33 F.R. 17850, Nov. 30, 1968;
Amdt. 11–11, 36 F.R. 3463, Feb. 25, 1971)
Subpart B–Rules Other Than Air
space Assignment and Use
§ 11.21 Scope.
(a) This subpart applies to substan
tive rules, other than those relating to
airspace assignment and use.
18
(b) Unless the Administrator, for
good cause, finds that notice is imprac
ticable, unnecessary, or Contrary to the
public interest, and incorporates that
finding and a brief statement of the rea
sons for it in the rule, the FAA issues
notices of proposed rule making and
allows interested persons to participate
in rule-making proceedings involving a
Substantive rule.
(c) Unless the Administrator deter
mines that notice and rule-making pro
cedures are to be followed, interpretive
rules, general statements of policy, and
rules of FAA organization, procedure, or
practice are prescribed as final without
notice or rule-making procedures.
(d) Whenever the Administrator SO
determines, the procedures prescribed in
this subpart apply to exempting persons
and classes from the requirements of a
Substantive rule.
§ 11.23 lnitiating rule-making proce
dures.
The Administrator initiates rule-mak
ing procedures upon his OWI) motion.
However, in doing so, he considers the
recommendations of other agencies of
the United States and the petitions of
other interested persons.
§ 11.25 Petitions for rule making or ex
emptions.
(a) Any interested person may peti
tion the Administrator to issue, amend,
or repeal a rule whether or not it is a
substantive rule within the meaning of
§ 11.21, or for a temporary or permanent
exemption from any rule issued by the
Federal Aviation Administration under
statutory authority.
(b) Each petition filed under this sec
tion must—
(1) In the case of a petition for ex
emption, unless good cause is shown in
that petition, be submitted at least 60
days before the proposed effective date
of the exemption;
(2) Be Submitted in duplicate—
(i) To the appropriate FAA airport
field office in whose area the petitioner
proposes to establish or has established
its airport, in the case of any petition for
exemption filed under Part 139 of this
chapter; and
(ii) To the Federal Aviation Adminis
tration, Washington, D.C. 20591, in all
Other Cases;
(3) Set forth the text or Substance of
the rule or amendment proposed, or of
the rule from which the exemption is
Sought, or specify the rule that the peti
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
tioner seeks to have repealed, as the case
may be;
(4) Explain the interests of the peti
tioner in the action requested including,
in the case of a petition for an exemp
tion, the nature and extent of the relief
sought and a description of each aircraft
or person to be covered by the exemp
tion; and
(5) Contain any information, views,
or arguments available to the petitioner
to support the action sought, the reasons
Why the granting of the request would
be in the public interest and, if appro
priate, in the case of an exemption, the
reason why the exemption would not
adversely affect safety or the action to
be taken by the petitioner to provide a
level of safety equal to that provided by
the rule from which the exemption is
sought.
[Docket No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9586, Sept. 28, 1962,
as amended by Amdt. 11–5, 31 F.R. 11091,
Aug. 20, 1966; Docket No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967; Amdt. 11–8, 32 F.R. 6390,
Apr. 25, 1967; Amdt. 11–12, 37 F.R. 19354.
Sept. 20, 1972]
§ 11.27 Action on petitions for rule
making or exemptions.
(a) No public hearing, argument, or
other formal proceeding is held directly
on a petition filed under § 11.25, before
its disposition by the FAA.
(b) If the Administrator determines
that the petition discloses adequate
reasons, he issues a notice of proposed
rule making, or adopts a final rule, or,
if it is in the public interest, grants the
exemption.
(c) If the Administrator determines
that the petition does not justify in
Stituting rule-making procedures
granting the requested exemption, he
notifies the petitioner to that effect.
(d) Specific provisions covering ac
tions on petitions are set forth in Sub
part C of this part.
§ 11.29 Notice of proposed rule making.
(a) Each general notice of proposed
rule making is published in the FEDERAL
REGISTER, unless all persons subject to it
are named and are personally Served
with a copy of it.
(b) Each notice, whether published in
the FEDERAL REGISTER or personally
served, includes—
(1) A statement of the time, place,
and nature of the proposed rule-making
proceeding;
(2) A reference to the authority un
der which it is issued;
§ 11.33
(3) A description of the Subjects and
issues involved or the Substance and
terms of the proposed rule;
(4) A statement of the time Within
which written comments must be Sub
mitted and the required number of
copies; and
(5) A statement of how and to what
extent interested persons may participate
in the proceeding, as prescribed by
§§ 11.31 and 11.33.
(c) A petition for extension of the
time for comments must be submitted in
duplicate not later than two days before
expiration of the time stated in the
notice. The filing of the petition does
not automatically extend the time for
petitioner's comments. Such a petition
is granted only if the petitioner shows a
substantive interest in the proposed rule
and good cause for the extension, and if
the extension is consistent with the
public interest. If an extension is
granted it is published in the FEDERAL
REGISTER.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9586, Sept. 28, 1962,
as amended by Amdt. 11–1, 28 F.R. 2897,
Mar. 23, 1963]
§ 11.31 Participation of interested per
sons in rule-making procedures.
(a) Each interested person is entitled
to participate in rule-making proceed
ings by submitting written information,
views, or arguments. In addition, he
may comment on the original informa
tion, views, and arguments submitted by
other persons, if, after receiving them,
the Administrator considers it desirable.
(b) In any appropriate case, the Ad
ministrator also allows interested per
sons to participate in the rule-making
or
procedures described in § 11.33.
§ 11.33 Additional rule-making proceed
ings.
(a) The rule-making procedure also
includes any further procedural steps
that best serve the purposes of a particu
lar proceeding. For example, interested
persons may be allowed to make oral
arguments, participate in conferences
between the Administrator or his repre
sentative and interested persons and or
ganizations, appear at informal hearings
presided over by a designated FAA offi
cial at which a stenographic transcript
is made, or participate in any other pro
cedure whenever it is desirable and ap
propriate to assure informed administra
tive action and adequate protection of
private interestS.
19
§ 11.35 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(b) Any appropriate combination of
the procedures described in paragraph
(a) of this section may be used in addi
tion to the basic procedure of allowing
interested persons to participate in rule
making proceedings by Submitting Writ
ten information, ViewS, Or argumentS.
§ 11.35 Participation by Civil Aero
nautics Board in rule-making pro
ceedings.
(a) Under section 1001 of the Federal
Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1481), the
Civil Aeronautics Board may appear and
participate as an interested party in any
proceeding conducted by the Adminis
trator under Title III of that Act, and
in any proceeding under Title VI of that
Act that cannot be appealed to the Na
tional Transportation Safety Board.
(b) To indicate its intention to par
ticipate in any proceeding described in
paragraph (a) of this section, the Civil
Aeronautics Board may file written in
formation, views, or arguments in re
sponse to a notice of proposed rule
making issued by the Administrator. The
Civil Aeronautics Board is entitled to the
procedural privileges accorded other par
ties and is equally free to participate.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9586, Sept. 28, 1962,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 11.37 Requests for informal appear
ances,
(a) Upon his request, any interested
person may appear informally before an
appropriate official of the FAA to present,
adjust, or determine a question or con
troversy relating to a rule-making func
tion of the FAA.
(b) A request for an appearance under
this section must be sent in writing to
the Federal Aviation Administration,
Washington, D.C. 20590, or to the Re
gional or District Office nearest to the
person making the request.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9586, Sept. 28, 1962,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967; Amdt. 11–8, 32 F.R. 6390,
Apr. 25, 1967]
Subpart C–Processing of Rules Other
Than Airworthiness Directives and
Airspace Assignment and Use
§ 11.41 Scope.
(a) This subpart prescribes the Sup
plemental procedures to be followed by
the Offices and Services of the FAA in
rule-making proceedings and in grant
ing or denying exemptions from rules.
20
It also designates the Office or Service
that is authorized to act for the Admin
istrator in connection with those pro
ceedings and exemptions. Any authority
conferred by this subpart on the head of
any Office or Service is also conferred on
the Associate Administrator (if any) who
exercises executive direction over that
official. For the purposes of this subpart,
the words “Office or Service” include the
Aeronautical Center and the National
Aviation Facilities Experimental Center,
and include Regional Directors with re
spect to petitions for exemption filed
under Part 139 of this chapter.
(b) This subpart applies to rule-mak
ing procedures other than for Air
worthiness Directives and rules relating
to Airspace Assignment and USe.
[Docket No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9586, Sept. 28, 1962,
as amended by Amdt. 11–5, 31 F.R. 11091, Aug.
20, 1966; Amdt. 11–16, 31 F.R. 13697, Oct. 25,
1966; Amdt. 11–12, 37 F.R. 19354, Sept. 20,
1972]
§ 11.43 Processing of petitions for rule
making or exemption from parts
of this chapter, except Part 67.
Whenever the FAA receives a petition
for rule making or for an exemption
(other than from Part 67 of this chap
ter), a copy of the petition is referred for
action, as provided in § 11.27. to the Of
fice or Service having Substantive re
sponsibility for the Subject involved.
§ 11.45 Issue of notice of proposed rule
making.
Whenever he determines that a notice
of proposed rule making is necessary or
desirable, the head of the Office or Serv
ice concerned may, subject to the
approval of the Chief Counsel with
respect to form and legality, issue the
notice provided for in § 11.29. In addi
tion, he may grant or deny petitions for
extension of the time for comments on
the notice, filed under § 11.29(c).
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9586, Sept. 28, 1962;
as amended by Amdt. 11–1, 28 F.R. 2897, Mar.
23, 1963)
§ 11.47 Proceedings after notice of pro
posed rule making.
(a) Each person who submits written
information, views, or arguments in re
sponse to a notice of proposed rule mak
ing, or during additional rule-making
proceedings in connection With Such a
notice, must file the number of copies
specified in the notice All timely com
ments are considered before final action
on the rule-making proposal is taken.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
Late filed comments are considered so far
as possible without incurring expense or
delay.
(b) Whenever the head of the Office
or Service concerned determines that
additional rule-making proceedings of
the kind described in § 11.33 are neces
Sary or desirable, he may designate
representatives to conduct those pro
ceedings.
[Docket No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9586, Sept. 28, 1962,
as amended by Amdt. 11–5, 31 F.R. 11091,
Aug. 20, 1966]
§ 11.49 Adoption of final rules.
After the Office or Service concerned
has completed its analysis and evalua
tion of the information, views, and argu
ments submitted With respect to a pro
posed rule, representatives of that Office
or Service and the Office of the Chief
Counsel prepare an appropriate rule,
subject to the approval of the Chief
Counsel as to form and legality. The
rule is then submitted, with the recom
mendations of the head of the Office
or Service concerned and the Chief
Counsel, to the Administrator for his
consideration. If he adopts the rule, it
is published in the FEDERAL REGISTER.
§ 11.51 Denial of petition for rule
making.
Whenever it is determined that a peti
tion for rule making filed under § 11.25
should be denied, the Office or Service
concerned prepares, Subject to the ap
proval of the Chief Counsel with re
spect to form and legality, a notice of
denial for the Administrator's Signature.
§ 11.53 Grant or denial of exemption.
(a) The head of the Office or Service
concerned may, subject to the approval
of the Chief Counsel with respect to
form and legality, grant or deny any
petition for an exemption. However, if
the head of the Office or Service con
Cerned finds that the grant or denial in
Volves a technical or policy determina
tion that should be made by the Admin
istrator, he refers the petition and his
recommendations and those of the Chief
‘Counsel to the Administrator for final
action.
(b) Whenever a petition is granted or
denied under this section, the Office or
Service Concerned prepares, subject to
the approval of the Chief Counsel with
respect to form and legality, a notice to
the petitioner informing him of the ac
tion taken.
21
§ 11.61
(c) For the purposes of this sec
tion, the words “Chief Counsel” include
Regional Counsel as to petitions for ex
emption filed under Part 139 of this
chapter.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9586, Sept. 28, 1962,
as amended by Amdt. 11–11, 86 F.R. 8463,
Feb. 25, 1971; Amdt. 11–12, 37 F.R. 19355,
Sept. 20, 1972]
Subpart D—Rules and Procedures for
Airspace Assignment and Use
§ 11.61 Scope.
(a) This subpart establishes proce
dures for initiating, processing, issuing,
and publishing rules and orders issued
under section 307 (a) of the Federal
Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1348(a)),
including—
(1) Designations of Federal airways,
control zones, control areas, control area
extensions, positive control areas, posi
tive control route segments, coded jet
routes, transition areas, and antenna
farm areas;
(2) Assignments of Segments or parts
of the navigable airspace for Special use
purposes, such as restricted areas, mili
tary climb corridors, and experimental
flight test areas; and
(3) Special rules or orders relating to
the assignment or use of navigable
airSpace.
(b) This subpart does not apply to
emergency cases and cases in which the
procedures described in paragraph (a)
of this section are found to be impracti.
Cal, unnecessary, Or Contrary to the pub
lic interest.
(c) For the purposes of this subpart,
“Director” means the Associate Adminis
trator for Programs, the Director, Air
Traffic Service (or any person to whom
he has delegated his authority in the
matter concerned), or a Regional Di
rector. The authority of the Regional
Director is limited to those matters relat
ing to terminal airspace within the
United States, as described in § 71.165 of
Subpart E, and Subparts F and G of Part
71. He may, however, include those mat
ters relating to Federal airways or addi
tional control areas within the United
States, as described in Subparts B, C, and
I, and $ 71.163 of Subpart E of Part 71,
if they are ancillary to the terminal area
airspace matter.
(d) For the purposes of this subpart,
“Chief Counsel” means the Chief Coun
Sel, or a Regional Counsel, or any person
to whom the Chief Counsel or Regional
§ 11.63 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
Counsel has delegated his authority in
the matter concerned.
(49 U.S.C. 1348) [Doc. No. 1242, 27 FIR.
9586, Sept. 28, 1962, as amended by Amdt.
11–3, 29 F.R. 9662, July 17, 1964; Amdt. 11–4,
29 F.R. 15074, Nov. 7, 1964; Amdt. 11–5; 31
F.R. 11091, Aug. 20, 1966]
§ 11.63 Filing of proposals.
(a) Each proposal, except one arising
in the FAA, for the designation of Fed
eral airways or other areas for normal
air traffic use, the assignment of navi
gable airspace for Special use purposes,
or the issue of a special rule or order
relating to the use of navigable air
space, must be filed in Writing, in tripli
cate, with the Director.
(b) The director may, on his own mo
tion, initiate the procedures prescribed
in this subpart for proposals arising
Within the FAA.
(c) A proposal requesting the assign
ment of navigable airspace for Special
use purposes, or for the designation of an
area for air traffic purposes, must in
clude at least the following:
(1) The location and a description of
the airspace desired for assignment or
designation.
(2) A complete description of the ac
tivity or use to be made of that airspace,
including a detailed description of the
type, volume, duration, time, and place
of the operations to be conducted in the
assigned or designated area.
(3) A description of the air naviga
tion, air traffic control, surveillance, and
Communication facilities available and
to be provided if the assignment or desig
nation is made.
(4) The name and location of the
agency, office, facility, or person to whom
authority would be delegated to permit
the use of the airspace during those times
it would not be used for the purpose to
which it would be assigned.
(d) Subject to the approval of the
Chief Counsel with respect to form
and legality, the Director issues a notice
of any rejected proposal.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9586, Sept. 28, 1962,
as amended by Amdt. 11–3, 29 F.R. 9662,
July 17, 1964]
§ 11.65 Issue of notice of proposed
rule making.
(a) If it is determined that the subject
matter of a proposal should be submitted
to the rule-making process, or if rule
making action is to be taken on his own
motion, the Director, subject to the ap
proval of the Chief Counsel with respect
to form and legality, issues a notice of
proposed rule making.
(b) Normally, a notice of proposed
rule making is issued within approxi
mately 30 days after receipt of a pro
posal With respect to which it has been
determined that action might be taken.
(C) Each notice of proposed rule.
making is published in the FEDERAL
REGISTER and includes at least the fol
lowing:
(1) A statement of the time, place,
and nature of the public rule-making.
proceedings.
(2) A reference to the authority un
der which it is proposed.
(3) Either the terms or substance of
the proposed action or a description of
the Subjects and issues involved.
(d) Approximately 30 days are al
lowed for submitting written informa
tion, views, or arguments on the notice.
Petitions for extension of the time for
such comments are governed by the pro
visions of $ 11.29(c). If a public hearing
is to be held, either the original notice
of proposed rule making or a revised
notice gives approximately 30 days no
tice. The Director may grant or deny
petitions for extension of the time for
comments on the notice and may change
the date of any hearing previously
noticed.
(e) Written information, views, and
arguments submitted in response to a
notice of proposed rule making, or that
are requested after the notice, must be
Submitted in triplicate.
(f) Each interested person is entitled
to discuss or confer informally with ap
propriate FAA officials concerning a pro
posed action. However, to become a part
of the formal record for consideration,
any information, views, or arguments
presented during a conference must also
be submitted in writing in accordance
With the notice.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9586, Sept. 28, 1962;
as amended by Amdt. 11–1, 28 F.R. 2897,
Mar. 23, 1963]
§ 11.67 Hearings.
(a) Sections 7 and 8 of the Admin
istrative Procedure Act do not apply
to proceedings used to formulate rules.
under Section 307 (a) of the Federal
Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1348(a)).
Whenever the Director, in his discretion,
considers that a hearing is necessary to
provide informed Administrative action
and assure adequate protection of pri
wate or public interests, he may hold an
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
informal public hearing. However, any
rule or order issued in a case in Which
such a hearing is held is not based ex
clusively on the record of the hearing.
(b) The Director designates a presid
ing officer for each hearing and the
Chief Counsel designates a legal adviser.
(c) Normally, hearings held under
this section are held in the vicinity of
the affected airspace. Interested per
sons are allotted time to make an oral
presentation without interruption and a
verbatim transcript is made of the pro
ceedings by a certified court reporter.
(d) The procedure in hearings held
under this section is as follows:
(1) The presiding officer makes an
opening statement with particular ref
erence to the notice of proposed rule
making.
(2) The presiding officer designates
interested persons or their authorized
representatives to speak at the hearing.
(3) The presiding officer allots enough
time to each interested person on an
equal basis so that his position may be
expressed fully and placed on the rec
ord, with those who favor it speaking
first followed by those who oppose it,
initial Statements being made as far as
possible without interruption, and ques
tions permitted after initial Statements
have been made by all designated per
SOIns.
(4) Arguments and Oral statements
are limited to the Subject named in the
notice of proposed rule making.
(5) Written information, Views, argu
ments, or briefs may be offered for the
record, but may not be accepted after
the hearing unless good cause is shown
or the submission is requested by the
presiding officer or the Director.
(e) The presiding officer of a hear
ing may deviate from the procedures pre
Scribed in this Section to assure a more
complete and informative record.
§ 11.69 Adoption of rules or orders.
(a) After the closing date for Submit
ting written comments on a notice Or,
if a hearing is held; after the hearing,
the Office having substantive responsi
bility for the subject involved studies the
entire matter of a proposed rule or order.
The Chief Counsel determines whether
legal justification exists for the proposed
action, and thereafter prepares an ap
propriate rule, order, or notice of denial.
The rule, order, or notice of denial is
then submitted to the Director for his
action.
23
§ 11.73
(b) Each rule or order issued by
the Director is published in the FED
ERAL REGISTER and in such other pub
lications as the Director considers de
sirable. Each notice of denial is sent
to the person who made the proposal
and to such other interested persons as
the Director considers desirable.
(c) Each rule or order issued under
*his subpart becomes effective not less
than 30 days after it is published, ex
Cept in an emergency, or when it is im
practical, unnecessary, or contrary to the
public interest.
(49 U.S.C. 1348) [Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R.
9586, Sept. 28, 1962, as amended by Amdt.
11–3, 29 F.R. 9662, July 17, 1964]
§ 11.71 Exemptions.
(a) A petition for an exemption from
any rule or order issued under section
307 (a) of the Federal Aviation Act of
1958 (49 U.S.C. 1348(a)) may be filed
with the Director. Such a petition must
be in triplicate and state clearly the na
ture of the requested exemption and the
reasons why it should be granted.
(b) The Director may, Subject to the
approval of the Chief Counsel with
respect to form and legality, grant or
deny any petition filed under this sec
tion and shall notify the petitioner of
his action.
§ 11.73 Petitions for rehearing or re
consideration of rules or orders.
(a) Any interested person may peti
tion the Administrator for a rehearing
on, or for reconsideration of, any rule
or order issued under Section 307 (a) of
the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 (49
U.S.C. 1348(a)). Such a petition must
be filed, in triplicate, within 30 days after
the rule or order is published in the FED
ERAL REGISTER. It must contain a brief
statement of the complaint and an ex
planation as to how the rule or order is
contrary to the public interest.
(b) If the petitioner requests the con
sideration of additional facts, he must
state their nature and purpose, and the
reason they were not presented at the
hearing or in writing within the allotted
time.
(c) The Administrator does not COIn
sider repetitious petitions.
(d) Unless the Administrator orders
otherwise, the filing of a petition under
this section does not stay the effect of
a rule or order.
§ 11.75 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 11.75 Petitions for revoking or modi
fying rules or orders.
(a) Any interested person may peti
tion to revoke or modify any rule or order
covered by this subpart. Such a petition
must be filed, in triplicate, with the
Director and must clearly state the in
formation, views, and arguments the
petitioner considers necessary to support
the requested action and must clearly
indicate the effect the action would have
on the use of navigable airspace.
(b) A petition filed under this section
is processed in the same manner as an
original proposal, or in any other man
ner that the Director considers necessary
or desirable.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9586, Sept. 28, 1962,
as amended by Amdt. 11–3, 29 F.R. 9662, July
17, 1964]
Subpart E–Processing of Airworthi
ness Directives
Source: The provisions of this Subpart E.
contained in Doc. No. 7162, 31 F.R. 13697,
Oct. 25, 1966, unless otherwise noted.
§ 11.81 Scope.
(a) This subpart prescribes the pro
cedures to be followed in rule-making
proceedings for Airworthiness Directives
issued pursuant to Part 39 and in grant
ing or denying exemptions from Air
worthiness Directives. It also designates
the persons that are authorized to act for
the Administrator in connection with
those proceedings and exemptions.
(b) For the purposes of this subpart,
“Director” means the Director, Flight
Standards Service, or a Regional Direc
tor of a region within the 48 contiguous
States. The authority of the Regional
Director is limited to Airworthiness D1
rectives for products for which a type
certificate was issued in his region, or in
the case of a product for which no type
certificate was issued, a product that was
manufactured in his region.
(c) For the purposes of this subpart,
“Chief Counsel” means the Chief Counsel
or a Regional Counsel, or any person to
whom the Chief Counsel or Regional
Counsel has delegated his authority in
the matter concerned.
§ 11.83 Processing of petitions for rule
making or exemption.
Whenever the FAA receives a petition
for rule making or for an exemption, a
copy of the petition is referred for action,
as provided in § 11.27, to the Director
having Airworthiness Directive responsi
bility for the product involved.
24
§ 11.85 Issue of notice of proposed rule
making.
Whenever he determines that a notice
of proposed rule making is necessary or
desirable, the Director may, subject to
the approval of the Chief Counsel with
respect to form and legality, issue the
notice provided for in § 11.29. In addi
tion, he may grant or deny petitions for
extension of the time for comments On
the notice, filed under § 11.29 (c).
§ 11.87 Proceedings after notice of pro
posed rule making.
(a) Each person who submits written
information, views, or arguments in re
sponse to a notice of proposed rule mak
ing, or during additional rule-making
proceedings in connection with such a
notice, must file the number of copies
Specified in the notice.
(b) Whenever the Director determines
that additional rule-making proceedings
of the kind described in § 11.33 are neces
sary or desirable, he may designate repre
Sentatives to conduct those proceedings.
§ 11.89 Adoption of final rules.
In any case in which a notice of pro
posed rule making was issued, the Direc
tor completes his analysis and evaluation
of the information, views, and arguments
submitted with respect to the proposed
rule and studies the entire matter. In
any case in which the subject matter is,
for good cause, submitted to the rule
making process without notice, the Direc
tor initiates the procedure. The Chief
Counsel determines whether legal justi
fication exists for the action proposed,
and thereafter prepares an appropriate
rule or notice of denial. The rule or
notice of denial is then submitted to the
Director for his action.
§ 11.91 Grant or denial of exemption.
(a) The Director may, subject to the
approval of the Chief Counsel with re
spect to form and legality, grant or deny
any petition for an exemption from an
AirWorthiness Directive.
(b) Whenever a petition is granted or
denied under this section, the Director
prepares, Subject to the approval of the
Chief Counsel with respect to form and
legality, a notice to the petitioner inform
ing him of the action taken.
§ 11.93 Petitions for reconsideration of
rules.
(a) Any interested person may peti
tion the Administrator for a rehearing
 chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration § 13.11

on, or for reconsideration of, any Air
worthiness Directive. Such a petition
must be filed, in duplicate, within 30 days
after the rule is published in the FEDERAL
Register. It must contain a brief state
ment of the complaint and an explana
tion as to how the rule is contrary to the
public interest.
(b) If the petitioner requests the con:
sideration of additional facts, he must
state their nature and purpose and the
reason they were not presented at the
hearing or in writing within the allotted
º The Administrator does not con
sider repetitious petitions.
(d) Unless the Administrator orders
otherwise, the filing of a petition under
this section does not stay the effect of a
rule or order.
PART 13–ENFORCEMENT
PROCEDURES
Subpart A–Investigative Procedures
Sec.
13.1 Reports of violations.
13.3 Investigations.
Subpart B–Administrative Actions
13.11 Administrative disposition of certain
Violation.S.
501-506, 601–608, and 1001, 72 Stat. 745, 747,
752, 771, 772, 774–776, 778–779, 788; 49 U.S.C.
1343, 1344, 1354, 1401–1405, 1421–1428, and
1481.
Note: Nomenclature changes affecting this
Part 13 appear at 38 FR 26444, Sept. 21, 1973.
Subpart A–Investigative Procedures”
§ 13.1 Reports of violations.
(a) Any person who knows of a Viola
tion of the Federal Aviation Act of 1958,
or of any regulation or order issued
under it, may report it to appropriate
personnel of an FAA regional or district
Office.
(b) Each report made under this Sec
tion is investigated by FAA personnel.
The results of that investigation are the
basis for determining the enforcement
action that the FAA will take.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9589, Sept. 28, 1962]
§ 13.3 Investigations.
(a) Under section 313 of the Federal
Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354), the
Administrator may conduct public hear
ings or investigations and take evidence
and depositions, issue subpoenas, and
compel testimony in the manner pro
vided in section 1004 of the Act (49
U.S.C. 1484).

subpart C–Legal Enforcement Actions (b) For the purpose of investigating

alleged violations of the Act, or any regu
18.15 Civil penalties. lation or order issued under it, the Ad
13.17 seizure of aircraft. ministrator's authority under Sections
18.19 Certificate action. 313 and 1004 has been delegated to the
13.20 Cease and desist orders.
1821 Military aircraft. Chief Counsel, the Deputy Chief Coun
13.23 Criminal penalties. sel, each Assistant Chief Counsel, and
each Regional Counsel. For the pur
Subpart D–Rules of Practice for Hearings in FAA
pose of investigating alleged violations of
certificate of Aircraft Registration Proceedings title V of the Act, or any regulation or
13.31. Applicabllity. order issued under it, the Administrator's
1833 Appearances. authority under sections 313 and 1004
1335 Request for hearing. has been delegated to the Aeronautical
1337 Hearing Officer's powers. Center Counsel.
1339 Disqualification of Hearing Officer.
13.41 Pleadings. [Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9589, Sept. 28, 1962, as
13.43 service and filing of pleadings, mo amended by Amdt. 13–6, 33 F.R. 14401, Sept.
tions, and documents, other than 25, 1968; Amdt. 13–7, 35 F.R. 2579, Feb. 5,
Answer. 1970)
13.45 Amendment of Notice and Answer:
13.47 Withdrawal of Notice or Request for Subpart B–Administrative Actions *
Hearing. § 13.11 Administrative disposition of
13.49 Motions. certain violations.
13.51 Intervention.
13.53 Depositions. (a) If it is found that a violation of
13.55 Notice of hearing. the Federal Aviation Act of 1958, or an
13.57 subpoenas and witness fees. order or regulation issued under it, does
13.59 Evidence.
Argument and submittals. not require legal enforcement action, a
13.61
13.68 Record. Flight Standards inspector or other ap
13.67 Final order of Hearing Officer. propriate official may issue a safety com
Aurºroarry: The provisions of this Part 18
issued under secs. 802(?). 303(d), 318(a), 132 FIR. 7585, May 24, 1967.

25
39–059–75–3
§ 13.15 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
pliance notice including a letter of repri
mand to the violator if appropriate, or
a letter of correction that confirms de
cisions and states the corrective action
agreed to as acceptable to the FAA.
(b) Except for any case in which the
agreed upon corrective action is not suc
cessfully completed, any action taken un
der paragraph (a) of this section termi
nates the matter upon which the action
was based. If the agreed upon corrective
action is not successfully completed, legal
enforcement action may be initiated.
[Amdt. 13–5, 32 F.R. 7585, May 24, 1967]
Subpart C–Legal Enforcement
Actions *
§ 13.15 Civil penalties.
(a) Under section 901 of the Federal
Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1471), a
person who violates any provision of
Title III, V, VI, or XII of that Act, or any
regulation or order issued under one of
those titles, is subject to a civil penalty
of not more than $1,000 for each viola
tion.
(b) The Administrator may compro
mise any civil penalty. If a civil penalty
is contemplated and it is considered
advisable to compromise it, the Chief
Counsel, the Assistant Chief Counsel
for Operations and Evaluations, the
Aeronautical Center Counsel (as to mat
ters under Title V of the Act), or the
Regional Counsel concerned sends a let
ter to the person charged with the viola
tion, advising him of the charges against
him and the law, regulation, or order that
he is charged with violating, and offering
to compromise the penalty. The person
charged with the violation may present,
to the official who signed the letter, any
oral or written material or information in
answer to the charges, explaining, miti
gating, or denying the violation, or show
ing extenuating circumstances. Mate
rial or information so presented is
considered in making the final deter
mination as to probable liability for a
civil penalty, or the amount for which
it will be compromised.
(c) If the person charged with the
violation offers to compromise for a
specific amount, he shall send a cer
tified check or money order for that
amount, payable to the Federal Aviation
Administration. The Chief Counsel, the
Assistant Chief Counsel for Operations
and Evaluations, the Aeronautical Cen
1.32 F.R. 7585, May 24, 1967.
ter Counsel (as to matters under Title V
of the Act), or the Regional Counsel
concerned may accept or refuse it.
(d) If the compromise amount is ac
cepted, the person charged with the vio
lation is notified, by letter, that the ac
ceptance is full settlement of the civil
penalty for the violation.
(e) If a compromise settlement of the
civil penalty cannot be made, the Ad
ministrator may instigate proceedings in
a United States District Court, under
section 903 of the Act (49 U.S.C. 1473),
to collect the penalty.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9590, Sept. 28, 1962, as
amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769, Apr.
11, 1967; Amdt. 13–6, 33 F.R. 14401, Sept. 25,
1968; Amdt. 13–9, 37 F.R. 436, Jan. 12, 1972;
37 F.R. 18614, Sept. 14, 1972]
§ 13.17 Seizure of aircraft.
(a) Under section 903 of the Federal
Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1473),
a State or Federal law enforcement of
ficer, or a Federal Aviation Administra
tion safety inspector, authorized in an
Order of seizure issued by the Regional
Director of the region, or by the Chief
Counsel, may summarily seize an aircraft
that is involved in a violation for which
a civil penalty may be imposed on its
owner or operator.
(b) Each person seizing an aircraft
under this section shall place it in the
nearest available and adequate public
storage facility in the judicial district
in which it was seized.
(c) The Regional Director or Chief
Counsel, without delay, sends a Written
notice and a copy of this section to the
registered owner of the seized aircraft,
and to each other person shown by FAA
records to have an interest in it, stating
the—
(1) Time, date, and place of seizure;
(2) Name and address of the cus
todian of the aircraft;
(3) Reasons for the seizure, including
the violations believed, or judicially de
termined, to have been committed; and
(4) Amount that may be tendered as
(i) A compromise of a civil penalty for
the alleged violation; or
(ii) Payment for a civil penalty im
posed by a Federal court for a proven
Violation.
(d) The Chief Counsel or Regional
Counsel of the region in which an air
craft is seized under this section imme
diately sends a report to the United
States District Attorney for the judicial
district in which it was seized, requesting
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
him to institute proceedings to enforce
a lien against the aircraft.
(e) The Regional Director or Chief
Counsel directs the release of a seized
aircraft whenever—
(1) The alleged violator pays a civil
penalty or an amount agreed upon in
compromise, and the costs of seizing,
Storing, and maintaining the aircraft:
(2) The aircraft is seized under an
order of a Federal Court in proceedings
in rem to enforce a lien against the
aircraft, or the United States Attorney
for the judicial district concerned notifies
the FAA that he refuses to institute
those proceedings; or
(3) A bond in the amount and with
the Sureties prescribed by the Regional
Counsel or the Chief Counsel is de
posited, conditioned on payment of the
penalty, Or the compromise amount, and
the costs of seizing, storing, and main
taining the aircraft.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9590, Sept. 28, 1962,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967; Amdt. 13–6, 33 FIR. 14401,
Sept. 25, 1968; Amdt. 13–9, 37 F.R. 436,
Jan. 12, 1972]
§ 13.19 Certificate action.
(a) Under Section 609 of the Federal
Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1429),
the Administrator may reinspect any
civil aircraft, aircraft engine, propeller,
appliance, air navigation facility, or air
agency, and may re-examine any civil
airman. Under Section 501(e) of the Act,
any Certificate of Aircraft Registration
may be Suspended or revoked by the Ad
ministrator for any cause that renders
the aircraft ineligible for registration.
(b) If, as a result of such a reinspec
tion, reexamination, or other investiga
tion made by him under Section 609 of
the Act, the Administrator determines
that the public interest and safety in air
commerce requires it, he may issue an
order amending, Suspending, or revok
ing, all or part of any type certificate,
production certificate, airworthiness cer
tificate, airman certificate, air carrier
operating certificate, air navigation fa
cility certificate, or air agency certificate.
This authority is also exercised by the
Chief Counsel, the Assistant Chief
Counsel for Operations and Evaluation,
and the Regional Counsel concerned. If
the Administrator finds that any aircraft
registered under Part 47 of this chapter is
ineligible for registration, or if the holder
of a Certificate of Aircraft Registration
has refused or failed to Submit Part 1,
27
§ 13.19
AC Form 8050–73, as required by § 47.44
of this chapter, the Administrator issues
an order Suspending or revoking that cer
tificate. This authority as to aircraft
found ineligible for registration is also
exercised by the Aeronautical Center
Counsel.
(c) . Before issuing an order under par
agraph (b) of this section, the Chief
Counsel, the Assistant Chief Counsel
for Operations and Evaluations, the Re
gional Counsel concerned, or the Aero
nautical Center Counsel (as to matters
under title V of the Act) advises the cer
tificate holder of the charges or other
reasons upon which the Administrator
bases the proposed action and, except in
an emergency, allows the holder to an
Swer any charges and to be heard as
to why the certificate should not be
amended, suspended, or revoked. The
holder may, by checking the appropriate
box on the form that is sent to him with
the notice of proposed certificate action,
elect to—
(1) Admit the charges and surrender
his certificate;
(2) Answer the charges in writing;
(3) Request that an order be issued
in accordance with the Notice of Pro
posed Certificate Action so that he may
appeal to the National Transportation
Safety Board, if the charges concern a
matter under title VI of the Act;
(4) Request an opportunity to be
heard in an informal conference with
the FAA counsel; or
(5) Request a formal hearing if the
charges concern a matter under title v
of the Act.
Except as provided in § 13.35(b), unless
the holder returns the form and, where
required, an answer or motion, with a
postmark of not later than 15 days after
the date he received the notice, the order
of the Administrator is issued as pro
posed. If the holder has requested an in
formal conference with the FAA coun
Sel and the charges concern a matter
under title V of the Act, he may after
that conference also request a formal
hearing in writing with a postmark of
not later than 10 days after the close of
the conference. After considering any in
formation submitted by the holder, the
Chief Counsel, the Assistant Chief
Counsel for Operations and Evaluations,
the Regional Counsel concerned, or the
Aeronautical Center Counsel (as to mat
ters under title V of the Act) issues the
order of the Administrator, except that if
§ 13.20 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
the holder has made a valid request for a
formal hearing on a matter under title V
of the Act initially or after an informal
conference, Subpart D of this part gov
erns further proceedings.
(d) Any person whose certificate is
affected by an order issued under this
section may appeal to the National
Transportation Safety Board. If the cer
tificate holder files an appeal with the
Board, the Administrator's order is
stayed unless he advises the board that
an emergency exists and safety in air
commerce requires that the order be
come effective immediately. If he so ad
vises the Board, the order remains effec
tive and the Board shall finally dispose
of the appeal within 60 days after the
date of the advise. This paragraph does
not apply to any person whose Certifi
cate of Aircraft Registration is affected
by an order issued under this section.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9590, Sept. 28, 1962, as
amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967; Amdt. 13–7, 35 F.R. 2579, Feb. 5,
1970; Amdt. 13–8, 35 F.R. 5465, Apr. 2, 1970;
Amdt. 13–9, 37 F.R. 436, Jan. 12, 1972; Amdt.
13–10, 37 F.R. 18614, Sept. 14, 1972]
§ 13.20 Cease and desist orders.
(a) Under Section 1005 (a) of the Fed
eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C.
1485 (a)), whenever the Administrator
is of the Opinion that an emergency re
quiring immediate action exists in re
spect of safety in air commerce, the Ad
ministrator is authorized, either upon
complaint or his own initiative without
complaint, at once, if he so orders, with
out answer or other form of pleading by
the interested person or persons, and
with or without notice, hearing, or the
making or filing of a report, to make
Such just and reasonable Orders, rules,
and regulations as may be essential in
the interest of Safety in air Commerce to
meet the emergency. This authority in
cludes the authority to issue a cease and
desist Order. Under Section 1006 of the
Act (49 U.S.C. 1486), any person disclos
ing a substantial interest in the cease
and desist Order may seek judicial review
of the Order by the courts of appeals of
the United States or the U.S. Court of
Appeals for the District of Columbia.
(b) Whenever a cease and desist order
is issued under Section 1005 (a) of the
Act, the Administrator immediately initi
ates formal or informal proceedings as
appropriate relating to the matters em
braced in the order, giving preference to
those proceedings over all others insofar
as practicable.
(c) The authority of the Administra
tor under Section 1005(a) of the Act is
also exercised by the Chief Counsel,
the Assistant Chief Counsel for Opera
tions and Evaluation, each Regional Di
rector, and the Director, Aeronautical
Center. This authority is also exercised
by Regional and Aeronautical Center
Counsel where their respective Directors
delegate the authority to them.
[Amdt. 13–9, 37 F.R. 436, Jan. 12, 1972]
§ 13.2.1 Military aircraft.
If a report made under this Part indi
cates that, while performing his official
duties, a member of the armed forces, or
a civilian employee of the Department of
Defense who is Subject to the Uniform
Code of Military Justice (10 U.S.C. Ch.
'47), has violated the Federal Aviation
Act of 1958, or a regulation or order
issued under it, the Chief Counsel, the
Assistant Chief Counsel for Opera
tions and Evaluations, or the Regional
Counsel concerned sends a copy of the
report to the appropriate military au
thority for such disciplinary action as
that authority considers appropriate and
a report to the Administrator thereon.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9590, Sept. 28, 1962,
as amended by Amdt. 13–6, 33 F.R. 14401,
Sept. 25, 1968; Amdt. 13–9, 37 F.R. 437,
Jan. 12, 1972.]
§ 13.23 Criminal penalties.
(a) Sections 902 and 1203 of the
Federal Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C.
1472 and 1523), provide criminal penal
ties for any person who knowingly and
willfully violates specified provisions of
that Act or any regulation or order
issued under those provisions.
(b) If an inspector or other employee
of the FAA becomes aware of a possible
violation of any criminal provision of
that Act (except a violation of section
902 (i) through (m) which is reported
directly to the Federal Bureau of Investi
gation), he shall report it to the Office
of the Chief Counsel or the Regional
Counsel concerned. If appropriate, that
office refers the report to the Department
of Justice for criminal prosecution of
the offender. If such an inspector or
other employee becomes aware of a
possible violation of a Federal statute
that is within the investigatory juris
diction of another Federal Agency, he
shall immediately report it to that agency
according to standard Agency practices.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9590, Sept. 28, 1962]
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
Subpart D—Rules of Practice for
Hearings in FAA Certificate of Air
craft Registration Proceedings
§ 13.31. Applicability.
This subpart applies to proceedings in
which the holder of a certificate has
made a request under § 13.19 for a formal
hearing before a Hearing Officer of the
FAA.
[Amdt. 13–1, 28 F.R. 6064, June 14, 1963 |
§ 13.33 Appearances.
Any party to a proceeding under this
Subpart may appear and be heard in
person or by attorney.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9591, Sept. 28, 1962]
§ 13.35 Request for hearing.
(a) If the certificate holder elects to
have a formal hearing, either after he
receives the Notice of Proposed Certifi
cate Action or after an informal confer
ence with the FAA counsel, he shall sub
mit his answer to the allegations in the
notice, or file a motion under § 13.49,
together with his request for a formal
hearing as provided in § 13.19 (c).
(b) If the certificate holder Submits
a request for formal hearing, and his
answer or motion, after the 15- or 10-day
period provided in § 13.19(c), but before
an order is issued, the FAA counsel sends
it to the Hearing Officer. If, in the
opinion of the Hearing Officer, there was
good cause for the failure to submit a
timely request for hearing, or answer or
motion, he may, in his discretion, en
tertain the motion or order a hearing.
If he does not do so, the Chief Coun
Sel or the Aeronautical Center Counsel
issues the Order of the Administrator.
[Amdt. 13–1, 28 F.R. 6064, June 14, 1963, as
amended by Amdt. 13–6, 33 F.R. 14401, Sept.
25, 1968; Amdt. 13–8, 35 F.R. 5465, Apr. 2,
1970)
§ 13.37 Hearing Officer's powers.
Any Hearing Officer may—
(a) Give notice concerning, and hold,
prehearing conferences and hearings;
(b) Administer oaths and affirma
tions;
(c) Examine Witnesses;
(d) Rule on claims of privilege against
self-incrimination and compel testi
mony by conferring immunity under
section 1004(1) of the Federal Aviation
Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1484);
* Amdt. 13–8, 35 F.R. 5465, Apr. 2, 1970.
29
§ 13.45
(e) Issue subpoenas and take deposi
tions or cause them to be taken;
(f) Rule on offers of proof;
(g) Receive evidence;
(h) Regulate the course of the hear
ing;
(i) Hold conferences, before and dur
ing the hearing, to settle and simplify
issues by consent of the parties;
(j) Dispose of procedural requests and
similar matters; and
(k) ISSue an order.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9591, Sept. 28, 1962,
as amended by Amdt. 13–2, 30 F.R. 7223,
May 29, 1965)
§ 13.39 Disqualification of H e a r in g
Officer.
The Hearing Officer shall withdraw
from a case if, at any time, he considers
himself to be disqualified.
[Doc. 1242, 27 F.R. 9591, Sept. 28, 1962]
§ 13.41 Pleadings.
(a) In cases sent to the Hearing Offl
cer, the Notice of Proposed Certificate
Action constitutes the statement of the
facts upon which the action is proposed.
(b) The certificate holder's Answer
must be responsive to the allegations set
out in the Notice. Any allegation that
is not denied is considered to be ad
mitted. However, allegations other than
those identifying an airman, stating the
number and type of his certificate and
ratings, or identifying an aircraft, its
number and type, may be answered by a
general denial.
(c) Averments in an Answer, or other
pleading, to which no responsive plead
ing is required, are considered to be
denied.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9591, Sept. 28, 1962,
as amended by Amdt. 13–2, 30 F.R. 7223, May
29, 1965)
§ 13.43 Service and filing of pleadings,
motions, and documents, other than
Answer.
Each pleading, motion, or document,
other than an Answer, must at the time
of filing, be served on each other party,
by delivering a copy to him or by mail
ing a copy to him at the last address filed
With the FAA by the certificate holder
as required by this chapter. However,
if a party is represented by an attorney,
the service shall be made upon him.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9592, Sept. 28, 1962]
§ 13.45 Amendment of Notice and
Answer.
At any time more than 10 days before
the date of hearing, any party may
§ 13.47 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
amend his Notice, Answer, or other
pleading, by filing the amendment with
the Hearing Officer and serving a copy
of it on each other party. After that
time, he may amend it only in the dis
cretion of the Hearing Officer. If an
amendment to an initial pleading has
been allowed, the Hearing Officer shall
allow the other parties a reasonable op
portunity to answer.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9592, Sept. 28, 1962,
as amended by Amdt. 13–1, 28 F.R. 6064,
June 14, 1963)
§ 13.47 Withdrawal of Notice or Re
quest for Hearing.
At any time before hearing, the FAA
counsel may withdraw the Notice of Pro
posed Certificate Action and the cer
tificate holder may withdraw his Re
quest for Hearing.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9592, Sept. 28, 1962]
§ 13.49 Motions.
(a) Motion to dismiss for insuffi
ciency. A respondent who requests a
formal hearing may, in place of his
answer, file a motion to dismiss for fail
ure of the allegations in the Notice of
Proposed Certificate Action to state a
violation of the Act or of this chapter or
to show lack of qualification of the
respondent. If the Hearing Officer
denies the motion, the respondent shall
file his answer within 10 days.
(b) Motion to strike stale allegations.
If the Notice of Proposed Certificate Ac
tion contains an allegation of a violation
that occurred more than 6 months before
the date of mailing or other service of
the Notice, the respondent may move to
strike that allegation in any of the fol
lowing cases:
(1) In any case in which the Notice
does not allege lack of qualification of the
certificate holder, FAA counsel is re
quired to show by answer filed within
seven days of service of the motion that
good cause existed for the delay, or that
if the allegations are proved, the impo
sition of a Sanction is warranted in the
public interest notwithstanding the de
lay or the reasons therefor. The re
spondent may file a reply to the answer
within the time fixed by the Hearing
Officer. The Hearing Officer may re
quire FAA counsel to make his factual
allegations of good cause more definite,
Certain or detailed. A hearing on the
issue of good cause is held only if the re
Spondent raises a genuine, pertinent, and
substantial issue of fact. If the Hearing
30
Officer does not find that good cause for
the delay existed or that the public inter
est requires imposition of sanctions, not
withstanding the delay, if the allegations
are proved, he orders the stale allega
tions stricken and proceeds to adjudi
cate only the remaining portions, if any,
of the Notice.
(2) In any case in which the Notice
alleges lack of qualification of the cer
tificate holder the Hearing Officer deter
mines first whether an issue of lack of
qualification is presented if the Stale al
legations, standing alone or together
with the timely allegations, are true. If
the Hearing Officer finds that the issue
is not presented, he orders the stale alle
gations stricken and proceeds to adjudi
cate the remaining portions, if any, of
the Notice. If he finds a qualification
issue presented, he proceeds to hearing,
advising the respondent that he is to
defend against the allegation of lack of
qualification to hold his certificate and
not only against a proposed remedial
Sanction.
A motion to strike under this paragraph
may be combined with a motion to dis
miss any remaining parts of the Notice
under paragraph (a) of this section.
(c) Motion for more definite state
ment. The certificate holder may, in
place of his answer, file a motion that
the allegations in the notice be made
more definite and certain. If the Hear
ing Officer grants the motion, the FAA
counsel shall comply within 10 days after
the date it is granted. If the Hearing
Officer denies the motion the certificate
holder shall file his answer within 10 days
after the date it is denied.
(d) Motion for judgment on the plead
ings. After the pleadings are closed,
either party may move for a judgment on
the pleadings.
(e) Motion to strike. Upon motion of
either party, the Hearing Officer may
order stricken, from any pleading, any
insufficient allegation or defense, or any
immaterial, impertinent, or scandalous
In atter.
(f) Motion for production of docu
7ments. Upon motion of any party show
ing good cause, the Hearing Officer may,
in the manner provided by Rule 34, Fed
eral Rules of Civil Procedure, order any
party to produce any designated docu
ment, paper, book, account, letter, photo
graph, object, or other tangible thing,
that is not privileged, that constitutes or
contains evidence relevant to the Sub
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
ject matter of the hearing, and that is
in the party's possession, custody, or
control.
(g) Consolidation of motions. A party
who makes a motion under this section
shall join with it all other motions that
are then available to him. Any objec
tion that he does not so raise is con
sidered to be Waived.
(h) Answers to motions. Any party
may file an answer to any motion under
this section within five days after Serv
ice of the motion.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9592, Sept. 28, 1962,
as amended by Amdt. 13–1, 28 F.R. 6065,
June 14, 1963; Amdt. 13–2, 30 F.R. 7223,
May 29, 1965; Doc. No. 8084. 32 F.R. 5769
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 13.5l Intervention.
Any perSOn may move for leave to in
tervene in a proceeding and may become
a party thereto, if the Hearing Officer,
after the case is sent to him for hearing,
finds that the person may be bound by
the order to be issued in the proceeding
or has a property or financial interest
that may not be adequately represented
by existing parties, and that the inter
vention will not unduly broader the
issues or delay the proceedings. Except
for good cause shown, a motion for leave
to intervene may not be considered if it
is filed less than 10 days before the
hearing.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9591, Sept. 28, 1962]
§ 13.53 Depositions.
After the respondent has filed a Re
quest for Hearing and an Answer, either
party may take testimony by deposition
in accordance with section 1004 of the
Federal Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C.
1484) or Rule 26, Federal Rules of Civil
Procedure.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9591, Sept. 28, 1962]
§ 13.55. Notice of hearing.
The Hearing Officer to whom the case
is assigned shall give the parties ade
quate notice of the date of the hearing
and the place where it will be held. The
Hearing Officer may hold the hearing
at the city in which there is located the
Regional Headquarters of the FAA, the
originating FAA office, or the Flight
Standards District office nearest to the
residence of the certificate holder, or at
any other location that the Hearing
Officer directs. Hearings are held only
o
31
§ 13.59
within the 50 States, the District of
Columbia, and Puerto Rico.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9591, Sept. 28, 1962,
as amended by Amdt. 13–1, 28 F.R. 6065,
June 14, 1963]
§ 13.57 Subpoenas and witness fees.
(a) The Hearing Officer to whom a
case is assigned may, upon application by
any party to the proceeding, issue Sub
poenas requiring the attendance of Wit
nesses or the production of documentary
or tangible evidence at a hearing or for
the purpose of taking depositions. How
ever, the application for producing evi
dence must show its general relevance
and reasonable scope. This paragraph
does not apply to the attendance of FAA
employees or to the production of docu
mentary evidence in the custody of such
an employee at a hearing.
(b) A person who applies for the pro
duction of a document in the custody of
an FAA employee must follow the pro
cedure in § 13.49 (f). If he applies for
the attendance of an FAA employee, he
must send the application, in Writing, to
the Hearing Officer, setting forth the
need for that employee's attendance.
(c) A witness in a proceeding under
this subpart is entitled to the same fees
and mileage as is paid to a witness in a
court of the United States under com
parable circumstances. The party at
whose instance the witness is subpoenaed
or appears shall pay the witness his fees.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9591, Sept. 28, 1962, as
amended by Amdt. 13–3, 30 F.R. 12025, Sept.
21, 1965]
§ 13.59 Evidence.
(a) Each party to a hearing may pre
sent his case or defense by oral or docu
mentary evidence, Submit evidence in
rebuttal, and conduct such cross-exami
nation as may be needed for a full dis
closure of the facts. In a proceeding
against a certificate holder who is a
natural person., any report filed by that
holder as required by the National
Transportation Safety Board or the FAA
is not admissible in evidence. However,
such a report may be used to impeach
the testimony of the certificate holder.
(b) Except with respect to affirma
tive defenses, the burden of proof is upon
the FAA counsel.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9592, Sept. 28, 1962, as
amended by Amdt. 13–2, 30 F.R. 7224, May
29, 1965; Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769, Apr. 11,
1967]
 § 13.61 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 13.61 Argument and submittals.
The Hearing Officer shall give the par
ties adequate opportunity to present
arguments in Support of motions, objec
tions, and the final order. The Hearing
Officer may determine whether argu
ments are to be oral or written. At the
end of the hearing the Hearing Officer
may, in his discretion, allow each party
to Submit Written proposed findings and
conclusions and supporting reasons for
them.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9592, Sept. 28, 1962,
as amended by Amdt. 13–2, 30 F.R. 7224,
May 29, 1965)
§ 13.63 Record.
The testimony and exhibits presented
at a hearing, together with all papers, re
quests, and rulings filed in the proceed
ings are the exclusive basis for the issu
ance of an order. Either party may
obtain a transcript from the official
reporter upon payment of the fees fixed
therefor.
[Doc. No. 1242, 27 F.R. 9592, Sept. 28, 1962]
§ 13.67 Final order of Hearing Officer.
(a) [Reserved]
(b) If, in proceedings under section
501(b) of the Act, the Hearing Officer
determines that the holder of the Cer
tificate of Aircraft Registration has re
fused or failed to submit Part 1, AC
Form 8050–73, as required by § 47.44 of
this chapter, or that the aircraft is in
eligible for a Certificate of Aircraft Reg
istration, the Hearing Officer suspends or
Tevokes the respondent's certificate, as
proposed in the notice of proposed certifl
Cate action.
(c) If the final order of the Hearing
Officer makes a decision on the merits,
it contains a statement of his findings
and conclusions on all material issues of
fact and law. If the Hearing Officer finds
that the allegations of the notice have
been proved, but that no sanction is re
quired, he makes appropriate findings
and orders the notice terminated. If the
Hearing Officer finds that the allegations
of the notice have not been proved, he
orders the notice dismissed. If the Hear
ing Officer finds it to be equitable and in
the public interest, he may order the pro
ceeding terminated upon payment by the
respondent of a civil penalty in an
amount agreed upon by the parties.
(d) If the order is issued in writing, it
shall be served upon the parties.
[Doc. No. 9814, 35 F.R. 2580, Feb. 5, 1970, as
amended by Amdt. 13–8, 35 F.R. 5465, Apr. 2,
1970]

SUBCHAPTER C–AIRCRAFT
PART 21–CERTIFICATION PROCE Sec.
DURES FOR PRODUCTS AND PARTS 21.27 Issue of type certificate: surplus air
craft of the Armed Forces.
SPECIAL FEDERAL AvLATION REGULATIONS
21.29 Issue of type certificate: import
sr’Art No. 27 FUEL VENTING AND ExFIAUST EMI's- products.
SION REQUIREMENTS FOR TURBINE ENGINE 21.31 Type design.
POWERED AIRPLANES, EFFECTIVE FEB. 1, 1974 21.33 Inspection and tests.
[Note] 21.35 Flight tests.
Subpart A–General 21.37 Flight test pilot.
Sec. 21.39 Flight test instrument calibration
21.1 Applicability. and correction report.
21.3 Reporting of failures, malfunctions, 21.41 Type certificate.
and defects. 21.43 Location of manufacturing facilities.
21.45 Privileges.
Subpart B–Type Certificates 21.47 Transferability.
Applicability. 21.49 Availability.
21.11
21.50 Rotorcraft Maintenance Manu a 1 :
21.18 Eligibility.
21.15 Application for type certificate. changes to the “Airworthiness
Limitations” section.
21.16 Special conditions.
21.51 Duration.
21.17 Designation of applicable regula
tions. 21.53 Statement of conformity.
21.19 Changes requiring a new type certifi Subpart C–Provisional Type Certificates
Cate.
21.71 Applicability.
21.21 Issue of type certificate: normal, 21.73 Eligibility.
utility, acrobatic, and transport 21.75 Application.
category aircraft; aircraft engines; 21.77 Duration.
propellers. Transferability.
21.79
21.23 Issue of type certificate: gliders. 21.81 Requirements for issue and amend
21.25 Issue of type certificate: restricted ment of Class I provisional type
category aircraft. certificates.

32
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration Part 21

Sec. Sec.
21.83 Requirements for issue and amend 21.183 Issue of standard airworthinese cer
ment of Class II provisional type tificates for normal, utility, acro
certificates. batic, and transport category
21.85 Provisional amendments to type aircraft.
Certificates. 21.185 Issue of airworthiness certificates
for restricted category aircraft.
Subpart D–Changes to Type Certificates 21.187 Issue of multiple airworthiness
21.91 Applicability. certification.
21.93 Classification of changes in type de 21.189 Issue of airworthiness certificate
sign. for limited category aircraft.
21.95 Approval of minor changes in type 21.191 Experimental certificates.
design. 21.193 Experimental certificates; general.
21.97 Approval of major changes in type 21.195 Experimental certificates: Aircraft to
design. be used for market surveys, sales
21.99 Required design changes. demonstrations, and customer crew
21.101 Designation of applicable regulations. training.
21.197 Special flight permits.
Subpart E—Supplemental Type Certificates 21.199 Issue of special flight permits.
21.111 Applicability.
21.113 Requirement of supplemental type Subpart l—Provisional Airworthiness Certificates
certificate. 21.211 Applicability.
21.115 Applicable airworthiness require 21.213 Eligibility.
ments. 21.215 Application.
21.117 Issue of supplemental type certifi 21.217. Duration.
cates. 21.219 Transferability.
21.119 Privileges. 21.221 Class I provisional airworthiness
certificates.
Subpart F-Production Under Type Certificate 21.223 Class II provisional airworthiness
Only certificates.
21.121 Applicability. 21.225 Provisional airworthiness certificateg
21.123 Production under type certificate. corresponding with provisional
21.125 Production inspection system: Ma amendments to type certificates.
terials Review Board.
21.127 Tests: aircraft. Subpart J–Delegation Option Authorization
21.128 Tests: aircraft engines. Procedures
21.129 Tests: propellers. 21.231 Applicability.
21.130 Statement of conformity. 21.235 Application.
21.239 Eligibility.
Subpart G–Production Certificates 21.243 Duration.
21.131 Applicability. 21.245 Maintenance of eligibility.
21.133 Eligibility. . 21.247 Transferability.
21.135 Requirements for Issuance. 21.249 Inspections.
21.137 Location of manufacturing facilities. 21.251 Limits of applicability.
21.139 Quality control. 21.253 Type certificates: application.
21.143 Quality control data requirements; 21.257 Type certificates: issue.
21.261 Equivalent safety provisions.
prime manufacturer.
21.267 Production certificates.
21.147 Changes in quality control system.
21.269 Export airworthiness approvals.
21.149 Multiple products.
21.271 Airworthiness approval tags.
21.151 Production limitation record. Airworthiness certificates other than
21.273
21.153 Amendment of the production experimental.
certificates. 21.275 Experimental certificates.
21.155 Transferability. 21.277 Data review and service experience.
21.157 Inspections and tests. 21.289 Major repairs, rebuilding and alter
21.159 Duration. atlon.
21.161 Display. 21.293 Current records.
21.163 Privileges. Subpart K–Approval of Materlais, Parts,
21.165 Responsibility of holder. Processes, and Appliances
Subpart H-Airworthiness Certificates 21.301 Applicability.
21.171 Applicability. 21.303 Replacement and modification parts.
21.173 Eligibility. 21.305 Approval of materials, parts, proc
21.175 Airworthiness certificates: classifica
esses, and appliances.
tion. Subpart L–Export Airworthiness Approvals
21.177 Amendment or modification.
21.321 Applicability.
21.179 Transferability. 21.323 Eligibility.
21.181 Duration. 21.325 Export airworthiness approvals.
21-182 Aircraft identification. 21.827 Application.

33
§ 21.1 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
Sec. (3) Procedural requirements for the
21.329 Issue of export certificates of air approval of certain materials, parts,
worthiness for Class I products. processes, and appliances.
21.331 Issue of airworthiness approval tags
for Class II products.
(b) For the purposes of this part, the
21.333 Issue of export airworthiness ap word “product” means an aircraft, air
proval tags for Class III products. craft engine, or propeller. In addition,
21.335 Responsibilities of exporters. for the purposes of Subpart L only, it
21.337 Performance of Inspections and over includes components and parts of air
hauls. craft, of aircraft engines, and of pro
21.339 Special export airworthlness approval
for aircraft. pellers; also parts, materials, and ap
pliances, approved under the Technical
Subpart M-Designated Alteration Station Standard Order System.
Authorization Procedures
[Doc. No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14563, Oct. 24, 1964.
21.431 Applicability. as amended by Amdt. 21–2, 30 F.R. 8465,
21.435 Application. July 2, 1965; Amdt. 21–6, 30 F.R. 11379,
21.439 Eligibility. Sept. 8, 1965)
21.441 Procedure manual.
21.443 Duration. § 21.3 Reporting of failures, malfunc
21.445 Maintenance of eligibility. tions, and defects.
21.447 Transferability. (a) After January 3, 1971, except as
21.449 Inspections. provided in paragraph (d) of this Sec
21.451 Limits of applicabllity.
21.461 Equivalent safety provisions.
tion, the holder of a Type Certificate (in
21.463 Supplemental type certificates. cluding a Supplemental Type Certifi
21.473 Airworthiness certificates other than cate), or a Parts Manufacturer Approval
experimental. (PMA), or the licensee of a Type Certifi
21.475 Experimental certificates. cate shall report any failure, malfunc
21.477 Data review and service experience. tion, or defect in any product or part
21.493 Current records manufactured by it that it determines
Subpart N–Approval of Engines, Propellers, has resulted in any of the occurrences
Materials, Parts, and Appliances: Import listed in paragraph (c) of this section.
21.500 Approval of engines and propellers. (b) After January 3, 1971, the holder
21.502 Approval of materials, parts, and ap of a Type Certificate (including a Sup
pliances. plemental Type Certificate), or a Parts
AUTHoRITY: The provisions of this Part 21 Manufacturer Approval (PMA), or the
issued under secs. 311, 313 (a), 314, 601, 603, licensee of a Type Certificate shall report
607, 608, 609, 1102, 72 Stat. 751, 752, 754, 779, any defect in any product or part manu
797: 49 U.S.C. 1352, 1354, 1355, 1421, 1423, factured by it that has left its quality
1427, 1428, 1429, 1502, 1655(c) unless other control System and that it determines
Wise noted.
could result in any of the occurrences
NoTE: For miscellaneous amendments to listed in paragraph (c) of this section.
cross references in this Part 21 See Amdt. (c) The following occurrences must be
21–10, 31 F.R. 9211, July 6, 1966. reported as provided in paragraphs (a)
SFAR No. 27—FUEL VENTING AND ExHAUST EMIS and (b) of this section:
SION REQUIREMENTS FOR TURBINE ENGINE (1) Fires caused by a system or equip
PowerED AIRPLANES, EFFECTIVE FEBRUARY 1, ment failure, malfunction, or defect.
1974
(2) An engine exhaust System failure,
NOTE: For the text of SFAR No. 27 See Part malfunction, or defect which causes
11 of this chapter. damage to the engine, adjacent aircraft
Structure, equipment, or components.
Subpart A–General (3) The accumulation or circulation
§ 21.1 Applicability. of toxic or noxious gases in the crew
(a) This part prescribes— compartment or passenger cabin.
(1) Procedural requirements for the (4) A malfunction, failure, or defect
issue of type certificates and changes to of a propeller control system.
those certificates; the issue of produc (5) A propeller or rotorcraft hub or
tion certificates; the issue of airworthi blade structural failure.
ness certificates; and the issue of export (6) Flammable fluid leakage in areas
airworthiness approvals. where an ignition source normally exists.
(2) Rules governing the holders of any (7) A brake system failure caused by
certificate specified in subparagraph (1) structural or material failure during
of this paragraph; and operation.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(8) A significant aircraft primary
structural defect or failure caused by any
autogenous condition (fatigue, under
strength, corrosion, etc.).
(9) Any abnormal vibration or buffet
ing caused by a structural or system mal
function, defect, or failure.
(10) An engine failure.
(11) Any structural or flight control
System malfunction, defect, or failure
which causes an interference with nor
mal control of the aircraft or which der
ogates the flying qualities.
(12) A complete loss of more than one
electrical power generating system or hy
draulic power system during a given
Operation of the aircraft.
(13) A failure or malfunction of more
than one attitude, airspeed, or altitude
instrument during a given operation of
the aircraft.
(d) The requirements of paragraph
(a) of this section do not apply to—
(1) Failures, malfunctions or defects
that the holder of a Type Certificate (in
cluding a Supplemental Type Certifi
Cate), or Parts Manufacturer (Approval)
(PMA), or the licensee of a Type Certifi
Cate—
(i) determines were caused by im
proper maintenance, or improper usage;
(ii) knows were reported to the FAA
by another person under the Federal
Aviation Regulations; or
(iii) has already reported under the
accident reporting provisions of Part 430
of the regulations of the National Trans
portation Safety Board.
(2) Failures, malfunctions or defects
in products or parts manufactured by a
foreign manufacturer under a U.S. Type
Certificate issued under § 21.29 or ex
ported to the U.S. under § 21.502.
(e) Each report required by this
Section—
(1) Shall be made to the FAA Re
gional Office in the region in which the
person required to make the report is
located within 24 hours after it has
determined that the failure, malfunction,
or defect required to be reported has oc
Curred. However, a report that is due on
a Saturday or a Sunday may be delivered
on the following Monday and one that is
due on a holiday may be delivered on the
next workday;
(2) Shall be transmitted in a manner
and form acceptable to the Administra
tor and by the most expeditious method
available; and
§ 21.16
(3) Shall include as much of the fol
lowing information as is available and
applicable:
(i) Aircraft Serial number.
(ii) When the failure, malfunction, or
defect is associated With an engine or
propeller, the engine or propeller serial
number, as appropriate.
(iii) Product model.
(iv) Identification of the part, com
ponent, or system involved. The identifi
cation must include the part number.
(v) Nature of the failure, malfunction,
or defect.
[Amdt. 21–36, 35 F.R. 18187, Nov. 28, 1970,
as amended by Amdt. 21–37, 35 F.R. 18450,
Dec. 4, 1970]
Subpart B–Type Certificates
Source: The provisions of this Subpart
B contained in Docket No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14564,
Oct. 24, 1964, unless otherwise noted.
§ 21.11 Applicability.
This subpart prescribes—
(a) Procedural requirements for the
issue of type certificates for aircraft, air
craft engines, and propellers; and
(b) Rules governing the holders of
those certificates.
§ 21.13 Eligibility.
Any interested person may apply for a
type certificate.
[Amdt. 21–25, 34 F.R. 14068, Sept. 5, 1969]
§ 21.15 Application for type certificate.
(a) An application for a type certifi
cate is made on a form and in a manner
prescribed by the Administrator and is
Submitted to the appropriate FAA re
gional office.
(b) An application for an aircraft type
Certificate must be accompanied by a
three-view drawing of that aircraft and
available preliminary basic data.
(c) An application for an aircraft en
gine type certificate must be accompa
nied by a description of the engine
design features, the engine operating
characteristics, and the proposed engine
Operating limitations.
[Docket No. 5085, 29 FR 14564, Oct. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 21–40, 39 FR 35459,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 21.16 Special conditions.
(a) If the Administrator finds that
the airworthiness regulations of this Sub
chapter do not contain adequate or ap
propriate Safety standards for an air
craft, aircraft engine, or propeller be
§ 21.17 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
cause of a novel or unusual design fea
ture of the aircraft, aircraft engine or
propeller, he prescribes special condi
tions and amendments thereto for the
product. The special conditions are is
sued in accordance with paragraph (b)
Of this section and contain such Safety
standards for the aircraft, aircraft en
gine or propeller as the Administrator
finds necessary to establish a level of
safety equivalent to that established in
the regulations.
(b) Special conditions are issued to
the applicant for the typf certificate of
the product involved as rules of particu
lar applicability for his product after
affording the applicant and other inter
ested persons an opportunity to partici
pate in this rule making. Any special
conditions adopted under this section
may be subsequently published in the
FEDERAL REGISTER in summary form or,
if the Administrator determines that the
requirements of any Special conditions
may also apply generally to other air
craft, they may be issued in the form
of proposed amendments to the air
worthiness parts of the regulations, in
accordance with the general rule-making
procedures of Part 11 of this chapter.
[Amdt. 21–19, 32 F.R. 17851, Dec. 13, 1967]
§ 21.17 Designation of applicable regu
lations.
(a) Except as provided in §§ 25.2 and
36.2 of this chapter, an applicant for a
type certificate must show that the air
craft, aircraft engine, or propeller con
cerned meetS—
(1) The applicable requirements of
this subchapter that are effective on the
date of application for that certificate
unless—
(i) Otherwise specified by the Admin
istrator; or
(ii) Compliance with later effective
amendments is elected or required under
this section; and
(2) Any special conditions prescribed
by the Administrator.
(b) An application for type certifica
tion of a transport category aircraft is
effective for 5 years and an application
for any other type certificate is effective
for 3 years, unless an applicant shows
at the time of application that his prod
uct requires a longer period of time for
design, development, and testing, and
the Administrator approves a longer
period.
36
(c) In a case where a type certificate
has not been issued, or it is clear that
a type certificate will not be issued, with
in the time limit established under para
graph (b) of this section, the applicant
may—
(1) File a new application for a type
certificate and comply with all the pro
Visions of paragraph (a) of this section
applicable to an original application; or
(2) File for an extension of the orig
Inal application and comply with the ap
plicable airworthiness requirements of
this subchapter that were effective on a
date, to be selected by the applicant, not
earlier than the date which precedes the
date of issue of the type certificate by
the time limit established under para
graph (b) of this section for the original
application.
(d) If an applicant elects to comply
With an amendment to this subchapter
that is effective after the filing of the
application for a type certificate, he must
also comply with any other amendment
that the Administrator finds is directly
related.
(Sec. 604, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424) [Doc.
No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14564, Oct. 24, 1964, as
amended by Andt. 21–19, 32 F.R. 17851,
Dec. 13, 1967; Amdt. 21–24, 34 F.R. 364,
Jan. 10, 1969; Amdt, 21–27, 34 F.R. 18363,
Nov. 18, 1969)
§ 21.19 Changes requiring a new type
certificate.
Any person who proposes to change a
product must make a new application for
a type certificate if–
(a) The Administrator finds that the
proposed change in design, configura
tion, power, power limitations (engines),
speed limitations (engines), or weight is
SO extensive that a substantially complete
investigation of compliance with the ap
plicable regulations is required;
(b) In the case of a normal, utility,
acrobatic, or transport category aircraft,
the proposed change is—
(1) In the number of engines or ro
tors; or
(2) To engines or rotors using differ
ent principles of propulsion or to rotors
using different principles of operation;
(c) In the case of an aircraft engine,
the proposed change is in the principle of
Operation; Or
(d) In the case of propellers, the pro
posed change is in the number of blades
or principle of pitch change operation.
 Chapter l–Federal Aviation Administration
§ 21.21 Issue of type certificate: nor
mal, utility, acrobatic, and transport
category aircraft; aircraft engines;
propellers.
An applicant is entitled to a type cer
tificate for an aircraft in the normal,
utility, acrobatic, or transport category,
or for a manned free balloon or an air
craft engine or propeller, if–
(a) The product qualifies under
§ 21.27; or
(b) The applicant submits the type
design, test reports, and computations
necessary to show that the product to
be certificated meets the applicable
airworthiness and aircraft noise re
quirements of the Federal Aviation Reg
ulations and any special conditions pre
scribed by the Administrator, and the
Administrator finds—
(1) Upon examination of the type
design, and after completing all tests and
inspections, that the type design and the
product meet the applicable aircraft
noise requirements of the Federal Avia
tion Regulations, and further finds that
they meet the applicable airworthiness
requirements of the Federal Aviation
Regulations or that any airworthiness
provisions not complied with are com
pensated for by factors that provide an
equivalent level of Safety; and
(2) For an aircraft, that no feature or
characteristic makes it unsafe for the
category in which certification is re
quested.
[Doc. No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14564, Oct. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 21–15, 32 F.R. 8735,
Mar. 4, 1967; Amdt. 21–27, 34 F.R. 18363,
Nov. 18, 1969]
§ 21.23 Issue of type certificate: gliders.
An applicant is entitled to a type cer
tificate for a glider if he submits the
type design, test reports, and computa
tions necessary to show that the glider
meets with the applicable airworthiness
requirements and the Administrator
finds—
(a) That the glider complies with
those airworthiness requirements of Part
23 or Part 27 of this chapter found by
him to be appropriate for gliders and
applicable to the specific type design; and
(b) That there is no unsafe feature or
characteristic of the glider.
§ 21.25 Issue of type certificater re
stricted category aircraft.
(a) An applicant is entitled to a type
certificate for an aircraft in the re
37
§ 21.27
stricted category for special purpose
operations if he shows that no feature
or characteristic of the aircraft makes
It unsafe when it is operated under the
limitations prescribed for its intended
use, and that the aircraft—
(1) Meets the airworthiness require
ments of an aircraft category except
those requirements that the Administra
tor finds inappropriate for the special
purpose for which the aircraft is to be
used; or
(2) Is of a type that has been manu
factured in accordance with the require
ments of and accepted for use by, an
Armed Force of the United States and
has been later modified for a special pur
pose.
(b) For the purposes of this section,
Special purpose operations” includes—
(1) Agricultural (spraying, dusting.
and seeding, and livestock and predatory
animal control) ;
(2) Forest and wildlife conservation:
(3) Aerial surveying (photography,
mapping, and oil and mineral explora
tion);
(4) Patrolling (pipelines, power lines,
and canals);
(5) Weather control (cloud seeding):
(6) Aerial advertising (skywriting,
banner towing, airborne signs and public
address systems); and
(7) Any other operation specified by
the Administrator.
§ 21.27 Issue of type certificate; surplus
aircraft of the Armed Forces.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(b) of this section an applicant is en
titled to a type certificate for an air
craft in the normal, utility, acrobatic, or
transport category that was designed and
constructed in the United States, ac
cepted for operational use, and declared
surplus by, an Armed Force of the United
States, and that is shown to comply
with the applicable certification require
ments in paragraph (f) of this section.
(b) An applicant is entitled to a type
Certificate for a surplus aircraft of the
Armed Forces of the United States that
is a counterpart of a previously type
Certificated civil aircraft, if he shows
compliance with the regulations govern
ing the original civil aircraft type
certificate.
(c) Aircraft engines, propellers, and
their related accessories installed in Sur
plus Armed Forces aircraft, for which a
§ 21.29 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
type certificate is sought under this sec
tion, will be approved for use on those
aircraft if the applicant shows that on
the basis of the previous military qualifl
cations, acceptance, and service record,
the product provides substantially the
same level of airworthiness as would be
provided if the engines or propellers
were type certificated under Parts 33
or 35 of the Federal Aviation Regulations.
(d) The Administrator may relieve an
applicant from strict compliance with a
specific provision of the applicable re
quirements in paragraph (f) of this
section, if the Administrator finds that
the method of compliance proposed by
the applicant provides substantially the
same level of airworthiness and that
strict compliance with those regulations
would impose a severe burden on the
applicant. The Administrator may use
experience that was satisfactory to an
Armed Force of the United States in
making such a determination.
(e) The Administrator may require
an applicant to comply with special con
ditions and later requirements than
those in paragraphs (c) and (f) of this
section, if the Administrator finds that
compliance with the listed regulations
would not ensure an adequate level of
airworthiness for the aircraft.
(f) Except as provided in paragraphs
(b) through (e) of this section, an appli
cant for a type certificate under this
section must comply with the appro
priate regulations listed in the following
table:

Date accepted for operational

Type of aircraft use by the Armed Force of Regulations that apply
the United States

Small reciprocating-engine powered Before May 16, 1956.------------- CAR Part 3, as effective May 15, 1956
airplanes. After May 15, 1956.----- CAR Part 3 or FAR Part 23.
8 mall turbine engine-powered airplanes Before Oct. 2, 1959. - CAR Part 3, as effective Oct. 1, 1959.
After Oct. 1, 1959-- - CAR Part 3 or FAR Part 23.
Large reciprocating-engine powered air Before Aug. 26, 195 CAR Part 4b, as effective Aug. 25, 1955.
planes. After Aug. 25, 1955 CAR Part 4b or FAR Part 25.
Large turbine engine-powered airplanes Before Oct. 2, 1959– --
CAR Part 4b, as effective Oct. 1, 1959.
After Oct. 1, 1959---------------- CAR Part 4b or FAR Part 25.
Rotorcraft with maximum certificated
takeoff weight of:
6,000 pounds or less------------------- Before Oct. 2, 1959--------------- CAR Part 6, as effective Oct. 1, 1959.
After Oct. 1, 1959-- - CAR Part 6 or FAR Part 27.
Over 6,000 pounds-------------------- Refore Oct. 2, 1959– -
CA R Part 7, as effective Oct. 1, 1959.
After Oct. 1, 1959---------------- CAR Part 7 or FAR Part 29.

* Where no specific date is lºsted, the applicable regulations are those in effect on the date that the first aircraft of
the particular model was accepted for operational use by the Armed Force.

§ 21.29 Issue of type certificate; import (ii) The applicable airworthiness re

products.
(a) A type certificate may be issued
for a product that is manufactured in
a foreign country with which the United
States has an agreement for the accept
ance of these products for export and
import and that is to be imported into
the United States if–
(1) The country in which the product
was manufactured certifies
product has been examined, tested, and
found to meet—
(i) The applicable aircraft noise re
quirements of this subchapter as desig
nated in § 21.17 or the applicable aircraft
noise requirements of the country in
which the product was manufactured
and any other requirements the Admin
istrator may prescribe to provide noise
levels no greater than those provided by
the applicable aircraft noise require
ments of this subchapter as designated
in § 21.17; and
quirements of this subchapter as desig
nated in § 21.17, or the applicable air
worthiness requirements of the country
in which the product was manuafctured
and any other requirements the Admin
istrator may prescribe to provide a level
of safety equivalent to that provided by
the applicable airworthiness require
ments of this subchapter as designated
that the in § 21.17;
(2) The applicant has submitted the
technical data, concerning aircraft noise
and airworthiness, respecting the prod
uct required by the Administrator; and
(3) The manuals, placards, listings,
and instrument markings required by the
applicable airworthiness (and noise,
where applicable) requirements are pre
sented in the English language.
(b) A product type certificated under
this section is considered to be type cer
tificated under the noise standards of
Part 36 of the Federal Aviation Regula

38
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
tions where compliance therewith is
certified under paragraph (a)(1)(i) of
this section, and under the airworthiness
standards of that part of the Federal
Aviation Regulations with which com
pliance is certified under paragraph
(a) (1) (ii) of this section or to which an
equivalent level of safety is certified
under paragraph (a) (1) (ii) of this
Section.
[Amdt. 21–27, 34 FIR. 18363, Nov. 18, 1969)
§ 21.31 Type design.
The type design consists of -
(a) The drawings and specifications
necessary to show the configuration of
the product concerned and the design
features covered in the requirements of
that part of this subchapter applicable
to the product;
(b) Information on dimensions, ma
terials, and processes necessary to define
the structural strength of the product;
and
(c) Any other data necessary to allow,
by comparison, the determination of the
airworthiness and noise characteristics
(where applicable) of later products
the same type.
[Docket No. 5085,29 FR 14564, 9°tº 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 21–27, 34 FR 18363,
Nov. 18, 1969]
§ 21.33 Inspection and tests.
(a) Each applicant must allow the
Administrator to make any inspection
and, in the case of aircraft, any flight
and ground tests necessary to determine
compliance with the applicable require
ments of the Federal Aviation Regula
tions. However, unless otherwise author
ized by the Administrator
(i) No aircraft or part thereof may
be presented to the Administrator for
tests unless compliance with section
paragraph
(b) (2) through (4) of this has
been shown for that aircraft or part
thereof; and
(2) No change may be made to an air
craft or part thereof between the time
that compliance withsection
paragraph (b) (2)
through (4) of this is shown for
that aircraft or part thereof and the
time that the aircraft or part thereof is
presented to the Administrator for tests.
(b). Each applicant must make all in
spections and tests necessary to deter
mine—
(1) Compliance with the applicable
airworthiness and aircraft noise require
ments;
§ 21.35
(2) That materials and products con
form to the Specifications in the type
design;
(3) That parts of the products con
.."
to the drawings in the type design;
an
(4) That the manufacturing processes,
construction and assembly conform to
those Specified in the type design.
[Doc. No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14564, Oct. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 21–17, 32 F.R. 14926,
Oct. 28, 1967; Amdt. 21–27, 34 F.R. 18863,
Nov. 18, 1969]
§ 21.35 Flight tests.
(a) Each applicant for an aircraft
type certificate (other than under
§§ 21.25 through 21.29) must make the
tests listed in paragraph (b) of this sec
tion. Before making the tests the appli
cant must Show—
(1) Compliance with the applicable
ºural requirements of this subchap
r;
(2) Completion of necessary ground
inspections and tests;
(3) That the aircraft conforms with
of the type design; and
(4) That the Administrator received a
flight test report from the applicant
(signed, in the case of aircraft to be
chapter, by the applicant's test pilot)
containing the results of his tests.
(b) Upon showing compliance with
paragraph (a) of this section, the appli
cant must make all flight tests that the
Administrator finds necessary—
(1) To determine compliance with the
applicable requirements of this subchap
ter; and
(2) For aircraft to be certificated
under this subchapter, except gliders and
except airplanes of 6,000 lbs. Or less
maximum certificated weight that are to
be certificated under Part 23 of this
chapter, to determine whether there is
reasonable assurance that the airplane,
its components, and its equipment are
reliable and function properly.
(c) Each applicant must, if practica
ble, make the tests prescribed in para
graph (b) (2) of this section upon the
aircraft that was used to show compli
ance with—
(1) Paragraph (b) (1) of this section;
and
(2) For rotorcraft, the rotor drive en
durance tests prescribed in § 27.923 or
§ 29.923 of this chapter, as applicable.
39
§ 21.37 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(d) Each applicant must show for
each flight test (except in a glider or a
manned free balloon) that adequate pro
vision is made for the flight test crew for
emergency egress and the use of para
chutes.
(e) Except in gliders and manned free
balloons, an applicant must discontinue
flight tests under this section until he
shows that corrective action has been
taken, whenever—
(1) The applicant's test pilot is un
able or unwilling to make any of the re
quired flight tests; or
(2) Items of noncompliance with re
quirements are found that may make
additional test data meaningless or that
would make further testing unduly
hazardous.
(f) The flight tests prescribed in para
graph (b) (2) of this section must in
clude—
(1) For aircraft incorporating turbine
engines of a type not previously used in
a type certificated aircraft, at least 300
hours of operation with a full comple
ment of engines that conform to a type
certificate; and
(2) For all other aircraft, at least 150
hours of operation.
[Docket No. 5085, 29 FR 14564, Oct. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 21–40, 39 FR 35459,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 21.37 Flight test pilot.
Each applicant for a normal, utility,
acrobatic, or transport category aircraft
type certificate must provide a person
holding an appropriate pilot certificate
to make the flight tests required by this
part.
§ 21.39 Flight test instrument calibra
tion and correction report.
(a) Each applicant for a normal, util
ity, acrobatic, or transport category air
craft type certificate must submit a re
port to the Administrator showing the
computations and tests required in con
nection with the calibration of instru
ments used for test purposes and in the
correction of test results to Standard at
mospheric conditions.
(b) Each applicant must allow the
Administrator to conduct any flight tests
that he finds necessary to check the ac
curacy of the report submitted under
paragraph (a) of this Section.
40
§ 21.41 Type certificate.
Each type certificate is considered to
Include the type design, the operating
limitations, the certificate data sheet,
the applicable regulations of this sub
chapter with which the Administrator
records compliance, and any other con
ditions or limitations prescribed for the
product in this subchapter.
§ 21.43 Location of manufacturing fa
cilities.
Except as provided in § 21.29, the Ad
ministrator does not issue a type certifi
cate if the manufacturing facilities for
the product are located outside of the
United States, unless the Administrator
finds that the location of the manufac
turer's facilities places no undue burden
on the FAA in administering applicable
airworthiness requirements.
§ 21.45 Privileges.
The holder or licensee of a type certifi
cate for a product may—
(a) In the case of aircraft, upon com
pliance with $$ 21.173 through 21.189,
obtain airworthiness certificates;
(b) In the case of aircraft engines or
propellers, obtain approval for installa
tion on certificated aircraft; and
(c) In the case of any product, upon
compliance with $$ 21.133 through
21.163, obtain a production certificate for
the type certificated product.
(d) Obtain approval of replacement
parts for that product.
§ 21.47 Transferability.
A type certificate may be transferred
to or made available to third persons
by licensing agreements. Each grantor
shall, within 30 days after the transfer
of a certificate or execution Or termi
nation of a licensing agreement, notify
in writing the appropriate FAA Regional
Office. The notification must state the
name and address of the transferee or
licensee, date of the transaction, and in
the case of a licensing agreement, the ex
tent of authority granted the licensee.
§ 21.49 Availability.
The holder of a type certificate shall
make the certificate available for ex
amination upon the request of the Ad
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
ministrator or the National Transporta
tion Safety Board.
[Doc. No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14564, Oct. 24, 1964,
cs amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 21.50 Rotorcraft Maintenance Man
ual: changes to the “Airworthiness
Limitations” section.
The holder of a type certificate for a
rotorcraft for which a Rotorcraft Main
tenance Manual containing an “Air
worthiness Limitations” section has been
issued under § 27.1529 (a)(2) or § 29.1529
(a) (2) of this chapter, and who obtains
approval of changes to any replacement
time, inspection interval, or related pro
cedure in that section of the manual,
shall make those changes available upon
request to any operator of the same type
of rotorcraft.
(Secs. 604, 605, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424,
1425) [Amdt. No. 21–23, 33 F.R. 14105, Sept.
18, 1968]
§ 21.51 Duration.
A type certificate is effective until sur
rendered, Suspended, revoked, or a termi
nation date is otherwise established by
the Administrator.
§ 21.53 Statement of conformity.
(a) Each applicant must submit a
statement of conformity (FAA Form 317)
to the Administrator for each aircraft
engine and propeller presented to the
Administrator for type certification. This
statement of conformity must include a
statement that the aircraft engine or
propeller conforms to the type design
therefor.
(b) Each applicant must submit a
statement of conformity to the Adminis
trator for each aircraft or part thereof
presented to the Administrator for tests.
This statement of conformity must in
clude a statement that the applicant.
has complied with $ 21.33(a) (unless
otherwise authorized under that para
graph).
[Amdt. 21–17, 32 F.R. 14926, Oct. 28, 1967]
Subpart C–Provisional Type
Certificates
Source: The provisions of this Subpart C
contained in Docket No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14566,
Oct. 24, 1964, unless otherwise noted.
39–059–75—4
§ 21.75
§ 21.71 Applicability.
This subpart prescribes—
(a) Procedural requirements for the
issue of provisional type certificates,
amendments to provisional type certifi
cates, and provisional amendments to
type certificates; and
(b) Rules governing the holders of
those certificates.
§ 21.73 Eligibility.
(a) Any manufacturer of aircraft
manufactured within the United States
Who is a United States citizen may apply
for Class I or Class II provisional type
certificates, for amendments to provi
sional type certificates held by him, and
for provisional amendments to type
certificates held by him.
(b) Any manufacturer of aircraft
manufactured in a foreign country with
which the United States has an agree
ment for the acceptance of those air
craft for export and import may apply
for a Class II provisional type certifi
cate, for amendments to provisional type
certificates held by him, and for pro
visional amendments to type certificates
held by him.
(c) An aircraft engine manufacturer
who is a United States citizen and who
has altered a type certificated aircraft
by installing different type certificated
aircraft engines manufactured by him
within the United States may apply for
a Class I provisional type certificate for
the aircraft, and for amendments to
Class I provisional type certificates held
by him, if the basic aircraft, before al
teration, was type certificated in the
normal, utility, acrobatic, or transport
Category.
[Doc. No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14566, Oct. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 21–12, 31 F.R. 13380,
Oct. 15, 1966]
§ 21.75 Application.
Applications for provisional type cer
tificates, for amendments thereto, and
for provisional amendments to type cer
tificates must be submitted to the Chief,
Engineering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, of the region
In which the applicant is located (or, in
the case of the Western Region, the
Chief, Aircraft Engineering Division, and
in the case of the European, African, and
Middle East Region, the Chief Aircraft
41
§ 21.77 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
Engineering Division), and must be ac
companied by the pertinent information
specified in this subpart.
[Doc. No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14566, Oct. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 21–12, 31 F.R. 13388,
Oct. 15, 1966]
§ 21.77 Duration.
(a) Unless sooner surrendered, Super
seded, revoked, or otherwise terminated,
provisional type certificates and amend
ments thereto are effective for the periods
specified in this section.
(b) A Class I provisional type certifl
cate is effective for 24 months after the
date of issue.
(c) A Class II provisional type certifl
cate is effective for twelve months after
the date of iSSue.
(d) An amendment to a Class I or
Class II provisional type certificate is
effective for the duration of the amended
certificate.
(e) A provisional amendment to a type
certificate is effective for six months
after its approval or until the amendment
of the type certificate is approved, which
ever is first.
[Doc. No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14566, Oct. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 21–7, 30 F.R. 14311,
Nov. 16, 1965)
§ 21.79 Transferability.
Provisional type certificates are not
transferable.
§ 21.81 Requirements for issue , and
amendment of Class I provisional
type certificates.
(a) An applicant is entitled to the
issue or amendment of a Class I pro
visional type certificate if he shows Com
pliance with this section and the
Administrator finds that there is no
feature, characteristic, or condition that
would make the aircraft unsafe when
operated in accordance with the limita
tions established in paragraph (e) of this
section and in § 91.41 of this chapter.
(b) The applicant must apply for the
issue of a type or supplemental type cer
tificate for the aircraft.
(c) The applicant must certify that—
(1) The aircraft has been designed
and constructed in accordance with the
airworthiness requirements applicable to
the issue of the type or supplemental
type certificate applied for;
(2) The aircraft substantially meets
the applicable flight characteristic re
42
quirements for the type or Supplemental
type certificate applied for; and
(3) The aircraft can be operated Safely
under the appropriate operating limita
tions specified in paragraph (a) of this
Section.
(d) The applicant must Submit a re
port showing that the aircraft had been
flown in all maneuvers necessary to show
compliance With the flight requirements
for the issue of the type or supplemental
type certificate applied for, and to estab
lish that the aircraft can be operated
safely in accordance with the limitations
contained in this Subchapter.
(e) The applicant must establish all
limitations required for the issue of the
type or Supplemental type certificate
applied for, including limitations on
weights, speeds, flight maneuvers, load
ing, and operation of controls and equip
ment unless, for each limitation not so
established, appropriate operating re
Strictions are established for the aircraft.
(f) The applicant must establish an
inspection and maintenance program for
the Continued airWorthiness of the air
craft.
(g) The applicant must show that a
prototype aircraft has been flown for at
least 50 hours under an experimental
certificate issued under §§ 21.191 through
21.195, or under the auspices of an Armed
Force of the United States. However,
in the case of an amendment to a pro
Visional type certificate, the Admin
istrator may reduce the number of re
quired flight hours.
§ 21.83 Requirements for issue and
amendment of Class II provisional
type certificates.
(a) An applicant who manufactures
aircraft within the United States is en
titled to the issue or amendment of a
Class II provisional type certificate if he
shows compliance with this section and
the Administrator finds that there is no
feature, characteristic, or condition that
would make the aircraft unsafe when op
erated in accordance with the limitations
in paragraph (h) of this section, and
§§ 91.41 and 121.207 of this chapter.
(b) An applicant who manufactures
aircraft in a country with which the
United States has an agreement for the
acceptance of those aircraft for export
and import is entitled to the issue or
amendment of a Class II provisional type
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
certificate if the country in which the air
craft was manufactured certifies that the
applicant has shown compliance with
this section, that the aircraft meets the
requirements of paragraph (f) of this
Section and that there is no feature, char
acteristic, or condition that would make
the aircraft unsafe when operated in ac
cordance with the limitations in para
graph (h) of this section and §§ 91.41
and 121.207 of this chapter.
(c) The applicant must apply for a
type certificate, in the transport cate
gory, for the aircraft.
(d) The applicant must hold a U.S.
type certificate for at least one other
aircraft in the same transport category
as the subject aircraft.
(e) The FAA's Official flight test pro
gram or the flight test program con
ducted by the authorities of the country
in which the aircraft was manufactured,
with respect to the issue of a type cer
tificate for that aircraft, must be in
progress.
(f) The applicant or, in the case of a
foreign manufactured aircraft, the coun
try in which the aircraft was manufac
tured, must certify that—
(1) The aircraft has been designed
and constructed in accordance with the
airworthiness requirements applicable to
the issue of the type certificate applied
for;
(2) The aircraft substantially complies
With the applicable flight characteristic
requirements for the type certificate ap
plied for; and
(3) The aircraft can be operated safely
under the appropriate operating limita
tions in this subchapter.
(g) The applicant must submit a re
port showing that the aircraft has been
flown in all maneuvers necessary to show
compliance with the flight requirements
for the issue of the type certificate and
to establish that the aircraft can be op
erated Safely in accordance with the
limitations in this subchapter.
(h) The applicant must prepare a pro
visional aircraft flight manual contain
ing all limitations required for the issue
of the type certificate applied for, includ
ing limitations on weights, speeds, flight
maneuvers, loading, and operation of
controls and equipment unless, for each
limitation not so established, appropriate
Operating restrictions are established for
the aircraft.
43
§ 21.85
(i) The applicant must establish an
inspection and maintenance program for
the continued airworthiness of the air
Craft.
(j) The applicant must show that a
prototype aircraft has been flown for at
least 100 hours. In the case of an amend
ment to a provisional type certificate, the
Administrator may reduce the number of
required flight hours.
[Amdt. 21–12, 31 F.R. 13388, Oct. 15, 1966]
§ 21.85 Provisional amendments to type
certificates.
(a) An applicant who manufactures
aircraft within the United States is en
titled to a provisional amendment to a
type certificate if he shows compliance
With this section and the Administrator
finds that there is no feature, character
1stic, or condition that would make the
aircraft unsafe when operated under the
appropriate limitations contained in this
Subchapter.
(b) An applicant who manufactures
aircraft in a foreign country with which
the United States has an agreement for
the acceptance of those aircraft for ex
port and import is entitled to a pro
Visional amendment to a type Certificate
if the country in which the aircraft was
manufactured certifies that the appli
cant has shown compliance with this
Section, that the aircraft meets the re
quirements of paragraph (e) of this
Section and that there is no feature,
characteristic, or condition that would
make the aircraft unsafe when operated
under the appropriate limitations con
tained in this subchapter.
(c) The applicant must apply for an
amendment to the type certificate.
(d) The FAA's official flight test pro
gram or the flight test program con
ducted by the authorities of the country
in which the aircraft was manufactured,
With respect to the amendment of the
type certificate, must be in progress.
(e) The applicant or, in the case of
foreign manufactured aircraft, the coun
try in which the aircraft was manufac
tured, must certify that—
(1) The modification involved in the
amendment to the type certificate has
been designed and constructed in ac
Cordance with the airworthiness require
ments applicable to the issue of the type
certificate for the aircraft;
(2) The aircraft substantially com
plies With the applicable flight charac
§ 21.91 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
teristic requirements for the type certifi
Cate; and
(3) The aircraft can be operated
safely under the appropriate operating
limitations in this subchapter.
(f) The applicant must submit a re
port showing that the aircraft incorpo
rating the modifications involved has
been flown in all maneuvers necessary
to show compliance with the flight re
quirements applicable to those modifica
tions and to establish that the aircraft
can be operated Safely in accordance with
the limitations Specified in §§ 91.41 and
121.207 of this chapter.
(g) The applicant must establish and
publish, in a provisional aircraft flight
manual or other document and on appro
priate placards, all limitations required
for the issue of the type certificate ap
plied for, including weight, speed, flight
maneuvers, loading, and operation of
controls and equipment, unless, for each
limitation not so established, appropriate
operating restrictions are established for
the aircraft.
(h) The applicant must establish an
inspection and maintenance program for
the continued airworthiness of the air
craft.
(i) The applicant must Operate a pro
totype aircraft modified in accordance
with the corresponding amendment to
the type certificate for the number of
hours found necessary by the Adminis
trator.
[Amdt. 21–12, 31 F.R. 13388, Oct. 15, 1966]
Subpart D–Changes to Type
Certificates
Source: The provisions of this Subpart B
contained in Docket No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14567,
Oct. 24, 1964, unless otherwise noted.
§ 21.91 Applicability.
This subpart prescribes procedural re
quirements for the approval of changes
to type certificates.
§ 21.93 Classification of changes in type
design.
(a) In addition to changes in type de
sign specified in paragraph (b) of this
section, changes in type design are classi
fied as minor and major. A “minor
change” is one that has no appreciable
effect on the weight, balance, structural
strength, reliability, operational charact
eristics, or other characteristics affecting
the airworthiness of the product. All
other changes are “major changes” (ex
cept as provided in paragraph (b) of this
Section).
(b) For the purpose of complying with
Part 36 of this chapter only, any volun
tary change in the type design of a trans
port category or turbojet engine powered
airplane that may increase the noise
levels created by the airplane is an
“acoustical change” in addition to being
a minor or major change as classified in
paragraph (a) of this section.
[Amdt. 21–27, 34 F.R. 18363, Nov. 18, 1969]
§ 21.95 Approval of minor changes in
type design.
Minor changes in a type design may
be approved under a method acceptable
to the Administrator before submitting to
the Administrator any substantiating or
descriptive data.
$ 21.97 Approval of major changes in
type design.
(a) In the case of a major change in
type design, the applicant must submit
Substantiating data and necessary de
Scriptive data for inclusion in the type
design.
(b) Approval of a major change in the
type design of an aircraft engine is lim
ited to the specific engine configuration
upon which the change is made unless
the applicant identifies in the necessary
descriptive data for inclusion in the type
design the other configurations of the
Same engine type for which approval is
requested and shows that the change is
compatible with the other configurations.
[Amdt. No. 21–40, 39 FR 35459, oct. 1, 1974]
§ 21.99 Required design changes.
(a) When an Airworthiness Directive
is issued under Part 39 the holder of the
type certificate for the product concerned
must—
(1) If the Administrator finds that
design changes are necessary to correct
the unsafe condition of the product, and
upon his request, submit appropriate de
Sign changes for approval; and
(2) Upon approval of the design
changes, make available the descriptive
data covering the changes to all opera
tors of products previously certificated
under the type certificate.
(b) In a case where there are no cur
rent unsafe conditions, but the Adminis
trator or the holder of the type certificate
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
finds through Service experience that
changes in type design will contribute to
the safety of the product, the holder of
the type certificate may submit appro
priate design changes for approval.
Upon approval of the changes, the manu
facturer shall make information on the
design changes available to all operators
of the same type of product.
[Doc. No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14567, Oct. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 21–3, 30 F.R. 8826,
July 24, 1965)
§ 21.101 Designation of applicable reg
ulations.
(a) Except as provided in §§ 25.2 and
36.2 of this chapter, an applicant for a
change to type certificate must comply
with either—
(1) The regulations incorporated by
reference in the type certificate; or
(2) The applicable regulations in ef
fect on the date of the application, plus
any other amendments the Administra
tor finds to be directly related.
(b) If the Administrator finds that a
proposed change consists of a new design
or a substantially complete redesign of
a component, equipment installation, or
System installation, and that the regula
tions incorporated by reference in the
type certificate for the product do not
provide adequate standards with respect
to the proposed change, the applicant
must comply with—
(1) The applicable provisions of this
subchapter, in effect on the date of the
application for the change, that the Ad
ministrator finds necessary to provide a
level of safety equal to that established by
the regulations incorporated by reference
in the type certificate for the product;
and
(2) Any special cond it i on s, and
amendments to those special conditions,
prescribed by the Administrator to pro
vide a level of safety equal to that estab
lished by the regulations incorporated by
reference in the type certificate for the
product.
(c) Unless otherwise required by
§ 21.19 (a), an applicant for a change to
a type certificate for a transport category
airplane involving the replacement of
reciprocating engines with the same
number of turbopropeller powerplants
must comply with the requirements of
Part 25 of this chapter applicable to the
airplane as type certificated with recipro
cating engines, and with the following:
45
§ 21.113
(1) The certification performance re
quirements prescribed in §§ 25.101
through 25.125 and 25.149, 25.1533,
25.1583, and 25.1587.
(2) The powerplant requirements of
Part 25 of this chapter applicable to tur
bopropeller engine-powered airplanes.
(3) The requirements of Part 25
of this chapter for the Standard
ization of cockpit controls and instru
ments, unless the Administrator finds
that compliance with a particular de
tailed requirement would be impractical
and would not contribute materially to
standardization.
(4) Any other requirement of Part 25
of this chapter applicable to turbopro
peller engine-powered airplanes that the
Administrator finds to be related to the
changes in engines and that are neces
sary to ensure a level of safety equal to
that of the airplane certificated with
reciprocating engines.
For each new limitation established with
respect to weight, speed, or altitude that
is significantly altered from those ap
proved for the airplane with reciprocat
ing engines, the applicant must Show
compliance with the requirements of
Part 25 of this chapter applicable to the
limitation being changed.
(Sec. 604, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424) [Doc.
No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14567, Oct. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 21–16, 32 F.R. 13262,
Sept. 20, 1967; Amdt. 21–19, 32 F.R. 17851,
Dec. 13, 1967; Amdt. 21–27, 34 F.R. 18363,
Nov. 18, 1969)
Subpart E–Supplemental Type
Certificates
Source: The provisions of this Subpart E
contained in Docket No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14568,
Oct. 24, 1964, unless otherwise noted.
§ 21.111 Applicability.
This subpart prescribes procedural re
quirements for the issue of supplemental
type certificates.
§ 21.113 Requirement of supplemental
type certificate.
Any person who alters a product by
introducing a major change in type de
sign, not great enough to require a new
application for a type certificate under
§ 21.19, shall apply to the Administrator
for a supplemental type certificate, ex
cept that the holder of a type certificate
for the product may apply for amend
ment of the original type certificate.
§ 21.115 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
The application must be made in a form
and manner prescribed by the Adminis
trator.
Š 21.115 Applicable airworthiness
quirements.
(a) Each applicant for a supplemental
type certificate must show that the al
tered product meets applicable airworthi
ness requirements as specified in para
graphs (a) and (b) of § 21.101.
(b) Each applicant for a supplemental
type certificate must meet $$ 21.33 and
21.53 with respect to each change in the
type design.
[Amdt. 21–17, 32 F.R. 14927, Oct. 28, 1967]
§ 21.117 Issue of supplemental type
certificates.
(a) An applicant is entitled to a sup
plemental type certificate if he meets the
requirements of §§ 21.113 and 21.115.
(b) A supplemental type certificate
consists of—
(1) The approval by the Administra
tor of a change in the type design of the
product; and
(2) The type certificate previously is
sued for the product.
§ 21.119 Privileges.
The holder of a supplemental type cer
tificate may—
(a) In the case of aircraft, obtain air
worthiness certificates;
(b) In the case of other products, eb
tain approval for installation on certifi
cated aircraft; and
(c) Obtain a production certificate for
the change in the type design that was
approved by that supplemental type cer
tificate.
Subpart F-Production Under Type
Certificate Only
Source: The provisions of this subpart F.
contained in Docket No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14568,
Oct. 24, 1964, unless otherwise noted.
§ 21.121 Applicability.
This subpart prescribes rules for pro
duction under a type certificate only.
§ 21.123 Production under type certifi
cate.
Each manufacturer of a product being
manufactured under a type certificate
Only shall—
(a) Make each product available for
inspection by the Administrator;
(b) Maintain at the place of manu
facture the technical data and drawings
necessary for the Administrator to de
termine whether the product and its
parts conform to the type design; and
(c) Except as otherwise authorized by
re
the Regional Director in the region in
which the manufacturer is located, for
products manufactured more than 6
months after the date of issue of the type
certificate, establish and maintain an
approved production inspection system
that insures that each product conforms
to the type design and is in condition
for safe Operation.
(Secs. 313 (a), 601, 603, Federal Aviation Act
of 1958, 49 U.S.C. 1354(a), 1421, 1423; sec.
6(c), Department of Transportation Act (49
U.S.C. 1655(c)) [Doc. No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14568,
Oct. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 21-34.
35 F.R. 13008, Aug. 15, 1970]
§ 21.125 Production inspection system:
Materials Review Board.
(a) Each manufacturer required to
establish a production inspection System
by § 21.123(c) shall—
(1) Establish a Materials Review
Board (to include representatives from
the inspection and engineering depart
ments) and materials review procedures;
and
(2) Maintain complete records of
Materials Review Board action for at
least two years.
(b) The production inspection system
required in § 21.123(c) must provide a
means for determining at least the fol
lowing:
(1) Incoming materials, and bought or
subcontracted parts, used in the finished
product must be as specified in the type
design data, or must be suitable
equivalents.
(2) Incoming materials, and bought
or subcontracted parts, must be properly
identified if their physical or chemical
properties cannot be readily and ac
curately determined.
(3) Materials subject to damage and
deterioration must be suitably stored
and adequately protected.
(4) Processes affecting the quality
and safety of the finished product must
be accomplished in accordance with
acceptable industry or United States
Specifications.
(5) Parts and components in process
must be inspected for conformity with
the type design data at points in
production where accurate determina
tions can be made.
(6) Current design drawings must be
readily available to manufacturing and
46
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
inspection personnel, and used when
necessary.
(7) Design changes, including material
substitutions, must be controlled and
approved before being incorporated in
the finished product.
(8) Rejected materials and parts must
be segregated and identified in a manner
that precludes installation in the finished
product.
(9) Materials and parts that are with
held because of departures from design
data or specifications, and that are to be
considered for installation in the finished
product, must be processed through the
Materials Review Board. Those mate
rials and parts determined by the Board
to be serviceable must be properly iden
tified and reinspected if rework or repair
is necessary. Materials and parts re
jected by the Board must be marked and
disposed of to ensure that they are not
incorporated in the final product.
(10) Inspection records must be main
tained, identified with the completed
product where practicable, and retained
by the manufacturer for at least two
years.
§ 21.127 Tests: aircraft.
(a) Each person manufacturing air
craft under a type certificate only shall
establish an approved production flight
test procedure and flight check-off form,
and in accordance with that form, flight
test each aircraft produced.
(b) Each production flight test pro
cedure must include the following:
(1) An operational check of the trim,
controllability, or other flight character
istics to establish that the production
aircraft has the same range and degree
of control as the prototype aircraft.
(2) An operational check of each part
or system operated by the crew while in
flight to establish that, during flight, in
strument readings are within normal
range.
(3) A determination that all instru
ments are properly marked, and that all
placards and required flight manuals are
installed after flight test.
(4) A check of the operational char
acteristics of the aircraft on the ground.
(5) A check on any other items pecu
liar to the aircraft being tested that can
best be done during the ground or flight
operation of the aircraft.
§ 21.128 Tests: aircraft engines.
(a) Each person manufacturing air
Craft engines under a type certificate
47
§ 21.130
only shall Subject each engine (except
rocket engines for which the manufac
turer must establish a sampling tech
nique) to an acceptable test run that
includes the following:
(1) Break-in runs that include a de
termination of fuel and oil consumption
and a determination of power charac
teristics at rated maximum continuous
power or thrust and, if applicable, at
rated takeoff power or thrust.
(2) At least five hours of operation at
rated maximum continuous power Or
thrust. For engines having a rated takeoff
power or thrust higher than rated maxi
mum continuous power or thrust, the
five-hour run must include 30 minutes at
rated takeoff power or thrust.
(b) The test runs required by para
graph (a) of this section may be made
with the engine appropriately mounted
and using current types of power and
thrust measuring equipment.
[Docket No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14568, Oct. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 21–5, 32 F.R. 3735,
Mar. 4, 1967]
§ 21.129 Tests: propellers.
Each person manufacturing propellers
under a type certificate only shall give
each variable pitch propeller an accept
able functional test to determine if it
operates properly throughout the normal
range of Operation.
§ 21.130 Statement of conformity.
Each holder or licensee of a type cer
tificate only, for a product manufactured
in the United States, shall, upon the ini
tial transfer by him of the ownership of
Such product manufactured under that
type certificate, or upon application for
the original issue of an aircraft air
worthiness certificate or an aircraft en
gine or propeller airworthiness approval
tag (FAA Form 8130–3), give the Admin
istrator a statement of conformity (FAA
Form 317). This statement must be
signed by an authorized person who holds
a responsible position in the manufac
turing organization, and must include—
(a) For each product, a statement
that the product conforms to its type cer
tificate and is in condition for safe Op
eration:
(b) For each aircraft, a statement that
the aircraft has been flight checked;
and
(c) For each aircraft engine or vari
able pitch propeller, a statement that the
engine or propeller has been subjected
§ 21.131 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
by the manufacturer to a final opera
tional check.
However, in the case of a product manu
factured for an Armed Force of the
United States, a statement of conformity
is not required if the product has been
accepted by that Armed Force.
[Amdt. 21–25, 34 F.R. 14068, Sept. 5, 1969]
Subpart G–Production Certificates
Source: The provisions of this Subpart G
contained in Docket No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14569,
Oct. 24, 1964, unless otherwise noted.
§ 21.13 l Applicability.
This subpart prescribes procedural re
quirements for the issue of production
certificates and rules governing the hold
ers of those certificates.
§ 21.133 Eligibility.
(a) Any person may apply for a pro
duction certificate if he holds, for the
product concerned, a
(1) Current type certificate;
(2) Right to the benefits of that type
certificate under a licensing agreement;
or
(3) Supplemental type certificate.
(b) Each application for a production
certificate must be made in a form and
manner prescribed by the Administrator.
§ 21.135 Requirements for issuance.
An applicant is entitled to a produc
tion certificate if the Administrator finds,
after examination of the supporting data
and after inspection of the organization
and production facilities, that the appli
cant has complied with $$ 21.139 and
21.143.
§ 21.137 Location of manufacturing fa
cilities.
The Administrator does not issue a
production certificate if the manufactur
ing facilities concerned are located out
side the United States, unless the Ad
ministrator finds no undue burden on the
United States in administering the ap
plicable requirements of the Federal Avi
ation Act of 1958 or of the Federal Avia
tion Regulations.
§ 21.139 Quality control.
The applicant must show that he has
established and can maintain a quality
control system for any product, for
which he requests a production certifi
cate, so that each article will meet the
design provisions of the pertinent type
certificate.
§ 21.143 Quality control data require
ments; prime manufacturer.
(a) Each applicant must submit, for
approval, data describing the inspection
and test procedures necessary to ensure
that each article produced conforms to
the type design and is in a condition for
safe operation, including as applicable—
(1) A statement describing assigned
responsibilities and delegated authority
of the quality control organization, to
gether with a chart indicating the func
tional relationship of the quality control
Organization to management and to other
organizational components, and indicat
ing the chain of authority and responsi
bility within the quality control organi
zation;
(2) A description of inspection proce
dures for raw materials, purchased items,
and parts and assemblies produced
by subsidiary manufacturers, including
methods used to ensure acceptable qual
ity of parts and assemblies that cannot
be completely inspected for conformity
and quality when delivered to the prime
manufacturer's plant;
(3) A description of the methods used
for production inspection of individual
parts and complete assemblies, including
the identification of any special manu
facturing processes involved, the means
used to control the processes, the final
test procedure for the complete product,
and, in the case of aircraft, a copy of the
manufacturer's production flight test
procedures and checkoff list;
(4) An outline of the materials
review System, including the pro
cedure for recording review board de
cisions and disposing of rejected parts;
(5) An outline of a System for inform
ing company inspectors of current
changes in engineering drawings, speci
fications, and quality control procedures;
and
(6) A list or chart showing the loca
tion and type of inspection stations.
(b) Each prime manufacturer shall
make available to the Administrator in
formation regarding all delegation of
authority to subsidiary manufacturers to
make major inspections of parts or as
Semblies for which the prime manufac
turer is responsible.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 21.147 Changes in quality control sys
tem.
After the issue of a production certifi
cate, each change to the quality control
system is subject to review by the Ad
ministrator. The holder of a production
certificate shall immediately notify the
Administrator, in writing, of any change
that may affect the inspection, conform
ity, or airworthiness of the product.
§ 21.149 Multiple products.
The Administrator may authorize
more than one type certificated product
to be manufactured under the terms of
one production certificate, if the products
have similar production characteristics.
§ 21.151 Production limitation record.
A production limitation record is is
sued as part of a production certificate.
The record lists the type certificate of
every product that the applicant is au
thorized to manufacture under the terms
of the production certificate.
§ 21.153 Amendment of the production
certificates.
The holder of a production certificate
desiring to amend it to add a type cer
tificate or model, or both, must apply
therefor in a form and manner pre
scribed by the Administrator. The ap
plicant must comply with the applicable
jºments of §§ 21.139, 21.143, and
1.147.
§ 21.155 Transferability.
A production certificate is not trans
ferable.
§ 21.157 Inspections and tests.
Each holder of a production certificate
shall allow the Administrator to make
any inspections and tests necessary to
determine compliance with the appli
cable regulations in this subchapter.
$ 21.159 Duration.
A production certificate is effective un
til Surrendered, suspended, revoked, or a
termination date is otherwise established
by the Administrator, or the location of
the manufacturing facility is changed.
§ 21.161 Display.
The holder of a production certificate
shall display it prominently in the main
office of the factory in which the product
concerned is manufactured.
49
§ 21.175
§ 21.163 Privileges.
The holder of a production certificate
may—
(a) Obtain an aircraft airworthiness
certificate without further showing, ex
cept that the Administrator may inspect
the aircraft for conformity with the type
design; Or
(b) In the case of other products, ob
tain approval for installation on certifl
cated aircraft.
§ 21.165 Responsibility of holder.
The holder of a production certificate
shall—
(a) Maintain the quality control Sys
tem in conformity with the data and
procedures approved for the production
certificate; and
(b) Determine that each completed
product submitted for airworthiness cer
tification or approval conforms to the
type design and is in a condition for safe
Operation.
Subpart H–Airworthiness Certificates
Source: The provisions of this Subpart H
contained in Docket No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14570,
Oct. 24, 1964, except as otherwise noted.
§ 21.171 Applicability.
This subpart prescribes procedural re
quirements for the issue of airworthiness
certificates.
§ 21.173 Eligibility.
Any registered owner of a U.S.-regis
tered aircraft (or the agent of the owner)
may apply for an airworthiness certifl
cate for that aircraft. An application for
an airworthiness certificate must be
made in a form and manner acceptable
to the Administrator, and may be sub
mitted to any FAA office.
(49 U.S.C. 1655) [Amdt. 21–26, 84 F.R. 15244,
Sept. 30, 1969]
§ 21.175 Airworthiness certificates: clas
sification.
(a) Standard airworthiness certifl
cates are airworthiness certificates is
sued for aircraft type certificated in the
normal, utility, acrobatic, or transport
Category.
(b) Special airworthiness certificates
are restricted, limited, and provisional
airworthiness certificates, special flight
permits, and experimental certificates.
[Amdt. 21–21, 33 F.R. 6858, May 7, 1968]
§ 21.177 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 21.177 Amendment or modification.
An airworthiness certificate may be
amended or modified only upon applica
tion to the Administrator.
§ 21.179 Transferability.
An airworthiness certificate is trans
ferred with the aircraft.
§ 21.181 Duration.
(a) Unless sooner surrendered, sus
pended, revoked, or a termination date
is otherwise established by the Admin
istrator, airworthiness certificates are
effective as follows:
(1) Standard airworthiness certifi
cates and airworthiness certificates is
Sued for restricted or limited Category
aircraft are effective as long as the main
tenance, preventive maintenance, and
alterations are performed in accordance
with Parts 43 and 91 of this chapter and
the aircraft are registered in the United
States.
(2) A special flight permit is effective
for the period of time specified in the
permit.
(3) An experimental certificate is ef
fective for 1 years after the date of issue
or renewal unless a shorter period is
prescribed by the Administrator.
(b) The owner, operator, or ballee of
the aircraft shall, upon request, make it
available for inspection by the Admin
istrator.
(c) Upon suspension, revocation, or
termination by order of the Adminis
trator of an airworthiness certificate, the
owner, operator, or bailee of an aircraft
shall, upon request, surrender the certifl
cate to the Administrator.
[Amdt. 21–21, 33 F.R. 6858, May 7, 1968]
§ 21.182 Aircraft identification.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(b) of this section, each applicant for
an airworthiness certificate under this
subpart must show that his aircraft is
identified as prescribed in Ś 45.11(a).
(b) Paragraph (a) of this section does
not apply to applicants for the following:
(1) A special flight permit.
(2) An experimental certificate for an
aircraft that is not amateur built.
(3) A change from one airworthiness
classification to another, for an aircraft
already identified as prescribed
§ 45.11(a).
(Sec. 807(c), 72 Stat. 749, 49 U.S.C. 1348(c))
[Amdt. 21–13, 32 FR 188, Jan. 10, 1967]
§ 21.183 Issue of standard airworthi
ness certificates for normal, utility,
acrobatic, and transport category air
craft.
(a) New aircraft manufactured under
a production certificate. An applicant
for a standard airworthiness certificate
for a new aircraft manufactured under
a production certificate is entitled to a
Standard airworthiness certificate With
out further showing, except that the Ad
ministrator may inspect the aircraft to
determine conformity to the type design
and condition for safe Operation.
(b) New aircraft manufactured under
type certificate only. An applicant for a
Standard airworthiness certificate for a
new aircraft manufactured under a type
certificate only is entitled to a standard
airworthiness certificate upon presenta
tion, by the holder or licensee of the type
certificate, of the statement of conform
ity prescribed in § 21.130 if the Admin
istrator finds after inspection that the
aircraft conforms to the type design and
is in condition for safe Operation.
(c) Import aircraft. An applicant for
a standard airworthiness certificate for
an import aircraft type certificated in
accordance with $ 21.29 is entitled to an
airworthiness certificate if the country
in which the aircraft was manufactured
certifies, and the Administrator finds,
that the aircraft conforms to the type
design and is in condition for Safe
operation.
(d) Other aircraft. An applicant for a
standard airworthiness certificate for
aircraft not covered by paragraphs (a)
through (c) of this section is entitled to
a standard airworthiness certificate if–
(1) He presents evidence to the Ad
ministrator that the aircraft conforms
to a type design approved under a type
certificate or a supplemental type certifi
cate and to applicable Airworthiness Di
rectives;
(2) The aircraft (except an experi
mentally certificated aircraft that pre
viously had been issued a different air
worthiness certificate under this Section)
has been inspected in accordance With
the performance rules for 100-hour in
spections set forth in § 43.15 of this
chapter and found airworthy by—
in (i) The manufacturer;
(ii) The holder of a repair station cer
tificate as provided in Part 145 of this
chapter;
50
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(iii) The holder of a mechanic certifi
cate as authorized in Part 65 of this
chapter; Or
(iv) The holder of a certificate issued
under Part 121 or 127 of this chapter,
and having a maintenance and inspec
tion organization appropriate to the air
craft type; and
(3) The Administrator finds after in
spection, that the aircraft conforms to
the type design, and is in condition for
safe Operation.
(e) Noise requirements. For SubSonic
transport category airplanes and sub
Sonic turbojet powered airplanes that
have not had any flight time before the
dates specified in § 36.1(d) of this chap
ter, and notwithstanding the other pro
visions of this section, no standard air
worthiness certificate is originally issued
under this section unless the Adminis
trator finds that the type design complies
with the noise requirements in § 36.1 (d)
of this chapter in addition to the ap
plicable airworthiness requirements in
this section. For import aircraft, compli
ance with this paragraph is shown if the
country in which the aircraft was manu
factured certifies, and the Administrator
finds, that § 36.1 (d) of this chapter (or
the applicable aircraft noise require
ments of the country in which the air
craft was manufactured and any other
requirements the Administrator may
prescribe to provide noise levels no
greater than those provided by compli
ance with $ 36.1 (d) of this chapter and
paragraph (c) of this section are com
plied with.
(Sec. 611, Federal Aviation Act of 1958 (49
U.S.C. 1354 (a)), 1421, 1423, 1431 (as amended
by the Noise Control Act of 1972 (P.L. 92–
574)), sections 2(b)(2), 6(c), Department of
Transportation Act (49 U.S.C. 1651(b)(2),
1655(c)), Title I of the National Environ
mental Policy Act of 1969 (42 U.S.C. 4321,
et seq.), E.O. 11514, Mar. 5, 1970) [Amdt.
21–17, 32 FR 14927, Oct. 28, 1967, as amended
by Amdt. 21–20, 33 FR 3055, Feb. 16, 1968;
Amdt. 21–25, 34 FR 14068, Sept. 5, 1969;
Amdt. 21–39, 38 FR 29574, Oct. 26, 1973]
§ 21.185 Issue of airworthiness certifi
cates for restricted category aircraft.
(a) Aircraft manufactured under a
production certificate or type certificate
only. An applicant for the original is
sue of a restricted category airworthiness
certificate for an aircraft type certifl
cated in the restricted category, that was
not previously type certificated in any
51
$21,187
other category, must comply with the
appropriate provisions of § 21.183.
(b) Other aircraft. An applicant for
a restricted category airworthiness cer
tificate for an aircraft type certificated
in the restricted category, that was
either a Surplus aircraft of the Armed
Forces or previously type certificated in
another category, is entitled to an air
Worthiness certificate if the aircraft has
been inspected by the Administrator and
found by him to be in a good state of
preservation and repair and in a condi
tion for safe Operation.
(c) Import aircraft. An applicant for
the original issue of a restricted Cate
gory airworthiness certificate for an im
port aircraft type certificated in the
restricted category only in accordance
with $ 21.29 is entitled to an airworthi
ness certificate if the country in which
the aircraft was manufactured certifies,
and the Administrator finds, that the air
craft conforms to the type design and is
in a condition for Safe Operation.
(Secs. 313(a), 601, and 603, Federal Aviation
Act of 1958; 49 U.S.C. 1354, 1421, and 1423;
sec. 6 (c), Department of Transportation Act,
(49 U.S.C. 1655(c)) [Amdt. 21–10, 31 F.R.
9211, July 6, 1966; as amended by Amdt. 21
32, 35 F.R. 10202, June 23, 1970)
§ 21.187 Issue of multiple airworthiness
certification.
(a) An applicant for an airworthiness
certificate in the restricted category, and
in one or more other categories, is en
titled to the certificate if–
(1) He shows compliance with the re
quirements for each category, when the
aircraft is in the configuration for that
category; and
(2) He shows that the aircraft can be
converted from one category to another
by removing or adding equipment by
simple mechanical means.
(b) The operator of an aircraft cer
tificated under this section shall have
the aircraft inspected by the Adminis
trator, or by a certificated mechanic with
an appropriate airframe rating, to de
termine airworthiness each time the air
craft is converted from the restricted
category to another category for the
carriage of passengers for compensation
or hire, unless the Administrator finds
this unnecessary for safety in a particu
lar case.
§ 21.199 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 21.189 Issue of airworthiness certifi
cate for limited category aircraft.
(a) An applicant for an airworthiness
certificate for an aircraft in the limited
category is entitled to the certificate
When—
(1) He shows that the aircraft has
been previously issued a limited category
type certificate and that the aircraft
conforms to that type certificate; and
(2) The Administrator finds, after in
Spection (including a flight check by the
applicant), that the aircraft is in a good
State of preservation and repair and is
in a condition for safe operation.
(b) The Administrator prescribes lim
itations and conditions necessary for
safe operation.
[Doc. No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14570, Oct. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 21–4, 30 F.R. 9437,
July 29, 1965)
§ 21.191 Experimental certificates.
Experimental certificates are issued
for the following purposes:
(a) Research and development. Test
ing new aircraft design concepts, new
aircraft equipment, new aircraft installa
tions, new aircraft operating techniques,
or new uses for aircraft.
(b) Showing compliance with regula
tions. Conducting flight tests and other
operations to show compliance with
the airworthiness regulations including
flights to show compliance for issuance
of type and supplemental type certifl
cates, flights to substantiate major de
sign changes, and flights to show com
pliance with the function and reliability
requirements of the regulations.
(c) Crew training. Training of the ap
plicant's flight crews.
(d) Eachibition. Exhibiting the air
craft's flight capabilities, performance,
or unusual characteristics at air shows,
motion picture, television, and similar
productions, and the maintenance
exhibition flight proficiency, including
(for persons exhibiting aircraft) flying to
and from such air shows and productions.
(e) Air racing. Participating in air
races, including (for such participants)
practicing for such air races and flying to
and from racing events.
(f) Market surveys. Use of aircraft for
purposes of conducting market surveys,
sales demonstrations, and customer crew
training.
(g) Operating amateur-built aircraft.
Operating an aircraft the major portion
of which has been fabricated and as
sembled by persons who undertook the
construction project solely for their own
education or recreation.
[Amdt. 21–21, 33 F.R. 6858, May 7, 1968]
§ 21.193 Experimental certificates: gen
eral.
An applicant for an experimental cer
tificate must submit the following infor
mation:
(a) A Statement, in a form and man
ner prescribed by the Administrator
setting forth the purpose for which the
aircraft is to be used.
(b) Enough data (such as photo
graphs) to identify the aircraft.
(c) Upon inspection of the aircraft,
any pertinent information found neces
sary by the Administrator to safeguard
the general public.
(d) In the case of an aircraft to be
used for experimental purposes—
(1) The purpose of the experiment;
(2) The estimated time or number of
flights required for the experiment;
(3) The areas over which the experi
ment Will be conducted; and
(4) Except for aircraft converted from
a previously certificated type without
appreciable change in the external con
figuration, three-view drawings or three
View dimensioned photographs of the air
craft.
§ 21.195 Experimental certificates: Air
craft to be used for market surveys,
sales demonstrations, and customer
crew training.
(a) A manufacturer of aircraft manu
factured within the United States may
apply for an experimental certificate for
an aircraft that is to be used for market
Surveys, sales demonstrations, or cus
tomer crew training.
(b) A manufacturer of aircraft en
gines who has altered a type certificated
of
aircraft by installing different engines,
manufactured by him within the United
States, may apply for an experimental
certificate for that aircraft to be used
for market surveys, sales demonstra
tions, or customer crew training, if the
-
basic aircraft, before alteration, was
type certificated in the normal, acro
batic, or transport category.
(c) An applicant for an experimental
certificate under this Section is entitled
to that certificate if, in addition to meet
ing the requirements of $ 21.193,-
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(1) He has established an inspection
and maintenance program for the Con
tinued airworthiness of the aircraft; and
(2) He shows that the aircraft has
been flown for at least 50 hours, or for at
least 5 hours if it is a type certificated
aircraft which has been modified.
[Amdt. 21–21, 33 F.R. 6858, May 7, 1968, as
amended by Amdt. 21–28, 35 F.R. 2818, Feb.
11, 1970)
§ 21.197 Special flight permits.
(a) A special flight permit may be
issued for an aircraft that may not Cur
rently meet applicable airworthiness re
quirements but is capable of Safe flight,
for the purpose of—
(1) Flying the aircraft to a base where
repairs, alterations, or maintenance are
to be performed, or to a point of storage;
(2) Delivering or exporting the air
craft;
(3) Production flight testing new pro
duction aircraft; and
(4) Evacuating aircraft from areas of
impending danger.
(b) A special flight permit may also be
issued to authorize the operation of an
aircraft at a weight in excess of its max
imum certificated takeoff weight for
flight beyond the normal range over
water, or over land areas where adequate
landing facilities or appropriate fuel is
not available. The excess weight that
may be authorized under this paragraph
is limited to the additional fuel, fuel
carrying facilities, and navigation equip
ment necessary for the flight.
(c) Upon application, as prescribed in
§ 121.79 or § 127.27 of this chapter, a
special flight permit with a continuing
authorization may be issued to a Part 121
or 127 certificate holder for aircraft that
may not meet applicable airworthiness
requirements but are capable of safe
flight, for the purpose of flying aircraft
to a base where maintenance or altera
tions are to be performed. The permit
issued under this paragraph is an au
thorization, including any conditions and
limitations for flight, which is set forth
in the certificate holder's Operations
Specifications.
[Docket No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14570, Oct. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 21–21, 83 F.R. 6859,
May 7, 1968; Amdt. 21–22, 88 F.R. 11901,
Aug. 22, 1968]
53
§ 21.213
§ 21.199 Issue of special flight permits.
(a) Except as provided in § 21.197 (c),
an applicant for a Special flight permit
must submit a statement in a form and
manner prescribed by the Administrator,
indicating—
(1) The purpose of the flight.
(2) The proposed itinerary.
(3) The crew required to Operate the
aircraft and its equipment, e.g., pilot, co
pilot, navigator, etc.
(4) The ways, if any, in which the air
craft does not comply with the applicable
airworthiness requirements.
(5) Any restriction the applicant con
siders necessary for safe Operation of
the aircraft.
(6) Any other information considered
necessary by the Administrator for the
purpose of prescribing operating limita
tions.
(b) The Administrator may make, or
require the applicant to make appropri
ate inspections or tests necessary for
Safety.
[Docket No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14570, Oct. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 21–21, 33 F.R. 6859,
May 7, 1968; Amdt. 21–22, 33 F.R. 11901,
Aug. 22, 1968]
Subpart l—Provisional Airworthiness
Certificates
Source: The provisions of this Subpart I
contained in Doc. No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14571,
Oct. 24, 1964, unless otherwise noted.
§ 21.211 Applicability.
This subpart prescribes procedural re
quirements for the issue of provisional
airworthiness certificates.
§ 21.213 Eligibility.
(a) A manufacturer Who is a United
States citizen may apply for a Class I
or Class II provisional airworthiness cer
tificates for aircraft manufactured by
him within the U.S.
(b) Any holder of an air carrier oper
ating certificate under Part 121 or Part
127 of this chapter who is a United
States citizen may apply for a Class II
provisional airworthiness certificate for
transport category aircraft that meet
either of the following:
(1) The aircraft has a current Class
II provisional type certificate or an
amendment thereto.
(2) The aircraft has a current pro
visional amendment to a type certificate
§ 21.215 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
that was preceded by a corresponding
Class II provisional type certificate.
(c) An aircraft engine manufacturer
who is a United States citizen and who
has altered a type certificated aircraft
by installing different type certificated
engines, manufactured by him within
the United States, may apply for a Class
I provisional airworthiness certificate for
that aircraft, if the basic aircraft, before
alteration, was type certificated in the
normal, utility, acrobatic, or transport
Category.
§ 21.215 Application.
Applications for provisional airworthi
ness certificates must be Submitted to the
Chief, Engineering and Manufacturing
Branch, Flight Standards Division, of
the region in which the FAA Regional
Office for the area in which the manu
facturer or air carrier is located (or, in
the case of the Western Region, the
Chief, Aircraft Engineering Division).
The application must be accompanied by
the pertinent information specified in
this subpart.
§ 21.217. Duration.
Unless sooner Surrendered, superseded,
revoked, or otherwise terminated, pro
visional airworthiness certificates are ef
fective for the duration of the corre
Sponding provisional type certificate,
amendment to a provisional type cer
tificate, or provisional amendment to the
type certificate.
§ 21.219 Transferability.
Class I provisional airworthiness cer
tificates are not transferable. Class II
provisional airworthiness certificates may
be transferred to an air carrier eligible to
apply for a certificate under § 21.213(b).
§ 21.221 Class I provisional airworthi
ness certificates.
(a) Except as provided in § 21.225, an
applicant is entitled to a Class I pro
visional airworthiness certificate for an
aircraft for which a Class I provisional
type certificate has been issued if–
(1) He meets the eligibility require
ments of $ 21.213 and he complies with
this section; and
(2) The Administrator finds that there
is no feature, characteristic, or condition
of the aircraft that would make the air
craft unsafe when operated in accordance
With the limitations established in
§§ 21.81 (e) and 91.41 of this subchapter.
(b) The manufacturer must hold a
provisional type certificate for the air
Craft.
(c) The manufacturer must Submit a
Statement that the aircraft conforms to
the type design corresponding to the pro
Visional type certificate and has been
found by him to be in safe operating con
dition under all applicable limitations.
(d) The aircraft must be flown at least
five hours by the manufacturer.
(e) The aircraft must be supplied with
a provisional aircraft flight manual or
other document and appropriate placards
containing the limitations established by
§§ 21.81 (e) and 91.41.
§ 21.223 Class II provisional airworthi
ness certificates.
(a) Except as provided in § 21.225, an
applicant is entitled to a Class II provi
sional airworthiness certificate for an
aircraft for which a Class II provisional
type certificate has been issued if–
(1) He meets the eligibility require
ments of $ 21.213 and he complies with
this section; and
(2) The Administrator finds that
there is no feature, characteristic, or con
dition of the aircraft that would make
the aircraft unsafe when operated in ac
Cordance with the limitations estab
lished in §§ 21.83(h), 91.41, and 121.207
of this chapter.
(b) The applicant must show that a
Class II provisional type certificate for
the aircraft has been issued to the man
ufacturer.
(c) The applicant must Submit a
statement by the manufacturer that the
aircraft has been manufactured under a
quality control System adequate to en
Sure that the aircraft conforms to the
type design corresponding with the pro
visional type certificate.
(d) The applicant must submit a
statement that the aircraft has been
found by him to be in a safe operating
condition under the applicable limita
tions.
(e) The aircraft must be flown at least
five hours by the manufacturer.
(f) The aircraft must be supplied with
a provisional aircraft flight manual con
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
taining the limitations established by
§§ 21.83(h), 91.41, and 121.207 of this
chapter.
[Doc. No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14571, Oct. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 21–12, 31 F.R. 13389,
Oct. 15, 1966]
§ 21.225 Provisional airworthiness cer
tificates corresponding with provi
sional amendments to type certifi
cates.
(a) An applicant is entitled to a Class
I or a Class II provisional airworthiness
certificate, for an aircraft, for which a
provisional amendment to the type cer
tificate has been issued, if—
(1) He meets the eligibility require
ments of $ 21.213 and he complies with
this section; and
(2) The Administrator flnds that
there is no feature, characteristic, or
condition of the aircraft, as modified in
accordance with the provisionally
amended type certificate, that would
make the aircraft unsafe when Operated
in accordance with the applicable limi
tations established in §§ 21.85(g), 91.41,
and 121.207 of this chapter.
(b) The applicant must show that the
modification was made under a quality
control system adequate to ensure that
the modification conforms to the provi
sionally amended type certificate.
(c) The applicant must submit a
statement that the aircraft has been
found by him to be in a safe oper
ating condition under the applicable
limitations.
(d) The aircraft must be flown at
least five hours by the manufacturer.
(e) The aircraft must be supplied
with a provisional aircraft flight manual
or other document and appropriate
placards containing the limitations re
quired by §§ 21.85(g), 91.41, and 121.207
of this chapter.
[Doc. No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14571, Oct. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 21–12, 81 P.R. 13389,
Oct. 15, 1966]
Subpart J–Delegation Option
Authorization Procedures
Source: The provisions of this Subpart J
contained in Amdt. 21–5, 30 P.R.
Sept. 8, 1965, unless otherwise noted.
§ 21.231 Applicability.
This subpart prescribes procedures
for
(a) Obtaining and using a delegation
option authorization for type, produc
§ 21.245
tion, and airworthiness certification (as
applicable) of
(1) Small airplanes and small gliders;
(2) Normal category rotorcraft;
(3) Turbojet engines of not more
than 1,000 pounds thrust;
(4) Turbopropeller and reciprocating
engines of not more than 500 brake
horsepower; and
(5) Propellers manufactured for use
on engines covered by subparagraph (4)
of this paragraph; and
(b) Issuing airworthiness approval
tags for engines, propellers, and parts of
products covered by paragraph (a of
this section.
§ 21.235 Application.
(a) An application for a delegation
option authorization must be submitted,
in a form and manner prescribed by the
Administrator, to the FAA Regional Of
fice for the area in which the manufac
turer is located.
(b) The application must include the
names, signatures, and titles of the
persons for whom authorization to sign
airworthiness certificates, repair and
alteration forms, and inspection forms
is requested,
§ 21.239 Eligibility.
To be eligible for a delegation option
authorization, the applicant must—
(a) Hold a current type certificate,
issued to him under the standard proce
dures, for a product type certificated
under the same part as the products for
which the delegation option authoriza
tion is sought;
(b) Hold a current production certifl
cate issued under the standard proce
dures;
(c) Employ a staff of engineering,
flight test, production and inspection
personnel who can determine compliance
with the applicable airworthiness re
quirements of this chapter; and
(d) Meet the requirements of this
subpart.
§ 21.243 Duration.
11375, A delegation option authorization is
effective until it is Surrendered or the
Administrator suspends, revokes, or
otherwise terminates it.
§ 21.245 Maintenance of eligibility.
The holder of a delegation option
authorization shall continue to meet the
55
§ 21.247 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
requirements for issue of the authoriza
tion of shall notify the Administrator
within 48 hours of any change (includ
ing a change of personnel) that could
affect the ability of the holder to meet
those requirements.
§ 21.247 Transferability.
A delegation option authorization is
not transferable.
§ 21.249 Inspections.
Upon request, each holder of a dele
gation option authorization and each
applicant shall let the Administrator in
spect his organization, facilities, product,
and records.
§ 21.251 Limits of applicability.
(a) Delegation option authorizations
apply only to products that are manufac
tured by the holder of the authorization.
(b) Delegation option authorizations
may be used for—
(1) Type certification;
(2) Changes in the type design of
products for which the manufacturer
holds, or obtains, a type certificate;
(3) The amendment of a production
certificate held by the manufacturer to
include additional models or additional
types for which he holds or obtains a
type certificate; and
(4) The issue of—
(i) Experimental certificates for air
craft for which the manufacturer has
applied for a type certificate or amended
type certificate under $ 21.253, to permit
the operation of those aircraft for the
purpose of research and development,
crew training, market surveys, or the
showing of compliance with the appli
cable airworthiness requirements;
(ii) Airworthiness certificates (other
than experimental certificates) for air
craft for which the manufacturer holds
a type certificate and holds or is in the
process of obtaining a production cer
tificate;
(iii) Airworthiness approval tags
(FAA Form 186) for engines and propel
lers for which the manufacturer holds a
type certificate and holds or is in the
process of obtaining a production cer
tificate; and
(iv) Airworthiness approval tags (FAA
Form 186) for parts of products covered
by this section.
(c) Delegation option procedures may
be applied to one or more types selected
by the manufacturer, who must notify
the FAA of each model, and of the first
§6
Serial number of each model manufac
tured by him under the delegation option
procedures. Other types or models may
remain under the standard procedures.
(d) Delegation option authorizations
are Subject to any additional limitations
prescribed by the Administrator after
inspection of the applicant's facilities or
review of the staff qualifications.
[Amdt. 21–5, 30 F.R. 11375, Sept. 8, 1965, as
* by Amdt. 21–31, 35 F.R. 7292, May 9,
§ 21.253 Type certificates: application.
(a) To obtain, under the delegation
Option authorization, a type certificate
for a new product or an amended type
certificate, the manufacturer must sub
mit to the Administrator—
(1) An application for a type certifi
cate (FAA Form 312);
(2) A Statement listing the airworth
iness requirements of this chapter (by
part number and effective date) that the
manufacturer considers applicable;
(3) After determining that the type
design meets the applicable require
ments, a statement certifying that this
determination has been made;
(4) After placing the required techni
cal data and type inspection report in the
technical data file required by § 21.293
(a) (1) (1), a Statement certifying that
this has been done;
(5) A proposed type certificate data
sheet; and
(6) An Aircraft Flight Manual (if re
quired) or a summary of required op
erating limitations and other information
necessary for Safe operation of the
product.
§ 21.257 Type certificates: issue.
An applicant is entitled to a type cer
tificate for a product manufactured un
der the delegation option authorization if
the Administrator finds that the product
meets the applicable airworthiness re
quirements.
§ 21.261 Equivalent safety provisions.
The manufacturer shall obtain the Ad
ministrator's concurrence on the appli
cation of all equivalent Safety provisions
applied under § 21.21.
§ 21.267 Production certificates.
To have a new model or new type cer
tificate listed on his production certifl
cate (issued under Subpart G of this
part), the manufacturer must Submit to
the Administrator—
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(a) An application for an amendment
to the production certificate;
(b) After determining that the pro
duction certification requirements of
Subpart G, with respect to the new model
or type, are met, a statement certifying
that this determination has been made;
(c) A statement identifying the type
certificate number under which the
product is being manufactured; and
(d) After placing the manufacturing
and quality control data required by
§ 21.143 with the data required by
§ 21.293(a)(1) (ii), a statement certifying
that this has been done.
§ 21.269 Export airworthiness approvals.
The manufacturer may issue export
airworthiness approvals.
§ 21.271 Airworthiness approval tags.
(a) A manufacturer may issue an air
worthiness approval tag (FAA Form 186)
for each engine and propeller covered by
§ 21.251(b) (4), and may issue an air
worthiness approval tag for parts of each
product covered by that section, if he
finds, on the basis of inspection and op
eration tests, that those products con
form to a type design for which he holds
a type certificate and are in condition for
safe operation.
(b) When a new model has been in
cluded on the Production Limitation
Record, the production certification
number shall be stamped on the engine
or propeller identification data plate in
stead of issuing an airworthiness ap
proval tag.
§ 21.273 Airworthiness certificates other
than experimental.
(a) The manufacturer may issue an
airworthiness certificate for aircraft
manufactured under a delegation option
authorization if he finds, on the basis
of the inspection and production flight
check, that each aircraft conforms to a
type design for which he holds a type
certificate and is in a condition for safe
operation.
(b) The manufacturer may authorize
any employee to sign airworthiness cer
tificates if that employee—
(1) Performs, or is in direct charge of,
the inspection specified in paragraph (a)
of this section; and
(2) Is listed on the manufacturer's
application for the delegation option au
thorization, or on amendments thereof.
[Amdt. 21–5, 30 F.R. 11375, Sept. 8, 1965,
as amended by Amdt. 21–18, 32 F.R. 15472,
Nov. 7, 1967]
57
39–059–75—º
§ 21.293
§ 21.275 Experimental certificates.
(a) The manufacturer shall, before
issuing an experimental certificate, ob
tain from the Administrative any limi
tations and conditions that the Admin
istrator considers necessary for safety.
(b) For experimental certificates is
Sued by the manufacturer, under this
Subpart, for aircraft for which the manu
facturer holds the type certificate and
which have undergone changes to the
type design requiring flight test, the
manufacturer may prescribe any operat
ing limitations that he considers neces
Sary.
§ 21.277 Data review and service expe
rience.
(a) If the Administrator finds that a
product for which a type certificate was
issued under this subpart does not meet
the applicable airworthiness require
ments, or that an unsafe feature or char
acteristic caused by a defect in design or
manufacture exists, the manufacturer,
upon notification by the Administrator,
shall investigate the matter and report
to the Administrator the results of the
investigation and the action, if any,
taken or proposed.
(b) If corrective action by the user of
the product is necessary for safety be
cause of any noncompliance or defect
Specified in paragraph (a) of this section,
the manufacturer shall submit the in
formation necessary for the issue of an
Airworthiness Directive under Part 39.
§ 21.289 Major repairs, rebuilding and
alteration.
For types covered by a delegation
option authorization, a manufacturer
Inay—
(a) After finding that a major repair
or major alteration meets the applicable
airworthiness requirements of this
chapter, approve that repair or altera
tion; and
(b) Authorize any employee to execute
and sign FAA Form 337 and make re
quired log book entries if that employee—
(1) Inspects, or is in direct charge of
inspecting, the repair, rebuilding, or
alteration; and
(2) Is listed on the application for the
delegation option authorization, or on
amendments thereof.
§ 21.293 Current records.
(a) The manufacturer shall maintain
at his factory, for each product type
Certificated under a delegation option
§ 21.301 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
authorization, current records Contain
ing the following:
operator for maintaining or altering his
(1) For the duration of the manu
facturing operation under the delegation
Option authorization—
(i) A technical data file that includes
the type design drawings, specifications,
reports on tests prescribed by this part,
and the original type inspection report
and amendments to that report;
(ii) The data (including amend
ments) required to be submitted with the
original application for each production
certificate; and
(iii) A record of any rebuilding and
alteration performed by the manufac
turer on products manufactured under
the delegation option authorization.
(2) For 2 years—
(i) A complete inspection record for
each product manufactured, by serial
number, and data covering the processes
and tests to which materials and parts
are subjected; and
(ii) A record of reported service diffi
culties.
(b) The records and data specified in
paragraph (a) of this section shall be—
(1) Made available, upon the Admin
istrator's request, for examination by the
Administrator at any time; and
(2) Identified and sent to the Ad
ministrator as soon as the manufacturer
no longer operates under the delegation
option procedures.
Subpart K–Approval of Materials,
Parts, Processes, and Applicances
Source: The provisions of this Subpart K
contained in Docket No. 5085, 29 F.R. 14574,
Oct. 24, 1964, unless otherwise noted.
§ 21.301 Applicability.
This subpart prescribes procedural
requirements for the approval of certain
materials, parts, processes, and appli
ances.
§ 21.303 Replacement and modification
parts.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(b) of this section, no person may pro
duce a modification or replacement part
for sale for installation on a type certifi
cated product unless it is produced pur
Suant to a Parts Manufacturer Approval
issued under this subpart.
(b) This section does not apply to the
following:
(1) Parts produced under a type or
production certificate.
58
(2) Parts produced by an owner or
own product.
(3) Parts produced under an FAA
Technical Standard Order.
(4) Standard parts (such as bolts and
nuts) conforming to established indus
try or U.S. specifications.
(c) An application for a Parts Manu
facturer Approval is made to the Re
gional Office of the region in which the
manufacturing facility is located and
must include the following:
(1) The identity of the product on
which the part is to be installed.
(2) The name and address of the
manufacturing facilities at which these
parts are to be manufactured.
(3) The design of the part, which con
sists of
(i) Drawings and specifications neces
Sary to show the configuration of the
part; and
(ii) Information on dimensions, mate
rials, and processes necessary to define
the structural strength of the part.
(4) Test reports and computations
necessary to show that the design of the
part meets the airworthiness require
ments of the Federal Aviation Regula
tions applicable to the product on which
the part is to be installed, unless the ap
plicant shows that the design of the part
is identical to the design of a part that is
Covered under a type certificate. If the
design of the part was obtained by a li
censing agreement, evidence of that
agreement must be furnished.
(d) An applicant is entitled to a Parts
Manufacturer Approval for a replace
ment or modification partif—
(1) The Administrator finds, upon ex
amination of the design and after com
pleting all tests and inspections, that the
design meets the airworthiness require
ments of the Federal Aviation Regula
tions applicable to the product on which
the part is to be installed; and
(2) He submits a statement certify
ing that he has established the fabrica
tion inspection system required by para
graph (h) of this section.
(e) Each applicant for a Parts Man
ufacturer Approval must allow the Ad
ministrator to make any inspection or
test necessary to determine compliance
with the applicable Federal Aviation Reg
ulations. However, unless otherwise au
thorized by the Administrator—
(1) No part may be presented to the
Administrator for an inspection or test
unless compliance with paragraphs (f)
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(2) through (4) of this section has been
shown for that part; and
(2) No change may be made to a part
between the time that compliance with
paragraphs (f) (2) through (4) of this
section is shown for that part and the
time that the part is presented to the
Administrator for the inspection or test.
(f) Each applicant for a Parts Man
ufacturer Approval must make all in
spections and tests necessary to deter
mine—
(1) Compliance with the applicable
airworthiness requirements;
(2) That materials conform to the
specifications in the design;
(3) That the part conforms to the
drawings in the design; and
(4) That the fabrication processes,
construction, and assembly conform to
those specified in the design.
(g) The Administrator does not issue
a Parts Manufacturer Approval if the
manufacturing facilities for the part are
located outside of the United States, un
less the Administrator finds that the lo
cation of the manufacturing facilities
places no burden on the FAA in admin
istering applicable airworthiness re
quirements.
(h) Each holder of a Parts Manufac
turer Approval shall establish and main
tain a fabrication inspection system that
ensures that each completed part Con
forms to its design data and is safe for
installation on applicable type certifi
cated products. The system shall include
the following:
(1) Incoming materials used in the
finished part must be as specified in the
design data.
(2) Incoming materials must be prop
erly identified if their physical and chem
ical properties cannot otherwise be read
ily and accurately determined.
(3) Materials subject to damage and
deterioration must be suitably stored and
adequately protected.
(4) Processes affecting the quality and
safety of the finished product must be
accomplished in accordance with ac
ceptable specifications.
(5) Parts in process must be inspected
for conformity with the design data at
points in production where accurate
determination can be made. Statistical
quality control procedures may be em
ployed where it is shown that a satis
factory level of quality will be maintained
for the particular part involved.
(6) Current design drawings must be
readily available to manufacturing and
59
§ 21.303
inspection personnel, and used when
necessary.
(7) Major changes to the basic design
must be adequately controlled and ap
proved before being incorporated in the
finished part.
(8) Rejected materials and compo
nents must be segregated and identified
in Such a manner as to preclude their
use in the finished part.
(9) Inspection records must be main
tained, identified with the completed
part, where practicable, and retained in
the manufacturer's file for a period of
at least 2 years after the part has been
completed.
(i) A Parts Manufacturer Approval
issued under this section is not trans
ferable and is effective until Surrendered
or withdrawn or otherwise terminated by
the Administrator.
(j) The holder of a Parts Manufac
turer Approval shall notify the FAA in
Writing within 10 days from the date the
manufacturing facility at which the
parts are manufactured is relocated or
expanded to include additional facilities
at other locations.
(k) Each holder of a Parts Manufac
turer Approval shall determine that each
completed part conforms to the design
data and is safe for installation on type
Certificated products.
[Amdt. 21–38, 37 FR 10659, May 26, 1972, as
amended by Amdt. No. 21–41, 39 FR 41965,
Dec. 4, 1974]
EFFECTIVE DATE NoTE: The provisions of
§ 21.303, paragraphs (a), (j) and the intro
ductory text of paragraph (h) become effec
tive January 4, 1975. For the convenience of
the user, the superseded text set forth below
is effective until January 3, 1975.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph (b)
of this section, no person may produce re
placement or modification parts for sale for
installation on a type certificated product
unless he holds a Parts Manufacturer Ap
proval for the part.
+ º º
(h) Each person manufacturing replace
ment or modification parts under a Parts
Manufacturer Approval shall establish and
maintain a fabrication inspection system
that ensures that each part conforms to the
design data and is safe for installation on
type certificated products and that includes
the following:
* *
(j) The holder of a Parts Manufacturer
Approval shall notify the FAA in writing
within 10 days from the date his manufac
turing facilities are relocated or expanded
§ 21.305 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
to include additional facilities at
locations.
* * * +
§ 21.305 Approval of materials, parts,
processes, and appliances.
Whenever a material, part, process, or
appliance is required to be approved
under this chapter, it may be approved
(a) Under a Parts Manufacturer Ap
proval issued under § 21.303;
(b) Under a Technical Standard Order
issued under Part 37 of this chapter;
(c) In conjunction with type certifica
tion procedures for a product; or
(d) In any other manner approved by
the Administrator.
[Amdt. 21–38, 37 F.R. 10659, May 26, 1972]
NoTE: The recordkeeping and reporting re
quirements contained herein have been ap
proved by the Office of Management and
Budget in accordance with the Federal Re
ports Act of 1942.
Subpart L–Export Airworthiness
Approvals
Source: The provisions of this Subpart L.
contained in Amdt. 21–2, 30 F.R. 8465,
July 2, 1965, unless otherwise noted.
§ 21.321 Applicability.
(a) This subpart prescribes—
(1) Procedural requirements for the
issue of export airworthiness approvals;
and
(2) Rules governing the holders of
those approvals.
(b) For the purposes of this subpart—
(1) A Class I product is a complete
aircraft, aircraft engine, or propeller,
which has been type certificated in ac
cordance with the applicable Federal
Aviation Regulations and for which Fed
eral Aviation specifications or type Cer
tificate data sheets have been issued.
(2) A Class II product is a major com
ponent of a Class I product (e.g., Wings,
fuselages, empennage assemblies, land
ing gears, power transmissions, control
surfaces, etc.), the failure of which
would jeopardize the safety of a Class
I product; or any part, material, or ap
pliance, approved and manufactured
under the Technical Standard Order
(TSO) system in the “C” series.
(3) A Class III product is any part or
component which is not a Class I or
Class II product and includes standard
parts, i.e., those designated as AN, NAS,
SAE, etc.
other (4) The words “newly overhauled”
when used to describe a product means
-
that the product has not been operated
or placed in service, except for func
tional testing, since having been over
hauled, inspected and approved for re
turn to Service in accordance with the
applicable Federal Aviation Regulations.
§ 21.323 Eligibility.
(a) Any exporter or his authorized
representative may obtain an export air
Worthiness approval for a Class I or Class
II product.
(b) Any manufacturer may obtain an
export airworthiness approval for a
Class III product if the manufacturer—
(1) Has in his employ a designated
representative of the Administrator Who
has been authorized to issue that ap
proval; and
(2) Holds for that product—
(1) A production certificate;
(ii) An approved production inspec
tion system;
(iii) An FAA Parts Manufacturer Ap
proval (PMA); or
(iv) A Technical Standard Order au
thorization.
$21; als,
Export airworthiness approv
(a) Kinds of approvals. (1) Export
airworthiness approval of Class I prod
ucts is issued in the form of Export Cer
tificates of Airworthiness, FAA Form 26.
Such a certificate does not authorize the
Operation of aircraft.
(2) Export airworthiness approval of
Class II and III products is issued in
the form of Airworthiness Approval
Tags, FAA Form 186.
(b) Products which may be approped.
Export airworthiness approvals are is
sued for—
(1) New aircraft that are assembled
and that have been flight tested, and
other Class I products located in the
United States, except that export air
worthiness approval may be issued for
either of the following without assembly
or flight-test:
(1) A small airplane type certificated
under Part 3 or 4a of the Civil Air Reg
ulations, or Part 23 of the Federal Avia
tion Regulations, and manufactured
under a production certificate; or
60
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(ii) A glider type certificated under
$ 21.23 of this part and manufactured
under a production certificate.
(2) Used aircraft possessing a valid
U.S. airworthiness certificate, or other
used Class I products that have been
maintained in accordance with the ap
plicable CAR's or FAR's and are located
in a foreign country, if the Administra
tor finds that the location places no un
due burden upon the FAA in admin
istering the provisions of this regulation.
(3) Class II and III products that are
manufactured and located in the United
States.
[Amdt. 21–2, 30 FIR. 8465, July 2, 1965, as
amended by Amdt. 21–14, 82 F.R. 2999, Feb.
17, 1967; Doc. No. 8084, 82 F.R. 5769, Apr. 11,
1967]
§ 21.327 Application.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(b) of this section, an application for
export airworthiness approval for
Class I or Class II product is made on a
form and in a manner prescribed by the
Administrator and is submitted to the
appropriate Flight Standards District
Office or to the nearest international
field office.
(b) A manufacturer holding a produc
tion certificate may apply orally to the
appropriate Flight Standards District
Office or the nearest international field
office for export airworthiness approval
of a Class II product approved under his
production certificate.
(c) Application for export airworthi
ness approval of Class III products is
made to the designated representative of
the Administrator authorized to issue
those approvals.
(d) A separate application must be
made for—
(1) Each aircraft;
(2) Each engine and propeller, ex
cept that one application may be made
for more than one engine or propeller, if
all are of the same type and model and
are exported to the Same purchaser and
country; and -
(3) Each type of Class II product, ex
cept that one application may be used
for more than one type of Class II prod
uct when—
(1) They are separated and identified
in the application as to the type and
model of the related Class I product; and
$ 21.327
(ii) They are to be exported to the
Same purchaser and Country.
(e) Each application must be accom
panied by a written statement from the
importing country that it will validate
the export airworthiness approval if the
product being exported is
(1) An aircraft manufactured out
side the United States and being exported
to a country with which the United States
has a reciprocal agreement concerning
the validation of export certificates;
(2) An unassembled aircraft which
has not been flight-tested; or
(3) A product that does not meet the
special requirement of the importing
country.
(f) Each application for export air
worthiness approval of a Class I product
must include, as applicable:
(1) A Statement of Conformity, FAA
Form 317, for each new product that has
not been manufactured under a produc
a tion certificate.
(2) A weight and balance report, with
a loading schedule when applicable, for
each aircraft in accordance with Part
43 of this chapter. For transport air
craft and all rotorcraft, this report must
be based on an actual weighing of the
aircraft within the preceding twelve
months, but after any major repairs or
alterations to the aircraft. Changes in
equipment not classsed as major changes
that are made after the actual weighing
may be accounted for on a “computed”
basis and the report revised accordingly.
Manufacturers of new nontransport cat
egory airplanes may submit reports hav
ing computed weight and balance data,
in place of an actual weighing of the
aircraft, if fleet weight control proce
dures approved by the FAA have been
established for such airplanes. In such
a case, the following statement must be
entered in each report: “The weight and
balance data shown in this report are
computed on the basis of Federal Avia
tion Administration approved procedures
for establishing fleet weight averages.”
The weight and balance report must in
clude an equipment list showing weights
and moment arms of all required and
optional items of equipment that are in
cluded in the certificated empty weight.
(3) A maintenance manual for each
new product when such a manual is re
quired by the applicable airworthiness
rules.
61
§ 21.329 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(4) Evidence of compliance with the
applicable airworthiness directives. A certificate.
suitable notation must be made when
such directives are not complied with.
(5) When temporary installations are
incorporated in an aircraft for the pur
pose of export delivery, the application
form must include a general description
of the installations together with a state
ment that the installation will be re
moved and the aircraft restored to the
approved configuration upon completion
of the delivery flight.
(6) Historical records such as aircraft
and engine log books, repair and altera
tion forms, etc., for used aircraft and
newly overhauled products.
(7) For products intended for overseas
shipment, the application form must de
scribe the methods used, if any, for the
preservation and packaging of such
products to protect them against corro
Sion and damage while in transit Or Stor
age. The description must also indicate.
the duration of the effectiveness of Such
methods.
(8) The Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight
Manual when such material is re
quired by the applicable airworthiness
regulations for the particular aircraft.
(9) A statement as to the date when
title passed or is expected to pass to a
foreign purchaser.
(10) The data required by the special
requirements of the importing country.
[Amdt. 21–2, 30 F.R. 8465, July 2, 1965, as
amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769, Apr.
11, 1967]
§ 21.329 Issue of export certificates of
airworthiness for Class I products.
An applicant is entitled to an export
certificate of airworthiness for a Class I
product if he shows that at the time the
product is submitted to the Adminis
trator for export airworthiness approval,
it meets the following requirements, as
applicable:
(a) New or used aircraft manufac
tured in the United States must meet
the airworthiness requirement for a
Standard U.S. airworthiness certificate
under § 21.183, or meet the airworthi
ness certification requirements for a
“restricted” airworthiness certificate un
der § 21.185, subject to the special re
quirements of the importing country.
(b) New or used aircraft manufac
tured outside the United States must
62
have a valid U.S. standard airworthiness
(c) USed aircraft must have under
gone an annual type inspection and be
approved for return to service in ac
cordance with Part 43 of this Chapter.
The inspection must have been per
formed and properly documented within
30 days before the date the application
is made for an export certificate of air
worthiness. In complying with this
paragraph, consideration may be given
to the inspections performed on an air
Craft maintained in accordance with a
continuous airworthiness maintenance
program under Parts 121 or 127 of this
Chapter or a progressive inspection pro
gram under Part 91 of this Chapter,
Within the 30 days prior to the date the
application is made for an export
certificate of airworthiness.
(d) New engines and propellers must
Conform to the type design and must be
in a condition for safe operation.
(e) Used engines and propellers which
are not being exported as part of a cer
tificated aircraft must have been newly
overhauled.
(f) The special requirements of the
importing country must have been met.
[Amdt. 21–2, 30 F.R. 8465, July 2, 1965, as
amended by Amdt. 21–8, 31 F.R. 2421, Feb. 5,
1966; Amdt. 21–9, 31 F.R. 3336, Mar. 3, 1966]
§ 21.331 Issue of airworthiness approval
tags for Class II products.
An applicant is entitled to an export
airworthiness approval tag for Class II
products if he shows that—
(a) The products are new or have
been newly overhauled and conform to
the approved design data;
(b) The products are in a condition
for safe operation;
(c) The products are identified with
at least the manufacturer's name, part
number, model designation (when appli
cable), and serial number or equivalent,
and
(d) The products meet the special
requirements of the importing Country.
§ 21.333 Issue of export airworthiness
approval tags for Class III products.
An applicant is entitled to an export
airworthiness approval tag for Class III
products if he shows that—
(a) The products conform to the ap
proved design data applicable to the
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
Class I or Class II product of which they
are a part;
(b) The products are in a condition for
safe Operation; and
(c) The products comply with the
special requirements of the importing
country.
§ 21.335 Responsibilities of exporters.
Each exporter receiving an export air
worthiness approval for a product shall—
(a) Forward to the air authority of the
importing country all documents and
information necessary for the proper op
eration of the products being exported,
e.g., Flight Manuals, Maintenance Man
uals, Service Bulletins, and assembly in
structions, and such other material as is
stipulated in the special requirements of
the importing country. The documents,
information, and material may be for
warded by any means consistent with the
special requirements of the importing
country;
(b) Forward the manufacturer's as
sembly instructions and an FAA-ap
proved flight test checkoff form to the
air authority of the importing country
When unassembled aircraft are being ex
ported. These instructions must be in
sufficient detail to permit Whatever rig
ging, alignment, and ground testing is
necessary to ensure that the aircraft will
conform to the approved configuration
when assembled;
(c) Remove or cause to be removed
any temporary installation incorporated
on an aircraft for the purpose of export
delivery and restore the aircraft to the
approved configuration upon completion
of the delivery flight;
(d) Secure all proper foreign entry
clearances from all the countries
involved when conducting sales dem
onstrations or delivery flights; and
(e) When title to an aircraft passes or
has passed to a foreign purchaser—
(1) Request cancellation of the U.S.
registration and airworthiness certifl
cates, giving the date of transfer of title,
and the name and address of the foreign
owner;
(2) Return the Registration and Air
worthiness Certificates, FAA Form 500
and Form 1362, to the FAA; and
(3) Submit a statement certifying
that the United States' identification and
registration numbers have been removed
from the aircraft in compliance with
$ 45.33.
63
$ 21.339
§ 21.337 Performance of inspections
and overhauls.
Unless otherwise provided for in this
Subpart, each inspection and overhaul
required for export airworthiness ap
proval of Class I and Class II products
must be performed and approved by one
of the following:
(a) The manufacturer of the product.
(b) An appropriately certificated
domestic repair station.
(c) An appropriately certificated for
eign repair station having adequate
overhaul facilities, and maintenance
organization appropriate to the product
involved, when the product is a Class I
product located in a foreign country and
an international office of Flight Stand
ards Service has approved the use of such
foreign repair station.
(d) The holder of an inspection au
thorization as provided in Part 65 of this
Chapter.
(e) An air carrier, when the product
is one that the carrier has maintained
under its own or another air carrier's
continuous airworthiness maintenance
program and maintenance manuals as
provided in Parts 121 or 127 of this
Chapter.
(f) A commercial Operator, when the
product is one that the Operator has
maintained under its continuous air
worthiness maintenance program and
maintenance manual as provided in Part
121 of this Chapter.
[Amdt. 21–2, 30 F.R. 8465, July 2, 1965, as
amended by Amdt. 21–8, 31 F.R. 2421, Feb. 5,
1966]
§ 21.339 Special export airworthiness
approval for aircraft.
A special export certificate of air
worthiness may be issued for an aircraft
located in the United States that is to
be flown to several foreign countries for
the purpose of sale, without returning
the aircraft to the United States for the
certificate if–
(a) The aircraft possesses a standard
U.S. certificate of airworthiness (FAA
Form 1362);
(b) The owner files an application as
required by § 21,327 except that items 3
and 4 of the application (FAA Form
306) need not be completed;
(c) The aircraft is inspected by the
Administrator before leaving the United
States and is found to comply with all
the applicable requirements;
$ 21.431 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(d) A list of foreign countries in which
it is intended to conduct sales demon
strations, together with the expected
dates and duration of such demonstra
tion, is included in the application;
(e) For each prospective importing
country, the applicant shows that—
(1) He has met that country's Special
requirements, other than those requiring
that documents, information, and ma
terials be furnished; and
(2) He has the documents, informa
tion, and materials necessary to meet the
Special requirements of that country;
and
(f) All other requirements for the
issuance of a Class I export certificate
of airworthiness are met.
[Amdt. 21–12, 31 F.R. 12565, Sept. 23, 1966]
Note: The reporting and/or recordkeeping
requirements contained herein have been
approved by the Office of Management and
Budget in accordance with the Federal Re
ports Act of 1942.
Subpart M-Designated Alteration
Station Authorization Procedures
Source: The provisions of this Subpart M.
contained in Amdt. 21–6, 30 F.R. 11379,
Sept. 8, 1965; 30 F.R. 11849, Sept. 16, 1965,
unless otherWise noted.
§ 21.431. Applicability.
(a) This subpart prescribes Desig
nated Alteration Station (DAS) author
1zation procedures for—
(1) Issuing supplemental type certif
icates;
(2) Issuing experimental certificates;
and
(3) Amending standard airworthiness
certificates.
(b) This subpart applies to domestic
repair stations, air carriers (except air
taxi Operators), commercial operators of
large aircraft, and manufacturers of
products.
§ 21.435 Application.
The applicant for a DAS authoriza
tion must submit an application, in writ
ing and signed by an official of the ap
plicant, to the FAA Regional Office for
the region in which the applicant is
located. The application must con
tain—
(a) The repair station certificate
number held by the repair station appli
cant, and the current ratings covered
by the certificate;
(b) The air carrier or commercial op
erator operating certificate number
held by the air carrier or commercial op
erator applicant, and the products that
it may operate and maintain under the
certificate;
(c) A statement by the manufacturer
applicant of the products for which he
holds the type certificate;
(d) The names, signatures, and titles
of the persons for whom authorization to
issue supplemental type certificates or
experimental certificates, or amend air
Worthiness certificates. is requested; and
(e) A description of the applicant's
facilities, and of the staff with which
compliance with $21.439(a)(4) is to be
shown.
§ 21.439 Eligibility.
(a) To be eligible for a DAS author
ization, the applicant must—
(1) Hold a current domestic repair
station certificate under Part 145, or air
carrier or commercial operator operat
ing certificate under Part 121;
(2) Be a manufacturer of a product
for which it has alteration authority un
der § 43.3(1) of this subchapter;
(3) Have adequate maintenance fa
cilities and personnel, in the United
States, appropriate to the products that
it may operate and maintain under its
certificate; and
(4) Employ, or have available, a staff
of engineering, flight test, and inspection
personnel who can determine compliance
With the applicable airworthiness re
quirements of this chapter.
(b) At least one member of the staff
required by paragraph (a) (4) of this
Section must have all of the following
qualifications:
(1) A thorough working knowledge of
the applicable requirements of this
chapter.
(2) A position, on the applicant's staff,
with authority to establish alteration
programs that ensure that altered prod
ucts meet the applicable requirements
of this chapter.
(3) At least one year of satisfactory
experience in direct contact with the
FAA (or its predecessor agency (CAA) )
While processing engineering work for
type certification or alteration projects.
(4) At least eight years of aeronauti
cal engineering experience (which may
include the one year required by sub
paragraph (3) of this paragraph).
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(5) The general technical knowledge
and experience necessary to determine
that altered products, of the types for
which a DAS authorization is requested,
are in condition for safe operation.
§ 21.441 Procedure manual.
(a) No DAS may exercise any author
ity under this subpart unless it submits,
and obtains approval of, a procedure
manual containing—
(1) The procedures for issuing STCs;
and
(2) The names, signatures, and re
sponsibilities of officials and of each staff
member required by § 21.439(a)(4),
identifying those persons who—
(i) Have authority to make changes
in procedures that require a revision to
the procedure manual; and
(ii) Are to conduct inspections (in
cluding conformity and compliance in
spections) or approve inspection reports,
prepare or approve data, plan or conduct
tests, approve the results of tests, amend
airworthiness certificates, issue experi
mental certificates, approve changes to
operating limitations or Aircraft Flight
Manuals, and sign supplemental type
certificates.
(b) No DAS may continue to perform
any DAS function affected by any change
in facilities or staff necessary to continue
to meet the requirements of $ 21.439, or
affected by any change in procedures
from those approved under paragraph
(a) of this section, unless that change
is approved and entered in the manual.
For this purpose, the manual shall con
tain a log-of-revisions page with space
for the identification of each revised
item, page, or date, and the signature of
the person approving the change for the
Administrator.
§ 21.443 Duration.
(a) A DAS authorization is effective
until it is Surrendered or the Administra
tor Suspends, revokes, or otherwise ter
minates it.
(b) The DAS shall return the author
1zation certificate to the Administrator
when it is no longer effective.
§ 21.445 Maintenance of eligibility.
The DAS shall continue to meet the
requirements for issue of the authoriza
tion or shall notify the Administrator
within 48 hours of any change (including
a change of personnel) that could affect
65
§ 21.463
the ability of the DAS to meet those re
quirements.
§ 21.447 Transferability.
A DAS authorization is not transfer
able.
§ 21.449 Inspections.
Upon request, each DAS and each ap
plicant shall let the Administrator in
Spect his facilities, products, and records.
§ 21.451 Limits of applicability.
(a) DAS authorizations apply only to
products—
(1) Covered by the ratings of the re
pair station applicant;
(2) Covered by the operating certif
lcate and maintenance manual of the
air carrier or commercial operator appli
cant; and
(3) For which the manufacturer ap
plicant has alteration authority under
§ 43.3(1) of this subchapter.
(b) DAS authorizations may be used
for—
(1) The issue of supplemental type .
certificates;
(2) The issue of experimental certifl
cates for aircraft that—
(i) Are altered by the DAS under a
supplemental type certificate issued by
the DAS; and
(ii) Require flight tests in order to
show compliance with the applicable air
worthiness requirements of this chap
ter; and
(3) The amendment of standard air
worthiness certificates for aircraft al
tered under this subpart.
(c) DAS authorizations are subject to
any additional limitations prescribed by
the Administrator after inspection of the
applicant's facilities or review of the staff
qualifications.
§ 21.461 Equivalent safety provisions.
The DAS shall obtain the Administra
tor's concurrence on the application of
all equivalent safety provisions applied
under § 21.21.
§ 21.463 Supplemental type certificates.
(a) For each supplemental type cer
tificate issued under this subpart, the
DAS shall follow the procedure manual
prescribed in § 21.441 and shall, before
issuing the certificate—
(1) Submit to the Administrator a
statement describing—
§ 21.473 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(i) The type design change;
(ii) The airworthiness requirements
of this chapter (by part and effective
date) that the DAS considers applicable;
and
(iii) The proposed program for meet
ing the applicable airworthiness require
Inents;
(2) Find that each applicable air
Worthiness requirement is met; and
(3) Find that the type of product for
which the STC is to be issued, as modi
fled by the supplemental type design
data upon which the STC is based, is of
proper design for Safe Operation.
(b) Within 30 days after the date of
issue of the STC, the DAS shall Submit
to the Administrator—
(1) Two copies of the STC;
(2) One copy of the design data ap
proved by the DAS and referred to in the
STC;
(3) One copy of each inspection and
test report; and
(4) Two copies of each revision to the
Aircraft Flight Manual or to the Op
erating limitations, and any other in
formation necessary for Safe Operation
of the product.
§ 21.473 Airworthiness certificates other
than experimental.
For each amendment made to a stand
ard airworthiness certificate under this
subpart, the DAS shall follow the pro
cedure manual prescribed in § 21.441 and
shall, before making that amendment—
(a) Complete each flight test neces
sary to meet the applicable airworthiness
requirements of this chapter;
(b) Find that each applicable air
Worthiness requirement of this chapter
is met; and
(c) Find that the aircraft is in condi
tion for safe Operation.
§ 21.475 Experimental certificates.
The DAS shall, before issuing an ex
perimental certificate, obtain from the
Administrator any limitations and con
ditions that the Administrator considers
necessary for safety.
§ 21.477 Data review and service expe
rience.
(a) If the Administrator finds that a
product for which an STC was issued
under this subpart does not meet the ap
plicable airworthiness requirements, or
that an unsafe feature or characteristic
caused by a defect in design or manufac
66
ture exists, the DAS, upon notification
by the Administrator, shall investigate
the matter and report to the Adminis
trator the results of the investigation
and the action, if any, taken or proposed.
(b) If corrective action by the user of
the product is necessary for safety be
cause of any noncompliance or defect
specified in paragraph (a) of this sec
tion, the DAS shall submit the informa
tion necessary for the issue of an Air
worthiness Directive under Part 39.
§ 21.493 Current records.
(a) The DAS shall maintain, at its
facility, current records containing—
(1) For each product for which it has
issued an STC under this subpart, a
technical data file that includes any data
and amendments thereto (including
drawings, photographs, Specifications,
instructions, and reports) necessary for
the STC;
(2) A list of products by make, model,
manufacturer's serial number and, if
applicable, any FAA identification, that
have been altered under the DAS au
thorization; and
(3) A file of information from all
available sources on alteration difficul
ties of products altered under the DAS
authorization.
(b) The records prescribed in para
graph (a) of this section shall be—
(1) Made available by the DAS, upon
the Administrator's request, for exami
nation by the Administrator at any time;
and
(2) In the case of the data file pre
scribed in paragraph (a)(1) of this sec
tion, identified by the DAS and sent to
the Administrator as Soon as the DAS
no longer operates under this subpart.”
NotE: The reporting and/or recordkeeping
requirements contained herein have been
approved by the Office of Management and
Budget in accordance with the Federal Re
ports Act of 1942.
Subpart N–Approval of Engines,
Propellers, Materials, Parts, and
Applicances: Import
§ 21.500 Approval of engines and pro
pellers.
Each holder or licensee of a U.S. type
certificate for an aircraft engine or pro
peller manufactured in a foreign country
With which the United States has an
agreement for the acceptance of those
products for export and import, shall
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration § 21.502

PERFORMANCE
furnish with each such aircraft engine
Sec.
or propeller imported into this country, 23.45 General.
a certificate of airworthiness for export 23.49 Stalling speed.
issued by the country of manufacture 23.51 Takeoff.
certifying that the individual aircraft 23.65 Climb: all engines operating.
23.67 Climb: one engine inoperative.
engine or propeller— 23.75 Landing.
(a) Conforms to its U.S. type certifl 23.77 Balked landing.
cate and is in condition for Safe Opera FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
tion; and
23.141 General.
(b) Has been subjected by the manu
facturer to a final operational check. CoNTROLLABILITY AND MANEUVERABILITY
[Amdt. 21–25, 34 F.R. 14068, Sept. 5, 1969] 23.143 General.
23.145 Longitudinal control.
§ 21.502 Approval of materials, parts, 23.147 Directional and lateral control.
and appliances. 23.149 Minimum control speed.
23.15.1 Acrobatic maneuVers.
(a) A material, part, or appliance,
23.153 Control during landings.
manufactured in a foreign country with 23.155 Elevator control force in maneuvers.
which the United States has an agree 23.157 Rate of roll.
ment for the acceptance of those ma TRIM
terials, parts, or appliances for export 23.161 Trim.
and import, is considered to meet the STABILITY
requirements for approval in the Federal
23.171 General.
Aviation Regulations when the country
23.173 Static longitudinal stability.
of manufacture issues a certificate of air 23.175 Demonstration of static longitudi
Worthiness for export certifying that the nal stability.
individual material, part, or appliance 23.177 Directional and lateral stability.
23.179 Instrumented Stick force measure
meets those requirements, unless the Ad
ments.
ministrator finds, based on the technical 23.181 Dynamic longitudinal stability.
data Submitted under paragraph (b) of
STALLs
this section, that the material, part, or
appliance is otherwise not consistent 23.201 Wings level stall.
with the intent of the Federal Aviation 23.203 Turning flight and accelerated
Stalls.
Regulations. 23.205 Critical engine inoperative stalls.
(b) An applicant for approval of a 23.207 Stall warning.
material, part, or appliance must, upon SPINNING
request, submit to the Administrator any
23.221 Spinning.
technical data respecting that material,
part, or appliance. GROUND AND WATER HANDLING
CHARACTERISTICs
[Amdt. 21–25, 84 F.R. 14068, Sept. 5, 1969]
23.231 Longitudinal stability and control.
23.233 Directional stabllity and control.
PART 23–AIRWORTHINESS STAND 23.235 Taxiing condition.
ARDS: NORMAL, UTILITY, AND 23.239 Spray characteristics.
ACROBATIC CATEGORY AIR MISCELLANEOUS FLIGHT REQUIREMENTs
PLANES
23.251 Vibration and buffeting.
Subpart A–General 23.253 High speed characteristics.
Sec.
23.1 Applicability. Subpart C–Structure
23.3 Airplane categories. GENERAL
23.301 Loads.
Subpart B–Flignt 23.303 Factor of safety.
GENERAL 23.305 Strength and deformation.
23.307 Proof of structure.
23.21 Proof of compliance.
23.23 Load distribution limits. FLIGHT LOADs
23.25 Weight limits. 23.321 General.
23.29 Empty weight and corresponding 23.331 Symmetrical flight conditions.
center of gravity. 23.333 Flight envelope.
23.31 Removable ballast. 23.335 Design airspeeds.
23-33 Propeller speed and pitch limits. 23.337 Limit maneuvering load factors.

67
Port 23 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
Sec. FATIGUE EVALUATION
23.341 Gust loads factors. Sec.
23.345 High lift devices. 23.571 Pressurized cabin.
23.347 Unsymmetrical flight conditions. 23.572 Wing and associated structure.
23.349 Rolling conditions.
23.351 Yawing conditions. Subpart D–Design and Construction
23.361 Engine torque. 23.601 General.
28.363 Side load on engine mount. 23.603 Materials and workmanship.
23.365 Pressurized cabin loads. 23.605 Fabrication methods.
23.367 Unsymmetrical loads due to engine 23.607 Self-locking nuts.
failure. 23.609 Protection of structure.
23.369 Special conditions for rear lift truss. 23.611 Accessibility.
23.371 Gyroscopic loads. 23.613 Material strength properties and
23.373 Speed control devices. design values.
23.615 Design properties.
CONTROL SURFACE AND SYSTEM Loads
23.619 Special factors.
23.391 Control surface loads. 23.621 Casting factors.
23.395 Control system. 23.623 Bearing factors.
23.397 Limit pilot forces. 23.625 Fitting factors.
23.399 Dual control system. 23.627 Fatigue strength.
23.629 Flutter.
28.405 Secondary control system.
23.407 Trim tab effects. WINGS
23.409 Tabs.
23.641 Proof of strength.
23.415 Ground gust conditions.
ContROL SURFACES
HoRIZONTAL TAIL SURFACEs
23.651 Proof of strength.
23.421 Balancing loads. 23.655 Installation.
23.423 Maneuvering loads. 23.657 Hinges.
23.425 Gust loads. 23.659 Mass balance.
23.427 Unsymmetrical loads. CoNTROL SYSTEMS
VERTICAL TAIL SURFACEs.
23.671 General.
23.441 Maneuvering loads. 23,673 Primary flight controls.
23.443 Gust loads. 23.675 Stops.
23.445 Outboard fins. 23.677 Trim systems.
23.679 Control system locks.
AILERONs, WING FLAPs, AND SPECIAL DEVICEs 23.681 Limit load Static test8.
23.455 Ailerons. 23.683 Operation tests.
23.457 Wing flaps. 23.685 Control system details.
23.459 Special devices. 23.687 Spring devices.
23.689 Cable systems.
GROUND LOADs 23.693 Joints.
28.471 General. 23.697 Wing flap controls.
23.473 Ground load conditions and as 23.699 Wing flap position indicator.
Sumptions. 23.701 Flap interconnection.
23.477 Landing gear arrangement. LANDING GEAR
23.479 Level landing conditions.
28.481 Tail down landing conditions. 23.723 Shock absorption tests.
23.483 One-wheel landing conditions. 23.725 Limit drop tests.
23.485 Side load conditions. 23.726 Ground load dynamic tests.
23.493 Braked roll conditions. 23.727 Reserve energy absorption drop test.
23.497 Supplementary conditions for tail 23.729 Retracting mechanism.
Wheels. 23.731 Wheels.
23.499 Supplementary conditions for nose 23.733 Tires.
Wheels. 23.735 Brakes.
23.505 Supplementary conditions for ski 23.737 Skis.
planes. FLOATS AND HULLS
23.507 Jacking loads.
23.509 Towing loads. 23.751 Main float buoyancy.
23.511 Ground load; unsymmetrical loads 23.753 Main float design.
23.755 Hulls.
on multiple-wheel units.
23.757 Auxiliary floats.
WATER LoADS
PERSONNEL AND CARGO ACCOMMODATIONs
23.521 Water load conditions.
23.771 Pilot compartment.
EMERGENCY LANDING CONDITIONS
23.773 Pilot compartment view.
23.561 General. 23.775 Windshields and Windows.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration Part 23

OIL SYSTEM
23.777 Cockpit controls. Sec.
23.779 Motion and effect of cockpit con 23.1011 General.
trols. - 23.1013 Oil tanks.
23.781 Cockpit control knob shape. 23.1015 Oil tank tests.
23.783 DOOrs. 23.1017 Oil lines and fittings.
23.785 Seats and berths. 23.1019 Oil strainer or filter.
23.787 Cargo compartments. 23.1021 Oil system drains.
23.807 Emergency exits. 23.1023 Oil radiators.
23.831 Ventilation. 23.1027 Propeller feathering system.
PRESSURIZATION COOLING
23.1041 General.
23.841 Pressurized cabins.
23.843 Pressurization tests. 23.1043 Cooling tests.
23.1045 Cooling test procedures for turbine
FIRE PROTECTION engine powered airplanes.
23.853 Compartment interiors. 23.1047 Cooling test procedures for recipro
23.859 Combustion heater fire protection. cating engine power airplanes.
23.865 Fire protection of flight controls and LIQUID Cool.ING
other flight structures.
23.1061 Installation.
LIGHTNING EVALUATION 23.1063 Coolant tank tests.
23.867 Lightning protection of structure. INDUCTION SYSTEM
MISCELLANEOUS 23.1091 Air induction.
28.871 Leveling means. 23.1093 Induction system icing protection.
23.1095 Carburetor deicing fluid flow rate.
Subpart E-Powerplant 23.1097 Carburetor deicing fluid system
GENERAL capacity.
23.1099 Carburetor deicing fluid system de
23.901 Installation. tail design.
23.903 Engines. 23.1101 Carburetor air preheater design.
23.905 Propellers. 23.1103 Induction system ducts.
23.907 Propeller vibration. 23.1105 Induction system screens.
23.909 Turbosuperchargers. 23.1111 Turbine engine bleed air system.
23.925 Propeller clearance.
ExHAUST SYSTEM
23.929 Engine installation ice protection.
23.933 Reversing systems. 23.1121 General.
23.937 Turbopropeller-drag limiting sys 23.11.23 Exhaust manifold.
tems.
23.1125 Exhaust heat exchangers.
23.939 Powerplant operating characteris
tics. PowerPLANT ContRols AND AccEssoRIEs
FUEL SYSTEM 23.1141 Powerplant controls: general.
23.1143 Engine power and thrust, and su
23.951 General. percharger controls.
23.953 Fuel system independence. 23.1145 Ignition switches.
23.954 Fuel system lightning protection. 23.1147 Mixture controls.
23.955 Fuel flow.
23.1149 Propeller speed and pitch controls.
23.957 Flow between interconnected tanks. 23.1153 Propeller feathering controls.
23.959 Unusable fuel suppy. 23.1155 Turbine engine reverse thrust and
23.961 Fuel system hot weather operation. propeller pitch settings below the
23.963 Fuel tanks: general. flight regime.
23.965 Fuel tank test8. 23.1157 Carburetor air temperature controls.
23.967 Fuel tank installation. 23.1163 Powerplant accessories.
23.969 Fuel tank expansion space. 23.1165 Engine ignition systems.
23.971 Fuel tank Sump.
23.973 Fuel tank filler connection. PowerPLANT FIRE PROTECTION
23.975 Fuel tank vents and carburetor 23.1182 Nacelle areas behind firewalls.
vapor vents. 23.1183 Lines and fittings and components.
23.977 Fuel tank outlet. 23.1189 Shutoff means.
23.979 Pressure fueling systems. 23.1191 Firewalls.
FUEL SYSTEM CoMPONENTS 23.1192 Engine accessory compartment dia
phragm.
23.991 Fuel pumps. 23.1193 Cowling.
23.993 Fuel system lines and fittings.
23.994 Fuel system components. Subpart F-Equipment
23.995 Fuel Valves and controls. GENERAL
23.997 Fuel strainer or filter.
23.999 Fuel system drains. 23.1301 Function and installation.
23.1001 Fuel jettisoning system. 23.1303 Flight and navigation instruments.

69
 Part 23 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
Sec. Sec.
23.1305 Powerplant instruments. 23.1507 Maneuvering speed.
23.1307 Miscellaneous equipment. 23.1511 Flap extended speed.
23.1309 Equipment systems and installa 23.1513 Minimum control speed.
tions. 23.1519 Weight and center of gravity.
23.1521 Powerplant limitations.
INSTRUMENTs: INSTALLATION 23.1523 Minimum flight crew.
23.1321 Arrangement and visibility. 23.1524 Maximum
figuration.passenger
g sea ting con -

23.1323 Airspeed indicating system.

23.1325 Static pressure system. 23.1525 Kinds of operation.
23.1327 Magnetic direction indicator. 23.1527 Maximum Operating altitude.
23.1329 Automatic pilot system. 23.1529 Maintenance manual.
23.1331 Instruments using a power supply.
23.1335 Flight director instrument. MARKINGS AND PLACARDs
23.1337 Powerplant instruments. 23.1541 General.
23.1543 Instrument markings: general.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMs AND Equiphºn't 23.1545 Airspeed indicator.
23.1351 General. 23.1547 Magnetic direction ind lcator.
23.1353 storage battery design and in 23.1549
Powerplant instruments.
stallation. 23.1551
Oil quantity indicator.
23.1357 Circuit protective devices. 23.1553
Fuel quantity indicator.
23.1361
23.1365
Master switch arrangement.
Electric cables and equipment.
23.1555
23.1557
º: markings.
11SCellaneous
23.1367 Sw1tches. ards markings and plac
23.1559
1.IGHTs
28.1561
9pºnsºlmitations placara.
Safety equipment.
23.1381 Instrument lights. 23.1563 Airspeed placards.
23.1383 Landing lights. 23.1567
Airplane
23.1385 Position light system installation, manualflight manual and
material. approved
ro

23.1387 Position light system dihedral

angles. AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUAL
23.1389 Position light distribution and in 23.1581 General.
tensities.
23.1391 Minimum intensities in the hori
23.1583
23.1585
3.; limitations,
Perating procedures.
zontal plane of forward and rear 23.1587 Performance information.
position lights. 23.1589 Loading information.
23.1393 Minimum intensities in any vertical
plane of forward and rear position APPENDIX A–SIMPLIFIED DESIGN LoAD CRITERIA
lights. Foh ConventroNAL, SINGLE-ENGINE AIR
23.1395 Maximum intensities in overlap *LANES OF 3,000 Pounds on LESS MAxIMUm
WEIGHT
ping beams of forward and rear
position lights. A23.1 General.
23.1397 Color specifications A23.3 Special symbols.
23.1899 Riding light. A23.5 Certification in more than one cate
23.1401 Anticollision light system. gory.
SAFETY EquTPMENT
A23.7 Fº: loads.
A23.9 Flight conditions.
23.1411 Accessibility. A23.11 Control surface loads.
23.1413 Safety belts and harnesses. A23.13 Control System loads.
23.1415 Ditching equipment.
23.1419 Ice protection. APPENDIX B-CoNTRol. SURFACE LoADINGs
B23.1 General.
MISCELLANEOUs EQUIPMENT
B23.11 Control surface loads.
23.1431 Electronic equipment.
23.1435 Hydraulic systems. APPENDIX C–Basic LANDING CoNDITIONs
23.1437 Accessories for multlengine air C23.1 Basic landing conditions.
planes.
23.1441 Oxygen equipment and supply. APPENDIx D—WHEEL SPIN-UP Loans
23.1443 Minimum mass flow of supple D23.1 Wheel spin-up loads.
mental oxygen.
23.1447 Equipment standards for oxygen
APPENDIX E–LIMITED WEIGHT CREDIT Fos
AIRPLANEs EQUIPPED WITH STANDBY Powra
dispensing units.
23.1449 Means for determining use of AUTHon.ITY: The provisions of this Part
oxygen. 23 issued under secs. 313, 601, 603, 72 Stat
752, 775; 49 U.S.C. 1354, 1421, 1423. -

Subpart G–Operating Limitations and

Information Source: The provisions of this Part 23
Contained in Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955,
23.1501 General. Dec. 18, 1964; 30 F.R. 258, Jan. 9, 1965, unless
23.1505 Airspeed limitations. otherwise noted.

70
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
SPECIAL FEDERAL REGULATIONS
SFAR–23
1. Applicability. An applicant is entitled
to a type certificate in the normal category
for a reciprocating or turbopropeller multi
engine powered small airplane that is to be
certificated to carry more than 10 occupants
and that is intended for use in operations
under Part 135 of the Federal Aviation Regu
lations if he shows compliance with the appli
cable requirements of Part 23 of the Federal
Aviation Regulations, as supplemented or
modified by the additional airworthiness re
quirements of this regulation.
2. References. Unless otherwise provided,
all references in this regulation to specific
Sections of Part 23 of the Federal Aviation
Regulations are those sections of Part 23 in
effect on March 30, 1967.
FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS
3. General. Compliance must be shown
with the applicable requirements of Subpart
B of Part 23 of the Federal Aviation Regula
tions in effect on March 30, 1967, as supple
mented or modified in sections 4 through 10
of this regulation.
PERFORMANCE
4. General. (a) Unless otherwise prescribed
in this regulation, compliance with each
applicable performance requirement in sec
tions 4 through 7 of this regulation must be
shown for ambient atmospheric conditions
and still air.
(b) The performance must correspond to
the propulsive thrust available under the
particular ambient atmospheric conditions
and the particular flight condition. The
available propulsive thrust must correspond
to engine power or thrust, not exceeding the
approved power or thrust less—
(1) Installation losses; and
(2) The power or equivalent thrust
absorbed by the accessories and services
appropriate to the particular ambient
atmospheric conditions and the particular
flight condition.
(c) Unless otherwise prescribed in this
regulation, the applicant must select the
takeoff, en route, and landing configurations
for the airplane.
(d) The airplane configuration may vary
with weight, altitude, and temperature, to
the extent they are compatible with the
operating procedures required by paragraph
(e) of this section.
(e) Unless otherwise prescribed in this
regulation, in determining the critical engine
inoperative takeoff performance, the acceler
ate-stop distance, takeoff distance, changes
in the airplane's configuration, speed, power,
and thrust, must be made in accordance
with procedures established by the appli
cant for operation in service.
(f) Procedures for the execution of balked
landings must be established by the appli
cant and included in the Airplane Flight
Manual.
71
Part 23
(g) The procedures established under
paragraphs (e) and (f) of this section
InuSt
(1) Be able to be consistently executed
in service by a crew of average skill;
(2) Use methods or devices that are safe
and reliable; and
(3) Include allowance for any time delays,
in the execution of the procedures, that may
reasonably be expected in service.
5. Takeoff— (a) General. The takeoff speeds
described in paragraph (b), the accelerate
stop distance described in paragraph (c),
and the takeoff distance described in para
graph (d), must be determined for—
(1) Each weight, altitude, and ambient
temperature within the operational limits
Selected by the applicant;
(2) The selected configuration for takeoff;
(3) The center of gravity in the most un
favorable position;
(4) The operating engine within approved
Operating limitation; and
(5) Takeoff data based on smooth, dry,
hard-surface runway.
(b) Takeoff speeds. (1) The decision speed
V1 is the calibrated airspeed on the ground
at Which, as a result of engine fallure or other
reasons, the pilot is assumed to have made a
decision to continue or discontinue the take
off. The speed Vi must be selected by the
applicant but may not be less than
(1) 1.10 Vsi;
(11) 1.10 Wiſc;
(iii) A speed that permits acceleration to
Vi and stop in accordance with paragraph
(c) allowing credit for an overrun distance
equal to that required to stop the airplane
from a ground speed of 35 knots utilizing
maximum braking; or
(iv) A speed at which the airplane can be
rotated for takeoff and shown to be adequate
to safely continue the takeoff, using normal
piloting skill, when the critical engine is
suddenly made inoperative.
(2) Other essential takeoff speeds neces
sary for safe operation of the airplane must
be determined and shown in the Airplane
Flight Manual.
(c) Accelerate-stop distance. (1) The ac
celerate-stop distance is the sum of the
distances necessary to—
(1) Accelerate the airplane from a stand
ing start to Vi; and
(11) Decelerate the airplane from v, to a
speed not greater than 85 knots, assuming
that in the case of engine failure, failure
of the critical engine is recognized by the
pilot at the speed V. The landing gear must
remain in the extended position and maxi
mum braking may be utilized during
deceleration.
(2) Means other than wheel brakes may
be used to determine the accelerate-stop dis
tance if that means is available with the
critical engine inoperative and—
(1) Is safe and reliable;
(ii) Is used so that consistent results can
be expected under normal operating condi
tions; and
Part 23 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(iii) Is such that exceptional skill is not
required to control the airplane.
(d) All engines operating takeoff distance.
The all engine operating takeoff distance is
the horizontal distance required to takeoff
and climb to a height of 50 feet above the
takeoff surface according to procedures in
FAR 23.51 (a).
(e) One-engine-inoperative takeoff. The
maximum weight must be determined for
each altitude and temperature within the
operational limits established for the air
plane, at which the airplane has takeoff
capability after fallure of the critical engine
at or above V1 determined in accordance
with paragraph (b) of this section. This
capability may be established—
(1) By demonstrating a measurably post
tive rate of climb with the airplane in the
takeoff configuration, landing gear extended;
or
(2) By demonstrating the capability of
maintaining flight after engine failure utiliz
ing procedures prescribed by the applicant.
6. Climb–(a) Landing climb: All-engines
operating. The maximum weight must be
determined with the airplane in the landing
configuration, for each altitude, and ambient
temperature within the operational limits
established for the airplane and with the
most unfavorable center of gravity and out
of-ground effect in free air, at which the
steady gradient of climb will not be less than
3.3 percent, with:
(1) The engines at the power that is avail
able 8 seconds after initiation of movement
of the power or thrust controls from the
minimum flight idle to the takeoff position.
(2) A climb speed not greater than the
approach speed established under section 7 of
this regulation and not less than the greater
of 1.05Mc or 1.10Vs1.
(b) En route climb, one-engine-inopera
tive. (1) the maximum weight must be de
termined with the airplane in the en route
configuration, the critical engine inoperative,
the remaining engine at not more than
maximum continuous power or thrust, and
the most unfavorable center of gravity, at
which the gradient at climb will be not less
than—
(1) 1.2 percent (or a gradient equivalent
to 0.02Vso”, if greater) at 5,000 feet and an
ambient temperature of 41° F.; or
(ii) 0.6 percent (or a gradient equivalent
to 0.01 Vso”, if greater) at 5,000 feet and
ambient temperature of 81° F.
(2) The minimum climb gradient speci
fled in subdivisions (1) and (ii) of subpara
graph (1) of this paragraph must vary
linearly beween 41° F. and 81* F. and must
change at the same rate up to the maximum
operational temperature approved for the
airplane.
7. Landing. The landing distance must be
determined for standard atmosphere at each
welght and altitude in accordance with FAR
23.75(a), except that instead of the gliding
approach specified in FAR 23.75(a)(1), the
landing may be preceded by a steady ap
72
proach down to the 50-foot height at a gradi
ent of descent not greater than 5.2 percent
(3°) at a calibrated airspeed not less than
1.3s.
TRIM
8. Trim—(a) Lateral and directional trim.
The airplane must maintain lateral and
directional trim in level flight at a speed of
Vn or Vuo/Mao, whichever is lower, with
landing gear and wing flaps retracted.
(b) Longitudinal trim. The airplane must
maintain longitudinal trim during the fol
lowing conditions, except that it need not
maintain trim at a speed greater than
VMo/Maſo:
(1) In the approach conditions specified
in FAR 23.161 (c) (3) through (5), except
that instead of the speeds specified therein,
trim must be maintained with a stick force
of not more than 10 pounds down to a speed
used in showing compliance with section 7
of this regulation or 1.4Vs, whichever is
lower.
(2) In level flight at any speed from Vn or
Vuo/M wo, whichever is lower, to either Wr ol
1.4Vsi, with the landing gear and wing flaps
retracted.
STABILITY
9. Static longitudinal stability. (a)
In
showing compliance with the provisions of
FAR 23.175(b) and with paragraph (b) of
this section, the airspeed must return to
within + 7% percent of the trim speed.
(b) Cruise stability. The stick force curve
must have a stable slope for a speed range of
+50 knots from the trim speed except that
the speeds need not exceed VrcyMro or be
less than 1.4Vs. This speed range will be
considered to begin at the outer extremes
of the friction band and the stick force mav
not exceed 50 pounds with— -
(1) Landing gear retracted;
(ii) Wing flaps retracted;
(111) The maximum cruising power as
selected by the applicant as an operating
limitation for turbine engines or 75 percent
of maximum continuous power for recipro
cating engines except that the power need
not exceed that required at Vuo/Myo;
(iv) Maximum takeoff weight; and
(v) The airplane trimmed for level flight
with the power specified in subparagraph
(iii) of this paragraph.
Vrcſ/Mpc may not be less than a speed mid
way between Vuo/Muo and Vor/Mor, except
that, for altitudes where Mach number is
the limiting factor, Mro need not exceed
the Mach number at which effective speed
warning occurs.
(c) Climb stability. For turbopropeller
powered airplanes only. In showing compli
ance with FAR 23.175(a), an applicant must
in lieu of the power specified in FAR 23.175
(a)(4), use the maximum power or thrust
selected by the applicant as an operating
limitation for use during climb at the best
rate of climb speed except that the speed
need not be less than 1.4Vsi.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
STALLs
10. Stall warning. If artificial stall warn
ing is required to comply with the require
ments of FAR 23.207, the warning device
must give clearly distinguishable indications
under expected conditions of flight. The use
of a visual warning device that requires the
attention of the crew within the cockpit is
not acceptable by itself.
CONTROL SYSTEMS
11. Electric trim tabs. The airplane must
meet the requirements of FAR 23.677 and in
addition it must be shown that the airplane
is safely controllable and that a pilot can
perform all the maneuvers and operations
necessary to effect a safe landing following
any probable electric trim tab runaway
which might be reasonably expected in serv
ice allowing for appropriate time delay after
pilot recognition of the runaway. This
demonstration must be conducted at the
critical airplane weights and center of grav
ity positions.
INSTRUMENTS: INSTALLATION
12. Arrangement and visibility. Each in
strument must meet the requirements of
FAR 23.1321 and in addition—
(a) Each flight, navigation, and power
plant instrument for use by any pilot must
be plainly visible to him from his station
with the minimum practicable deviation
from his normal position and line of vision
when he is looking forward along the flight
Path.
(b) The flight instruments required by
FAR 23.1303 and by the applicable operating
rules must be grouped on the instrument
panel and centered as nearly as practicable
about the vertical plane of each pilot's for
ward vision. In addition—
(1) The instrument that most effectively
indicates the attitude must be on the panel
in the top center position;
(2) The instrument that most effectively
indicates airspeed must be adjacent to and
directly to the left of the instrument in the
top center position;
(3) The instrument that most effectively
indicates altitude must be adjacent to and
directly to the right of the instrument in
the top center position; and
(4) The instrument that most effectively
indicates direction of flight must be adjacent
to and directly below the instrument in the
top center position.
13. Airspeed indicating system. Each air
speed indicating system must meet the re
quirements of FAR 23.1323 and in addition—
(a) Airspeed indicating instruments must
be of an approved type and must be call
brated to indicate true airspeed at sea level
in the standard atmosphere with a minimum
practicable instrument calibration error
when the corresponding pllot and static pres
sures are supplied to the instruments.
(b) The airspeed indicating system must
be calibrated to determine the system
error, i.e., the relation between LAS and CAS,
39–059–75—6
73
Port 23
in flight and during the accelerate takeoff
ground run. The ground run calibration
Inust be obtained between 0.8 of the mini
mum value of V1 and 1.2 times the maximum
value of V1, considering the approved ranges
of altitude and weight. The ground run cali
bration will be determined assuming an en
gine fallure at the minimum value of V1.
(c) The airspeed error of the installation
excluding the instrument calibration error,
must not exceed 3 percent or 5 knots which
ever is greater, throughout the speed range
from Viſo to 1.3S, with flaps retracted and
from 1.3VSo to Vrh with flaps in the landing
position.
(d) Information showing the relationship
between IAS and CAS must be shown in
the Airplane Flight Manual.
14. Static atr vent system. The static air
vent system must meet the requirements of
FAR 23.1325. The altimeter system calibra
tion must be determined and shown in the
Airplane Flight Manual.
OPERATING LIMITATION's AND INFORMATION
15. Marimum operating limit speed Vuo/
Muo. Instead of establishing operating limi
tations based on Vs s and Vso, the applicant
must establish a maximum operating limit
speed Vuo/M wo in accordance with the
following:
(a) The maximum operating limit speed
must not exceed the design cruising speed
Vc and must be sufficiently below WD/Md or
Vorſ M or to make it highly improbable that
the latter speeds will be inadvertently ex
ceeded in flight.
(b) The speed Vºo must not exceed
0.8VD/Md or 0.8VDr/Mdy unless flight demon
strations involving upsets as specified by the
Administrator indicates a lower speed margin
will not result in speeds exceeding VD/Mo or
VDr. Atmospheric variations, horizontal gusts,
and equipment errors, and airframe produc
tion variations will be taken into account.
16. Minimum flight crew. In addition to
meeting the requirements of FAR 23.1523,
the applicant must establish the minimum
number and type of qualified flight crew
personnel sufficient for safe operation of
the airplane considering—
(a) Each kind of operation for which the
applicant desires approval;
(b) The workload on each crewmember
considering the following:
(1) Flight path control.
(2) Collision avoidance.
(3) Navigation.
(4) Communications.
(5) Operation and monitoring of all essen
tial aircraft systems.
(6) Command decisions; and
(c) The accessibility and ease of opera
tion of necessary controls by the appropri
ate crewmember during all normal and
emergency operations when at his flight
station.
17. Airspeed indicator. The airspeed indi
cator must meet the requirements of FAR
23.1545 except that, the airspeed notations
Part 23 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
and markings in terms of Wyo and Vra must
be replaced by the VMo/M wo notations. The
airspeed indicator markings must be easily
read and understood by the pllot. A placard
adjacent to the alrspeed indicator is an
acceptable means of showing compliance
with the requirements of FAR 23.1545(c).
AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUAL
18. General. The Airplane Flight Manual
must be prepared in accordance with the re
quirements of FARs 23.1583 and 23.1587, and
in addition the operating limitations and
performance information set forth in sec
tions 19 and 20 must be included.
19. Operating limitations. The Airplane
Flight Manual must include the following
limitations—
(a) Airspeed limitations. (1) The maxi
mum operating limit speed Vuo/M wo and a
statement that this speed limit may not be
deliberately exceeded in any regime of flight
(climb, cruise, or descent) unless a higher
speed is authorized for flight test or pilot
training;
(2) If an airspeed limitation is based upon
compressibility effects, a statement to this
effect and information as to any symptoms,
the probable behavior of the airplane, and
the recommended recovery procedures; and
(3) The airspeed limits, shown in terms of
VMo/M wo instead of Vyo and VN s.
(b) Takeoff weight limitations. The maxi
mum takeoff weight for each airport eleva
tion, ambient temperature, and available
takeoff runway length within the range
selected by the applicant. This weight may
not exceed the weight at which:
(1) The all-engine operating takeoff dis
tance determined in accordance With Section
5(d) or the accelerate-stop distance deter
mined in accordance with sectlon 5(c),
which ever is greater, is equal to the avail
able runway length;
(2) The airplane complies with the one
engine-inoperative takeoff requirements
specified in § 5(e); and
(3) The airplane complies with the one
engine-inoperative en route climb require
ments specified in § 6(b), assuming that a
standard temperature lapse rate exists from
the airport elevation to the altitude of 5,000
feet, except that the weight may not exceed
that corresponding to a temperature of 41."
F. at 5,000 feet.
20. Performance information. The Airplane
Flight Manual must contain the perform
ance information determined in accordance
with the provisions of the performance re
quirements of this regulation. The informa
tion must include the following:
(a) Sufficient information so that the
takeoff weight limits specified in § 19(b)
can be determined for all temperatures and
altitudes within the operation limitations
selected by the applicant.
(b) The conditions under which the
performance information was obtained, in
cluding the airspeed at the 50-foot height
used to determine landing distances.
74
(c) The performance information (deter
mined by extrapolation and computed for
the range of weights between the maximum
landing and takeoff weights) for—
(1) Climb in the landing configuration;
and
(2) Landing distance.
(d) Procedure established under section
4 of this regulation related to the limita
tions and information required by this
section in the form of guidance material
including any relevant limitations or
information.
(e) An explanation of significant or un
usual flight or ground handling character
1stics of the airplane.
(f) Airspeeds, as indicated airs -
Corresponding to those determined for take
off in accordance with section 5(b).
21. Mazimum operating altitudes. The
maximum operating altitude to which opera
tion is permitted, as limited by flight, struc
tural, powerplant, functional, or equipment
characteristics, must be specified in the Air
plane Flight Manual.
22. Stowage provision for Airplane Flight
Manual. Provision must be made for stow
ing the Airplane Flight Manual in a suitable
fixed container which is readily accessible
to the pilot.
23. Operating procedures. Procedures for
restarting turbine engines in flight (including
the effects of altitude) must be set forth in
the Airplane Flight Manual.
AIRFRAME REQUIREMENTs
FLIGHT LOADs
24. Engine torque. (a) Each turbopro
peller engine mount and its supporting struc
ture must be designed for the torque effects
of—
(1) The conditions set forth in FAR 23.-
361 (a).
(2) The limit engine torque correspond
ing to takeoff power and propeller speed,
multiplied by a factor accounting for pro
peller control system malfunction, including
quick feathering action, simultaneously with
19 level flight loads. In the absence of a ra
tional analysis, a factor of 1.6 must be used.
(b) The limit torque is obtained by mul
tiplying the mean torque by a factor of 1.25.
25. Turbine engine gyroscopic loads. Each
turbopropeller engine mount and its support
ing structure must be designed for the gyro
scopic loads that result, with the engines at
maximum continuous r.p.m., under either—
(a) The conditions prescribed in FARs
23.351 and 23.423; or
(b) All possible combinations of the fol
lowing:
(1) A yaw velocity of 2.5 radius per second.
(2) A pitch velocity of 1.0 radians per
Second.
(3) A normal load factor of 2.5
(4) Maximum continuous thrust.
26. Unsymmetrical loads due to engine fail
ture. (a) Turbopropeller powered airplanes
must be designed for the unsymmetrical
loads resulting from the failure of the criti
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
cal engine including the following condi
tions in combination with a single malfunc
tion of the propeller drag limiting system,
considering the probable pilot corrective
action on the flight controls.
(1) At speeds between Vine and Vd, the
loads resulting from power failure because
of fuel flow interruption are considered to
be limit loads.
(2) At speeds between Vmo and We, the
loads resulting from the disconnection of
the engine compressor from the turbine or
from loss of the turbine blades are considered
to be ultimate loads.
(3) The time history of the thrust decay
and drag buildup occurring as a result of the
prescribed engine failures must be substan
tiated by test or other data applicable to the
particular engine-propeller combination.
(4) The timing and magnitude of the
probable pilot corective action must be con
servatively estimated, considering the char
acteristics of the particular engine-propeller
airplane combination.
(b) Pilot corrective action may be as
sumed to be initiated at the time maximum
yawing velocity is reached, but not earlier
than two seconds after the engine fallure.
The magnitude of the corrective action may
be based on the control forces specified in
FAR 23.397 except that lower forces may be
assumed where it is shown by analysis or test
that these forces can control the yaw and roll
resulting from the prescribed engine failure
conditions.
GROUND LOADS
27. Dual wheel landing gear units. Each
dual wheel landing gear unit and lts support
ing structure must be shown to comply with
the following:
(a) Pivoting. The airplane must be as
sumed to pivot about one side of the main
gear with the brakes on that side locked. The
limit vertical load factor must be 1.0 and the
coefficient of friction 0.8. This condition need
apply only to the main gear and its support
ing structure.
(b) Unequal tire inflation. A 60–40 per
cent distribution of the loads established 1n
accordance with FAR 23.471 through FAR
23.483 must be applied to the dual wheels.
(c) Flat tire. (1) Sixty percent of the
loads specified in FAR 23.471 through FAR
23.483 must be applied to either wheel in a
unit.
(2) sixty percent of the limit drag and
side loads and 100 percent of the limit vertl
cal load established in accordance with FARs
23.493 and 23.485 must be applied to either
wheel in a unit except that the vertical load
need not exceed the maximum vertical load
in paragraph (c) (1) of this section.
FATIGUE EVALUATION
28. Fatigue evaluation of wing and asso
ciated structure. Unless it is shown that the
structure, operating stress levels, materials,
and expected use are comparable from a fa
75
Part 23
tigue standpoint to a similar design which
has had substantial satisfactory service expe
rience, the strength, detail design, and the
fabrication of those parts of the wing, wing
carrythrough, and attaching structure whose
failure would be catastrophic must be evalu
ated under either—
(a) A fatigue strength investigation in
which the structure is shown by analysis,
tests, or both to be able to withstand the
repeated loads of variable magnitude ex
pected in service; or
(b) A fail-safe strength investigation in
which it is shown by analysis, tests, or both
that catastrophic failure of the structure is
not probable after fatigue, or obvious partial
failure, of a principal structural element,
and that the remaining structure is able
to withstand a static ultimate load factor
of 75 percent of the critical limit load fac
tor at Vc. These loads must be multiplied
by a factor of 1.15 unless the dynamic effects
of failure under Static load are otherwise
considered.
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
29. Flutter. For Multiengine turbopropeller
powered alrplanes, a dynamic evaluation
must be made and must include—
(a) The significant elastic, inertia, and
aerodynamic forces associated with the rota
tions and displacements of the plane of the
propeller; and
(b) Engine-propeller-nacelle stiffness and
damping variations appropriate to the par
ticular configuration.
LANDING GEAR
80. Flap operated landing gear warning
device. Airplanes having retractable landing
gear and wing flaps must be equipped with a
warning device that functions continuously
when the wing flaps are extended to a flap
position that activates the warning device to
give adequate warning before landing, using
normal landing procedures, if the landing
gear is not fully extended and locked. There
may not be a manual shut off for this warn
ing device. The flap position sensing unit
may be installed at any suitable location. The
system for this device may use any part of
the system (including the aural warning de
vice) provided for other landing gear warning
devices.
PERSONNEL AND CARGO Accom MoDATIONs
31. Cargo and baggage compartments.
Cargo and baggage compartments must be
designed to meet the requirements of FAR
23.787 (a) and (b), and in addition means
must be provided to protect passengers from
injury by the contents of any cargo or bag
gage compartment when the ultimate for
ward inertia force is 99.
32. Doors and exits. The airplane must
meet the requirements of FAR 23.783 and
FAR 23.807 (a) (3), (b), and (c), and in
addition:
(a) There must be a means to lock and
safeguard each external door and exit against
Part 23 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
opening in flight either inadvertently by
persons, or as a result of mechanical failure.
Each external door must be operable from
both the inside and the Outside.
(b) There must be means for direct visual
inspection of the locking mechanism by
crewmembers to determine whether external
doors and exits, for which the linitial opening
movement is outward, are fully locked. In
addition, there must be a visual means to sig
nal to crewmembers when normally used
external doors are closed and fully locked.
(c) The passenger entrance door must
qualify as a floor level emergency exit. Each
additional required emergency exit except
fidor level exits must be located over the wing
or must be provided with acceptable means
to assist the occupants in descending to the
ground. In addition to the passenger en
trance door:
(1) For a total seating capacity of 15 or
less, an emergency exit as defined in FAR
23.807 (b) is required on each side of the
cabin.
(2) For a total seating capacity of 16
through 23, three emergency exits as defined
in 23.807 (b) are required with one on the
same side as the door and two on the slde op
posite the door."
(d) An evacuation demonstration must be
conducted utilizing the maximum number
of occupants for which certification is de
sired. It must be conducted under simulated
night conditions utilizing only the emer
gency exits on the most critical side of the
aircraft. The participants must be represen
tative of average airline passengers with no
prior practice or rehearsal for the demonstra
tion. Evacuation must be completed within .
90 seconds.
(e) Each emergency exit must be marked
with the word “Exit” by a sign which has
white letters 1 inch high on a red background
2 inches high, be self-illuminated or inde
pendently internally electrically illuminated,
and have a minimum luminescence (bright
ness) of at least 160 microlamberts. The
colors may be reversed if the passenger com
partment illumination is essentially the
sanne.
(f) Access to window type emergency
exists must not be obstructed by seats or
seat backs.
(g) The width of the main passenger aisle
at any point between seats must equal or
exceeds the values in the following table.
Minimum main passenger
aisle width
Total seating capacity
Less than 25 25 inches and
inches from more from
floor floor
10 through 23----------- 9 inches------- 15 inches.
MISCELLANEOUS
33 Lightning strike protection. Parts that
are electrically insulated from the basic air
frame must be connected to it through light
A
i
ning arrestors unless a lightning strike on
the insulated part—
(a) Is improbable because of shielding by
other parts; or
(b) Is not hazardous.
34. Ice protection. If certification with ice
protection provisions is desired, compliance
With the following requirements must be
shown:
(a) The recommended procedures for the
use of the ice protection equipment must be
set forth in the Airplane Flight Manual.
(b) An analysis must be performed to es
tablish, on the basis of the airplane's opera
tional needs, the adequacy of the ice pro
tection system for the various components
of the airplane. In addition, tests of the ice
protection system must be conducted to
demonstrate that the airplane is capable of
operating safely in continuous maximum
and intermittent maximum icing conditions
as described in FAR 25, Appendix C.
(c) Compliance with all or portions of this
section may be accomplished by reference,
where applicable because of similarity of
the designs, to analysis and tests performed
by the applicant for a type certificated model.
35. Maintenance information. The appli
cant must make available to the owner at
the time of delivery of the airplane the in
formation he considers essential for the
proper maintenance of the airplane. That
information must include the following:
(a) Description of systems, including elec
trical, hydraulic, and fuel controls.
(b) Lubrication instructions setting forth
the frequency and the lubricants and fluids
which are to be used in the various systems.
(c) Pressures and electrical loads appli
cable to the various systems.
(d) Tolerances and adjustments necessary
for proper functioning.
(e) Methods of leveling, raising, and
towing.
(f) Methods of balancing control surfaces.
(g) Identification of primary and second
ary structures.
(h) Frequency and extent of inspections
necessary to the proper operation of the
airplane.
(1) Special repair methods applicable to
the airplane.
(j) Special inspection techniques, includ
1ng those that require X-ray, ultrasonic, and
magnetic particle inspection.
(k) List of special tools.
ProPULSION
GENERAL
36. Vibration characteristics. For turbo
propeller powered airplanes, the engine in
stallation must not result in vibration char
acteristics of the engine exceeding those
established during the type certification of
the engine.
37. In-flight restarting of engine. If the
engine on turbopropeller powered airplanes
cannot be restarted at the maximum cruise
altitude, a determination must be made of
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
the altitude below which restarts can be con
sistently accomplished. Restart information
must be provided in the Airplane Flight
Manual.
38. Engines—(a) For turbopropeller pow
ered airplanes. The engine installation must
comply with the following requirements:
(1) Engine isolation. The powerplants
must be arranged and isolated from each
other to allow operation, in at least one con
figuration, so that the failure or malfunc
tion of any engine, or of any system that
can affect the engine, will not—
(1) Prevent the continued safe operation
of the remaining engines; or
(ii) Require immediate action by any
crewmember for continued safe operation.
(2) Control of engine rotation. There must
be a means to individually stop and restart
the rotation of any engine in flight except
that engine rotation need not be stopped if
continued rotation could not jeopardize the
safety of the airplane. Each component of
the stopping and restarting system on the
engine side of the firewall, and that might
be exposed to fire, must be at least fire resist
ant. If hydraulic propeller feathering systems
are used for this purpose, the feathering lines
must be at least fire resistant under the
operating conditions that may be expected
to exist during feathering.
(3) Engine speed and gas temperature
control devices. The powerplant systems as
sociated with engine control devices, systems,
and instrumentation must provide reason
able assurance that those engine operating
limitations that adversely affect turbine rotor
structural integrity will not be exceeded in
Service.
(b) For reciprocating-engine powered air
planes. To provide engine isolation, the
powerplants must be arranged and isolated
from each other to allow operation, in at
least one configuration, so that the failure
or malfunction of any engine, or of any sys
tem that can affect that engine, will not—
(1) Prevent the continued safe operation
of the remaining engines; or
(2) Require immediate action by any
crewmember for continued safe operation.
39. Turbopropeller reversing systems. (a)
Turbopropeller reversing systems intended
for ground operation must be designed so
that no single failure or malfunction of the
system will result in unwanted reverse
thrust under any expected operating condi
tion. Failure of structural elements need not
be considered if the probability of this kind
of failure is extremely remote.
(b) Turbopropeller reversing systems in
tended for in-flight use must be designed so
that no unsafe condition will result during
normal operation of the system, or from
any failure (or reasonably likely combination
of failures) of the reversing system, under
any anticipated condition of operation of the
airplane. Failure of structural elements need
not be considered if the probability of this
kind of failure is extremely remote.
77
Part 23
(c) Compliance with this section may be
shown by failure analysis, testing, or both for
propeller systems that allow propeller blades
to move from the filght low-pitch position to
a position that is substantially less than that
at the normal flight low-pitch stop position.
The analysis may include or be supported by
the analysis made to show compliance with
the type certification of the propeller and as
sociated installation components. Credit will
be given for pertinent analysis and testing
completed by the engine and propeller manu
facturers.
40. Turbopropeller drag-limiting systems.
Turbopropeller drag-limiting systems must
be designed so that no single failure or mal
function of any of the systems during nor
mal or emergency operation results in propel
ler drag in excess of that for which the air
plane was designed. Failure of structural
elements of the drag-limiting systems need
not be considered if the probability of this
kind of failure is extremely remote.
41. Turbine engine powerplant operating
characteristics. For turbopropeller powered
airplanes, the turbine engine powerplant
operating characteristics must be investi
gated in flight to determine that no adverse
characteristics (such as stall, surge, or flame
out) are present to a hazardous degree, dur
ing normal and emergency operation within
the range of operating limitations of the air
plane and of the engine.
42. Fuel flow. (a) For turbopropeller pow
ered airplanes—
(1) The fuel system must provide for con
tinuous supply of fuel to the engines for
normal operation without interruption due
to depletion of fuel in any tank other than
the main tank; and
(2) The fuel flow rate for turbopropeller
engine fuel pump systems must not be less
than 125 percent of the fuel flow required
to develop the standard sea level atmospheric
conditions takeoff power selected and in
cluded as an operating limitation in the Air
plane Flight Manual.
(b) For reciprocating engine powered air
planes, it is acceptable for the fuel flow rate
for each pump system (main and reserve sup
ply) to be 125 percent of the takeoff fuel con
sumption of the engine.
FuR.L SYSTEM CoMPONENTS
43. Fuel pumps. For turbopropeller pow
ered airplanes, a reliable and independent
power source must be provided for each pump
used with turbine engines which do not have
provisions for mechanically driving the main
pumps. It must be demonstrated that the
pump installations provide a reliability and
durability equivalent to that provided by
FAR 23.991 (a).
44. Fuel strainer or filter. For turbo
propeller powered airplanes, the following
apply:
(a) There must be a fuel strainer or filter
between the tank outlet and the fuel meter
Port 23 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
ing device of the engine. In addition, the fuel
strainer or filter must be—
(1) Between the tank outlet and the
engine-driven positive displacement pump
inlet, if there is an engine-driven positive
displacement pump;
(2) Accessible for drainage and cleaning
and, for the strainer screen, easily removable;
and
(3) Mounted so that its weight is not sup
ported by the connecting lines or by the Inlet
or Outlet connections of the strainer or filter
itself.
(b) Unless there are means in the fuel
system to prevent the accumulation of ice on
the filter, there must be means to auto
matically maintain the fuel flow if ice-clog
ging of the filter occurs; and
(c) The fuel strainer or filter must be
of adequate capacity (with respect to operat
ing limitations established to insure proper
service) and of appropriate mesh to insure
proper engine operation, with the fuel con
taminated to a degree (with respect to
particle size and density) that can be rea
sonably expected in service. The degree of
fuel filtering may not be less than that estab
lished for the engine type certification.
45. Lightning strike protection. Protection
must be provided against the ignition of
flammable vapors in the fuel vent system
due to lightning strikes.
Cool.ING
46. Cooling test procedures for turbo
propeller powered airplanes. (a) Turbo
propeller powered airplanes must be shown
to comply with the requirements of FAR
23.1041 during takeoff, climb en route, and
landing stages of flight that correspond to
the applicable performance requirements.
The cooling test must be conducted with
the airplane in the configuration and
operating under the conditions that are criti
cal relative to cooling during each stage of
flight. For the cooling tests a temperature is
“stabilized” when its rate of change is less
than 2° F. per minute.
(b) Temperatures must be stabilized
under the conditions from which entry is
made into each stage of flight being investi
gated unless the entry condition is not one
during which component and engine fluid
temperatures would stabilize, in which case,
operation through the full entry condition
must be conducted before entry into the
stage of flight being investigated in order to
allow temperatures to reach their natural
levels at the time of entry. The takeoff cool
ing test must be preceded by a period dur
Ing which the powerplant component and
engine fluid temperatures are stabilized with
the engines at ground idle.
(c) Cooling tests for each stage of flight
must be continued until—
(1) The component and engine fluid tem
peratures stabilize;
(2) The stage of flight is completed; or
(3) An operating limitation is reached.
INDUCTION SYSTEM
47. Air induction. For turbopropeller pow
ered airplanes—
(a) There must be means to prevent
hazardous quantities of fuel leakage or over
flow from drains, vents, or other components
of flammable fluid systems from entering the
engine intake system; and
(b) The air inlet ducts must be located or
protected so as to minimize the ingestion
of foreign matter during takeoff, landing,
and taxiing.
48. Induction system icing protection. For
turbopropeller powered airplanes, each tur
bine engine must be able to operate through
out its flight power range without adverse
effect on engine operation or serious loss of
power or thrust, under the icing conditions
specified in Appendix C of FAR 25. In addi
tion, there must be means to indicate to
appropriate flight crewmembers the func
tioning of the powerplant ice protection
system.
49. Turbine engine bleed air systems. Tur
bine engine bleed air systems of turbo
propeller powered airplanes must be in
vestigated to determine—
(a) That no hazard to the airplane will
result if a duct rupture occurs. This condi
tion must consider that a failure of the duct
can occur anywhere between the engine port
and the airplane bleed service; and
(b) That if the bleed air system is used
for direct cabin pressurization, it is not pos
sible for hazardous contamination of the
cabin air system to occur in event of lubrica
tion system failure.
ExHAUST SYSTEM
50. Erhaust system drains. Turbopropeller
engine exhaust systems having low spots or
pockets must incorporate drains at such loca
tions. These drains must discharge clear of
the airplane in normal and ground attitudes
to prevent the accumulation of fuel after the
failure of an attempted engine start.
PowerPLANT Controls AND ACCESSORIES
51. Engine controls. If throttles or power
levers for turbopropeller powered airplanes
are such that any position of these controls
will reduce the fuel flow to the engine(s)
below that necessary for satisfactory and safe
idle operation of the engine while the air
plane is in flight, a means must be provided
to prevent inadvertent movement of the
control into this position. The means pro
vided must incorporate a positive lock or stop
at this idle position and must require a
separate and distinct operation by the crew
to displace the control from the normal
engine operating range.
52. Reverse thrust controls. For turbo
propeller powered airplanes, the propeller
reverse thrust controls must have a means
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
to prevent their inadvertent operation. The
means must have a positive lock or stop at
the idle position and must require a sep
arate and distinct operation by the crew
to displace the control from the flight regime.
53. Engine ignition systems. Each turbo
propeller airplane ignition system must be
considered an essential electrical load.
54. Powerplant accessories. The power
plant accessories must meet the require
ments of FAR 23.1163, and if the continued
rotation of any accessory remotely driven
by the engine is hazardous when malfunc
tioning occurs, there must be means to pre
vent rotation without interfering with the
continued operation of the engine.
PowerPLANT FIRE PāorecTion
55. Fire detector system. For turbopropel
ler powered airplanes, the following apply:
(a) There must be a means that ensures
prompt detection of fire in the engine com
partment. An overtemperature switch in
each engine cooling air exit is an acceptable
method of meeting this requirement.
(b) Each fire detector must be constructed
and installed to withstand the vibration,
inertia, and other loads to which it may be
subjected in operation.
(c) No fire detector may be affected by any
oil, water, other fluids, or fumes that might
be present.
(d) There must be means to allow the
filght crew to check, in flight, the function
ing of each fire detector electric circuit.
(e) Wiring and other components of each
fire detector system in a fire zone must be
at least flre resistant.
56. Fire protection, cowling and nacelle
skin. For reciprocating engine powered air
planes, the engine cowling must be designed
and constructed so that no fire originating
in the engine compartment can enter, either
through openings or by burn through, any
other region where it would create additional
hazards.
57. Flammable fluid fire protection. If
flammable fluids or vapors might be liber
ated by the leakage of fluid systems in areas
other than engine compartments, there must
be means to—
(a) Prevent the ignition of those fluids or
vapors by any other equipment; or
(b) Control any fire resulting from that
ignition.
EQUIPMENT
58. Powerplant instruments. (a) The fol
lowing are required for turbopropeller air
planes:
(1) The instruments required by FAR
23.1305 (a) (1) through (4), (b) (2) and
(4).
(2) A gas temperature indicator for each
engine.
(8) Free air temperature indicator.
79
Port 23
(4) A fuel flowmeter indicator for each
engine.
(5) Oil pressure warning means for each
engine.
(6) A torque indicator or adequate means
for indicating power output for each engine.
(7) Fire warning indicator for each engine.
(8) A means to indicate when the pro
peller blade angle is below the low-pitch
position corresponding to idle operation in
flight.
(9) A means to indicate the functioning
of the ice protection system for each engine.
(b) For turbopropeller powered airplanes,
the turbopropeller blade position indicator
must begin indicating when the blade has
moved below the flight low-pitch position.
(c) The following instruments are re
quired for reciprocating-engine powered
airplanes:
(1) The instruments required by FAR
23.1305.
(2) A cylinder head temperature indi
cator for each engine.
(3) A manifold pressure indicator for
each engine.
SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENTS
Cºnrºad,
59. Function and installation. The systems
and equipment of the airplane must meet
the requirements of FAR 23.1301, and the
following:
(a) Each item of additional installed
equipment must—
(1) Be of a kind and design appropriate
to its intended function;
(2) Be labeled as to its identification,
function, or operating limitations, or any
applicable combination of these factors, un
less misuse or inadvertent actuation cannot
create a hazard;
(3) Be installed according to limitations
specified for that equipment; and
(4) Function properly when installed.
(b) Systems and installations must be
designed to safeguard against hazards to
the aircraft in the event of their malfunc
tion or failure.
(c) Where an installation, the functioning
of which is necessary in showing compli
ance with the applicable requirements, re
quires a power supply, such installation
must be considered an essential load on the
power supply, and the power sources and
the distribution system must be capable of
supplying the following power loads in
probable operation combinations and for
probable durations:
(1) All essential loads after failure of any
prime mover, power converter, or energy
storage device.
(2) All essential loads after failure of
any one engine on two-engine airplanes.
(3) In determining the probable opera
ting combinations and durations of essential
loads for the power failure conditions de
§ 23.1 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
scribed in subparagraphs (1) and (2) of
this paragraph, it is permissible to assume
that the power loads are reduced in ac
cordance with a monitoring procedure which
is consistent with safety in the types of
operations authorized.
60. Ventilation. The ventilation system of
the airplane must meet the requirements
of FAR 23.831, and in addition, for pressur
ized aircraft the ventilating air in flight
crew and passenger compartments must be
free of harmful or hazardous concentrations
of gases and vapors in normal operation and
in the event of reasonably probable failures
or malfunctioning of the ventilating, heat
ing, pressurization, or other systems, and
equipment. If accumulation of hazardous
quantitles of smoke in the cockpit area is
reasonably probable, smoke evacuation must
be readily accomplished.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMs AND Equipm ENT
61. General. The electrical systems and
equipment of the airplane must meet the
requirements of FAR 23.1351, and the fol
lowing:
(a) Electrical system capacity. The re
quired generating capacity, and number and
kinds of power sources must—
(1) Be determined by an electrical load
analysis, and
(2) Meet the requirements of FAR 23.1301.
(b) Generating system. The generating
system includes electrical power sources,
main power busses, transmission cables, and
associated control, regulation, and protec
tive devices. It must be designed so that—
(1) The system voltage and frequency (as
applicable) at the terminals of all essential
load equipment can be maintained within
the limits for which the equipment is de
sgned, during any probable operating con
ditions;
(2) System transients due to switching,
fault clearing, or other causes do not make
essential loads inoperative, and do not cause
a smoke or fire hazard;
(3) There are means, accessible in flight
to appropriate crewmembers, for the indi
vidual and collective disconnection of the
electrical power sources from the system;
and
(4) There are means to indicate to appro
priate crewmembers the generating system
quantities essential for the safe operation
of the system, including the voltage and
current supplied by each generator.
62. Electrical equipment and installation.
Electrical equipment, controls, and wiring
must be installed so that operation of any
one unit or system of units will not ad
versely affect the simultaneous operation of
any other electrical unit or system essential
to the safe operation.
63. Distribution system. (a) For the pur
pose of complying with this section, the
distribution system includes the distribution
80
busses, their associated feeders and each
control and protective device.
(b) Each system must be designed so that
essential load circuits can be supplied in
the event of reasonably probable faults or
open clnicuits, including faults in heavy
current carrying cables.
(c) If two independent sources of elec
trical power for particular equipment or
systems are required by this regulation, their
electrical energy supply must be insured by
means such as duplicate electrical equip
ment, throwover switching, or multichannel
or loop circuits separately routed.
64. Circuit protective devices. The circuit
protective devices for the electrical circuits
of the airplane must meet the requirements
of FAR 23.1357, and in addition circuits for
loads which are essential to safe operation
must have individual and exclusive circuit
protection.
[Doc. No. 8070, 34 F.R. 189, Jan. 7, 1969, as
amended by Amdt. SFAR 23–1, 34 F.R. 20176,
Dec. 24, 1969; 35 F.R. 1102, Jan. 28, 1970)
Subpart A–General
§ 23.1 Applicability.
(a) This part prescribes airworthiness
standards for the issue of type certifl
cates, and changes to those certificates,
for Small airplanes in the normal, utility,
and acrobatic categories that have a pas
senger seating configuration, excluding
pilot seats, of nine seats or less.
(b) Each person who applies under
Part 21 for such a certificate or change
must Show compliance with the ap
plicable requirements of this part.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 23–10, 36 F.R. 2864,
Feb. 11, 1971]
§ 23.3 Airplane categories.
(a) The normal category is limited
to airplanes intended for nonacrobatic
operation. Nonacrobatic operation in
cludes—
(1) Any maneuver incident to normal
flying;
(2) Stalls (except whip stalls); and
(3) Lazy eights, chandelles, and steep
turns, in which the angle of bank is
not more than 60 degrees.
(b) The utility category is limited to
airplanes intended for limited acrobatic
operation. Airplanes certificated in the
utility category may be used in any of
the operations covered under paragraph
(a) of this section and in limited acro
batic operations. Limited acrobatic op
eration includes—
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(1) Spins (if approved for the partic
ular type of airplane); and
(2) Lazy eights, chandelles, and steep
turns, in which the angle of bank is
more than 60 degrees.
(c) The acrobatic category is limited
to airplanes intended for use without re
strictions other than those shown to be
necessary as a result of required flight
tests.
(d) Small airplanes may be certifi
cated in more than one category if the
requirements of each requested category
are met.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 23–4, 82 F.R. 5984,
Apr. 14, 1967]
Subpart B–Flight
GENERAL
§ 23.21 Proof of compliance.
(a) Each requirement of this subpart
must be met at each appropriate com
bination of weight and center of gravity
within the range of loading conditions
for which certification is requested.
This must be shown—
(1) By tests upon an airplane of the
type for which certification is requested,
or by calculations based on, and equal
in accuracy to, the results of testing;
and
(2) By Systematic investigation of
each probable combination of weight and
Center of gravity, if compliance cannot
be reasonably inferred from combina
tions investigated.
(b) The following general tolerances
are allowed during flight testing. How
ever, greater tolerances may be allowed
in particular tests:
Item Tolerance
Weight ---------------- +5%, -10%.
Critical items affected
+5%, -1%.
+7% total travel.
§ 23.23 Load distribution limits.
Ranges of weights and centers of grav
ity within which the airplane may be
safely operated must be established.
If low fuel adversely affects balance or
Stability, the airplane must be tested
under conditions simulating those that
would exist when the amount of usable
fuel does not exceed one gallon for each
12 maximum continuous horsepower of
the engine or engines.
§ 23.25
§ 23.25 Weight limits.
(a) Marimum weight. The maximum
Weight is the highest weight at which
compliance with each applicable require
ment of this part (other than those com
plied with at the design landing Weight)
is shown. The maximum weight must be
established so that it is—
(1) Not more than—
(i) The highest weight selected by the
applicant;
(ii) The design maximum weight,
which is the highest weight at which
compliance with each applicable struc
tural loading condition of this part
(other than those complied with at the
design landing weight) is shown; or
(iii) The highest weight at which
compliance with each applicable flight
requirement is shown, except for air
planes equipped with standby power
rocket engines, in which case it is the
highest weight established in accordance
with Appendix E of this part; or
(2) Assuming a weight of 170 pounds
for each occupant of each seat for nor
mal category airplanes and 190 pounds
(unless otherwise placarded) for utility
and acrobatic category airplanes, not
less than the weight with—
(i) Each seat occupied, oil at full tank
capacity, and at least enough fuel for
one-half hour of Operation at rated
maximum continuous power; or
(ii) The required minimum crew, and
fuel and oil to full tank capacity.
(b) Minimum weight. The minimum
Weight (the lowest weight at which
compliance with each applicable re
quirement of this part is shown) must
be established so that it is not more than
the sum of—
(1) The empty weight determined
under § 23.29;
(2) The weight of the required mini
mum crew (assuming a weight of 170
pounds for each crewmember);
(3) The weight of the oil at full tank
Capacity; and
(4) The Weight of—
(i) For turbojet powered airplanes, 5
percent of the total fuel capacity of that
particular fuel tank arrangement under
investigation, and
(ii) For other airplanes, the fuel nec
essary for one-half hour of operation
at maximum continuous power.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13086,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.29 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 23.29 Empty weight and correspond
ing center of gravity.
(a) The empty weight and corre
sponding center of gravity must be de
termined by weighing the airplane
with—
(1) Fixed ballast;
(2) Unusable fuel determined under
§ 23.959;
(3) Undrainable oil (the oil remain
ing in the airplane while in the ground
attitude after drainage of all drainable
oil in that attitude);
(4) Engine coolant: and
(5) Hydraulic fluid.
(b) The condition of the airplane at
the time of determining empty weight
must be one that is well defined and can
be easily repeated.
§ 23.31 Removable ballast.
Removable ballast may be used in
showing compliance with the flight re
quirements of this subpart, if–
(a) The place for carrying ballast is
properly designed and installed, and is
marked under § 23.1557; and
(b) Instructions are included in the
airplane flight manual, approved manual
material, or markings and placards, for
the proper placement of the removable
ballast under each loading condition for
which removable ballast is necessary.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964;
30 F.R. 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt.
23–13, 37 F.R. 20023, Sept. 23, 1972]
§ 23.33 Propeller speed and pitch limits.
(a) General. The propeller speed and
pitch must be limited to values that will
assure safe operation under normal op
erating conditions.
(b) Propellers not controllable in
flight. For each propeller whose pitch
cannot be controlled in flight—
(1) During takeoff and initial climb
at Vr, the propeller must limit the en
gine r.p.m., at full throttle or at maxi
mum allowable takeoff manifold pres
Sure, to a Speed not greater than the
maximum allowable takeoff r.p.m.; and
(2) During a closed throttle glide at
the placarded “never-exceed speed”,
the propeller may not cause an engine
Speed above 110 percent of maximum
continuous speed.
(c) Controllable pitch propellers with
out constant speed controls. Each pro
peller that can be controlled in flight,
but that does not have constant speed
S2
controls, must have a means to limit the
pitch range so that—
(1) The lowest possible pitch allows
compliance with paragraph (b) (1) of
this section; and
(2) The highest possible pitch allows
compliance with paragraph (b)(2) of
this section.
(d) Controllable pitch propellers with
constant speed controls. Each control
lable pitch propeller with constant speed
controls must have—
(1) With the governor in operation,
a means at the governor to limit the
maximum engine Speed to the maximum
allowable takeoff r.p.m.; and
(2) With the governor inoperative, a
means to limit the maximum engine
speed to 103 percent of the maximum
allowable takeoff r.p.m. With the pro
peller blades at the lowest possible pitch
and with takeoff manifold pressure, the
airplane stationary, and no wind.
PERFORMANCE
§ 23.45 General.
Compliance with the performance re
quirements of this subpart must be
Shown for Still air With a Standard
atmosphere.
§ 23.49 Stalling speed.
(a) Vs, is the stalling speed, if obtain
able, or the minimum steady speed, in
knots (CAS), at which the airplane is
controllable, with the—
(1) Engines idling, throttles closed
(or at not more than the power necessary
for zero thrust at a speed not more than
110 percent of the stalling speed);
(2) Propellers in the takeoff position;
(3) Landing gear extended;
(4) Wing flaps in the landing position;
(5) Cowl flaps closed;
(6) Center of gravity in the most
unfavorable position within the allow
able landing range; and
(7) weight used when Vs, is being
used as a factor to determine compliance
with a required performance standard.
(b) Vs, at maximum weight may not
exceed 61 knots for—
(1) Single-engine airplanes; and
(2) Multiengine airplanes of 6,000
pounds or less maximum weight that
cannot meet the minimum rate of climb
specified in § 23.67 (b) with the critical
engine inoperative.
(c) Vs, is the calibrated stalling speed,
if obtainable, or the minimum steady
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
Speed, in knots, at which the airplane is
controllable, with the—
(1) Engines idling, throttles closed
(or at not more than the power necessary
for zero thrust at a Speed not more than
110 percent of the stalling speed);
(2) Propellers in the takeoff position:
(3) Airplane in the condition existing
In the test in which Vs, is being used;
and
(4) Weight used when Vs, is being
used as a factor to determine compliance
with a required performance standard.
(d) Vs, and Vs, must be determined
by flight tests, using the procedure spec
ified in § 23.201.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13086,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.51 Takeoff.
(a) For airplanes of more than 6,000
pounds maximum weight (except ski
planes for which landplane takeoff data
has been determined under this para
graph and furnished in the Airplane
Flight Manual) —
(1) The distance required to take off
and climb over a 50-foot obstacle must be
determined with—
(1) The engines operating within ap
proved operating limitations; and
(ii) The cowl flaps in the normal
takeoff position;
(2) Upon reaching a height of 50 feet
above the takeoff surface level, the air
plane must have reached a speed of not
less than—
(1) 1.3V, ; or
(ii) Any lesser speed, not less than Vr
plus 4 knots, that is shown to be safe
under any condition, including turbu
lence and complete engine failure;
(3) The starting point for measuring
Seaplane and amphibian takeoff distance
may be the point at which a speed of not
more than three knots is reached; and
(4) No takeoff made to determine the
data required by this section may require
exceptional piloting skill or exceptionally
favorable conditions.
(b) For airplanes of 6,000 pounds or
less maximum weight—
(1) The takeoff may not require ex
ceptional piloting skill;
(2) With takeoff power, there must be
enough elevator control—
(1) For a tail-wheel type airplane, to
maintain, at 0.8Vs, an attitude that will
83
§ 23.65
allow holding the airplane on the runway
until a safe takeoff speed is reached; and
(ii) For a nose-wheel type airplane to
raise the nose-wheel clear of the takeoff
Surface at 0.85 Vs,.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 FR 13086,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.65 Climb: all engines operating.
(a) For airplanes of more than 6,000
pounds maximum weight—
(1) Each airplane must have a steady
rate of climb at sea level of at least 300
feet per minute and a steady angle of
climb of at least 1: 12 for land planes
or 1:15 for seaplanes and amphibians
with—
(i) Not more than maximum contin
uous power on each engine;
(ii) The landing gear retracted;
(iii) The wing flaps in the takeoff po
Sition; and
(iv) The cowl flaps in the position
used in the cooling tests required by
§§ 23.1041 through 23.1047;
(2) Each airplane with engines for
which the takeoff and maximum contin
uous power ratings are identical and that
has fixed-pitch, two-position, or similar
propellers, may use a lower propeller
pitch setting than that allowed by
§ 23.33 to obtain rated engine r.p.m. at
Vr, if—
(i) The airplane shows marginal per
formance (such as when it can meet the
rate of climb requirements of paragraph
(a) (1) of this section but has difficulty
in meeting the angle of climb require
ments of paragraph (a)(1) of this Sec
tion or of § 23.77); and
(ii) Acceptable engine cooling is shown
at the lower speed associated with the
best angle of climb.
(b) Each airplane of 6,000 pounds or
less maximum weight must have a steady
rate of climb at Sea level of at least 300
feet per minute, or 11.5 V., (that is, the
number of feet per minute is obtained by
multiplying the number of knots by 11.5,
whichever is greater, with—
(1) Takeoff power;
(2) The landing gear extended;
(3) The wing flaps in the takeoff po
sition; and
(4) The cowl flaps in the position
used in the cooling tests required by
§§ 23.1041 through 23.1047.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 FR 13086,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.67 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 23.67 Climb: one engine inoperative.
(a) Each multiengine airplane of
more than 6,000 pounds maximum
weight must be able to maintain a steady
rate of climb of at least 0.027 V." (that
is, the number of feet per minute is ob
tained by multiplying the square of the
number of knots by 0.027 at an altitude of
5,000 feet With the
(1) Critical engine inoperative, and its
propeller in the minimum drag position;
(2) Remaining engines at not more
than maximum continuous power;
(3) Landing gear retracted:
(4) Wing flaps in the most favorable
position; and
(5) Cowl flaps in the position used in
the cooling tests required by §§ 23.1041
through 23.1047.
(b) For multiengine airplanes of
6,000 pounds or less maximum Weight,
the following apply:
(1) Each airplane with a V., of more
than 61 knots must be able to maintain
a Steady rate of climb of at least 0.027
Vs." (that is, the number of feet per
minute is obtained by multiplying the
square of the number of knots by 0.027),
at an altitude of 5,000 feet with the
(i) Critical engine inoperative and its
propeller in the minimum drag position;
(ii) Remaining engines at not more
than maximum continuous power;
(iii) Landing gear retracted;
(iv) Wing flaps in the most favorable
position; and
(v) Cowl flaps in the position used in
the cooling tests required by §§ 23.1041
through 23.1047.
(2) For each airplane with a stalling
speed of 61 knots or less, the steady rate
of climb at 5,000 feet must be determined
with the
(1) Critical engine inoperative and its
propeller in the minimum drag position:
(ii) Remaining engines at not more
than maximum continuous power;
(iii) Landing gear retracted;
(iv) Wing flaps in the most favorable
position; and
(v) Cowl flaps in the position used in
the cooling tests required by §§ 23.1041
through 23.1047.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13086,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.75 Landing.
(a) For airplanes of more than 6,000
pounds maximum weight (except ski
planes for which landplane landing data
84
have been determined under this para
graph and furnished in the Airplane
Flight Manual), the horizontal distance
required to land and come to a complete
stop (or to a speed of approximately
3 knots for seaplanes and amphibians)
from a point 50 feet above the landing
surface must be determined as follows:
(1) A steady gliding approach with a
calibrated airspeed of at least 1.3 Vs.
must be maintained down to the 50 foot
height.
(2) The landing may not require ex
ceptional piloting skill or exceptionally
favorable conditions.
(3) The landing must be made with
out excessive vertical acceleration or
tendency to bounce, nose over, ground
loop, porpoise, or water loop.
(4) It must be shown that a safe
transition to the balked landing condi
tions of § 23.77 can be made from the
conditions that exist at the 50-foot
height.
(b) Airplanes of 6,000 pounds or less
maximum weight must be able to be
landed safely and come to a stop without
exceptional piloting skill and Without
excessive vertical acceleration or tend
ency to bounce, nose over, ground loop,
porpoise, or Water loop.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13066,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.77 Balked landing.
For balked landings, each airplane
with a maximum weight of
(a) More than 6,000 pounds, must be
able to maintain a steady angle of climb
at sea level of at least 1:30 with—
(1) Takeoff power on each engine;
(2) The landing gear extended; and
(3) The wing flaps in landing posi
tion, except that, if the flaps may safely
be retracted in two seconds or less With
out loss of altitude and Without Sudden
changes of angle of attack or exceptional
piloting skill, they may be retracted; and
(b) 6,000 pounds or less, must be able
to maintain a steady rate of climb at Sea
level of at least 200 feet per minute, or
5.75 Vs, (that is, the number of feet per
minute is obtained by multiplying the
number of knots by 5.75), whichever is
greater, with—
(1) Takeoff power on each engine;
(2) The landing gear extended; and
(3) The wing flaps in the landing posi
tion, except that, if rapid retraction is
possible with safety, without loss of alti
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
tude, and without sudden changes of
angle of attack or exceptional piloting
skill, they may be retracted.
[Dockets No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18,
1964, as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R.
13086, Aug. 13, 1969]
FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
§ 23.141 General.
The airplane must meet the require
ments of §§ 23.143 through 23.221–
[Amdt. No. 28–7, 34 F.R. 13086, Aug. 13, 1969]
CONTROLLABILITY AND MANEUVERABILITY
§ 23.143 General.
(a) The airplane must be safely con
trollable and maneuverable during—
(1) Takeoff;
(2) Climb;
(3) Level flight;
(4) Dive; and
(5) Landing (power on and power
off with the wing flaps extended and re
tracted).
(b) It must be possible to make a
smooth transition from one flight condi
tion to another (including turns and
slips) without exceptional piloting skill,
alertness, or strength, and without dan
ger of exceeding the limit load factor,
under any probable operating condition
(including, for multiengine airplanes,
those conditions normally encountered
in the sudden failure of any engine).
(c) If marginal conditions exist with
regard to required pilot strength, the
“strength of pilots” limits must be shown
by quantitative tests. In no case may
the limits exceed those precribed in the
following table:
Values in pounds of force as
applied to the control wheel Pitch
or rudder pedals
(a) For temporary applica
tion:
Stick. ----------------------
Wheel (applied to rim)-----
Rudder pedal--------------
(b) For prolonged application.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31819,
Nov. 19,1973]
§ 23.145 Longitudinal control.
(a) It must be possible, at speeds
below the trim speed, to pitch the nose
downward so that the rate of increase in
airspeed allows prompt acceleration to
the trim speed with—
85
§ 23.145
(1) Maximum continuous power on
each engine and the airplane trimmed
aL Vx;
(2) Power off and the airplane
trimmed at a speed determined in ac
Cordance with $ 23.161 (c) (3) or (4)
as appropriate or at the minimum trim
Speed, whichever is higher; and
(3) Wing flaps and landing gear (i)
retracted, and (ii) extended.
(b) With the landing gear extended,
no change in trim or exertion of more
control force than can be readily ap
plied with one hand for a short period
of time may be required for the following
In a neuVers:
(1) With power off, flaps retracted, and
the airplane trimmed at 1.4Vs, or the
minimum trim speed, whichever is
higher, extend the flaps as rapidly as
possible and allow the airspeed to transi
tion from 1.4Vs, to 1.4Vso, or, if appro
priate, from the minimum trim speed to
a Speed equal to Vso increased by the
Same percentage that the minimum trim
Speed at the initial condition was greater
than Vs.
(2) With power off, flaps extended, and
the airplane trimmed at 1.4Vso or the
minimum trim speed, whichever is
higher, retract the flaps as rapidly as
possible and allow the airspeed to transi
tion from 1.4Vso to 1.4Vs, or, if appro
priate, from the minimum trim speed to
a Speed equal to 1.4Vs, increased by the
same percentage that the minimum trim
Speed at the initial condition was greater
than Vso.
(3) Repeat subparagraph (2) of this
paragraph except with maximum con
tinuous power.
(4) With power off, flaps retracted,
and the airplane trimmed at a speed
determined in accordance with $23.161
(c) (3) or (4), as appropriate or at
the minimum trim speed, whichever
is higher, apply takeoff power rapidly
while maintaining the same airspeed.
(5) Repeat subparagraph (4) of this
paragraph, except with the flaps ex
tended.
(6) With power off, flaps extended,
and the airplane trimmed at a speed
determined in accordance with $23.161
(c) (3) or (4), as appropriate or at
the minimum trim speed, whichever
is higher, obtain and maintain airspeeds
between 1.1 Vs, and either 1.7 Vs, or Vr,
whichever is lower.
(c) It must be possible, without excep
tional piloting skill, to maintain ap
§ 23.147 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
proximately level flight when flap re
traction from any position is made
during steady horizontal flight at 1.1
Vs, with simultaneous application of not
more than maximum continuous power.
(d) It must be possible, with a pilot
control force of not more than 10 pounds,
to maintain a speed of not more than the
speed determined in accordance with
§ 23.161(c)(4), during a power-off glide
with landing gear and wing flaps ex
tended.
(e) It must be possible, by using the
normal flight and power controls except
the primary longitudinal control, to coil
trol the descent of the airplane to a Zero
rate of descent and to an attitude Suit
able for a controlled landing, without
exceptional piloting skill, alertness, or
strength, and without exceeding the Op
erational and structural limitations of
the airplane.
I Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13086,
Aug. 13, 1969; Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31819,
Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.147 Directional and lateral control.
(a) For each multiengine airplane, it
must be possible to make turns with 15
degrees of bank both towards and away
from an inoperative engine, from a
steady climb at 1.4 Vs, or Vy with—
(1) One engine inoperative and its
propeller in the minimum drag position;
(2) The remaining engines at not
more than maximum continuous power;
(3) The rearmost allowable center of
gravity;
(4) The landing gear (i) retracted,
and (ii) extended;
(5) The flaps in the most favorable
climb position; and
(6) Maximum weight.
(b) For each multiengine airplane, it
must be possible, while holding the wings
level within five degrees, to make Sudden
changes in heading safely in both di
rections. This must be shown at 1.4
Vs, or Wr with heading changes up to 15
degrees (except that the heading change
at which the rudder force corresponds to
the limits specified in § 23.143 need not
be exceeded), with the
(1) Critical engine inoperative and its
propeller in the minimum drag position;
(2) Remaining engines at maximum
continuous power;
(3) Landing gear (1) retracted, and
(ii) extended;
86
(4) Flaps in the most favorable climb
position; and
(5) Center of gravity at its rearmost
allowable position.
§ 23.149 Minimum control speed.
(a) Vuo is the minimum calibrated
airspeed at which, when any engine
is suddenly made inoperative, it is pos
sible to recover control of the airplane
with that engine still inoperative and
maintain straight flight, either with zero
yaw, or, at the option of the applicant,
with an angle of bank of not more than
five degrees. Varg may not exceed 1.2
Vs, with—
(1) Takeoff or maximum available
power on each engine;
(2) The rearmost allowable center of
gravity;
(3) The flaps in the takeoff position;
and
(4) The landing gear retracted.
(5) The propeller of the inoperative
engine—
(i) Windmilling, with the propeller
speed or pitch control in the takeoff
position; or
(ii) Feathered, if the airplane has an
automatic feathering device.
(b) At Viro, the rudder forces required
to maintain control may not exceed the
limitations set forth in § 23.143, and it
may not be necessary to throttle the re
maining engines. During recovery, the
airplane may not assume any dangerous
attitude or require exceptional piloting
skill, alertness, or strength to prevent a
heading change of more than 20 degrees.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13086,
Aug. 13, 1969)
§ 23.151 Acrobatic maneuvers.
Each acrobatic and utility category
airplane must be able to perform safely
the acrobatic maneuvers for which certi
fication is requested. Safe entry speeds
for these maneuvers must be determined.
§ 23.153 Control during landings.
For an airplane that has a maximum
weight of more than 6,000 pounds, it
must be possible, while in the landing
configuration, to safely complete a land
ing without encountering forces in excess
of those prescribed in § 23.143 (c) follow
ing an approach to land:
(a) At a Speed 5 knots less than the
Speed used in complying with $23.75 and
with the airplane in trim or as nearly
as possible in trim;
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(p) With neither the trimming control
being moved throughout the maneuver
nor the power being increased during the
landing flare; and
(c) With the thrust settings used in
demonstrating compliance with $23.75.
[Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31819, Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.155 Elevator control force in ma
neuvers.
(a) The elevator control force needed
to achieve the positive limit maneuver
ing load factor may not be less than:
(1) For Wheel controls, W/100 (where
W is the maximum weight) or 20 pounds,
whichever is greater, except that it need
not be greater than 50 pounds; or
(2) For stick controls, W/140 (where
W is the maximum weight) or 15 pounds,
whichever is greater, except that it need
not be greater than 35 pounds.
(b) The requirement of paragraph (a)
of this section must be met with wing
flaps and landing gear retracted under
each of the following conditions:
(1) At 75 percent of maximum con
tinuous power for reciprocating engines,
or the maximum power or thrust selected
by the applicant as an operating limita
tion for use during cruise for reciprocat
ing or turbine engines.
(2) In a turn, after the airplane is
trimmed with wings level at the mini
mum speed at which the required nor
mal acceleration can be achieved without
stalling, and at the maximum level flight
trim speed except that the speed may not
exceed WNE or VMoſMMo, whichever is
appropriate.
(c) Compliance with the requirements
of this section may be demonstrated by
measuring the normal acceleration that
is achieved with the limiting stick force
or by establishing the stick force per g
gradient and extrapolating to the appro
priate limit.
[Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31819, Nov. 19, 1973;
38 FR 32784, Nov. 28, 1973]
§ 23.157 Rate of roll.
(a) Takeoff. It must be possible, using
a favorable combination of controls, to
roll the airplane from a steady 30-degree
banked turn through an angle of 60 de
grees, so as to reverse the direction of
the turn within:
(1) For an airplane of 6,000 pounds or
less maximum weight, 5 Seconds from ini
tiation of roll; and
87
§ 23.16.1
(2) For an airplane of over 6,000
pounds maximum weight,
W+500
1,300
seconds, where W is the weight in pounds.
(b) The requirement of paragraph (a)
must be met when rolling the airplane
in either direction in the following con
dition:
(1) Flaps in the takeoff position;
(2) Landing gear retracted;
(3) For a single engine airplane, at
maximum takeoff power or thrust; and
for a multiengine airplane, with the
critical engine inoperative, the propeller
in the minimum drag position, and the
other engines at maximum continuous
power or thrust; and
(4) The airplane trimmed at 1.2Vs,
or as nearly as possible in trim for
Straight flight.
(c) Approach. It must be possible,
using a favorable combination of con
trols, to roll the airplane from a steady
30-degree banked turn through an angle
of 60 degrees, so as to reverse the direc
tion of the turn within:
(1) For an airplane of 6,000 pounds or
less maximum weight, 4 seconds from
initiation of roll; and
(2) For an airplane of over 6,000
pounds maximum weight,
W+2,800
2,200
seconds, where W is the weight in
poundS.
(d) The requirement of paragraph (c)
must be met when rolling the airplane
in either direction in the following
Conditions:
(1) Flaps extended;
(2) Landing gear extended;
(3) All engines Operating at idle
power or thrust and with all engines op
erating at the power or thrust for level
flight; and
(4) The airplane trimmed at the
Speed that is used in determining com
pliance with $23.75.
[Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31819, Nov. 19, 19731
TRIM
§ 23.161 Trim.
(a) General. Each airplane must meet
the trim requirements of this section
after being trimmed, and without fur
ther pressure upon, or movement of, the
primary controls or their corresponding
trim controls by the pilot or the auto
matic pilot.
§ 23.171 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(b) Lateral and directional trim. The
airplane must maintain lateral and di
rectional trim in level flight at 0.9 Vu or
vo, whichever is lower, with the landing
gear and wing flaps retracted.
(c) Longitudinal trim. The airplane
must maintain longitudinal trim dur
ing—
(1) A climb with maximum continu
ous power at a speed between Vy and 1.4
Vs, with the landing gear and wing flaps
retracted;
(2) A climb with maximum continu
ous power at a speed between Vx and
14 vs, with the landing gear retracted
and the wing flaps in the takeoff posi
tion;
(3) A power approach with a 3 degree
angle of descent, the landing gear ex
tended, flaps retracted, and :
(i) For an airplane of 6,000 pounds or
less maximum weight, a speed between
1.3Vs, and 1.5Vs, ; or
(ii) For an airplane of more than
6,000 pounds maximum weight, a speed
of 1.4Vs, ; and
(4) A power approach with a 3 degree
angle of descent, the landing gear ex
tended, and :
(i) For an airplane of 6,000 pounds or
less maximum weight, a speed between
1.3Vs, and 1.5Vs, with flaps extended; or
(ii) For an airplane of more than 6,000
pounds maximum weight, the speed and
flap position used in showing compliance
with $ 23.75 (a).
(5) [Reserved]
(6) Level flight at any speed from 0.9
Va to either V, or 1.4 Vs., with landing
gear and wing flaps retracted.
(d) In addition, each multiengine air
plane must maintain longitudinal and
directional trim at a speed between Vr
and 1.4 Vs, with—
(1) The critical engine inoperative:
(2) The remaining engines at maxi
mum continuous power;
(3) The landing gear retracted;
(4) The wing flaps retracted; and
(5) An angle of bank of not more than
five degrees.
[Docket No. 4080. 29 F.R. 17055, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 FR. 13086,
Aug. 13, 1969; Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31820,
Nov. 19, 1973]
STABILITY
§ 23.171 General.
The airplane must be longitudinally,
directionally, and laterally stable under
SS
§§ 23.173 through 23.181. In addition,
the airplane must show suitable stability
and control “feel” (static stability) in
any condition normally encountered in
service, if flight tests show it is necessary
for safe operation.
§ 23.173 Static longitudinal stability.
Under the conditions specified in
§ 23.175 and with the airplane trimmed
as indicated, the characteristics of the
elevator control forces and the friction
within the control System must be as
follows:
(a) A pull must be required to obtain
and maintain speeds below the specified
trim Speed and a push required to obtain
and maintain speeds above the specified
trim speed. This must be shown at any
Speed that can be obtained, except that
speeds requiring a control force in excess
of 40 pounds or speeds above the maxi
mum allowable speed or below the mini
mum speed for steady unstalled flight.
need not be considered.
(b) The airspeed must return to with
in plus or minus 10 percent of the origi
nal trim speed when the control force
is slowly released at any speed within
the Speed range specified in paragraph
(a) of this section.
(c) The stick force must vary with
Speed so that any substantial speed
change results in a stick force clearly
perceptible to the pilot.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 3182n
Nov. 19, 1973)
§ 23.175 Demonstration of static longi.
tudinal stability.
Static longitudinal stability must be
shown as follows:
(a) Climb. The stick force curve must
have a stable slope, at speeds between 85
and 115 percent of the trim speed, with–
(1) Flaps in the climb position;
(2) Landing gear retracted;
(3) 75 percent of maximum con
tinuous power for reciprocating engines
or the maximum power or thrust selected
by the applicant as an operating limita
tion for use during a climb for turbine
engines; and
(4) The airplane trimmed for V, ex
cept that the speed need not be less than
1.4 Vs.
(b) Cruise—Landing gear retracted
(or fited gear). (1) For the cruise con
ditions specified in subparagraphs (2)
and (3) of this paragraph, the following
apply:
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration § 23.177

(i) The speed need not be less than (4) The airplane trimmed for level
1.3 Vsi. flight.
(ii) For airplanes with Vys established (d) Approach and landing. The stick
under § 23.1505(a), the speed need not force curve must have a stable slope
be greater than Vse. at speeds between 1.1 Vs, and 1.8 Vs.
(iii) For airplanes with Vuo/Mwo es: With—
tablished under § 23.1505(c), the speed (1). Wing flaps in the landing position;
need not be greater than a speed midway (2) Landing gear extended;
between vio/Mao and the lesser of (3) The airplane trimmed at a speed
yo/Me or the speed demonstrated under in compliance with $ 23.161 (c)(4).
§ 23.251, except that for altitudes where (4) Both power off and enough power
Mach number in the limiting factor, the to maintain a 3° angle of descent.
speed need not exceed that correspond [Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 FR 13087, Aug. 13, 1969,
ing to the Mach number at Which effec as amended by Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31820,
tive speed warning occurs. Nov. 19, 1973]
(2) High speed cruise. The stick force
§ 23.177 Directional and lateral stabil
curve must have a stable slope at all
ity.
speeds within a range that is the greater
of 15 percent of the trim speed plus the (a) Three-c on trol airplanes. The
resulting free return speed range, or 40 stability requirements for three-control
knots plus the resulting free return speed airplanes are as follows:
range, above and below the trim speed, (1) The static directional stability, as
with— shown by the tendency to recover from a
(i) Flaps retracted. skid with the rudder free, must be posi
(ii) Seventy-five percent of maximum tive for any landing gear and flap posi
continuous power for reciprocating en tion appropriate to the takeoff, climb,
gines or, for turbine engines, the maxi cruise, and approach configurations.
mum cruising power or thrust selected This must be shown with Symmetrical
by the applicant as an operating limita power up to maximum continuous power,
tion, except that the power need not ex and at speeds from 12 Vs, up to the
ceed that required at Vºn for airplanes maximum allowable speed for the condi
with v., established under § 23.1505(a), tion being investigated. The angle of
or that required at Vuo/Mao for airplanes Skid for these tests must be appropriate
With Vuo/M wo established under to the type of airplane. At larger
$23.1505(c). angles of skid up to that at which full
(iii) The airplane trimmed for level rudder is used or a control force limit in
flight. - § 23.143 is reached, whichever occurs
(3) Low speed cruise. The stick force first, and at Speeds from 1.2 Vs, to V4,
curve must have a stable slope under the rudder pedal force must not reverse.
all the conditions prescribed in subpara
(2) The static lateral stability, as
graph (2) of this paragraph, except that shown by the tendency to raise the low
the power is that required for level flight wing in a slip, must be positive for any
at a speed midway between 1.3 Vs, and landing gear and flap positions. This
the trim speed obtained in the high must be shown with symmetrical power
speed cruise condition under Subpara up to 75 percent of maximum continuous
graph (2) of this paragraph. power at speeds above 1.2 Vs, up to
(c) Landing gear eactended (airplanes the maximum allowable speed for the
with retractable gear). The stick force configuration being investigated. The
curve must have a stable slope at all Static lateral Stability may not be nega
speeds within a range from 15 percent of tive at 1.2 Vs. The angle of slip for
the trim speed plus the resulting free these tests must be appropriate to the
return speed range below the trim Speed, type of airplane, but in no case may the
to the trim speed (except that the Speed slip angle be less than that obtainable
range need not include speeds less than with 10 degrees of bank.
1.4 Vs, nor speeds greater than War, (3) In straight, steady slips at 1.2 Vs,
with—
for any landing gear and flap positions,
(1) Landing gear extended; and for any symmetrical power condi
(2) Flaps retracted; tions up to 50 percent of maximum con
(3) Power required for level flight at tinuous power, the aileron and rudder
the trim speed; and control movements and forces must in

39–059–75—7 89
§ 23.179 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
crease steadily (but not necessarily in
constant proportion) as the angle of slip
is increased up to the maximum appro
priate to the type of airplane. At larger
slip angles up to the angle at which the
full rudder or aileron control is used or a
control force limit contained in § 23.143
is obtained, the rudder pedal force may
not reverse. Enough bank must aCCOm
pany slipping to hold a constant head
ing. Rapid entry into, or recovery from,
a maximum slip may not result in un
controllable flight characteristics.
(4) Any short period oscillation, OC
curring between stalling speed and the
maximum allowable speed, must be heav
ily damped with the primary controls (i)
free and (ii) in a fixed position.
(b) Two-control (or simplified con
trol) airplanes. The stability require
ments for two-control airplanes are as
follows:
(1) The directional stability of the
airplane must be shown by showing
that, in each configuration, it can be
rapidly rolled from a 45 degree bank in
one direction to a 45 degree bank in the
opposite direction without showing
dangerous skid characteristics.
(2) The lateral stability of the air
plane must be shown by showing that it
will not assume a dangerous attitude or
speed when the controls are abandoned
for two minutes. This must be done in
moderately smooth air with the airplane
trimmed for straight level flight at 0.9
wn or Vo, whichever is lower, with flaps
and landing gear retracted, and with a
rearward center of gravity.
(3) Any short period oscillation Oc
curring between the stalling speed and
the maximum allowable speed must be
heavily damped with the primary con
trols (i) free and (ii) in a fixed position.
§ 23.179 Instrumented stick force meas
urements.
Instrumented stick force measure
ments must be made unless—
(a) Changes in speed are clearly re
flected by changes in stick forces; and
(b) The maximum forces obtained
under §§ 23.173 and 23.175 are not
excessive.
§ 23.181 Dynamic longitudinal stability.
Any short period longitudinal oscilla
tion occurring between the stalling speed
and the maximum allowable speed must
be heavily damped with the primary
controls (a) free and (b) fixed.
90
STALLS
§ 23.201 Wings level stall.
(a) For an airplane with independ
ently controlled roll and directional
controls, it must be possible to produce
and to correct roll by unreversed use of
the rolling control and to produce and to
correct yaw by unreversed use of the di
rectional control, up to the time the air
plane pitches.
(b) For an airplane with intercon
nected lateral and directional controls (2
controls) and for an airplane with only
one of these controls, it must be possible
to produce and correct roll by unreversed
use of the rolling control without pro
ducing excessive yaw, up to the time the
airplane pitches.
(c) The wing level stall characteris
tics of the airplane must be demonstra
ted in flight as follows: The airplane
Speed must be reduced with the elevator
control until the speed is slightly above
the stalling speed, then the elevator
control must be pulled back so that the
rate of Speed reduction will not exceed
one knot per second until a stall is pro
duced, as shown by an uncontrollable
downward pitching motion of the air
plane, or until the control reaches the
Stop. Normal use of the elevator control
for recovery is allowed after the pitching
motion has unmistakably developed.
(d) Except where made inapplicable
by the special features of a particular
type of airplane, the following apply to
the measurement of loss of altitude äur
ing a stall:
(1) The loss of altitude encountered in
the stall (power on or power off) is the
change in altitude (as observed on the
Sensitive altimeter testing installation)
between the altitude at which the air
plane pitches and the altitude at which
horizontal flight is regained.
(2) If power or thrust is required dur
ing stall recovery the power or thrust
used must be that which would be used
under the normal operating procedures
Selected by the applicant for this maneu
Ver. However, the power used to regain
level flight may not be applied until
flying control is regained.
(e) During the recovery part of the
maneuver, it must be possible to prevent
more than 15 degrees of roll or yaw by
the normal use of controls.
(f) Compliance with the requirements
of this section must be shown under the
following conditions:
 chapter 1–Federal Aviation Administration
(1) Wing flaps: Full up, full down, and
intermediate, if appropriate.
(2) Landing Gear: Retracted and ex
tended.
(3) Cowl Flaps: Appropriate to con
figuration.
(4) Power: Power or thrust off, and
75 percent maximum continuous power
or thrust. - -
(5) Trim: 1.5Vs, or at the minimum
trim speed, whichever is higher.
(6) Propeller: Full increase rpm posi
tion for the power off condition.
[Amdt. No. 23–14, 88 FR 31820, Nov. 19, 1973]
s 23.203 Turning flight and accelerated
stalls.
Turning flight and accelerated stalls
must be demonstrated in flight tests as
follows: - -
(a) Established and maintain a Co
ordinated turn in a 30 degree bank. Re
duce speed by steadily and progressively
tightening the turn with the elevator un
tº the airplane is stalled or until the ele
vator has reached its stop. The rate of
speed reduction must be constant, and:
(1) For a turning flight stall, may not
exceed one knot per second; and
(2) For an accelerated stall, be 3 to 5
knots per second with steadily increasing
normal acceleration.
(b) when the stall has fully developed
or the elevator has reached its stop, it
must be possible to regain level flight
without:
(1) Excessive loss of altitude;
(2) Undue pitchup;
(3) Uncontrollable tendency to Spin;
(4) Exceeding 60 degree of roll in either
direction from the established 30 degree
bank; and
(5) For accelerated entry stalls, With
out exceeding the maximum permissible
speed or the allowable limit load factor.
(c) Compliance with the requirements
of this section must be shown with:
(1) Wing flaps: Retracted and fully
extended for turning flight and acceler
ated entry stalls, and intermediate, if ap
propriate, for accelerated entry stalls;
(2) Landing gear: Retracted and ex
tended;
(3) Cowl flaps: Appropriate to con
figuration;
(4) Power: 75 percent maximum con
tinuous power; and
(5) Trim: 1.5Vs, or minimum trim
speed, whichever is higher.
[Amdt. No. 23–14, 88 FR 31820, Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.221
§ 23.205 Critical engine inoperative
stalls.
(a) A multiengine airplane may not
display any undue spinning tendency and
must be safely recoverable without apply
ing power to the inoperative engine when
stalled. The operating engines may be
throttled back during the recovery from
stall.
(b) Compliance with paragraph (a) of
-
the section must be shown with:
(1) Wing flaps: Retracted.
(2) Landing gear: Retracted.
(3) Cowl flaps: Appropriate to level
flight critical engine inoperative.
(4) Power: Critical engine inoperative
and the remaining engine(s) at 75 per
cent maximum continuous power or
thrust or the power or thrust at which the
use of maximum control travel just holds
the wings laterally level in the approach
to stall, whichever is lesser.
(5) Propeller: Normal inoperative posi
tion for the inoperative engine.
(6) Trim: Level flight, critical engine
inoperative, except that for an airplane
of 6,000 pounds or less maximum weight
that has a stalling speed of 61 knots or
less and cannot maintain level flight
with the critical engine inoperative, the
airplane must be trimmed for straight
flight, critical engine inoperative, at a
speed not greater than 1.5Vs.
[Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31820, Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.207 Stall warning.
(a) There must be a clear and distinc
tive stall warning, with the flaps and
landing gear in any normal position, in
Straight and turning flight.
(b) The stall Warning may be fur
nished either through the inherent aero
dynamic qualities of the airplane or by
a device that will give clearly distinguish
able indications under expected condi
tions of flight. However, a visual stall
warning device that requires the atten
tion of the crew within the cockpit is not
acceptable by itself.
(c) The stall warning must begin at a
speed exceeding the stalling speed by a
margin of not less than 5 knots, but not
more than the greater of 10 knots or 15
percent of the stalling speed, and must
continue until the stall occurs.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13087, Aug. 13, 1969]
SPINNING
§ 23.221 Spinning.
(a) Normal category. A single-en
gine, normal category airplane must be
91
§ 23.231 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
able to recover from a one-turn Spin or
a 3-second spin, whichever takes longer,
in not more than one additional turn,
With the controls used in the manner nor
mally used for recovery. In addition—
(1) For both the flaps-retracted and
flaps-extended conditions, the applicable
airspeed limit and positive limit ma
neuvering load factor may not be
exceeded;
(2) There may be no excessive back
pressure during the spin or recovery; and
(3) It must be impossible to obtain
uncontrollable spins with any use of the
controls.
For the flaps-extended condition, the
flaps may be retracted during recovery.
(b) Utility category. A utility cate
gory airplane must meet the require
ments of paragraph (a) of this section or
the requirements of paragraph (c) of
this section.
(c) Acrobatic category. An acrobatic
category airplane must meet the follow
ing requirements:
(1) The airplane must recover from
any point in a spin, in not more than one
and one-half additional turns after nor
mal recovery application of the controls.
Prior to normal recovery application of
the controls, the spin test must proceed
for six turns or 3 seconds, whichever
takes longer, with flaps retracted, and
one turn or 3 seconds, whichever takes
longer, with flaps extended. However,
beyond 3 seconds, the Spin may be dis
continued when spiral characteristics
appear with flaps retracted.
(2) For both the flaps-retracted and
flaps-extended conditions, the applicable
airspeed limit and positive limit maneu
vering load factor may not be exceeded.
For the flaps-extended condition, the
flaps may be retracted during recovery,
if a placard is installed prohibiting inten
tional spins with flaps extended.
(3) It must be impossible to obtain
uncontrollable spins with any use of the
controls.
(d) Airplanes “characteristically in
capable of spinning”. If it is desired to
designate an airplane as “characteris
tically incapable of spinning”, this char
acteristic must be shown with–
(1) A weight five percent more than
the highest weight for which approval is
requested;
(2) A center of gravity at least three
percent aft of the rearmost position for
which approval is requested;
(3) An available elevator up-travel
four degrees in excess of that to which
the elevator travel is to be limited for ap
proval; and
(4) An available rudder travel seven
degrees, in both directions, in excess of
that to which the rudder travel is to be
limited for approval.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13087,
Aug. 13, 1969]
GROUND AND WATER HANDLING
CHARACTERISTICS
§ 23.231 Longitudinal stability and con
trol.
(a) A landplane may have no uncon
trollable tendency to nose over in any
reasonably expected operating condition,
including rebound during landing or
takeoff. Wheel brakes must operate
smoothly and may not induce any undue
tendency to nose Over.
(b) A seaplane or amphibian may
not have dangerous or uncontrollable
porpoising characteristics at any normal
operating speed on the water.
§ 23; Directional stability and con
trol.
(a) There may be no uncontrollable
ground or water looping tendency in 90
degree cross winds, up to a wind velocity
of 0.2 Vs., at any speed at which the
airplane may be expected to be operated
on the ground or Water.
(b) A landplane must be satisfactorily
controllable, without exceptional pilot
ing skill or alertness, in power-off land
ings at normal landing Speed, without
using brakes or engine power to maintain
a straight path.
(c) The airplane must have adequate
directional control during taxiing.
§ 23.235 Taxiing condition.
The shock-absorbing mechanism may
not damage the structure of the airplane
when the airplane is taxied on the rough
est ground that may reasonably be ex
pected in normal operation.
§ 23.239 Spray characteristics.
Spray may not dangerously obscure
the vision of the pilots or damage the
92
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
propellers or other parts of a seaplane or
amphibian at any time during taxiing,
takeoff, and landing.
MISCELLANEOUS FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS
§ 23.251 Vibration and buſſeting.
Each part of the airplane must be free
from excessive vibration under any ap
propriate speed and power conditions up
to at least the minimum value of Vp al
lowed in § 23.335. In addition, there
may be no buffeting, in any normal flight
condition, severe enough to interfere
with the satisfactory control of the air
plane, cause excessive fatigue to the
crew, or result in structural damage.
Stall warning buffeting within these
limits is allowable.
§ 23.253 High speed characteristics.
If a maximum operating speed Vwo/
Miro is established under § 23.1505(c), the
following speed increase and recovery
characteristics must be met:
(a) Operating conditions and charac
teristics likely to cause inadvertent speed
increases (including upsets in pitch and
roll) must be simulated with the airplane
trimmed at any likely cruise speed up to
V wo/M wo. These conditions and charac
teristics include gust upsets, inadvertent
control movements, low stick force gradi
ent in relation to control friction, pas
senger movement, leveling off from climb,
and descent from Mach to airspeed limit
altitude.
(b) Allowing for pilot reaction time
after effective inherent or artificial speed
warning occurs, it must be shown that
the airplane can be recovered to a nor
mal attitude and its speed reduced to
Varo/Miro, Without—
(1) Exceptional piloting strength or
skill;
(2) Exceeding VD/Mp, the maximum
speed shown under § 23.251, or the struc
tural limitations; or
(3) Buffeting that would cause struc
tural damage.
(c) There may be no control reversal
about any axis at any speed up to the
maximum Speed shown under § 23.251.
Any reversal of elevator control force or
tendency of the airplane to pitch, roll,
or yaw must be mild and readily con
trollable, using normal piloting tech
niques.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 84 F.R. 13087, Aug. 13, 1969]
93
§ 23.307
Subpart C–Structure
GENERAL
§ 23.301 Loads.
(a) Strength requirements are Speci
fled in terms of limit loads (the maxi
mum loads to be expected in service)
and ultimate loads (limit loads multi
plied by prescribed factors of safety).
Unless otherwise provided, prescribed
loads are limit loads.
(b) Unless otherwise provided, the air,
ground, and water loads must be placed
in equilibrium with inertia forces, con
sidering each item of mass in the air
plane. These loads must be distributed
to conservatively approximate or closely
represent actual conditions.
(c) If deflections under load would
significantly change the distribution of
external or internal loads, this redistri
bution must be taken into account.
(d) Simplified structural design cri
teria may be used if they result in design
loads not less than those prescribed in
§§ 23.331 through 23.521. For conven
tional, single-engine airplanes with de
sign weights of 6,000 pounds or less, the
design criteria of Appendix A of this part
are an approved equivalent of $323,331
through 23.399. If Appendix A is used,
the entire Appendix must be substituted
for the corresponding sections of this
part.
§ 23.303 Factor of safety.
Unless otherwise provided, a factor of
safety of 1.5 must be used.
§ 23.305 Strength and deformation.
(a) The Structure must be able to
Support limit loads without detrimental
permanent deformation. At any load
up to limit loads, the deformation may
not interfere with safe operation.
(b) The structure must be able to
Support ultimate loads without failure
for at least three seconds. However,
when proof of strength is shown by dy
namic tests simulating actual load con
ditions, the three second limit does not
apply.
§ 23.307 Proof of structure.
(a) Compliance with the strength and
deformation requirements of $23.305
§ 23.321 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
must be shown for each critical load
condition. Structural analysis may be
used only if the structure conforms to
those for which experience has shown
this method to be reliable. In other
cases, Substantiating load tests must
be made. Dynamic tests, including
structural flight tests, are acceptable if
the design load conditions have been
simulated.
(b) Certain parts of the structure
Imust be tested as Specified in Subpart D
of this part.
FLIGHT LOADS
§ 23.321 General.
. (a) Flight load factors represent the
ratio of the aerodynamic force compo
nent (acting normal to the assumed
longitudinal axis of the airplane) to the
weight of the airplane. A positive flight
load factor is one in which the aero
dynamic force acts upward, with respect
to the airplane.
(b) Compliance with the flight load
requirements of this Subpart must be
shown—
(1) At each critical altitude within the
range in which the airplane may be ex
pected to operate;
(2) At each weight from the design
minimum weight to the design maximum
weight; and
(3) For each required altitude and
weight, for any practicable distribution
of disposable load within the operating
l 1 m i t a ti on s specified in §§ 23.1583
through 23.1589.
§ 23.331 Symmetrical flight conditions.
(a) The appropriate balancing hori
Zontal tail load must be accounted for in
a rational or conservative manner when
determining the wing loads and linear
inertia loads corresponding to any of the
symmetrical flight conditions Specified
in §§ 23.331 through 23.341.
(b) The incremental horizontal tail
loads due to maneuvering and gusts must
be reacted by the angular inertia of the
airplane in a rational or conservative
Imanner.
§ 23.333 Flight envelope.
(a) General. Compliance with the
strength requirements of this subpart
must be shown at any combination of
airspeed and load factor on and within
the boundaries of a flight envelope (sim
ilar to the one in paragraph (d) of this
section) that represents the envelope of
the flight loading conditions specified
by the maneuvering and gust criteria of
paragraphs (b) and (c) of this section
respectively.
(b) Maneuvering envelope. Except
where limited by maximum (static) lift
coefficients, the airplane is assumed to
be subjected to Symmetrical maneuvers
resulting in the following limit load
factors:
(1) The positive maneuvering load
factor specified in § 23.337 at Speeds up
to VD;
(2) The negative maneuvering load
factor specified in § 23.337 at Vo; and
(3) Factors varying linearly with
speed from the specified value at Vo to
0.0 at Vo for the normal category, and
—1.0 at Vo for the acrobatic and utility
categories.
(c) Gust envelope. (1) The airplane
is assumed to be subjected to symmetri
cal vertical gusts in level flight. The re
Sulting limit load factors must
correspond to the conditions determined
as follows:
(i) Positive (up) and negative (down)
gusts of 50 f.p.s. at Vc must be considered
at altitudes between sea level and 20,000
feet. The gust velocity may be reduced
linearly from 50 f.p.s. at 20,000 feet to
25 f.p.s. at 50,000 feet.
(ii) Positive and negative gusts of 25
f.p.s. at Vo must be considered at alti
tudes between sea level and 20,000 feet.
The gust velocity may be reduced line
arly from 25 f.p.s. at 20,000 feet to 12.5
f.p.s. at 50,000 feet.
(2) The following assumptions must
be made:
(i) The shape of the gust is—
Where—
s=Distance penetrated into gust (ft.);
C=Mean geometric chord of wing (ft.);
and
U4. = Derived gust velocity referred to in
subparagraph (1) of this section.
(ii) Gust load factors vary linearly
with speed between Vo and Vd.
(d) Flight envelope.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration § 23.335

C
d
+ MANEUVER /–- — — — — — —

A
©
\y\\ wº. 2,
c N." -

- *>92 -- T.
ar ~~~
= + > - Vc VD
§
Li-
~<
`- .*
* ~ - V.
* ~. L GUST l
~ _2^ `-- *~!. LINE SPEED V
s or== - ~~~~~ |E (NORMAL)
— 2. 2*
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E (UTILITY
- MANEUVER AND
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---- LIMIT MANEUVER ENVELOPES

-- - LIMIT GUST ENVELOPE
LIMIT COMBINED ENVELOPE
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 FIR. 13087,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.335 Design airspeeds.
Except as provided in paragraph (a)
(4) of this section, the selected design
airspeeds are equivalent airspeeds
(EAS).
(a) Design cruising speed, Vc. For Vo
the following apply:
(1) Vo (in knots) may not be less
than—
(i) 33M/W/S (for normal and utility
category airplanes); and
(ii) 36VW/S (for acrobatic category
airplanes).
(2) For values of W/S more than 20,
the multiplying factors may be decreased
linearly with W/S to a value of 28.6
where W/S=100.
(3) We need not be more than 0.9 VH
at sea level.
(4) At altitudes where an Mo is es
tablished, a cruising Speed Mc limited by
compressibility may be selected.
(b) Design dive speed Vp. For WD, the
following apply:
(1) VD/Mp may not be less than 1.25
Vc/Mc; and
(2) With Vc mºn, the required mini
mum design cruising Speed, Vo (in knots)
may not be less than—
(i) 1.40 Ve ... in (for normal category
airplanes) ;
(ii) 1.50 Wo ºn ta (for utility category
airplanes); and
(iii) 1.55 Wo ºn in (for acrobatic cate
gory airplanes).
(3) For values of W/S more than 20,
the multiplying factors in subparagraph
(2) of this paragraph may be decreased
linearly with W/S to a value of 1.35
where W/S=100.
(4) Compliance with subparagraphs
(1) and (2) of this paragraph need not
be shown if Vd/Md is selected so that
the minimum speed margin between
Vc/Mo and WD/Md is the greater of the
following:
(i) The speed increase resulting when,
from the initial condition of stabilized
flight at Vc/Mc, the airplane is assumed
to be upset, flown for 20 seconds along a
flight path 7.5° below the initial path,
and then pulled up with a load factor
of 1.5 (0.5 g. acceleration increment). At
least 75 percent maximum continuous
power for reciprocating engines, and
maximum cruising power for turbines,
or, if less, the power required for Vcſ Mo
for both kinds of engines, must be as
Sumed until the pullup is initiated, at
which point power reduction and pilot
controlled drag devices may be used.
(ii) Mach 0.05 (at altitudes where an
Mo is established).
(c) Design maneuvering speed VA.
For V.4, the following applies:
(1) V4 (in miles per hour) may not be
less than Vs.Vn where—

95
§ 23.337 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(i) Vs is a computed stalling speed
With flaps retracted at the design weight,
normally based on the maximum air
plane normal force coefficients, cy,; and
(ii) n is the limit maneuvering load
factor used in design.
(2) The value of VA need not exceed
the value of Vo used in design.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13088,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.337 Limit maneuvering load fac
tors.
(a) The positive limit maneuvering
load factor n may not be less than—
24,000
for normal cate
(1) 2.1+ W+10,000
gory airplanes, except that n need not
be more than 3.8
(2) 4.4 for utility category airplanes;
or
(3) 6.0 for acrobatic category air
planes.
(b) The negative limit maneuvering
load factor may not be less than—
(1) 0.4 times the positive load factor
for the normal and utility Categories; or
(2) 0.5 times the positive load factor
for the acrobatic category.
(c) Maneuvering load factors lower
than those specified in this section may
be used if the airplane has design fea
tures that make it impossible to exceed
these values in flight.
[Pocket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13088
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.341 Gust loads factors.
In the absence of a more rational
analysis, the gust load factors must
Computed as follows:
n=1+ K.U.Va
where—
498 (W/s)
ar_0.88wo
•=5.3+,-gust all
-
alleviation factor;
_2(W/S)
g–– = airplane mass ratio;
pCag
Use=Derived gust velocities referred to in
$ 23.333 (c) (f.p.s.);
p= Density of air (slugs/cu. ft.);
W/S= Wing loading (p.s.f.);
C = Mean geometric chord (ft.);
g= Acceleration due to gravity (ft./
sec.”)
V= Airplane equivalent speed (knots);
and
1= Slope of the airplane normal force
coefficient curve Cs, per radian if
the gust loads are applied to the
wings and horizontal tail surfaces
simultaneously by a rational
method. The wing lift curve slope
CL per radian may be used when
the gust load is applied to the
wings only and the horizontal tail
gust loads are treated as a sepa
rate condition.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13088, Aug. 13, 1969)
§ 23.345 High lift devices.
(a) If flaps or similar high lift devices
to be used for takeoff, approach, or land
ing are installed, the airplane, with the
flaps fully deflected at Vr, is assumed to
be subjected to symmetrical maneuvers
and gusts resulting in limit load factors
within the range determined by—
(1) Maneuvering, to a positive limit
load factor of 2.0; and
(2) Positive and negative gust of 25
feet per second acting normal to the
flight path in level flight.
(b) Wr must be assumed to be not less
than 1.4 Vs or 1.8 Vsr, whichever is
greater, where—
Vs is the computed stalling speed with flaps
retracted at the design weight; and
WSF is the computed stalling speed with flaps
fully extended at the design weight.
However, if an automatic flap load lim
iting device is used, the airplane may be
designed for the critical combinations of
airspeed and flap position allowed by
that device.
(c) In designing the flaps and Sup
porting structures, slipstream effects
r
must be accounted for, as Specified in
paragraph (b) of § 23.457.
(d) In determining external loads on
the airplane as a whole, thrust, slip
be
stream, and pitching acceleration may
be assumed to be zero.
(e) The requirements of § 23.457, and
this section may be complied With sep
arately or in combination.
[Docket No. 4030, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13088,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.347 Unsymmetrical flight condi
tions.
The airplane is assumed to be sub
jected to the unsymmetrical flight con
ditions of §§ 23.349 and 23.351. Unbal
anced aerodynamic moments about the
center of gravity must be reacted in a
rational or conservative manner, consid
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
ering the principal masses furnishing the
reacting inertia forces.
§ 23.349 Rolling conditions.
The wing and wing bracing must be
designed for the following loading con
ditions:
(a) Unsymmetrical wing loads appro
priate to the category. Unless the fol
lowing values result in unrealistic loads,
the rolling accelerations may be obtained
by modifying the symmetrical flight
conditions in § 23.333(d) as follows:
(1) For the acrobatic category, in
conditions A and F, assume that 100
percent of the semispan wing airload acts
on one side of the plane of symmetry and
60 percent of this load acts on the other
side.
(2) For the normal and utility cate
gories, in condition A, assume that 100
percent of the Semispan wing airload acts
on one side of the airplane and 70 percent
of this load acts on the other side. For
airplanes of more than 1,000 pounds
design weight, the latter percentage may
be increased linearly with weight up to
75 percent at 12,500 pounds.
(b) The loads resulting from the al
leron deflections and Speeds specified in
§ 23.455, in combination with an air
plane load factor of at least two thirds
of the positive maneuvering load factor
used for design. Unless the following
values result in unrealistic loads, the ef
fect of aileron displacement on wing tor
Sion may be accounted for by adding the
following increment to the basic airfoil
moment coefficient over the aileron por
tion of the span in the critical condition
determined in § 23.333(d) :
Acm = –0.018
where—
Acm is the moment coefficient increment;
and
5 is the down aileron deflection in degrees
in the critical condition.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13088,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.351 Yawing conditions.
The airplane must be designed for
yawing loads on the vertical tail surfaces
resulting from the loads specified in
§§ 23.441 through 23.445.
§ 23.361 Engine torque.
(a) Each engine mount and its Sup
porting structure must be designed for
the effects of—
97
§ 23.365
(1) The limit torque corresponding to
takeoff power and propeller speed act
ing simultaneously with 75 percent of the
limit loads from flight condition A of
§ 23.333(d) ;
(2) The limit torque corresponding to
the maximum continuous power and
propeller speed, acting simultaneously
with the limit loads from flight condition
A of § 23.333(d); and
(3) For turbopropeller installations,
in addition to the condition specified in
subparagraphs (1) and (2) of this para
graph, the limit engine torque corre
sponding to takeoff power and propeller
speed, multiplied by a factor accounting
for propeller control system malfunction,
including quick feathering, acting simul
taneously with 19. level flight loads. In
the absence of a rational analysis, a fac
tor of 1.6 must be used.
(b) The limit torque is obtained by
multiplying the mean torque by a factor
of—
(1) 1.25 for turbopropeller installa
tions;
(2) 1.33 for engines with five or more
cylinders; and
(3) Two, three, or four, for engines
With four, three, or two cylinders,
respectively.
(c) Engine torque effects need not be
investigated for any other conditions.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13088,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.363 Side load on engine mount.
(a) Each engine mount and its Sup
porting structure must be designed for a
limit load factor in a lateral direction,
for the side load on the engine mount, of
not less than—
(1) 1.33, or
(2) One-third of the limit load factor
for flight condition A.
(b) The side load prescribed in para
graph (a) of this section may be as
sumed to be independent of other flight
conditions.
§ 23.365 Pressurized cabin loads.
For each pressurized compartment, the
following apply:
(a) The airplane structure must be
strong enough to withstand the flight
loads combined with pressure differential
loads from zero up to the maximum
relief valve setting.
§ 23.367 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(b) The external pressure distribution
in flight, and any stress concentrations,
Imust be accounted for.
(c) If landings may be made, with the
cabin pressurized, landing loads must be
Combined with pressure differential
loads from zero up to the maximum al
lowed during landing.
(d) The airplane structure must be
strong enough to withstand the pressure
differential loads corresponding to the
maximum relief valve setting multiplied
by a factor of 1.33, omitting other loads.
(e) If a pressurized cabin has two or
more compartments separated by bulk
heads or a floor, the primary structure
must be designed for the effects of Sud
den release of pressure in any compart
ment with external doors or windows.
This condition must be investigated for
the effects of failure of the largest open
ing in the compartment. The effects of
intercompartmental venting may be con
Sidered.
§ 23.367 Unsymmetrical loads due to
engine failure.
(a) Turbopropeller airplanes must be
designed for the unsymmetrical loads
resulting from the failure of the critical
engine including the following conditions
in combination with a single malfunc
tion of the propeller drag limiting sys
tem, considering the probable pilot cor
rective action on the flight controls:
(1) At Speeds between Wyc and Vo,
the loads resulting from power failure
because of fuel flow interruption are con
sidered to be limit loads.
(2) At Speeds between Vºic and Vc, the
loads resulting from the disconnection
of the engine compressor from the tur
bine or from loss of the turbine blades
are Considered to be ultimate loads.
(3) The time history of the thrust
decay and drag buildup occurring as a
result of the prescribed engine failures
must be substantiated by test or other
data applicable to the particular engine
propeller combination.
(4) The timing and magnitude of the
probable pilot corrective action must be
conservatively estimated, considering the
characteristics of the particular engine
propeller-airplane combination.
(b) Pilot corrective action may be as
Sumed to be initiated at the time maxi
mum yawing velocity is reached, but not
earlier than 2 seconds after the engine
failure. The magnitude of the corrective
action may be based on the limit pilot
forces specified in § 23.397 except that
lower forces may be assumed where it is
shown by analysis or test that these
forces can control the yaw and roll re
Sulting from the prescribed engine fail
ure conditions.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13089, Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.369 Special conditions for rear lift
truss.
(a) If a rear lift truss is used, it must
be designed for conditions of reversed
airflow at a design speed of—
V= 8.7VW/S-1-8.7(knots)
(b) Either aerodynamic data for the
particular wing section used, or a value
of C, equalling –0.8 with a chordwise
distribution that is triangular between a
peak at the trailing edge and Zero at
the leading edge, must be used.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13089,
Aug. 13, 1969; 34 F.R. 17509, Oct. 30, 1969]
§ 23.371 Gyroscopic loads.
For turbopropeller powered airplanes,
each engine mount and its Supporting
Structure must be designed for the gyro
scopic loads that result, with the engines
at maximum continuous r.p.m., under
either of the following conditions:
(a) The conditions prescribed in
§§ 23.351 and 23.423.
(b) All possible combinations of the
following:
(1) A yaw velocity of 2.5 radians per
Second.
(2) A pitch velocity of 1 radian per
Second.
(3) A normal load factor of 2.5.
(4) Maximum continuous thrust.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13089, Aug. 18, 1969]
§ 23.373 Speed control devices.
If speed control devices (such as spoil
ers and drag flaps) are incorporated for
use in enroute conditions—
(a) The airplane must be designed
for the symmetrical maneuvers and gusts
prescribed in §§ 23.333, 23.337, and
23.341, and the yawing maneuvers and
lateral gusts in §§ 23.441 and 23.443,
with the device extended at Speeds up to
the placard device extended speed; and
(b) If the device has automatic Oper
ating or load limiting features, the air
plane must be designed for the maneuver
and gust conditions prescribed in para
graph (a) of this section at the Speeds
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
and corresponding device positions that
the mechanism allows.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13089, Aug. 13, 1969]
CoNTROL SURFACE AND SYSTEM LOADS
§ 23.391 Control surface loads.
(a) The control Surface loads Speci
fied in §§ 23.397 through 23.459 are as
Sumed to occur in the conditions de
Scribed in §§ 23.331 through 23.351.
(b) If allowed by the following sec
! E:
tions, the values of control surface load
intº
ing in Appendix B of this part may be
used, instead of particular control Sur
face data, to determine the detailed ra
tional requirements of §§ 23.397 through
º:
23.459, unless these values result in un
is
realistic loads.
Tºri
§ 23.395 Control system.
ſtºl
(a) Each flight control system and its
supporting structure must be designed
for loads corresponding to at least 125
percent of the computed hinge moments
of the movable control surface in the
conditions prescribed in §§ 23.391
through 23.459. In addition, the follow
ing apply:
(1) The system limit loads need not
exceed the higher of the loads that can
be produced by the pilot and automatic
devices operating the controls. How
ever, autopilot forces need not be added
to pilot forces. The system must be de
signed for the maximum effort of the
pilot or autopilot, whichever is higher.
In addition, if the pilot and the auto
pilot act in opposition, the part of the
system between them may be designed
for the maximum effort of the one that
imposes the lesser load. Pilot forces used
for design need not exceed the maximum
forces prescribed in § 23.397 (b).
(2) The design must, in any case,
provide a rugged System for Service use,
considering jamming, ground gusts, taxi
ing downwind, control inertia, and
friction. Compliance with this subpar
agraph may be shown by designing
for loads resulting from application of
the minimum forces prescribed in
§ 23.397 (b).
(b) A 125 percent factor on computed
hinge moments must be used to design
elevator, aileron, and rudder systems.
However, a factor as low as 1.0 may be
used if hinge moments are based on ac
curate flight test data, the exact reduc
tion depending upon the accuracy and
reliability of the data.
99
§ 23.399
(c) Pilot forces used for design are as
Sumed to act at the appropriate control
grips or pads as they would in flight, and
to react at the attachments of the con
trol system to the control Surface horns.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13089,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.397 Limit pilot forces.
(a) In the control Surface flight
loading condition, the airloads on mov
able surfaces and the corresponding
deflections need not exceed those that
would result in flight from the applica
tion of any pilot force within the ranges
specified in paragraph (b) of this Sec
tion. In applying this criterion, the ef
fects of control System boost and servo
mechanisms, and the effects of tabs must
be considered. The automatic pilot ef
fort must be used for design if it alone
can produce higher control surface loads
than the human pilot.
(b) The limit pilot forces are as
follows:
Maximum forces
for design
Control weight W equal Minimum forces *
to or less than
5,000 pounds 1
Aileron:
67 pounds---------|
Stick-------- 40 pounds.
Wheel j . ---- 50 pounds--------- 40 pounds."
Elevator:
Stick-------- 167 pounds-------- 100 pounds.
Wheel------- 200 pounds- --| 100 pounds.
Rudder-----| 200 pounds-------- 130 pounds.
1 For design weight (W) more than 5,000 pounds, the
specified maximum values must be increased linearly
with weight to 1.18 times the specified values at a design
weight of 12,500 pounds.
* If the design of any individual set cf control systems
or surfaces makes these specified minimum forces in
applicable, values corresponding to the pertinent hinge
moments obtained under § 23.415, but not less than 0.6
of the specified minimum forces, may be used.
* The critical parts of the aileron control system
must also be designed for a single tangential force with a
limit value of 1.25 times the couple force determined from
the above criteria.
* The force must be applied simultaneously to opposite
sides of the wheel and in opposite directions.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13089,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.399 Dual control system.
Each dual control system must be de
signed for the pilots operating in opposi
tion, using individual pilot forces not less
than—
(a) 0.75 times those obtained under
§ 23.395; or
§ 23.405 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(b) The minimum forces specified in
§ 23.397 (b).
§ 23.405 Secondary control system.
Secondary controls, such as wheel
brakes, spoilers, and tab controls, must
be designed for the maximum forces that
a pilot is likely to apply to those controls.
§ 23.407 Trim tab effects.
The effects of trim tabs on the con
trol surface design conditions must be
accounted for only where the surface
loads are limited by maximum pilot ef
fort. In these cases, the tabs are Con
sidered to be deflected in the direction
that would assist the pilot. These de
flections must correspond to the maxi
mum degree of “out of trim” expected at
the Speed for the condition under con
sideration.
§ 23.409 Tabs.
Control Surface tabs must be designed
for the most severe combination of air
speed and tab deflection likely to be
obtained within the flight envelope for
any usable loading condition.
§ 23.415 Ground gust conditions.
(a) The control system must be inves
tigated as follows for control surface
loads due to ground gusts and taxiing
downwind:
(1) If an investigation of the control
System for ground gust loads is not re
quired by subparagraph (2) of this para
graph, but the applicant elects to design
a part of the control system of these
loads, these loads need only be carried
from control surface horns through the
nearest stops or gust locks and their
supporting structures.
(2) If pilot forces less than the mini
Imums Specified in § 23.397 (b) are used
for design, the effects of surface loads
due to ground gusts and taxiing down
wind must be investigated for the entire
control system according to the formula:
H=KcSq
where—
H = limit hinge moment (ft.-lbs.);
c = means chord of the control surface aft
of the hinge line (ft.);
S= area of control surface aft of the hinge
line (sq. ft.);
q = Dynamic pressure (p.s.f.) based on a
design speed not less than 14.6 VW/S
+ 14.6 (f.p.s.) except that the design
speed need not exceed 88 (f.p.s.); and
100
K= limit hinge moment factor for ground
gusts derived in paragraph (b) of
this section. (For ailerons and ele
vators, a positive value of K indi
cates a moment tending to depress
the surface and a negative value
of K indicates a moment tending to
raise the surface).
(b) The limit hinge moment factor K.
for ground gusts must be derived as fol
lows:
Surface K Position of controls
(a) Aileron------ 0.75 Control column locked ºr
lashed in mid-position.
(b) Aileron----- +0.50 | Ailerons at full throw;
+ moment on one aileron,
(c) ś
{(c) Elevator
-
full up º
(–).
{{Elevator.... +0.75 |}} fººt).
(e) | º 25 || (e) Rudder in neutral.
tº Rudder-----|=0.75 ºf, fºr at fºllºw.
|Docket No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 FR 13089,
Aug. 13, 1969]
HORIZONTAL TAIL SURFACES
§ 23.421 Balancing loads.
(a) A horizontal tail balancing load
is a load necessary to maintain equi
librium in any specified flight condition
with no pitching acceleration.
(b) Horizontal tail surfaces must be
designed for the balancing loads occur
ring at any point on the limit maneuver
ing envelope and in the flap conditions
specified in § 23.345. The distribution in
figure B6 of Appendix B may be used.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 FR 13089,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.423 Maneuvering loads.
Each horizontal tail surface must be
designed for maneuvering loads imposed
by the following conditions:
(a) A sudden deflection of the elevator
control, at VA, to (1) the maximum up
ward deflection, and (2) the maximum
downward deflection, as limited by the
control stops, or pilot effort, whichever
is critical. The average loading of
B23.11 of Appendix B and the distribu
tion in figure B7 of Appendix B may
be used.
(b) A sudden upward deflection of the
elevator, at speeds above VA, followed by
a downward deflection of the elevator.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
resulting in the following combinations
of normal and angular acceleration:
Condition Normal Angular acceleration
acceleration (n) (radian/sec.”)
Down load------ 1.0------------
39
+; n = (ha-1.5)
39
Upload--------- 71 m ------------ –7 n- (nº-1.5)
where—
(i) n--positive limit maneuvering load factor used in
the design of the airplane; and
(2) V-initial speed in knots.
The conditions in this paragraph involve
loads corresponding to the loads that
may occur in a “checked maneuver” (a
maneuver in which the pitching control
is suddenly displaced in one direction
and then suddenly moved in the opposite
direction), the deflections and timing
avoiding exceeding the limit maneuver
ing load factor. The total tail load for
both down and up load conditions is the
sum of the balancing tail loads at
V and the specified value of the normal
load factor n, plus the maneuvering load
increment due to the specified value of
the angular acceleration. The maneu
vering load increment in figure B2 of AP
pendix B and the distributions in figure
B7 (for downloads) and in figure B8 (for
up loads) of Appendix B may be used.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13089,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.425 Gust loads.
(a) Each horizontal tail surface must
be designed for loads resulting from
(1) Gust velocities specified in § 23.333
(c) with flaps retracted; and
(2) Positive and negative gusts of 25
f.p.s. nominal intensity at Wr correspond
ing to the flight conditions Specified in
§ 23.345(a)(2).
(b) The average loadings in figures
B3 and B4 of Appendix B and the dis
tribution in figure B8 of Appendix B may
be used instead of the requirements of
paragraph (a) (1) of this section.
(c) When determining the total load
on the horizontal tail for the conditions
specified in paragraph (a) of this sec
tion, the initial balancing tail loads for
steady unaccelerated flight at the perti
nent design speeds VF, Vc, and VD must
first be determined. The incremental
101
§ 23.427
tall load resulting from the gusts must be
added to the initial balancing tail load
to obtain the total tail load.
(d) In the absence of a more rational
analysis, the incremental tail load due
to the gust must be computed as follows:
al.,eº U4, Want *(·-)
498 da
where—
ALA = Incremental horizontal tail
load (1bs.);
Kr – Gust alleviation factor defined
in section 23.341;
Ua. = Derived gust velocity (f.p.s.);
V= A i r plane equivalent speed
(knots);
as t = Slope of horizontal tail lift
curve (per radian);
Snt - Area of horizontal tail (ft.*);
and
1– de -
da JT Downwash factor.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13089,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.427 Unsymmetrical loads.
(a) Horizontal tail surfaces and their
Supporting structure must be designed
for unsymmetrical loads arising from
yawing and slipstream effects, in com
bination with the loads prescribed for
the flight conditions set forth in §§23.-
421 through 23.425.
(b) In the absence of more rational
data for airplanes that are conventional
in regard to location of engines, wings,
tail surfaces, and fuselage shape:
(1) 100 percent of the maximum load
ing from the symmetrical flight condi
tions may be assumed on the surface
ºlºne Side of the plane of symmetry;
a Il
(2) The following percentage of that
loading must be applied to the opposite
Side:
Percent– 100–10 (n-1), where n is the
Specified positive maneuvering load factor,
but this value may not be more than 80
percent.
(c) For airplanes that are not con
ventional (such as airplanes with hori
Zontal tail Surfaces having appreciable
dihedral or supported by the vertical tail
Surfaces) the Surfaces and supporting
structures must be designed for com
bined vertical and horizontal surface
loads resulting from each prescribed
flight condition taken separately.
[Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31820, Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.441 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
VERTICAL TAIL SURFACES
§ 23.441 Maneuvering loads.
(a) As speeds up to VA, the vertical tail
surfaces must be designed to withstand
the following conditions. In computing
the tail loads, the yawing velocity may
be assumed to be Zero:
(1) With the airplane in unaccelerated
flight at zero yaw, it is assumed that the
rudder control is suddenly displaced to
the maximum deflection, as limited by
the control stops or by limit pilot forces.
(2) With the rudder deflected as speci
fied in paragraph (a) (1) of this section,
it is assumed that the airplane yaws to
the resulting sideslip angle. In lieu of a
rational analysis, an overswing angle
equal to 1.3 times the static sideslip angle
of paragraph (a) (3) of this Section may
be assumed.
(3) A yaw angle of 15 degrees With the
rudder control maintained in the neutral
position (except as limited by pilot
strength).
(b) The average loading of B23.11
and figure B1 of Appendix B and the dis
tribution in figures B6, B7, and B8 of Ap
pendix B may be used instead of the
requirements of subparagraphs (a) (1),
(a) (2), and (a) (3), respectively.
(c) The yaw angles specified in para
graph (a) (3) of this section may be re
duced if the yaw angle chosen for a par
ticular speed cannot be exceeded in
(1) Steady slip conditions;
(2) Uncoordinated rolls from steep
banks; or
(3) Sudden failure of the critical en
gine with delayed corrective action.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964.
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13090,
Aug. 13, 1969; Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31821,
Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.443 Gust loads.
(a) Vertical tail surfaces must be de
signed to withstand, in unaccelerated
flight at speed Vc, lateral gusts of the
values prescribed for Vc in § 23.333 (c).
(b) In the absence of a more rational
analysis, the gust load must be computed
as follows:
Kat Ude Vart Set
Let = 498
where—
Let = Vertical tail load (lbs.);
R y
= —— [ T. J–lateral mass ratio;
**** aloa, S., \ 11
U4. = Derived gust velocity (f.p.s.);
102
p= Air density (slugs/cu. ft.);
W= Airplane weight (lbs.);
Set = Area of vertical tail (ft.”);
Ct = Mean geometric chord of vertical
surface (ft.);
art = Lift curve slope of vertical tail (per
radian);
K= Radius of gyration in yaw (ft.);
1 * = Distance from airplane c.g. to lift
center of vertical surface (ft.);
g= Acceleration due to gravity (ft./
sec.”); and
V= Airplane equivalent speed (knots).
(c) The average loading in figure B5
and the distribution in figure B8 of
Appendix B may be used.
|Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13090, Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.445 Outboard fins.
(a) If outboard fins are on the hori
zontal tail Surface, the tail surfages must
be designed for the maximum horizontal
surface load in combination with the
corresponding loads induced on the
vertical surfaces by endplate effects.
These induced effects need not be com
bined with other vertical surface loads.
(b) If outboard fins extend above and
below the horizontal surface, the critical
vertical surface loading (the load per
unit area as determined under §§ 23.441
and 23.443 must be applied to
(1) The part of the vertical surfaces
above the horizontal surface with 80 per
cent of that loading applied to the part
below the horizontal surface; and
(2) The part of the vertical surfaces
below the horizontal surface with 80 per
cent of that loading applied to the part
above the horizontal surface.
(c) The end plate effects of outboard
fins must be taken into account in ap
plying the yawing conditions of § 23.441
and § 23.443 to the vertical surfaces in
paragraph (b) of this section.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31821,
Nov. 19, 1973]
AILERONS, WING FLAPS, AND SPECIAL
DEVICES
§ 23.455 Ailerons.
(a) The ailerons must be designed for
the loads to which they are subjected—
(1) In the neutral position during
symmetrical flight conditions; and
(2) By the following deflections (ex
cept as limited by pilot effort), during
unsymmetrical flight conditions:
(i) Sudden maximum displacement of
the aileron control at WA. Suitable al
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
lowance may be made for control System
deflections.
(ii) Sufficient deflection at Vo, where
vo is more than Va., to produce a rate
of roll not less than obtained in Sub
paragraph (2) (1).
(iii) Sufficient deflection at WD to pro
duce a rate of roll not less than one-third
of that obtained in subparagraph (2) (1).
(b) The average loading in § B23.11
and figure B1 of Appendix B and the
distribution in figure B9 of Appendix B
may be used.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13090,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.457 Wing flaps.
(a) The wing flaps, their operating
mechanisms, and their supporting struct
tures must be designed for critical loads
occurring in the flaps-extended flight
conditions with the flaps in any position.
However, if an automatic flap load limit
ing device is used, these components may
be designed for the critical combinations
of airspeed and flap position allowed by
that device. -
(b) The effects of propeller slip
stream, corresponding to takeoff power,
must be taken into account at not less
than 1.4 vs, where Vs is the computed
stalling speed with flaps fully retracted
at the design weight. For the investiga
tion of slipstream effects, the load factor
may be assumed to be 1.0.
§ 23.459 Special devices.
The loading for special devices using
aerodynamic surfaces (such as slots and
spoilers) must be determined from test
data.
GROUND LOADS
§ 23.471 General.
The limit ground loads specified in
this subpart are considered to be exter
nal loads and inertia forces that act
upon an airplane structure. In each
specified ground load condition, the ex
ternal reactions must be placed in equi
librium with the linear and angular in
ertia forces in a rational or conservative
manner.
s 23.473 Ground load conditions and
assumptions.
(a) The ground load requirements of
this subpart must be complied with at
the design maximum weight except that
5 § 23.479, 23.481, and 23.483 may be com
plied with at a design landing weight
103
§ 23.473
(the highest weight for landing condi
tions at the maximum descent velocity)
allowed under paragraphs (b) and (c) of
this Section.
(b) The design landing weight may be
as low as–
(1) 95 percent of the maximum weight
if the minimum fuel capacity is enough
for at least one-half hour of operation at
maximum continuous power plus a
Capacity equal to a fuel weight which is
the difference between the design maxi
mum Weight and the design landing
Weight; or
(2) The design maximum weight less
the weight of 25 percent of the total fuel
Capacity.
(c) The design landing weight of a
multiengine airplane may be less than
that allowed under paragraph (b) of
this section if–
(1) The airplane meets the one
engine-inoperative climb requirements
of § 23.67 (a) or (b) (1); and
(2) Compliance is shown with the fuel
jettisoning system requirements of
§ 23.1001.
(d) The selected limit vertical inertia
load factor at the center of gravity of the
airplane for the ground load conditions
prescribed in this subpart may not be
less than that which would be obtained
when landing with a descent velocity
(V), in feet per second, equal to 4.4
(W/S)”, except that this velocity need
not be more than 10 feet per second and
. not be less than seven feet per sec
OnCl.
(e) Wing lift not exceeding two-thirds
of the weight of the airplane may be as
sumed to exist throughout the landing
impact and to act through the center of
gravity. The ground reaction load fac
tor may be equal to the inertia load
factor minus the ratio of the above as
Sumed Wing lift to the airplane weight.
(f) Energy absorption tests (to de
termine the limit load factor correspond
ing to the required limit descent Veloci
ties) must be made under § 23.725.
(g) No inertia load factor used for
design purposes may be less than 2.67,
nor may the limit ground reaction load
factor be less than 2.0 at design maxi
mum weight, unless these lower values
will not be exceeded in taxiing at speeds
up to takeoff speed over terrain as rough
as that expected in service.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13090,
Aug. 13. 1969]
§ 23,477 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 23.477 Landing gear arrangement.
Sections 23.479 through 23.483, or the
conditions in Appendix C, apply to air
planes with conventional arrangements
of main and nose gear, or main and tail
gear.
§ 23.479 Level landing conditions.
(a) For a level landing, the airplane
is assumed to be in the following atti
tudes:
(1) For airplanes with tail wheels, a
normal level flight attitude.
(2) For airplanes with nose wheels,
attitudes in which—
(i) The nose and main wheels contact
the ground simultaneously; and
(ii) The main wheels contact
ground and the nose wheel is just clear
of the ground.
The attitude used in Subdivision (1) of
this subparagraph may be used in the
analysis required under subdivision (ii)
of this subparagraph.
(b) When investigating landing condi
tions, the drag components simulating
the forces required to accelerate the tires
and wheels up to the landing speed must
be properly combined with the corre
sponding instantaneous vertical ground
reactions, assuming wing lift and a tire
sliding coefficient of friction of 0.8. How
ever, the drag loads may not be less than
25 percent of the maximum vertical
ground reactions (neglecting wing lift).
(c) In determining the wheel spin-up
loads for landing conditions, the method
set forth in Appendix D or the arbitrary
drag components in Appendix C must be
used. However, if Appendix D is used,
the 25 percent value for the minimum
drag component must be used.
§ 23.481 Tail down landing conditions.
(a) For a tail down landing, the air
plane is assumed to be in the following
attitudes:
(1) For airplanes with tail wheels, an
attitude in which the main and tail
wheels contact the ground simultane
ously.
(2) For airplanes with nose wheels, a
stalling attitude, or the maximum angle
allowing ground clearance by each part
of the airplane, whichever is less.
(b) For airplanes with either tail or
nose wheels, ground reactions are as
sumed to be vertical, with the wheels up
to speed before the maximum vertical
load is attained.
§ 23.483. One-wheel landing conditions.
For the one-wheel landing condition,
the airplane is assumed to be in the level
attitude and to contact the ground on
One side of the main landing gear. In
this attitude, the ground reactions must
be the same as those obtained on that
Side under § 23.479.
§ 23.485 Side load conditions.
(a) For the side load condition, the
airplane is assumed to be in a level atti
tude With only the main wheels contact
ing the ground and with the shock ab
sorbers and tires in their static positions.
(b) The limit vertical load factor must
be 1.33, with the vertical ground reac
the
tion divided equally between the main
Wheels.
(c) The limit side inertia factor must
be 0.83, with the side ground reaction
divided between the main wheels so
that—
(1) 0.5 (W) is acting inboard on one
side; and
(2) 0.33 (W) is acting outboard on the
other side.
§ 23.493 Braked roll conditions.
Under braked roll conditions, with the
shock absorbers and tires in their static
positions, the following apply:
(a) The limit Vertical load factor must
be 1.33.
(b) The attitudes and ground con
tacts must be those described in § 23.479
for level landings.
(c) A drag reaction equal to the ver
tical reaction at the wheel multiplied by
a coefficient of friction of 0.8 must be
applied at the ground contact point of
each wheel with brakes, except that the
drag reaction need not exceed the maxi
mum value based on limiting brake
torque.
§ 23.497 Supplementary conditions for
tail wheels.
In determining the ground loads on
the tail wheel and affected supporting
structures, the following apply:
(a) For the obstruction load, the limit
ground reaction obtained in the tail
down landing condition is assumed to
act up and aft through the axle at 45
degrees. The shock absorber and tire
may be assumed to be in their static
positions.
(b) For the side load, a limit vertical
ground reaction equal to the static load
1().
 Chapter l—Federal Aviction Administration
on the tail wheel, in combination with
a side component of equal magnitude,
is assumed. In addition—
(1) If a swivel is used, the tail wheel
is assumed to be swiveled 90 degrees to
the airplane longitudinal axis with the
resultant ground load passing through
the axle;
(2) If a lock, steering device, or shim
my damper is used, the tail wheel is also
assumed to be in the trailing position
with the side load acting at the ground
contact point; and
(3) The shock absorber and tire are
assumed to be in their static positions.
§ 23.499 Supplementary conditions for
nose wheels.
In determining the ground loads on
nose wheels and affected supporting
structures, and assuming that the shock
absorbers and tires are in their static
positions, the following conditions must
be met:
(a) For aft loads, the limit force com
ponents at the axle must be—
(1) A vertical component of 2.25 times
the static load on the wheel; and
(2) A drag component of 0.8 times the
vertical load.
(b) For forward loads, the limit force
components at the axle must be—
(1) A vertical component of 2.25 times
the static load on the Wheel; and
(2) A forward component of 0.4 times
the vertical load.
(c) For side loads, the limit force com
ponents at ground contact must be—
(1) A vertical component of 2.25 times
the static load on the wheel; and
(2) A side component of 0.7 times
the vertical load.
§ 23.505 Supplementary conditions for
skiplanes.
In determining ground loads for ski
planes, and assuming that the airplane
is resting on the ground with one main
ski frozen at rest and the other skis free
to slide, a limit side force equal to 0.036
times the design maximum weight must
be applied near the tail assembly, with
a factor of Safety of 1.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13090, Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.507 Jacking loads.
(a) The airplane must be designed for
the loads developed when the aircraft
30–059–75 8
105
§ 23.509
is supported on jacks at the design maxi
mum Weight assuming the following load
factors for landing gear jacking points
at a three-point attitude and for primary
flight structure jacking points in the
level attitude:
(1) Vertical-load factor of 1.35 times
the static reactions.
(2) Fore, aft, and lateral load factors
of 0.4 times the vertical static reactions.
(b) The horizontal loads at the jack
points must be reacted by inertia forces
So as to result in no change in the direc
tion of the resultant loads at the jack
points.
(c) The horizontal loads must be con
Sidered in all combinations with the ver
tical load.
[Amdt. No. 23–14, 88 FR 31821, Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.509 Towing loads.
The towing loads of this section must
be applied to the design of tow fittings
and their immediate attaching structure.
(a) The towing loads specified in para
graph (d) of this section must be con
Sidered separately. These loads must be
applied at the towing fittings and must
act parallel to the ground. In addition:
(1) A vertical load factor equal to 1.0
must be considered acting at the center
of gravity; and
(2) The shock struts and tires must be
in there static positions.
(b) For towing points not on the land
ing gear but near the plane of Symmetry
of the airplane, the drag and side tow
load components specified for the auxil
iary gear apply. For towing points located
outboard of the main gear, the drag and
Side tow load components Specified for
the main gear apply. Where the Specified
angle of swivel cannot be reached, the
maximum obtainable angle must be used.
(c) The towing loads specified in para
graph (d) of this section must be re
acted as follows:
(1) The side component of the towing
load at the main gear must be reacted
by a side force at the static ground line
of the wheel to which the load is applied.
(2) The towing loads at the auxiliary
gear and the drag components of the
towing loads at the main gear must be
reacted as follows:
(i) A reaction with a maximum value
equal to the vertical reaction must be
applied at the axle of the wheel to which
the load is applied. Enough airplane
§ 23.511 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
inertia to achieve equilibrium must be (d) The prescribed towing loads are
applied. as follows, where W is the design maxi
(ii) The loads must be reacted by air mum Weight:
plane inertia.
Load
Tow point Position
Magnitude No Direction

1 Forward, parallel to drag axis.

Main gear---------------------------------- 0.225W per main gear 2 Forward, at 30° to drag axis.
ullit. 3. Aft, parallel to drag axis.
4 Aſt, at 30° to drag axis.
Swiveled forward----- 5 Forward.
6 Aft.
—ſO.3W-------------------
Swiveled Aſt---------- 7 Forward.
8 Aſt.
Auxiliary Gear-----
Swiveled 45° from 9 Forward, in plane of wheel.
forward. 10 Aſt, in plane of wheel.
—}0.15W------------------
Swiveled 45° from 11 Forward, in plane of wheel.
aſt. 12 Aſt, in plane of wheel.

[Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31821, Nov. 19, 1973]

§ 23.511 Ground load; unsymmetrical
loads on multiple-wheel units.
(a) Pivoting loads. The airplane is as
sumed to pivot about on side of the main
gear with—
(1) The brakes on the pivoting unit
locked; and
(2) Loads corresponding to a limit Ver
tical load factor of 1, and coefficient of
friction of 0.8, applied to the main gear
and its supporting structure.
(b) Unequal tire loads. The loads es
tablished under §§ 23.471 through 23.483
must be applied in turn, in a 60/40 per
cent distribution, to the dual wheels and
tires in each dual wheel landing gear
unit.
(c) Deflated tire loads. For the de
flated tire condition—
(1) 60 percent of the loads established
under §§ 23.471 through 23.483 must be
applied in turn to each wheel in a landing
gear unit; and
(2) 60 percent of the limit drag and
side loads, and 100 percent of the limit
vertical load established under §§ 23.485
and 23.493 or lesser vertical load obtained
under subparagraph (1) of this para
graph, must be applied in turn to each
wheel in the dual wheel landing gear unit.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13090, Aug. 13, 1969]
WATER LOADS
§ 23.521 Water load conditions.
likely to occur in normal operation at
appropriate forward and sinking veloc
ities under the most severe sea conditions
likely to be encountered.
(b) Unless the applicant makes a
rational analysis of the water loads, or
uses the standards in ANC-3, §§ 25.523
through 25.537 of this chapter apply.
(c) Floats certificated under Part 4a
of this chapter before November 9, 1945,
may be installed on airplanes that are
designed under this part.
EMERGENCYLANDING CONDITIONS
§ 23.561 General.
(a) The airplane, although it may be
damaged in emergency landing condi
tions, must be designed as prescribed in
this section to protect each occupant
under those conditions.
(b) The structure must be designed to
give each occupant every reasonable
chance of escaping serious injury in a
minor crash landing when—
(1) Proper use is made of belts or
harnesses provided for in the design; and
(2) The occupant experiences the ulti
mate inertia forces shown in the follow
ing table:
ULTIMATE INERTIA Forces
Normal and || Acrobatic
utility category
categories

(a) The structure of seaplanes and

Upward--------------------- 3.
amphibians must be designed for water Forward-------- 9. º :;
loads developed during takeoff and land Sideward-------------------- 1.59 i&
ing with the seaplane in any attitude
106
 Chapter I—Federal Aviation Administration
(c) Each airplane with retractable
landing gear must be designed to protect
each occupant in a landing
(1) With the wheels retracted;
(2) With moderate descent velocity;
and
(3) Assuming, in the absence of a
more rational analysis—
(i) A downward ultimate inertia force
of 3g; and
(ii) A coefficient of friction of 0.5 at
the ground.
(d) If a turnover is reasonably prob
able, the structure must be designed to
protect the occupants in a complete
turnover, assuming, in the absence of a
more rational analysis
(1) An upward ultimate inertia force
of 3g; and
(2) A coefficient of friction of 0.5 at
the ground.
(e) Except as provided in § 23.787 the
supporting structure must be designed to
restrain, under loads up to those spec
ified in paragraph (b) (2) of this section,
each item of mass that could injure an
occupant if it came loose in a minor
crash landing.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 FIR. 13090,
Aug. 13, 1969)
FATIGUE EVALUATION
§ 23.571 Pressurized cabin.
The strength, detail design, and fabri
cation of the pressure cabin structure
must be evaluated under either of the
following:
(a) A fatigue strength investigation,
in which the structure is shown by anal
ysis, tests, or both to be able to withstand
the repeated loads of variable magnitude
expected in service. Analysis, alone iS
considered acceptable only when it is
conservative and applied to simple struc
tureS.
(b) A fail safe strength investigation,
in which it is shown by analysis, tests,
or both that catastrophic failure of the
structure is not probable after fatigue
failure, or obvious partial failure, of a
principal structural element, and that
the remaining structures are able to
withstand a static ultimate load factor
of 75 percent of the limit load factor at
vo, considering the combined effects of
normal operating pressures, expected ex
ternal aerodynamic pressures, and flight
loads. These loads must be multiplied
by a factor of 1.15 unless the dynamic
107
§ 23.603
effects of failure under static load are
otherwise considered.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31821,
Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.572 Wing and associated structure.
(a) The strength, detail design, and
fabrication of those parts of the wing,
Wing carrythrough, and attaching struc
ture whose failure would be catastrophic
must be evaluated under either of the
following unless it is shown that the
Structure, operating stress level, mate
rials, and expected use are comparable,
from a fatigue standpoint, to a similar
design that has had extensive satisfac
tory Service experience:
(1) A fatigue strength investigation,
in which the structure is shown by anal
ysis, tests, or both, to be able to with
Stand the repeated loads of variable
magnitude expected in service. Analysis
alone is acceptable only when it is
Conservative and applied to simple
structures.
(2) A fail safe strength investigation
in which it is shown by analysis, tests, or
both, that catastrophic failure of the
structure is not probable after fatigue
failure, or obvious partial failure, of a
principal Structural element, and that the
remaining Structure is able to withstand
a static ultimate load factor of 75 percent
of the critical limit load factor at V.
These loads must be multiplied by a fac
tor of 1.15 unless the dynamic effects of
failure under static load are otherwise
considered.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 FR 13090, Aug. 13, 1969,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31821,
Nov. 19, 1973]
Subpart D—Design and Construction
§ 23.601 General.
The suitability of each questionable
design detail and part having an impor
tant bearing on safety in operations,
must be established by tests.
§ 23.603 Materials and workmanship.
(a) The suitability and durability of
materials used in the structure must
be—
(1) Established by experience or tests;
and
(2) Meet approved specifications that
ensure their having the strength and
other properties assumed in the design
data.
(b) Workmanship must be of a high
standard.
§ 23.605 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 23.605 Fabrication methods.
The methods of fabrication used must
produce consistently Sound structures.
If a fabrication process (such as gluing,
spot welding, or heat-treating) requires
close control to reach this objective, the
process must be performed under an
approved process specification.
§ 23.607 Self-locking nuts.
No self-locking nut may be used on
any bolt subject to rotation in operation.
§ 23.609 Protection of structure.
Each part of the structure must—
(a) Be suitably protected against de
terioration or loss of strength in service
due to any cause, including—
(1) Weathering;
(2) Corrosion; and
(3) Abrasion; and
(b) Have adequate provisions for ven
tilation and drainage.
§ 23.611 Accessibility.
Means must be provided to allow in
spection (including inspection of prin
cipal structural elements and control
systems), close examination, repair, and
replacement of each part requiring main
tenance, adjustments for proper align
ment and function, lubrication or
servicing.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13090, Aug. 13, 1969)
§ 23.613 Material strength properties
and design values.
(a) Material strength properties must
be based on enough tests of materia
meeting specifications to establish design
values on a statistical basis.
(b) The design values must be chosen
so that the probability of any structure
being understrength because of material
variations is extremely remote.
(c) Unless they are inapplicable in a
particular case, the design values must
be those contained in the following pub
lications (obtainable from the Superin
tendent of Documents, Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C.,
20402) :
MIL-HDBK-5, “Metallic Materials and Ele
ments for Flight Vehicle Structure”;
MIL-HDBK-17, “Plastics for Flight Vehicles”;
ANC–18, “Design of Wood Aircraft Struc
tures”: and
MIL-HDBK-23, “Composite Construction for
Flight vehicles”.
§ 23.615 Design properties.
(a) Design properties outlined in
MIL-HDBK-5 may be used subject to
10S
the following conditions:
(1) Where applied loads are eventu
ally distributed through a single member
within an assembly, the failure of which
would result in the loss of the structural
integrity of the component involved, the
guaranteed minimum design mechanical
properties (“A” values) when listed in
MIL-HDBK-5 must be met.
(2) Redundant structures in which
the partial failure of individual elements
Would result in applied loads being safely
distributed to other load carrying mem
bers may be designed on the basis of the
“90 percent probability” (“B” values)
when listed in MIL-HDBK-5. Examples
of these items are sheet-stiffener com
binations and multirivet or multiple-bolt
connections.
(b) Design values greater than the
guaranteed minimums required by para
graph (a) of this section may be used if a
“premium selection” of the material is
made in which a specimen of each in
dividual item is tested before use to
determine that the actual strength prop
eruies of that particular item will equal
or exceed those used in design.
(c) Material correction factors for
Structural items such as sheets, sheet
Stringer Combinations, and riveted
joints, may be omitted if sufficient test
data are obtained to allow a probability
analysis showing that 90 percent or more
of the elements will equal or exceed al
lowable selected design values.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964.
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13090,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.619 Special factors.
The factor of safety prescribed in
§ 23.303 must be multiplied by the high
est pertinent special factors of safety
prescribed in §§ 23.621 through 23.625 for
each part of the structure whose
strength is—
(a) Uncertain;
(b) Likely to deteriorate in service be
fore normal replacement; or
(c) Subject to appreciable variability
because of uncertainties in manufac
turing processes or inspection methods.
[Amdt. No. 28–7, 34 F.R. 13091, Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.621 Casting factors.
(a) General. The factors, tests, and
inspections specified in paragraphs (b)
through (d) of this section must be ap
plied in addition to those necessary to
establish foundry quality control. The
inspections must meet approved specifi
cations. Paragraphs (c) and (d) of this
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
Section apply to any structural castings
except castings that are pressure tested
as parts of hydraulic or other fluid sys
tems and do not support structural loads.
(b) Bearing stresses and surfaces.
The casting factors specified in para
graphs (c) and (d) of this section—
(1) Need not exceed 1.25 with respect
to bearing stresses regardless of the
method of inspection used; and
(2) Need not be used with respect to
the bearing surfaces of a part whose
bearing factor is larger than the appli
cable casting factor.
(C) Critical castings. For each cast
ing whose failure would preclude con
tinued safe flight and landing of the
airplane or result in serious injury to
occupants, the following apply:
(1) Each critical casting must—
(i) Have a casting factor of not less
than 1.25; and
(ii) Receive 100 percent inspection
by visual, radiographic, and magnetic
particle or penetrant inspection methods
or approved equivalent nondestructive
inspection methods.
(2) For each critical casting with a
casting factor less than 1.50, three
sapople castings must be static tested and
shown to meet—
(i) The strength requirements of
§ 23.305 at an ultimate load correspond
ing to a casting factor of 1.25; and
(ii) The deformation requirements of
§ 23.305 at a load of 1.15 times the limit
load.
(3) Examples of these castings are
structural attachment fittings, parts of
flight control Systems, control surface
hinges and balance weight attachments,
seat, berth, Safety belt, and fuel and oil
tank Supports and attachments, and
cabin pressure valves.
(d) Noncritical castings. For each
casting other than those specified in
paragraph (c) of this section, the follow
ing apply:
(1) Except as provided in subpara
graphs (2) and (3) of this paragraph,
the casting factors and corresponding
inspections must meet the following
table:
Casting factor Inspection
2.0 or more---- 100 per cent visual.
Less than 2.0 100 percent visual, and
but m or e magnetic particle or pen
than 1.5. etrant or equivalent
nondestructive inspection
methods.
100
§ 23.625
1.25 through 100 percent visual, Inag
1.50. netic particle or pene
trant, and radiographic,
or approved equivalent
nondestructive inspection
methods.
(2) The percentage of castings in
Spected by nonvisual methods may be
reduced below that specified in subpara
graph (1) Of this paragraph when an
approved quality control procedure is
established.
(3) For castings procured to a specifl
Cation that guarantees the mechanical
properties of the material in the casting
and provides for demonstration of these
properties by test of coupons cut from
the castings on a sampling basis—
(i) A casting factor of 1.0 may be
used; and
(ii) The castings must be inspected as
provided in Subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph for casting factors of “1.25
through 1.50” and tested under para
graph (c) (2) of this section.
§ 23.623 Bearing factors.
(a) Each part that has clearance
(free fit), and that is subject to pound
ing or vibration, must have a bearing
factor large enough to provide for the
effects of normal relative motion.
(b) For control surface hinges and
control System joints, compliance with
the factors prescribed in §§ 23.657 and
23.693, respectively, meets paragraph
(a) of this section.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13091, Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.625 Fitting factors.
For each fitting (a part or terminal
used to join one structural member to
another), the following apply:
(a) For each fitting whose strength
is not proven by limit and ultimate load
tests in which actual stress conditions
are simulated in the fitting and sur
rounding structures, a fitting factor of
at least 1.15 must be applied to each part
of—
(1) The fitting;
(2) The means of attachment; and
(3) The bearing on the joined mem
bers.
(b) No fitting factor need be used for
joint designs based on comprehensive
test data (such as continuous joints in
metal plating, welded joints, and Scarf
joints in wood).
(c) For each integral fitting, the part
must be treated as a fitting up to the
point at which the section propertits
become typical of the member.
§ 23.627 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(d) For each seat, berth, safety belt,
and harness, its attachment to the struc
ture must be shown, by analysis, tests, or
both, to be able to withstand the inertia
forces prescribed in § 23.561 multiplied
by a fitting factor of 1.33.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13091,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.627 Fatigue strength.
The structure must be designed, as far
as practicable, to avoid points of stress
concentration where variable stresses
above the fatigue limit are likely to
occur in normal Service.
§ 23.629 Flutter.
(a) The wings, tail, and control sur
faces must be free from flutter, airfoil
divergence, and control reversal from
lack of rigidity for any condition of Op
eration within the limit V-n envelope, in
cluding all speeds up to the lesser of
1.4 V, and 1.2 Vp, but not less than Vo,
except as provided in paragraph (b). In
addition—
(1) Adequate wing torsional rigidity
must be shown by tests or other approved
methods;
(2) The mass balance of Surfaces
Imust be designed to prevent flutter: and
(3) The natural frequencies of main
structural components must be deter
mined by vibration tests or other ap
proved methods.
(b) A smaller margin above Wo than
that permitted in paragraph (a) of this
section may be used if flight flutter tests
demonstrate that—
(1) A proper margin of damping exists
at Vo; and
(2) There is no large and rapid re
duction in damping as Vd is approached.
(c) Flight flutter tests are acceptable
as proof of freedom from flutter if it is
shown by these tests that proper and
adequate attempts to induce flutter have
been made within the speed range up to
Vo, and that the vibratory response of
the structure during the test indicates
freedom from flutter.
(d) Compliance with the rigidity and
mass balance criteria (pages 4–12) in
Air Frame and Equipment Engineering
Report No. 45 (as corrected) “Simplified
Flutter Prevention Criteria” (published
by the Federal Aviation Administration)
is acceptable as proof of freedom from
flutter if–
110
(1) The wing and aileron flutter pre
vention criteria, as represented by the
Wing torsional stiffness and aileron bal
ance criteria, are limited to airplanes
Without large mass concentrations (such
as engines, floats, or fuel tanks in outer
Wing panels) along the wing Span; and
(2) The elevator and rudder balance
Criteria are used only for tail surface
configurations that have fixed-fin and
fixed-stabilizer Surfaces.
(e) For multiengine turbopropeller
powered airplanes, the dynamic evalua
tion must include—
(1) The significant elastic, inertia,
and aerodynamic forces associated with
the rotations and displacements of the
plane of the propeller; and
(2) Engine-propeller-nacelle stiffness
and damping variations appropriate to
the particular configuration.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967; Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13091,
Aug. 13, 1969]
WINGS
§ 23.641 Proof of strength.
The strength of stressed-skin wings
must be proven by load tests or by com
bined structural analysis and load tests.
CONTROL SURFACES
§ 23.651 Proof of strength.
(a) Limit load tests of control surfaces
are required. These tests must include
the horn or fitting to which the control
System is attached.
(b) In structural analyses, rigging
loads due to wire bracing must be ac
counted for in a rational or conservative
manner.
§ 23.655 Installation.
(a) Movable tail Surfaces must be in
stalled so that there is no interference
between any surfaces or their bracing
when one surface is held in its extreme
position and the others are operated
through their full angular movement.
(b) If an adjustable stabilizer is used,
it must have stops that will limit its
range of travel to that allowing safe
flight and landing.
§ 23.657 Hinges.
(a) Control surface hinges, except ball
and roller bearing hinges, must have a
factor of safety of not less than 6.67
with respect to the ultimate bearing
strength of the softest material used as
a bearing.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(b) For ball or roller bearing hinges,
the approved rating of the bearing may
not be exceeded.
(c) Hinges must have enough strength
and rigidity for loads parallel to the
hinge line.
§ 23.659 Mass balance.
The Supporting structure and the at
tachment of concentrated mass balance
Weights used on control surfaces must
be designed for—
(a) 24g normal to the plane of the
control Surface;
(b) 12g fore and aft; and
(c) 12g parallel to the hinge line.
CONTROL SYSTEMS
§ 23.671 General.
(a) Each control must operate easily,
smoothly, and positively enough to allow
proper performance of its functions.
(b) Controls must be arranged and
identified to provide for convenience in
Operation and to prevent the possibility
of confusion and subsequent inadvert
ent Operation.
§ 23.673 Primary flight controls.
(a) Primary flight controls are those
used by the pilot for the immediate con
trol of pitch, roll, and yaw.
(b) The design of two-control air
planes must minimize the likelihood of
Complete loss of lateral or directional
Control in the event of failure of any
connecting or transmitting element in
the control system.
§ 23.675 Stops.
(a) Each control System must have
stops that positively limit the range of
motion of the pilot's controls.
(b) Each stop must be so located in
the System that the range of travel of
. control is not appreciably affected
y—
(1) Wear;
(2) Slackness; or
(3) Takeup adjustments.
(c) Each stop must be able to with
stand the loads corresponding to the de
sign conditions for the system.
§ 23.677 Trim systems.
(a) Proper precautions must be taken
to prevent inadvertent, improper, or
abrupt trim tab operation. There must
be means near the trim control to indi
cate to the pilot the direction of trim
control movement relative to airplane
motion. In addition, there must be
means to indicate to the pilot the posi
111
§ 23.683
tion of the trim device with respect to
the range of adjustment. This means
must be visible to the pilot and must be
located and designed to prevent Confu
Sion.
(b) Trimming devices must be de
signed so that, when any one connect
ing or transmitting element in the pri
mary flight control System fails, ade
quate control for safe flight and landing
is available with—
(1) For single-engine airplanes, the
longitudinal trimming devices; or
(2) For multiengine airplanes, the
longitudinal and directional trimming
devices.
(c) Tab controls must be irreversible
unless the tab is properly balanced and
has no unsafe flutter characteristics.
Irreversible tab systems must have ade
quate rigidity and reliability in the por
tion of the system from the tab to the
attachment of the irreversible unit to the
airplane structure.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13091,
Aug. 13, 1969)
§ 23.679 Control system locks.
If there is a device to lock the control
system on the ground or water, there
must be means to—
(a) Give unmistakable warning to the
pilot when the lock is engaged; and
(b) Prevent the lock from engaging in
flight.
§ 23.681 Limit load static tests.
(a) Compliance with the limit load
requirements of this part must be shown
by tests in which—
(1) The direction of the test loads pro
duces the most severe loading in the
control system; and
(2) Each fitting, pulley, and bracket
used in attaching the system to the main
strueture is included.
(b) Compliance must be shown (by
analyses or individual load tests) with
the special factor requirements for con
trol system joints subject to angular
motion.
§ 23.683 Operation tests.
(a) It must be shown by Operation
tests that, when the controls are oper
ated from the pilot compartment with
the system loaded as prescribed in para
graph (b) of this section, the System
is free from—
(1) Jamming;
(2) Excessive friction; and
(3) Excessive deflection.
§ 23.685 Title 14—Aeronautics and Spoce
(b) The prescribed test loads are–
(1) For the entire System, loads corre
sponding to the limit airloads on the
appropriate surface, or the limit pilot
forces in § 23.397 (b), whichever are less;
and
(2) For secondary controls, loads not
less than those corresponding to the
maximum pilot effort established under
§ 23.405.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13091,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.685 Control system details.
(a) Each detail of each control system
must be designed and installed to pre
vent jamming, chafing, and interference
from cargo, passengers, or loose objects.
(b) There must be means in the cock
pit to prevent the entry of foreign objects
into places where they would jam the
System.
(c) There must be means to prevent
the slapping of cables or tubes against
other parts.
(d) Each element of the flight control
System must have design features, or
must be distinctively and permanently
marked, to minimize the possibility of in
correct assembly that could result in
malfunctioning of the control System.
§ 23.687 Spring devices.
The reliability of any spring device
used in the control system must be estab
lished by tests simulating service condi
tions unless failure of the spring will not
cause flutter or unsafe flight characteris
tics.
§ 23.689 Cable systems.
(a) Each cable, cable fitting, turn
buckle, splice, and pulley used must meet
approved Specifications. In addition—
(1) No cable Smaller than 3% inch di
ameter may be used in primary control
Systems;
(2) Each cable system must be de
signed so that there will be no hazardous
change in cable tension throughout the
range of travel under operating condi
tions and temperature variations; and
(3) There must be means for Visual
inspection at each fairlead, pulley, ter
minal, and turnbuckle.
(b) Each kind and size of pulley must
correspond to the cable with which it
is used. Each pulley must have closely
112
fitted guards to prevent the cables from
being misplaced or fouled, even when
slack. Each pulley must lie in the plane
passing through the cable so that the
cable does not rub against the pulley
flange.
(c) Fairleads must be installed so that
they do not cause a change in cable di
rection of more than three degrees.
(d) Clevis pins subject to load or mo
tion and retained only by Cotter pins may
not be used in the control system.
(e) Turnbuckles must be attached to
parts having angular motion in a manner
that will positively prevent binding
throughout the range of travel.
(f) Tab control cables are not part of
the primary control System and may be
less than % inch diameter in airplanes
that are safely controllable with the tabs
in the most adverse positions.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 FIR. 13091,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.693 Joints.
Control system joints (in push-pull
systems) that are subject to angular
motion, except those in ball and roller
bearing systems, must have a special fac
tor of safety of not less than 3.33 with
respect to the ultimate bearing Strength
of the softest material used as a bearing.
This factor may be reduced to 2.0 for
joints in cable control systems. For ball
or roller bearings, the approved ratings
may not be exceeded.
§ 23.697 Wing flap controls.
(a) Each wing flap control must be de
signed so that, when the flap has been
placed in any position upon which com
pliance with the performance require
ments of this part is based, the flap will
not move from that position unless the
control is adjusted or is moved by the
automatic operation of a flap load limit
ing device.
(b) The rate of movement of the flaps
in response to the operation of the pilot's
control or automatic device must give
satisfactory flight and performance
characteristics under steady or changing
conditions of airspeed, engine power, and
attitude.
§ 23.699 Wing flap position indicator.
There must be a wing flap position in
dicator for— -
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(a) Flap installations with only the re
tracted and fully extended position, un
less—
(1) A direct operating mechanism pro
vides a sense of “feel” and position (such
as when a mechanical linkage is em
ployed) ; or
(2) The flap position is readily deter
mined without seriously detracting from
other piloting duties under any flight
condition, day or night; and
(b) Flap installation with intermedi
ate flap positions if–
(1) Any flap position other than re
tracted or fully extended is used to show
compliance with the performance re
quirements of this part; and
(2) The flap installation does not meet
the requirements of paragraph (a)(1)
of this Section.
§ 23.701 Flap interconnection.
(a) The motion of flaps on opposite
sides of the plane of symmetry must be
synchronized by a mechanical intercon
nection unless the airplane has safe
flight characteristics with the flaps re
tracted on one side and extended on the
other.
(b) If an interconnection is used in
multiengine airplanes, it must be de
signed to account for the unsymmetri
cal loads resulting from flight with the
engines on one side of the plane of Sym
metry inoperative and the remaining en
gines at takeoff power. For single-engine
airplanes, and multiengine airplanes
with no slipstream effects on the flaps,
it may be assumed that 100 percent of
the critical air load acts on one side and
70 percent on the other.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31821,
Nov. 19, 1973]
LANDING GEAR
§ 23.723 Shock absorption tests.
(a) It must be shown by energy ab
Sorption tests that the limit load factors
Selected for design under § 23.473 will not
be exceeded in landings with the limit
descent velocity specifled in that section.
(b) The landing gear may not fail, but
may yield, in a test showing its reserved
energy absorption capacity, simulating
a descent velocity of 1.2 times the limit
descent velocity, assuming wing lift equal
to the Weight of the airplane.
113
§ 23.725
§ 23.725 Limit drop tests.
(a) If compliance with $23.723 (a) is
shown by free drop tests, these tests must
be made on the complete airplane, or on
units consisting of wheel, tire, and shock
absorber, in their proper relation, from
free drop heights not less than those de
termined by the following formula:
h (inches) =3.6 (W/S) 1/2
However, the free drop height may not
be less than 9.2 inches and need not be
more than 18.7 inches.
(b) If the effect of wing lift is pro
vided for in free drop tests, the landing
gear must be dropped with an effective
weight equal to
— LY
w.—wſº *] h—Hd
Where
We=the effective weight to be used in the
drop test (lbs.);
h–specified free drop height (inches);
d=deflection under impact of the tire
(at the approved inflation pres
sure) plus the vertical component
of the axle travel relative to the
drop mass (inches);
W= WM for main gear units (lbs.), equal
to the static weight on that unit
with the airplane in the level atti
tude (with the nose wheel clear in
the case of nose wheel type air
planes);
W= Wr for tail gear units (lbs.), equal to
the static weight on the tail unit
with the airplane in the tail-down
attitude;
w- ww for nose wheel units (1bs.), equal
to the vertical component of the
static reaction that would exist at
the nose wheel, assuming that the
mass of the airplane acts at the
center of gravity and exerts a force
of 1.0g downward and 0.33g for
ward; and
L– the ratio of the assumed wing lift to
the airplane weight, but not more
than 0.667.
(c) The limit inertia load factor must
be determined in a rational Or Conserva
tive manner, during the drop test, using
a landing gear unit attitude, and applied
drag loads, that represent the landing
conditions.
(d) The value of d used in the com
putation of We in paragraph (b) of this
section may not exceed the value actu
ally obtained in the drop test.
(e) The limit inertia load factor must
be determined from the drop test in
§ 23.726 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
paragraph (b) of this section according
to the following formula:
- We
n=ry W +L
where—
n;= the load factor developed in the drop
test (that is, the acceleration
(dv/dt) in g’s recorded in the drop
test) plus 1.0; and
We, W, and L are the same as in the drop
test computation.
(f) The value of n determined in ac
Cordance with paragraph (e) may not
be more than the limit inertia load fac
tor used in the landing conditions in
§ 23.473.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 Fr. 13091,
Aug. 13, 1969]
$ 23.726 Ground load dynamic tests.
(a) If compliance with the ground
load requirements of $$ 23.479 through
23.483 is shown dynamically by drop test,
one drop test must be conducted that
imeets $23.725 except that the drop
height must be—
(1) 2.25 times the drop height pre
scribed in § 23.725(a); or
(2) Sufficient to develop 1.5 times the
limit load factor.
(b) The critical landing condition for
each of the design conditions Specified in
§§ 23.479 through 23.483 must be used for
proof of strength.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 84 F.R. 13091, Aug. 13, 1969)
§ 23.727 Reserve energy absorption
drop test.
(a) If compliance with the reserve en
ergy absorption requirement in § 23.723
(b) is shown by free drop tests, the drop
height may not be less than 1.44 times
that Specified in § 23.725.
(b) If the effect of wing lift is pro
Vided for, the units must be dropped
yºh an effective mass equal to W.-W.
*Ia) When the Symbols and other de
tails are the same as in § 23.725.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13091,
Aug. 13, 1969)
§ 23.729 Retracting mechanism.
(a) General. For airplanes with re
tractable landing gear, the following
apply:
(1) Each landing gear retracting
mechanism and its supporting structure
114
must be designed for maximum flight
load factors with the gear retracted and
must be designed for the combination of
friction, inertia, brake torque, and air
loads, occurring during retraction at any
airspeed up to 1.6 Vs, with flaps re
tracted, and for any load factor up to
those Specified in § 23.345 for the flaps
extended condition.
(2) The landing gear and retracting
mechanism, including the wheel well
doors, must withstand flight loads, in
cluding loads resulting from all yawing
conditions specified in § 23.351, with the
landing gear extended at any speed up
to at least 1.6 Vs, with the flaps
retracted.
(b) Landing gear lock. There must
be positive means (other than the use of
hydraulic pressure) to keep the landing
gear extended.
(c) Emergency operation. A land
plane without manually operated land
ing gear must have an auxiliary means of
extending the gear.
(d) Operation test. The proper func
tioning of the retracting mechanism
must be shown by operation tests.
(e) Landing gear position. There must
be means to indicate to the pilot when
the wheels are secured in the extreme
positions.
(f) Landing gear warning. For land
planes, the following aural or equally
effective landing gear warning devices
must be provided:
(1) A device that functions con
tinuously when one or more throttles are
closed if the landing gear is not fully
extended and locked. A throttle Stop may
not be used in place of an aural device.
If there is a manual shutoff for the warn
ing device, it must be installed so that
reopening the throttle will reset the
Warning device.
(2) A device that functions continu
ously when the wing flaps are extended
to or beyond the approach flap position,
using a normal landing procedure, if the
landing gear is not fully extended and
locked. There may not be a manual shut
off for this warning device. The flap posi
tion sensing unit may be installed at any
suitable location. The system for this
device may use any part of the system
(including the aural warning device) for
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
the device required in Subparagraph (1)
of this paragraph.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13091,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.731 Wheels.
(a) Each main and nose wheel must
be approved.
(b) The maximum static load rating
of each wheel may not be less than the
corresponding static ground reaction
with—
(1) Design maximum weight; and
(2) Critical center of gravity.
(c) The maximum limit load rating
of each wheel must equal or exceed the
maximum radial limit load determined
under the applicable ground load re
quirements of this part.
§ 23.733 Tires.
(a) Each landing gear wheel must have
a tire whose tire rating (assigned by the
Tire and Rim Association or the Ad
ministrator) is not exceeded—
(1) By a load on each main wheel tire
equal to the corresponding static ground
reaction under the design maximum
weight and critical center of gravity; and
(2) By a load on nose wheel tires (to
be compared with the dynamic rating
established for such tires) equal to the
reaction obtained at the nose wheel, as
suming the mass of the airplane to be,
concentrated at the most critical center
of gravity and exerting a force of 1.0 W
downward and 0.31W forward (Where W
is the design maximum weight), with the
reactions distributed to the nose and
main wheels by the principles of statics,
and with the drag reaction at the ground
applied only at wheels with brakes.
(b) If specially constructed tires are
used, the wheels must be plainly and
conspicuously marked to that effect.
The markings must include the make,
size, number of plies, and identification
marking of the proper tire.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13092,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.735 Brakes.
(a) Brakes must be provided so that
the brake kinetic energy capacity rating
of each main wheel brake assembly is not
less than the kinetic energy absorption
115
§ 23.755
requirements determined under either
of the following methods:
(1) The brake kinetic energy absorp
tion requirements must be based on a
Conservative rational analysis of the
Sequence of events expected during land
ing at the design landing weight.
(2) Instead of a rational analysis, the
kinetic energy absorption requirements
for each main wheel brake assembly may
be derived from the following formula:
0.0444WV.”
KE- N
where—
*E= Kinetic energy per wheel (ft.-lb.);
W= Design landing weight (1b.);
so-Poweroff stalling speed in knots, of
the airplane at sea level, at the
design landing weight, and in the
landing configuration; and
N = Number of main Wheels.
(b) Brakes must be able to prevent the
wheels from rolling on a paved runway
with takeoff power on the critical engine,
but need not prevent movement of the
airplane with wheels locked.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13092, Aug. 13, 1969)
§ 23.737 Skis.
Each ski must be approved. The
maximum limit load rating of each ski
must equal or exceed the maximum limit
load determined under the applicable
ground load requirements of this part.
FLOATS AND HULLS
§ 23.751 Main float buoyancy.
(a) Each main float must have—
(1) A buoyancy of 80 percent in excess
of that required to support the maximum
weight of the seaplane or amphibian in
fresh water; and
(2) Enough watertight compartments
to provide reasonable assurance that the
seaplane or amphibian will stay afloat if
any two compartments of the main floats
are flooded.
(b) Each main float must contain at
least four watertight compartments ap
proximately equal in volume.
§ 23.753 Main float design.
Each seaplane main float must be ap
proved and must meet the requirements
of § 23.521.
§ 23.755 Hulls.
(a) The hull of a hull seaplane or am
phibian of 1,500 pounds or more maxi
§ 23.757 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
mum weight must have watertight com
partments designed and arranged so that
the hull, auxiliary floats, and tires (if
used), will keep the airplane afloat in
fresh water when—
(1) For airplanes of 5,000 pounds or
more maximum weight, any two adjacent
compartments are flooded; and
(2) For airplanes of 1,500 pounds up
to, but not including, 5,000 pounds maxi
mum weight, any single compartment is
flooded.
(b) The hulls of hull seaplanes or am
phibians of less than 1,500 pounds maxi
mum weight need not be compartmented.
(c) Bulkheads with watertight doors
may be used for communication between
COmpartmentS.
§ 23.757 Auxiliary floats.
Auxiliary floats must be arranged so
that, when completely submerged in
fresh water, they provide a righting
moment of at least 1.5 times the upset
ting moment caused by the seaplane or
amphibian being tilted.
PERSONNEL AND CARGO ACCOMMODATIONS
§ 23.771 Pilot compartment.
For each pilot compartment—
(a) The compartment and its equip
ment must allow each pilot to perform
his duties without unreasonable concen
tration or fatigue:
(b) Where the flight crew are sepa
rated from the passengers by a partition,
an Opening or openable window or door
must be provided to facilitate communi
cation between flight crew and the pas
Sengers; and
(c) The aerodynamic controls listed
in § 23.779, excluding cables and con
trol rods, must be located with respect
to the propellers so that no part of the
pilot or the controls lies in the region
between the plane of rotation of any
inboard propeller and the suface gen
erated by a line passing through the
Center of the propeller hub making an
angle of 5 degrees forward or aft of the
plane of rotation of the propeller.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31821,
Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.773 Pilot compartment view.
(a) Each pilot compartment must be
free from glare and reflections that could
116
interfere with the pilot's vision, and
designed so that—
(1) The pilot's view is sufficiently ex
tensive, clear, and undistorted, for safe
operation;
(2) Each pilot is protected from the
elements so that moderate rain condi
tions do not unduly impair his view of
the fight path in normal flight and while
landing; and
(3) Internal fogging of the windows
covered under paragraph (a) (1) of this
section can be easily cleared by each
pilot unless means are provided to pre
Vent fogging.
(b) If certification for night operation
is requested, compliance with paragraph
(a) of this section must be shown in
night flight tests.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Arndt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31822,
Nov. 19, 1973)
§ 23.775 Windshields and windows.
(a) Nonsplintering safety glass must
be used in internal glass panes.
(b) The design of windshields, win
dows, and canopies in pressurized air
planes must be based on factors peculiar
to high altitude operation, including—
(1) The effects of continuous aid
cyclic pressurization loadings; -
(2) The inherent characteristics of
the material used; and
(3) The effects of temperatures and
temperature gradients.
(c) On pressurized airplanes that do
not comply with the fail-safe require
ments of paragraph (e) of this section,
an enclosure canopy including a repre
sentative part of the installation must be
Subjected to special tests to account for
the combined effects of Continuous and
cyclic pressurization loadings and flight
loads.
(d) The Windshield and Side Windows
forward of the pilot's back when he is
seated in the normal flight position must
have a luminous transmittance value of
not less than 70 percent.
(e) If certification for operation above
25,000 feet is requested, the windshields,
window panels, and canopies must be
strong enough to withstand the maxi
mum cabin pressure differential loads
combined with critical aerodynamic pres
sure and temperature effects, after fail
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration § 23.785

ure of any load-carrying element of the

windshield, window panel, or canopy.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18,
ig64, as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R.
13092, Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.777 Cockpit controls.
(a) Each cockpit control must be lo
cated and (except where its function is
obvious) identified to provide convenient
operation and to prevent confusion and
inadvertent operation.
(b) The controls must be located and
arranged so that the pilot, when seated.
has full and unrestricted movement of FLAP CONTROL KNOB
each control without interference from
either his clothing or the cockpit struc
ture.
(c) Identical powerplant controls for
each engine must be located to prevent
confusion as to the engines they control.
(d) Wing flap and auxiliary lift device
controls must be located—
(1) Centrally, or to the right of the
pedestal or powerplant throttle control
centerline; and
(2) Far enough away from the land
ing gear control to avoid confusion.
(e) The landing gear control must be
located to the left of the throttle Center
line or pedestal centerline. LANDING GEAR CONTROL KNOB
(f) Each fuel feed Selector control
must be located and arranged So that the
pilot can see and reach it without mov
ing any seat or primary flight control § 23.783 Doors.
when his seat is at any position in which (a) Each closed cabin with passenger
it can be placed. accommodations must have at least one
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, adequate and easily accessible external
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13092, door.
Aug. 13, 1969] (b) No passenger door may be located
§ 23.779 Motion and effect of cockpit with respect to any propeller disc So as to
controls. endanger persons using that door.
Cockpit controls must be designed so § 23.785 Seats and berths.
that they operate as follows: (a) Each seat, berth, and its support
Controls Motion and effect ing structure, must be designed for oc
Aerodynamic:
Aileron ----- Right (clockwise) for right cupants weighing at least 170 pounds (or
wing down. 190 pounds With parachute for seats in
Elevator ---- Rearward for nose up. utility and acrobatic category airplanes),
Rudder ----- Right pedal forward for and for the maximum load factors corre
nose right. sponding to the specified flight and
Powerplant: -

Throttle ---- Forward to open. ground load conditions, including the

§ 23.781 Cockpit control knob shape.
Cockpit control knobs must conform
to the general shapes (but not necessar
ily the exact sizes or Specific propor
tions) in the following figure:
emergency landing conditions prescribed
in § 23.561.
(b) Each seat and berth must be ap
proved.
(c) Each pilot seat must be designed
for the reactions resulting from the ap

117
§ 23.787 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
plication of pilot forces to the primary
flight controls, as prescribed in § 23.395.
(d) Unless otherwise placarded, each
seat in utility and acrobatic category air
planes must be designed to accommodate
passengers wearing parachutes.
(e) Each berth installed parallel to the
longitudinal axis of an airplane must be
designed so that the forward part has a
padded end-board, canvas diaphragm, or
equivalent means that can withstand the
static load reaction of the occupant when
the occupant is subjected to the forward
inertia forces prescribed in § 23.561. In
addition—
(1) The berth must have an approved
safety belt and may not have corners or
other parts likely to cause serious injury
to a person occupying it during emer
gency conditions; and
(2) Safety belt attachments for the
berth must be designed to withstand the
critical loads resulting from relevant
flight and ground load conditions and
from the emergency landing conditions
prescribed in § 23.561, with the exception
of the forward load.
(f) Proof of compliance with the
strength and deformation requirements
of this section for seats and berths ap
proved as part of the type design and for
seat and berth installations may be
shown by—
(1) Structural analysis, if the struc
ture conforms to conventional airplane
types for which existing methods of
analysis are known to be reliable;
(2) A combination of structural anal
ysis and static load tests to limit loads;
or
(3) Static load tests to ultimate loads.
The inertia forces prescribed in § 23.561
must be multiplied by a factor of 1.33
(rather than by the fitting factor pre
scribed in § 23.625) in determining the
strength of the attachment of each seat
or berth to the structure.
(g) Each occupant must be protected
from head injury by—
(1) A safety belt and shoulder harness
that will prevent the head from contact
ing any injurious object;
(2) A safety belt plus the elimination
of any injurious object within Striking
radius of the head; or
(3) A safety belt plus an energy ab
sorbing rest that will support the arms,
shoulders, head and spine.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13092,
Aug. 13, 1969]
118
§ 23.787 Cargo compartments.
(a) Each cargo compartment must be
designed for its placarded maximum
weight of contents and for the critical
load distributions at the appropriate
maximum load factors corresponding to
the flight and ground load conditions of
this part.
(b) There must be means to prevent
the contents of any cargo compartment
from becoming a hazard by shifting, and
to protect any controls, wiring, lines,
equipment or accessories whose damage
or failure would affect safe operations.
(c) Where the cargo compartment is
located aft of occupants and separated
from them by structure, there must be
means within the cargo compartment to
protect the occupants from injury by the
contents of the cargo compartment when
º ultimate forward inertia force is
.5g.
(d) Cargo compartments must be con
structed of materials which are at least
flame resistant.
(e) Designs which provide for cargo
to be carried in the same compartment
with the occupants must have means to
protect the Occupants from injury under
the ultimate inertia forces specified in
§ 23.561 (b) (2).
[Docket No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31822,
Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.807 Emergency exits.
(a) Number and location. Emergency
exits must be located to allow escape
without crowding in any probable crash
attitude. The airplane must have at least
the following emergency exits:
(1) For all airplanes, except airplanes
With all engines mounted on the approxi
mate centerline of the fuselage that have
a seating capacity of five or less, at least
One emergency exit on the opposite side
of the cabin from the main door speci
fied in § 23.783.
(2) [Reserved]
(3) If the pilot compartment is sepa
rated from the cabin by a door that is
likely to block the pilot's escape in a
minor crash, there must be an exit in
the pilot's compartment. The number of
exits required by subparagraph (1) of
this paragraph must then be separately
determined for the passenger compart
ment, using the Seating capacity of that
compartment.
(b) Type and operation. Emergency
exits must be movable windows, panels,
 Chapter l–Federal Aviation Administration
or external doors, that provide a clear
and unobstructed opening large enough
to admit a 19-by-26-inch ellipse. In ad
dition, each emergency exit must—
(1) Be readily accessible, requiring no
exceptional agility to be used in emer
ncies;
*: Have a method of opening that is
simple and obvious;
(3) Be arranged and marked for easy
location and operation, even in darkness;
(4) Have reas on a ble provisions
against jamming by fuselage deforma
tion; and
(5) In the case of acrobatic category
airplanes, allow each occupant to bail out
quickly with parachutes at any Speed
between Vs, and VD.
(c) Tests. The proper functioning
of each emergency exit must be shown
by tests. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964
, 29 F.R. , LeC. 18,
º: sº No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13092,
-
Aug. 13, 1969; Amdt. 23–10, 36 F.R. 2864,
Feb. 11, 1971]
§ 23.831 Wentilation.
Each passenger and crew compart
ment must be suitably ventilated. Car
bon monoxide concentration may not ex
ceed one part in 20,000 parts of air.
PRESSURIZATION
§ 23.841 Pressurized cabins.
(a) If certification for Operation over
31,000 feet is requested, the airplane must
be able to maintain a cabin pressure al
titude of not more than 15,000 feet in
event of any probable failure or mal
function in the pressurization system.
(b) Pressurized cabins must have at
least the following valves, controls, and
indicators, for controlling cabin pressure:
(1) TWO pressure relief
valves (at
least one of which is the normal regulat
ing Valve) to automatically limit the pos
itive pressure differential to a predeter
mined value at the maximum rate of flow
delivered by the pressure source. The
combined capacity of the relief valves
must be large enough so that the failure
i, 2 of any one valve would not cause an
2: appreciable rise in the pressure differen
tial. The pressure differential is positive
:; when the internal pressure is greater
ºf
than the external.
z: (2) Two reverse pressure differential
* relief valves (or their equivalent) to au
º tomatically prevent a negative pressure
differential that would damage the struc
2: ture. However, one valve is enough if it
25
119
$23,843.
is of a design that reasonably precludes
its malfunctioning.
(3) A means by which the pressure
differential can be rapidly equalized.
(4) An automatic or manual regulator
for controlling the intake or exhaust air
flow, or both, for maintaining the re
quired internal pressures and airflow
rates.
(5) Instruments to indicate to the pilot
the pressure differential, the absolute
Pressure in the cabin, and the rate of
change of the absolute preSSure.
(6) Warning indicators at the pilot
Station to indicate when the safe or
preset pressure differential and absolute
cabin pressure limits are exceeded.
(7) A warning placard for the pilot
if the structure is not designed for pres
Sure differentials up to the maximum
relief valve setting in Combination with
landing loads.
(8) A means to stop rotation of the
Compressor or to divert airflow from the
Cabin if continued rotation of an engine
driven cabin Compressor or continued
flow of any compressor bleed air will
create a hazard if a malfunction OCCurs.
[Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31822, Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.843 Pressurization tests.
(a) Strength test. The complete
pressurized cabin, including doors, win
dows, canopy, and Valves, must be tested
as a pressure vessel for the preSSure dif
ferential specified in § 23.365 (d).
(b) Functional tests.
The following
functional tests must be performed:
(1) Tests of the functioning and ca
pacity of the positive and negative pres
Sure differential Valves, and of the emer
gency release valve, to simulate the
effects of closed regulator valves.
(2) Tests of the pressurization system
to show proper functioning under each
possible condition of pressure, tempera
ture, and moisture, up to the maximum
altitude for which Certification is re
quested.
(3) Flight tests, to show the perform
ance of the pressure Supply, pressure and
flow regulators, indicators, and warning
Signals, in steady and stepped climbs and
descents at rates Corresponding to the
maximum attainable within the Oper
ating limitations of the airplane, up to
the maximum altitude for which certifi
cation is requested.
(4) Tests of each door and emergency
exit, to show that they operate prop
erly after being subjected to the flight
§ 23.853 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
tests prescribed in subparagraph (3) of
this paragraph.
FIRE PROTECTION
§ 23.853 Compartment interiors.
For each compartment to be used by
the crew or passengers:
(a) The materials must be at least
flame-resistant;
(b) If smoking is to be allowed:
(1) There must be an adequate num
ber of self-contained ash trays;
(2) Where the crew compartment is
separated from the passenger compart
ment, there must be an illuminated no
smoking sign (or signs) controllable from
a flight crew station and readable from
each passenger seat to indicate when
smoking is prohibited;
(c) If Smoking is to be prohibited,
there must be a placard so stating; and
(d) Lines, tanks, or equipment cOn
taining fuel, oil, or other flammable
fluids may not be installed in such com
partments unless adequately shielded,
isolated, or otherwise protected so that
any breakage or failure of such an item
would not create a hazard.
[Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31822, Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.359 Combustion heater fire protec
tion.
Each gasoline-operated combustion
heater must be approved and installed
to meet the applicable powerplant in
stallation requirements covering fire
hazards and precautions. In addition—
(a) Each applicable requirement con
cerning fuel tanks, lines, and exhaust
systems must be met; and
(b) Means independent of the com
ponents provided for the normal con
tinuous control of air temperature, air
flow, and fuel flow must be provided, for
each heater, to automatically shut off
and hold off the ignition and fuel Supply
to that heater at a point remote from
that heater when any of the following
Occurs:
(1) The heat exchanger temperature
exceeds safe limits.
(2) The ventilating air temperature
exceeds safe limits.
(3) The combustion airflow becomes
inadequate for safe operation.
(4) The ventilating airflow becomes
inadequate for safe operation.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 23–5, 32 F.R. 6912, May
5, 1967]
120
§ 23.865 Fire protection of flight con
trols and other flight structure.
Flight controls, engine mounts, and
other flight structure located in the
engine compartment must be constructed
of fireproof material or shielded so that
they will withstand the effect of a fire.
[Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31822, Nov. 19, 1973]
LIGHTNING EVALUATION
§ 23.867 Lightning protection of struc
ture.
(a) The airplane must be protected
against Catastrophic effects from light
Illing.
(b) For metallic components, compli
ance With paragraph (a) of this section
may be shown by—
(1) Bonding the components properly
to the airframe; or
(2) Designing the components so that
a strike will not endanger the airplane.
(c) For nonmetallic components, com
pliance with paragraph (a) of this sec
tion may be shown by—
(1) Designing the components to min
imize the effect of a strike; or
(2) Incorporating acceptable means of
diverting the resulting electrical current
So as not to endanger the airplane.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13092, Aug. 13, 1969]
MISCELLANEOUS
§ 23.871 Leveling means.
There must be means for dete
when the airplane is in a level position
On the ground.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13092, Aug. 13, 1969]
Subpart E—Powerplant
GENERAL
§ 23.901 Installation.
(a) For the purpose of this part, the
airplane powerplant installation in
cludes each component that—
(1) Is necessary for propulsion; and
(2) Affects the safety of the major
propulsive units.
(b) Each powerplant must be con
structed, arranged, and installed to
(1) Insure Safe operation to the maxi
mum altitude for which approval is
requested.
(2) Be accessible for necessary in
Spections and maintenance.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13092,
Aug. 13, 1969]
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 23.903 Engines.
(a) Each engine must be type certif
icated under Part 33.
(b) [Reserved]
(c) The powerplants must be arranged
and isolated from each other to allow
operation, in at least one configuration,
so that the failure or malfunction of any
engine, or the failure or malfunction (in
cluding destruction by fire in the engine
compartment) of any system that can
affect an engine (other than a fuel tank
if only one fuel tank is installed), will
not:
(1) Prevent the continued safe Opera
tion of the remaining engines; or
(2) Require immediate action by any
crewmember for continued safe Opera
tion of the remaining engines.
(d) Starting and stopping (piston en
gine). The design of the installation
must be such that risk of fire or mechani
cal damage to the engine or airplane, as
a result of starting the engine in any
conditions in which starting is to be per
mitted, is reduced to a minimum. Any
techniques and associated limitations for
engine starting must be established and
included in the Airplane Flight Manual,
approved manual material, or applicable
operating placards. For multiengine air
planes, means must be provided for
stopping and restarting each engine in
flight. For single-engine airplanes, means
must be provided for stopping the engine
in flight after engine failure if overspeed
ing might be caused by windmilling of
the propeller.
(e) Starting and stopping (turbine
engine). Turbine engine installations
must comply with the following:
(1) The design of the installation
must be such that risk of fire or mechani
cal damage to the engine or the airplane,
as a result of starting the engine in any
conditions in which starting is to be per
mitted, is reduced to a minimum. Any
techniques and associated limitations
must be established and included in the
Airplane Flight Manual, approved man
ual material, or applicable operating
placards.
(2) Means must be provided for stop
ping combustion and rotation of any en
gine. All those components provided
for compliance with this requirement,
which are within any engine compart
ment, on the engine side of the firewall,
must be at least fire resistant.
39–059–75—9
§ 23.909
(3) It must be possible to restart an
engine in fight. Any techniques and
associated limitations must be estab
lished and included in the Airplane
Flight Manual, approved manual ma
terial, or applicable operating placards.
(4) It must be demonstrated in flight
that when restarting engines following
a false start, all fuel or vapor is dis
charged in such a way that it does not
Constitute a fire hazard.
[Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31822, Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.905 Propellers.
(a) Each propeller must be type cer
tificated under Part 35 of this chapter.
(b) Engine power and propeller shaft
rotational speed may not exceed the
limits for which the propeller is cer
tificated.
(c) Each featherable propeller must
have a means to unfeather it in flight.
§ 23.907 Propeller vibration.
(a) Each propeller with metal blades
or highly stressed metal components
must be shown to have vibration stresses,
in normal operating conditions, that
do not exceed values that have been
shown by the propeller manufacturer to
be safe for continuous operation. This
must be shown by—
(1) Measurement of stresses through
direct testing of the propeller;
(2) Comparison with similar instal
lations for which these measurements
have been made; or
(3) Any other acceptable test method
or service experience that proves the
safety of the installation.
(b) Proof of Safe vibration character
istics for any type of propeller, except
for conventional, fixed-pitch, wood pro
pellers must be shown where necessary.
§ 23.909 Turbosuperchargers.
(a) Each turbosupercharger must be
approved under the engine type certifl
cate or it must be shown that the tur
bosupercharger System—
(1) Can withstand, without defect, an
endurance test of 150 hours that meets
the applicable requirements of $ 33.49 of
this subchapter; and
(2) Will have no adverse effect upon
the engine.
(b) Control system malfunctions, vi
brations, and abnormal speeds and tem
peratures expected in service may not
damage the turbosupercharger compres
sor or turbine.
§ 23.925 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(c) Each turbosupercharger case must
be able to contain fragments of a com
pressor or turbine that fails at the high
est speed that is obtainable with normal
sneed control devices inoperative.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13092, Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.925 Propeller clearance.
Unless Smaller clearances are Sub
stantiated, propeller clearances with the
airplane at maximum weight, with the
most adverse center of gravity, and with
the propeller in the most adverse pitch
position, may not be less than the fol
lowing:
(a) Ground clearance. There must
be a clearance of at least seven inches
(for each airplane with nose wheel land
ing gear) or nine inches (for each air
plane with tail wheel landing gear)
between each propeller and the ground
with the landing gear statically deflected
and in the level, normal takeoff, or taxi
ing attitude, whichever is most critical.
In addition, for each airplane with con
ventional landing gear struts using fluid
or mechanical means for absorbing land
ing shocks, there must be positive clear
ance between the propeller and the
ground in the level takeoff attitude
with the critical tire completely deflated
and the corresponding landing gear strut
bottomed. Positive clearance for air
planes using leaf spring struts is shown
with a deflection corresponding to 1.5g.
(b) Water clearance. There must be
a clearance of at least 18 inches between
each propeller and the water, unless
compliance with $ 23.239 can be shown
with a lesser clearance.
(c) Structural clearance. There must
be—
(1) At least one inch radial clearance
between the blade tips and the airplane
structure, plus any additional radial
clearance necessary to prevent harmful
vibration;
(2) At least one-half inch longitudinal
clearance between the propeller blades
or cuffs and stationary parts of the air
plane; and
(3) Positive clearance between other
rotating parts of the propeller or Spinner
and stationary parts of the airplane.
§ 23.929 Engine installation ice protec
tion.
Propellers (except wooden propellers)
and other components of complete en
gine installations must be protected
against the accumulation of ice as neces
sary to enable satisfactory functioning
122
without appreciable loss of power When
operated in the icing conditions for
which certification is requested.
[Amdt. No. 23–14, 33 FR 31822, Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.933 Reversing systems.
(a) Reversing systems intended for
ground operation only must be designed
so that no single failure or malfunction
of the system will result in unwanted
reverse thrust under any expected oper
ating condition. Failure of structural ele
ments need not be considered if the
probability of this kind of failure is
extremely remote.
(b) Turbojet reversing systems in
tended for inflight use must be designed
so that no unsafe condition will result
during normal operation of the System,
or from any failure (or reasonably likely
combination of failures) of the reversing
System, under any anticipated condition
of operation of the airplane. Failure of
structural elements need not be consid
ered if the probability of this kind of
failure is extremely remote.
(c) Each turbojet reversing system
must have means to prevent the engine
from producing more than idle forward
thrust when the reversing System mal
functions, except that it may produce
any greater forward thrust that is shown
to allow directional control to be main
tained, with aerodynamic means alone,
under the most critical reversing condi
tion expected in operation.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13092, Aug. 13, 1969]
$23,937 Turbopropeller-drag limiting
systems.
Turbopropeller-powered airplane pro
peller-drag limiting systems must be de
signed so that no single failure or mal
function of any of the systems during
normal or emergency operation results
in propeller drag in excess of that for
which the airplane was designed under
the structural requirements of this part.
Failure of structural elements of the drag
limiting systems need not be considered
if the probability of this kind of failure
is extremely remote.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13093, Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.939 . Powerplant operating charac.
teristics.
(a) Turbine engine powerplant operat
ing characteristics must be investigated
in flight to determine that no adverse
characteristics (Such as stall, Surge, or
flameout) are present, to a hazardous
degree, during normal and emergency
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
operation within the range of operating
: limitations of the airplane and of the
engine.
(b) No hazardous malfunction of the
powerplant may occur when the airplane
is operated at the negative acceleration
within the flight envelope prescribed in
§ 23.333 that is most critical. This must
be shown for the greatest duration ex
pected for that acceleration.
(c) The vibration characteristics of
turbine engine components whose failure
could be catastrophic may not be ad
versely affected during normal operation.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 FR 13093, Aug. 13, 1969,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31823,
Nov. 19, 1973]
FUEL SYSTEM
§ 23.951 General.
(a) Each fuel system must be con
structed and arranged to insure a flow
of fuel at a rate and pressure established
for proper engine functioning under each
likely operating condition, including any
maneuver for which certification is re
quested.
(b) Each fuel System must be arranged
so that—
(1) No fuel pump can draw fuel from
more than one tank at a time; or
(2) There are means to prevent in
troducing air into the System.
(c) Each fuel System for a turbine
engine must be capable of sustained
operation throughout its flow and pres
Sure range with fuel initially saturated
with water at 80° F and having 0.75cc of
free water per gallon added and cooled
to the most critical condition for icing
likely to be encountered in operation.
[Amdt. No. 23–15, 39 FR 35459, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 23.953 Fuel system independence.
(a) Each fuel system for a multiengine
airplane must be arranged so that, in at
least one system configuration, the
failure of any one component (other than
a fuel tank) will not result in the loss of
power of more than one engine or re
quire immediate action by the pilot to
prevent the loss of power of more than
one engine.
(b) If a single fuel tank (or Series of
fuel tanks interconnected to function as
a single fuel tank) is used on a multi
engine airplane, the following must be
provided:
(1) Independent tank outlets for each
engine, each incorporating a shutoff
valve at the tank. This shutoff valve may
also serve as the fire wall shutoff valve
123
§ 23.955
required if the line between the valve
and the engine compartment does not
contain more than one quart of fuel (or
any greater annount shown to be safe)
that can drain into the engine
Compartment.
(2) At least two vents arranged to
minimize the probability of both vents
becoming obstructed simultaneously.
(3) Filler caps designed to minimize
the probability of incorrect installation
or inflight loss.
(4) A fuel system in which those parts
of the system from each tank outlet to
any engine are independent of each part
of the system supplying fuel to any other
engine.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13098,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.954 Fuel system lightning protec
tion.
The fuel system must be designed and
arranged to prevent the ignition of fuel
Vapor within the system by–
(a) Direct lightning strikes to areas
having a high probability of stroke
attachment;
(b) Swept lightning strokes on areas
Where swept strokes are highly probable;
and
(c) Corona or streamering at fuel vent
Outlets.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 18093, Aug. 13, 1969)
§ 23.955 Fuel flow.
(a) General. The ability of the fuel
system to provide fuel at the rates speci
fled in this section and at a pressure
sufficient for proper carburetor opera
tion must be shown in the attitude that
is most critical with respect to fuel feed
and quantity of unusable fuel. These
conditions may be simulated in a suit
able mockup. In addition—
(1) The quantity of fuel in the tank
may not exceed the amount established
as the unusable fuel Supply for that tank
under § 23.959 plus that necessary to
show compliance with this section; and
(2) If there is a fuel flowmeter, it must
be blocked during the flow test and the
fuel must flow through the meter bypass.
(b) Gravity Systems. The fuel flow
rate for gravity systems (main and re
serve supply) must be 150 percent of the
takeoff fuel consumption of the engine.
(c) Pump Systems. The fuel flow rate
for each pump System (main and reserve
supply) for each reciprocating engine,
must be 125 percent of the takeoff fuel
§ 23.957 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
flow of the engine at the maximum power
approved for takeoff under Part 33 of
this chapter or lesser power selected and
approved for takeoff under this part.
(1) This flow rate is required for each
primary engine-driven pump and each
emergency pump, and must be available
when the pump is running as it would
during takeoff; and
(2) For each hand-operated pump,
this rate must occur at not more than
60 complete cycles (120 single strokes)
per minute.
(d) Auriliary fuel systems and fuel
transfer systems. Paragraphs (b), (c),
and (f) of this section apply to each aux
iliary and transfer System, except that—
(1) The required fuel flow rate must
be established upon the basis of maxi
mun continuous power and engine rota
tional speed, instead of takeoff power
and fuel consumption; and
(2) A lesser flow rate may be used for
a small auxiliary tank feeding into a
large main tank, if there is a suitable
placard stating that the auxiliary tank
is not to be opened to the main tank un
less a predetermined amount of fuel re
mains in the main tank.
(e) Multiple fuel tanks. If a recipro
cating engine can be supplied with fuel
from more than One tank, it must be
possible, in level flight, to regain full
power and fuel pressure to that engine
in not more than 10 seconds (for single
engine airplanes) or 20 seconds (for
multiengine airplanes) after switching to
any full tank after engine malfunction
ing due to fuel depletion becomes appar
ent while the engine is being supplied
from any other tank.
(f) Turbine engine fuel systems. Each
turbine engine fuel system must provide
at least 100 percent of the fuel flow re
quired by the engine under each intended
operation condition and maneuver. The
conditions may be simulated in a Suit
able mockup. This flow must—
(1) Be shown with the airplane in the
most adverse fuel feed condition (with
respect to altitudes, attitudes, and other
conditions) that is expected in Opera
tion; and
(2) Be automatically uninterrupted
with respect to any engine until all fuel
Scheduled for use by the engine has been
consumed.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13098,
Aug. 13, 1969]
194
§ 23.957 Flow between interconnected
tanks.
It must be impossible, in a gravity feed
System with interconnected tank outlets,
for enough fuel to flow between the tanks
to cause an overflow of fuel from any
tank vent under the conditions in
§ 23.959, except that full tanks must be
used.
§ 23.959 Unusable fuel supply.
The unusable fuel supply for each
tank must be established as not less than
that quantity at which the first evidence
of malfunctioning occurs under the most
adverse fuel feed condition occurring
under each intended operation and flight
maneuver involving that tank
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13093, Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.961 Fuel system hot weather oper
ation.
Each fuel system conducive to vapor
formation must be free from vapor lock
when using fuel at a temperature of
110° F. under critical operating condi
tions.
§ 23.963 Fuel tanks: general.
(a) Each fuel tank must be able to
withstand, without failure, the vibration,
inertia, fluid, and structural loads that
it may be subjected to in operation.
(b) Each flexible fuel tank liner must
be of an acceptable kind.
(c) Each integral fuel tank must have
adequate facilities for interior inspec
tion and repair.
(d) The total usable capacity of the
fuel tanks must be enough for at least
one-half hour of operation at maximum
continuous power.
(e) Each fuel quantity indicator must
be adjusted, as specified in § 23.1337(b),
to account for the unusable fuel supply
determined under § 23.959.
§ 23.965 Fuel tank tests.
(a) Each fuel tank must be able to
withstand the following pressures with
out failure or leakage:
(1) For each conventional metal tank
and nonmetallic tank with walls not sup
ported by the airplane structure, a pres
Sure of 3.5 p.s.l., or that pressure de
veloped during maximum ultimate ac
celeration with a full tank, whichever
is greater.
(2) For each integral tank, the pres
Sure developed during the maximum
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
limit acceleration of the airplane with a
full tank, with simultaneous applica
tion of the critical limit structural loads.
(3) For each nonmetallic tank with
Walls Supported by the airplane struc
ture and constructed in an acceptable
manner using acceptable basic tank ma
terial, and with actual or simulated
Support conditions, a pressure of 2 p.s.i.
for the first tank of a specific design.
The Supporting structure must be de
signed for the critical loads occurring in
the flight or landing strength conditions
connbined with the fuel pressure loads
resulting from the Corresponding accel
erations.
(b) Each fuel tank with large, un
supported, or unstiffened flat areas must
be able to withstand the following test
without leakage or failure:
(1) Each complete tank assembly and
its supports must be vibration tested
while mounted to simulate the actual
installation.
(2) Except as Specified in subpara
graph (4) of this paragraph, the tank
assembly must be vibrated for 25 hours
at an amplitude of not less than #2 of
an inch (unless another amplitude is
substantiated) while % filled with water
or other suitable test fluid.
(3) The test frequency of vibration
must be as follows:
(1) If no frequency of vibration re
sulting from any r.p.m. within the nor
mal operating range of engine speeds is
critical, the test frequency of vibration,
in number of cycles per minute, must be
the number obtained by multiplying the
maximum continuous engine speed
(r.p.m.) by 0.9.
(ii) If only one frequency of vibration
resulting from any r.p.m. within the nor
mal operating range of engine speeds is
critical, that frequency of vibration must
be the test frequency.
(iii) If more than one frequency of
vibration resulting from any r.p.m. with
in the normal operating range of engine
speeds is critical, the most critical of
these frequencies must be the test fre
quency.
(4) Under subparagraph (3) (ii) and
(iii) of this paragraph, the time of test
must be adjusted to accomplish the same
number of vibration cycles that would
be accomplished in 25 hours at the fre
quency specified in subparagraph (3)(i)
of this paragraph.
125
§ 23.967
(5) During the test, the tank assem
bly must be rocked at a rate of 16 to 20
Complete cycles per minute, through an
angle of 15 degrees on either side of the
horizontal (30 degrees total), about an
axis parallel to the axis of the fuselage,
for 25 hours.
(c) Each integral tank using methods
of construction and sealing not previ
ously proven to be adequate by test data
Or service experience must be able to
withstand the vibration test specified in
Subparagraphs (1) through (4) of para
graph (b).
(d) Each tank with a nonmetallic
liner must be subjected to the sloshing
test outlined in subparagraph (5) of
paragraph (b) of this section, with the
fuel at room temperature. In addition,
a Specimen liner of the same basic con
Struction as that to be used in the air
plane must, when installed in a suitable
test tank, withstand the sloshing test
With fuel at a temperature of 110° F.
§ 23.967 Fuel tank installation.
(a) Each fuel tank must be supported
So that tank loads are not concentrated.
In addition—
(1) There must be pads, if necessary,
to prevent chafing between each tank
and its Supports;
(2) Padding must be nonabsorbent
or treated to prevent the absorption of
fuel;
(3) If a flexible tank liner is used, it
must be Supported So that it is not re
quired to withstand fluid loads;
(4) Interior surfaces adjacent to the
liner must be Smooth and free from pro
jections that could cause wear, unless—
(i) Provisions are made for protection
of the liner at those points; or
(ii) The construction of the liner it
self provides such protection; and
(5) A positive pressure must be main
tained within the vapor space of each
bladder cell under any condition of op
eration, including the critical conditions
of low airspeed and rate of descent
likely to be encountered.
(6) Syphoning of fuel (other than
minor Spillage) or collapse of bladder
fuel cells may not result from improper
securing or loss of the fuel filler cap.
(b) Each tank compartment must be
ventilated and drained to prevent the
accumulation of flammable fluids or
Vapors. Each compartment adjacent to
§ 23.969 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
a tank that is an integral part of the
airplane structure must also be venti
lated and drained.
(c) No fuel tank may be on the engine
side of the firewall. There must be at
least One-half inch of clearance between
the fuel tank and the firewall. No part
of the engine nacelle skin that lies im
mediately behind a major air opening
from the engine compartment may act
as the wall of an integral tank.
(d) No fuel tank may be installed in
the personnel compartment of a multi
engine airplane. If a fuel tank is in
Stalled in the personnel compartment of
a single-engine airplane, it must be iso
lated by fume and fuel-proof enclosures
that are drained and vented to the ex
terior cf the airplane. A bladder type fuel
cell, if used, must have a retaining shell
at least equivalent to a metal fuel tank
in structural integrity.
(e) Fuel tanks must be designed, lo
cated, and installed so as to retain fuel:
(1) Under the inertia forces prescribed
for the emergency landing conditions in
§ 23.561; and
(2) Under conditions likely to occur
when an airplane lands either with its
landing gear retracted or one landing
gear collapsed, or when an engine mount
ing tears away.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13903,
Aug. 13, 1969; Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31823,
Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.969 Fuel tank expansion space.
Each fuel tank must have an expan
slon space of not less than two percent
of the tank capacity, unless the tank
vent discharges clear of the airplane (in
which case no expansion space is re
quired). It must be impossible to fill
the expansion space inadvertently with
the airplane in the normal ground
attitude.
§ 23.971 Fuel tank sump.
Each fuel tank must have a drainable
Sump with an effective capacity, in the
normal ground and flight attitudes, of
0.25 percent of the tank capacity, or
%6 gallon, whichever is greater, unless—
(a) The fuel System has a sediment
bowl or chamber that is accessible for
drainage and has a capacity of 1 ounce
for every 20 gallons of fuel tank capac
ity; and
(b) Each fuel tank outlet is located so
that, in the normal ground attitude,
water will drain from all parts of the
tank to the sediment bowl or chamber.
126
§ 23.973 Fuel tank filler connection.
(a) Each fuel tank filler connection
must be marked as prescribed in § 23.-
1557 (C) .
(b) Spilled fuel must be prevented
from entering the fuel tank compart
ment or any part of the airplane other
than the tank itself.
(c) Each filler cap must provide a
fuel-tight seal for the main filler open
ing. However, there may be small open
ings in the fuel tank cap for venting
purposes or for the purpose of allowing
passage of a fuel gauge through the cap.
§ 23.975 Fuel tank vents and carburetor
vapor vents.
(a) Each fuel tank must be vented
from the top part of the expansion space.
In addition—
(1) Each vent outlet must be located
and constructed in a manner that mini
mizes the possibility of its being ob
structed by ice or other foreign matter;
(2) Each vent must be constructed to
prevent siphoning of fuel during normal
operation;
(3) The venting capacity must allow
the rapid relief of excessive differences
of pressure between the interior and ex
terior of the tank:
(4) Airspaces of tanks with intercon
nected outlets must be interconnected;
(5) There may be no undrainable
points in any vent line where moisture
can accumulate with the airplane in el
ther the ground or level flight attitudes;
and
(6) No vent may terminate at a point
where the discharge of fuel from the vent
outlet will constitute a fire hazard or
from which fumes may enter personnel
compartments.
(b) Each carburetor with vapor elim
ination connections must have a vent
line to lead vapors back to one of the fuel
tanks. If there is more than one fuel
tank, and if it is necessary to use these
tanks in a definite sequence for any rea
son, the vapor vent return line must
lead back to the fuel tank to be used
first, unless the relative capacities of the
tanks are such that return to another
tank is preferable.
(c) For acrobatic category airplanes,
excessive loss of fuel during acrobatic
maneuvers, including short periods of in
verted flight, must be prevented. It
must be impossible for fuel to siphon
from the vent when normal flight has
been resumed after any acrobatic ma
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
neuver for which certification is
quested.
§ 23.977 Fuel tank outlet.
(a) There must be a fuel strainer,
with 8 to 16 meshes per inch, for the
fuel tank outlet. The diameter of the
strainer must be at least equal to that of
the fuel tank outlet.
(b) If a finger strainer is used—
(1) The length of the strainer must be
at least four times the diameter of the
outlet; and
(2) Each strainer must be accessible
for inspection and cleaning.
§ 23.979 Pressure fueling systems.
For pressure fueling systems, the fol
lowing apply:
(a) Each pressure fueling system fuel
manifold connection must have means to
prevent the escape of hazardous quanti
ties of fuel from the System if the fuel
entry valve fails.
(b) An automatic shutoff means must
be provided to prevent the quantity of
fuel in each tank from exceeding the
maximum quantity approved for that
tank. This means must allow checking
for proper shutoff operation before each
fueling of the tank.
(c) A means must be provided to pre
vent damage to the fuel system in the
event of failure of the automatic shut
off means prescribed in paragraph (b) of
this Section.
(d) All parts of the fuel System up to
the tank which are subjected to fueling
pressures must have a proof pressure of
1.33 times, and an ultimate pressure of
at least 2.0 times, the Surge pressure like
ly to occur during fueling.
[Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31823, Nov. 19, 1973]
FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
§ 23.991 Fuel pumps.
. (a) Main pumps. For main pumps, the
following apply:
(1) For reciprocating engine installa
:
º
tions having fuel pumps to Supply fuel
to the engine, at least one pump for each
engine must be directly driven by the
engine and must meet $ 23.955. This
pump is a main pump.
(2) For turbine engine installations,
each fuel pump required for proper en
gine operation, or required to meet the
fuel system requirements of this sub
part (other than those in paragraph (b)
of this section), is a main pump. In addi
tion—
§ 23.995
re (i) There must be at least one main
pump for each turbine engine;
(ii) The power supply for the main
pump for each engine must be inde
pendent of the power supply for each
main pump for any other engine; and
(iii) For each main pump, provision
must be made to allow the bypass of
each positive displacement fuel pump
other than a fuel injection pump ap
proved as part of the engine.
(b) Emergency pumps. There must be
an emergency pump immediately avail
able to supply fuel to the engine if any
main pump (other than a fuel injection
pump approved as part of an engine)
fails. The power supply for each emer
gency pump must be independent of the
power supply for each corresponding
main pump.
(c) Warming means. If both the nor
mal pump and emergency pump operate
continuously, there must be a means to
indicate to the appropriate flight crew
members a malfunction of either pump.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13093,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.993 Fuel system lines and fittings.
(a) Each fuel line must be installed
and supported to prevent excessive vi
bration and to withstand loads due
to fuel pressure and accelerated flight
conditions.
(b) Each fuel line connected to COm
ponents of the airplane between which
relative motion could exist must have
provisions for flexibility.
(c) Each flexible connection in fuel
lines that may be under pressure and
subjected to axial loading must use flexi
ble hose assemblies.
(d) Each flexible hose must be ap
proved or must be shown to be suitable
for the particular application.
(e) No flexible hose that might be
adversely affected by exposure to high
temperatures may be used where exces
sive temperatures will exist during oper
ation or after engine shutdown.
§ 23.994 Fuel system components.
Fuel system components in an engine
nacelle or in the fuselage must be pro
tected from damage which could cause
the release of fuel as a result of a wheels
up landing.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13093, Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.995 Fuel valves and controls.
(a) There must be a means to allow
appropriate flight crew members to rap
127
§ 23.997 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
idly shut off, in flight, the fuel to each
engine individually.
(b) No shutoff valve may be on the
engine side of any firewall. In addition,
there must be means to—
(1) Guard against inadvertent oper
ation of each shutoff valve; and
(2) Allow appropriate flight crew
members to reopen each valve rapidly
after it has been closed.
(c) Each valve and fuel system control
Inust—
(1) Have either positive stops or “feel"
in the “on” and “off” positions; and
(2) Be supported so that loads result
ing from its operation or from acceler
ated flight conditions are not transmitted
to the lines connected to the Valve.
(d) Each valve or fuel system control
must be installed so that the effect of
gravity and vibration will tend to turn its
handle to the open or “on” position, not
to the closed or “off” position.
(e) Each fuel valve handle and its
connections to the valve mechanism
must have design features that minimize
the possibility of incorrect installation.
(f) Each check valve must be con
structed, or otherwise incorporate pro
visions, to preclude incorrect assembly or
connection of the valve.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31823,
Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.997 Fuel strainer or filter.
There must be a fuel Strainer or filter
between the fuel tank outlet and the
inlet of either the fuel metering device
or an engine driven positive displace
ment pump, whichever is nearer the fuel
tank Outlet. This fuel Strainer or filter
must—
(a) Be accessible for draining and
cleaning and must incorporate a screen
or element which is easily removable:
(b) Have a sediment trap and drain
except that it need not have a drain if
the strainer or filter is easily removable
for drain purposes;
(c) Be mounted so that its weight is
not supported by the connecting lines
or by the inlet or outlet connections of
the strainer or filter itself; and
(d) Have the capacity (with respect
to operating limitations established for
the engine) and the mesh to ensure that
engine fuel system functioning is not im
paired, with the fuel contaminated to a
degree (with respect to particle size and
128
density) that is greater than that estab
lished for the engine in Part 33 of this
Chapter.
[Amdt. No. 23–15, 39 FR 35459, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 23.999 Fuel system drains.
(a) There must be at least one drain
to allow safe drainage of the entire fuel
system with the airplane in its normal
ground attltude.
(b) Each drain must have a means to
lock it closed.
§ 23.1001 Fuel jettisoning system.
(a) If the design landing weight is
less than that permitted under the re
quirements of § 23.473 (b), the airplane
must have a fuel jettisoning System in
stalled that is able to jettison enough
fuel to bring the maximum weight down
to the design landing weight. The aver
age rate of fuel jettisoning must be at
least 1 percent of the maximum weight
per minute, except that the time required
to jettison the fuel need not be less than
10 minutes.
(b) Fuel jettisoning must be demon
strated at maximum weight with flaps
and landing gear up and in—
(1) A power-off glide at 1.4 Vs, ;
(2) A climb at the one-engine-inoper
ative best rate-of-climb speed, with the
critical engine inoperative and the re
maining engines at maximum continu
OuS power; and
(3) Level flight at 1.4 Vs, if the re
Sults of the tests in the conditions speci
fied in subparagraphs (1) and (2) of
this paragraph show that this condition
could be critical.
(c) During the flight tests prescribed
in paragraph (b) of this section, it must
be shown that—
(1) The fuel jettisoning system and
its operation are free from fire hazard;
(2) The fuel discharges clear of any
part of the airplane;
(3) Fuel or fumes do not enter any
parts of the airplane; and
(4) The jettisoning operation does not
adversely affect the controllability of the
airplane.
(d) For reciprocating engine powered
airplanes, the jettisoning system must
be designed so that it is not possible to
jettison the fuel in the tanks used for
takeoff and landing below the level al
lowing 45 minutes flight at 75 percent
maximum continuous power. However, if
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
there is an auxiliary control independent
of the main jettisoning control, the sys
tem may be designed to jettison all the
fuel.
(e) For turbine engine powered air
planes, the jettisoning system must be
f: designed so that it is not possible to
jettison fuel in the tanks used for take
It i
ſº.
****
ofſ and landing below the level allowing
climb from Sea level to 10,000 feet and
thereafter allowing 45 minutes cruise at
£3:3:
a speed for maximum range.
(f) The fuel jettisoning valve must be
designed to allow flight personnel to close
the valve during any part of the jettison
ing Operation.
(g) Unless it is shown that using any
means (including flaps, slots, and slats)
for changing the airflow across or around
the wings does not adversely affect fuel
jettisoning, there must be a placard, ad
jacent to the jettisoning control, to warn
flight crewmembers against jettisoning
fuel while the means that change the
airflow are being used.
(h) The fuel jettisoning System must
be designed so that any reasonably prob
able single malfunction in the System will
not result in a hazardous condition due
to unsymmetrical jettisoning of, or in
ability to jettison, fuel.
[Amdt. No. 27–3, 34 F.R. 13094, Aug. 13, 1969]
OIL SYSTEM
§ 23.1011 General.
(a) Each engine must have an inde
pendent oil System that can supply it
with an appropriate quantity of oil at a
temperature not above that safe for con
tinuous Operation.
(b) The usable oil tank capacity may
not be less than the product of the
endurance of the airplane under critical
operating conditions and the maximum
oil consumption of the engine under the
same conditions, plus a suitable margin
to ensure adequate circulation and
cooling.
(c) For an oil System without an oil
transfer system, only the usable oil tank
capacity may be c on si d e red. The
amount of oil in the engine oil lines, the
oil radiator, and the feathering reserve,
may not be considered.
(d) If an oil transfer System is used,
and the transfer pump can pump some
of the oil in the transfer lines into the
main engine oil tanks, the amount of oil
in these lines that can be pumped by the
129
§ 23.1013
transfer pump may be included in the oil
capacity.
§ 23.1013 Oil tanks.
(a) Installation. Each oil tank must
be installed to
(1) Meet the requirements of § 23.967
(a) and (b) ; and
(2) Withstand any vibration, inertia,
and fluid loads expected in operation.
(b) Eacpansion space. Oil tank ex
pansion space must be provided so that—
(1) Each oil tank used with a recipro
Cating engine has an expansion space of
not less than the greater of 10 percent
of the tank capacity or 0.5 gallon, and
each oil tank used with a turbine engine
has an expansion space of not less than
10 percent of the tank capacity; and
(2) It is impossible to fill the expan
slon space inadvertently with the air
plane in the normal ground attitude.
(c) Filler connection. Each oil tank
filler connection must be marked as spec
ified in § 23.1557 (c). Each recessed oil
tank filler connection of an oil tank
used with a turbine engine, that can re
tain any appreciable quantity of oil, must
have provisions for fitting a drain.
(d) Vent. Oil tanks must be vented as
follows:
(1) Each oil tank must be vented to
the engine crankcase from the top part
of the expansion space so that the vent
connection is not covered by oil under
any normal flight condition.
(2) Oil tank vents must be arranged so
that condensed water vapor that might
freeze and obstruct the line cannot ac
Cumulate at any point.
(3) For acrobatic category airplanes,
there must be means to prevent haz
ardous loss of oil during acrobatic ma
neuvers, including short periods of in
Verted flight.
(e) Outlet. No oil tank outlet may be
enclosed by any screen or guard that
would reduce the flow of oil below a safe
Value at any operating temperature. No
oil tank outlet diameter may be less than
the diameter of the engine oil pump inlet.
Each oil tank used with a turbine engine
must have means to prevent entrance
into the tank itself, or into the tank
outlet, of any object that might obstruct
the flow of oil through the system. There
must be a shutoff valve at the outlet of
each oil tank used with a turbine engine,
unless the external portion of the oil sys
§ 23.1015 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
tem (including oil tank supports) is
fireproof.
(f) Fletible liners. Each flexible oil
tank liner must be of an acceptable kind.
(g) Each oil tank filler cap of an oil
tank that is used with a turbine engine
must provide an oiltight Seal.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–15, 39 FR 35459
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 23.1015 Oil tank tests.
Each oil tank must be tested under
§ 23.965, except that—
(a) The applied pressure must be five
p.s.l. for the tank construction instead of
the pressures specified in § 23.965(a):
(b) For a tank with a nonmetallic
liner the test fluid must be oil rather
than fuel as specified in § 23.965(d), and
the slosh test on a specimen liner must
be conducted with the oil at 250° F.; and
(c) For pressurized tanks used with a
turbine engine, the test pressure may not
be less than 5 p.s.i. plus the maximum
ope,'ating pressure of the tank.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–15, 39 FR 35460,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 23.1017 Oil lines and fittings.
(a) Oil lines. Oil lines must meet
§ 23.993 and must accommodate a flow of
oil at a rate and pressure adequate for
proper engine functioning under any
normal Operating condition.
(b) Breather lines. Breather lines
must be arranged so that—
(1) Condensed water vapor or oil that
might freeze and obstruct the line can
not accumulate at any point;
(2) The breather discharge will not
constitute a fire hazard if foaming oc
curs, or cause emitted oil to strike the
pilot's windshield:
(3) The breather does not discharge
into the engine air induction system; and
(4) For acrobatic category airplanes,
there is no excessive loss of oil from the
breather during acrobatic maneuvers,
including short periods of inverted flight.
(5) The breather outlet is protected
against blockage by ice or foreign matter.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13094,
Aug. 13, 1969; Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31823,
Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.1019 Oil strainer or filter.
(a) Each turbine engine installation
must incorporate an oil strainer or filter
through which all of the engine oil flows
130
and which meets the following require
ments:
(1) Each oil strainer or filter that has
a bypass, must be constructed and in
stalled so that oil will flow at the normal
rate through the rest of the system with
the strainer or filter completely blocked.
(2) The oil strainer or filter must have
the capacity (with respect to operating
limitations established for the engine)
and the mesh to ensure that engine oil
system functioning is not impaired when
the oil is contaminated to a degree (with
respect to particle size and density) that
is greater than that established for the
engine under Part 33 of this Chapter.
(3) The Oil Strainer or filter, unless it
is installed at an oil tank outlet, must
incorporate an indicator that Will in
dicate contamination of the screen be
fore it reaches the capacity established
in accordance with paragraph (a) (2) of
this section.
(4) The bypass of a strainer or filter
must be constructed and installed so that
the release of collected contaminants is
minimized by appropriate location of the
bypass to ensure that collected contam
inants are not in the bypass flow path.
(5) An oil strainer or filter that has no
bypass, except one that is installed at an
oil tank outlet, must have a means to
connect it to the warning System re
quired in § 23.1305 (u).
(b) Each oil strainer or filter in a
powerplant installation using recipro
cating engines must be constructed and
installed So that Oil Will flow at the nor
mal rate through the rest of the system
With the strainer or filter element com
pletely blocked.
[Amdt. No. 23–15, 39 FR 35460, Oct. 1, 1974)
§ 23.1021 Oil system drains.
There must be at least one accessible
drain that—
(a) Allows safe drainage of the entire
oil system; and
(b) Has manual or automatic means
for positive locking in the closed posi
tion.
§ 23.1023 Oil radiators.
Each oil radiator and its supporting
Structures must be able to withstand the
vibration, inertia, and oil pressure loads
to which it would be subjected in
operation.
§ 23.1027 Propeller feathering system.
(a) If the propeller feathering system
depends on engine oil, there must be
means to trap an amount of oil in the
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
tank if the supply becomes depleted due
to failure of any part of the lubricating
System, other than the tank itself.
(b) The amount of trapped oil must
be enough to accomplish feathering and
must be available only to the feathering
pull Ilp.
(c) The ability of the system to ac
complish feathering with the trapped oil
must be shown.
(d) Provision must be made to pre
vent sludge or other foreign matter from
affecting the safe Operation of the pro
peller feathering system.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31823,
Nov. 19, 1973]
COOLING
§ 23.1041 General.
The powerplant cooling provisions
must be able to maintain the tempera
tures of powerplant components and
engine fluids, within the temperature
limit established during ground and
flight operation to the maximum altitude
for which approval is requested.
[Amdt. No. 27–3, 34 F.R. 13094, Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.1043 Cooling tests.
(a) General. Compliance with $23.1041
must be shown under critical ground,
water, and flignt operating conditions to
the maximum altitude for which ap
proval is requested. For turbosuper
charged engines, each turbosupercharger
must be operated through that part of
the climb profile for which operation
with the turbosupercharger is requested
and in a manner consistent with its in
tended Operation. For these tests, the
following apply:
(1) If the tests are conducted under
conditions deviating from the maximum
anticipated air temperatures specified in
paragraph (b) of this section, the re
corded powerplant temperatures must
be corrected under paragraphs (c) and
(d) of this section, unless a more ra
tional correction method is applicable.
(2) No corrected temperature deter
mined under subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph may exceed established limits.
(3) The fuel used during the cooling
tests must be of the minimum grade ap
proved for the engines, and the mixture
settings must be those used in normal
operation.
(4) [Reserved]
(5) Water taxiing tests must be con
ducted on each hull seaplane that may
131
§ 23.1045
reasonably be expected to be taxled for
extended periods.
(b) Marimum anticipated air tem
perature.
(1) For cooling tests of reciprocating
engines the maximum anticipated tem
perature (hot-day condition) is 100° F.
at sea level, decreasing from this value
at the rate of 3.6° F. per thousand feet
of altitude above sea level up to the alti
tude at which a temperature of —69.7°
F. is reached, above which altitude the
temperature is constant at –69.7° F.
However, cooling test results for winter
1zation installations may be corrected to
any desired temperature.
(2) For cooling tests of turbine engine
installations, the applicant must show
that the airplane has the cooling capa
bility prescribed in § 23.1041, at a cor
rected hot-day temperature of not less
than 100°F. at sea level, decreasing with
altitude as prescribed in subparagraph
(1) of this paragraph.
(c) Correction factor (eccept cylin
der barrels). Unless a more rational cor
rection applies, temperatures of engine
fluids and powerplant components (ex
cept cylinder barrels) for which tempera
ture limits are established, must be cor
rected by adding to them the difference
between the maximum ambient atmos
pheric temperature and the temperature
of the ambient air at the time of the
first occurrence of the maximum com
ponent or fluid temperature recorded
during the cooling test.
(d) Correction factor for cylinder
barrel temperatures. Cylinder barrel
temperatures must be corrected by add
ing to them 0.7 times the difference be
tween the maximum anticipated air tem
perature and the temperature of the
anbient air at the time of the first oc
currence of the maximum cylinder bar
rel temperature recorded during the
cooling test.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13094,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.1045 Cooling test procedures for
turbine engine powered airplanes.
(a) Compliance with $ 23.1041 must
be shown for the takeoff, climb, en route,
and landing stages of flight that cor
respond to the applicable performance
requirements. The cooling tests must be
conducted with the airplane in the COn
figuration, and operating under the con
ditions, that are critical relative to cool
ing during each stage of flight. For the
§ 23.1047 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
cooling tests, a temperature is “stabl
lized” when its rate of change is less than
2” F. per minute.
(b) Temperatures must be stabilized
under the conditions from which entry
is made into each stage of flight being
investigated, unless the entry condition
normally is not one during which com
ponent and engine fluid temperatures
would stabilize (in which case, opera
tion through the full entry condition
must be conducted before entry into the
stage of flight being investigated in order
to allow temperatures to reach their nat
ural levels at the time of entry). The
takeoff cooling test must be preceded by
a period during which the powerplant
component and engine fluid tempera
tures are stabilized with the engines at
ground idle.
(c) Cooling tests for each stage of
flight must be continued until—
(1) The component and engine fluid
temperatures stabilize;
(2) The stage of flight is completed;
or
(3) An operating limitation is reached.
[Amdt. No. 27–3, 34 F.R. 13094, Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.1047 Cooling test procedures ſor
reciprocating engine powered air
planes.
(a) For each single-engine airplane
powered with a reciprocating engine, en
gine cooling tests must be conducted as
follows:
(1) Engine temperatures must be sta
bilized in flight with the engines at not
less than 75 percent of maximum con
tinuous power.
(2) After temperatures have stabil
ized, a climb must be begun at the lowest
practicable altitude and continued for 1
minute with the engine at takeoff power.
(3) At the end of 1 minute, the climb
must be continued at maximum continu
ous power for at least 5 minutes after the
occurrence of the highest temperature
recorded.
(b) The climb required in paragraph
(a) of this section must be conducted at
a speed not more than the best rate-of
climb speed with maximum continuous
power unless—
(1) The slope of the flight path at the
Speed chosen for the cooling test is equal
to or greater than the minimum required
angle of climb determined under
§ 23.65 (a)(1) ; and
(2) The airplane has a cylinder head
temperature indicator as specified in
§ 23.1337 (e).
13O
(c) The stabilizing and climb parts of
the test must be conducted with cowl
flap settings selected by the applicant.
(d) For each multiengine airplane
powered with reciprocating engines, that
meets the minimum one-engine-inoper
ative climb performance specified in
§ 23.67 (a) or § 23.67 (b) (1), engine cool
ing tests must be conducted as follows:
(1) The airplane must be in the Con
figuration specified in § 23.67 (a) or
§ 23.67 (b) (1), except that, when above
the critical altitude, the operating en
gines must be at maximum Continuous
power or at full throttle.
(2) The stabilizing and climb parts of
the tests must be conducted with cowl
flap settings selected by the applicant.
(3) The temperatures of the Operating
engines must be stabilized in flight, with
the engines at not less than 75 percent
of the maximum continuous power.
(4) After engine temperatures have
stabilized, a climb must be—
(i) Begun from 1,000 feet below the
critical altitude (or, if this is impracti
cable, at the lowest altitude that the ter
rain will allow) or 1,000 feet below the
altitude at which the single-engine-ln
operative rate of climb is 0.02 Vso"
whichever is lower; and
(ii) Continued for at least 5 minutes
after the highest temperature has been
recorded.
(5) The climb must be conducted at
a speed not more than the highest speed
at which compliance with the climb re
quirement of § 23.67 (a) or § 23.67 (b) (1)
can be shown. If the speed used exceeds
the speed for best rate of climb with one
engine inoperative, the airplane must
have a cylinder head temperature in
dicator as specified in § 23.1337(e).
(e) For each multiengine airplane
powered with reciprocating engines that
cannot meet the minimum one-engine
inoperative climb performance Specified
in § 23.67(a) or § 23.67 (b) (1), engine
cooling tests must be conducted as pre
scribed in paragraph (d) of this section,
except that, after stabilizing tempera
tures in flight, the climb (or descent, for
airplanes with zero or negative one-en
gine-inoperative rates of climb) must
be—
(1) Begun as close to sea level as is
practicable; and
(2) Conducted at the best rate-of
climb speed (or the speed of minimum
rate of descent, for airplanes with zero
4
 Chapter 1–Federal Aviation Administration
or negative one-engine-inoperative rates
of climb).
[Amdt. No. 27–3, 84 F.R. 13094, Aug. 18, 1969]
LIQUID COOLING
§ 23.1061 Installation.
(a) General. Each liquid-cooled en
gine must have an independent cooling
system (including coolant tank) installed
so that—
(1) Each coolant tank is supported
so that tank loads are distributed over
a large part of the tank Surface;
(2) There are pads between the tank
and its supports to prevent chafing; and
(3) No air or vapor can be trapped in
any part of the System, except the ex
pansion tank, during filling or during
Operation.
Padding must be nonabsorbent or must
be treated to prevent the absorption of
flammable fluids.
(b) Coolant tank. The tank capacity
must be at least one gallon, plus 10 per
cent of the cooling System capacity. In
addition—
(1) Each coolant tank must be able to
withstand the vibration, inertia, and
fluid loads to which it may be subjected
in operation;
(2) Each coolant tank must have an
expansion space of at least 10 percent
of the total cooling system capacity; and
(3) It must be impossible to fill the
expansion space inadvertently with the
airplane in the normal ground attitude.
(c) Filler connection. Each coolant
tank filler connection must be marked
as specified in § 23.1557 (c). In addi
tion—
(1) Spilled coolant must be prevented
from entering the coolant tank compart
ment or any part of the airplane other
than the tank itself; and
(2) Each recessed coolant filler con
nection must have a drain that dis
charges clear of the entire airplane.
(d) Lines and fittings. Each coolant
system line and fitting must meet the
requirements of § 23.993, except that the
inside diameter of the engine coolant
inlet and outlet lines may not be less than
the diameter of the corresponding engine
inlet and outlet connections.
(e) Radiators. Each coolant radiator
must be able to withstand any vibration,
inertia, and coolant pressure load to
which it may normally be subjected. In
addition—
(1) Each radiator must be supported
to allow expansion due to operating tem
133
§ 23.1091
peratures and prevent the transmittal of
harmful vibration to the radiator; and
(2) If flammable coolant is used, the
air intake duct to the coolant radiator
must be located so that (in case of fire)
flames from the nacelle cannot strike
the radiator.
(f) Drains. There must be an acces
sible drain that—
(1) Drains the entire cooling system
(including the coolant tank, radiator,
and the engine) When the airplane is in
the normal ground attitude;
(2) Discharges clear of the entire
airplane; and
(3) HaS means to positively lock it
closed.
§ 23.1063 Coolant tank tests.
Each coolant tank must be tested
under § 23.965, except that—
(a) The test required by § 23.965(a)
(1) must be replaced with a similar test
using the sum of the pressure developed
during the maximum ultimate accelera
tion with a full tank or a pressure of 3.5
pounds per square inch, whichever is
greater, plus the maximum working pres
sure of the system; and
(b) For a tank with a nonmetallic
liner the test fluid must be coolant
rather than fuel as Specified in § 23.965
(d), and the slosh test on a specimen
liner must be conducted with the cool
ant at operating temperature.
INDUCTION SYSTEM
§ 23.1091 Air induction.
(a) The air induction System for each
engine must supply the air required by
that engine under the Operating Condi
tions for which certification is requested.
(b) Each reciprocating engine instal
lation must have at least two separate
air intake sources and must meet the
following:
(1) Primary air intakes may Open
Within the cowling if that part of the
cowling is isolated from the engine ac
cessory Section by a fire-resistant dia
phragm or if there are means to prevent
the emergence of backfire fiames.
(2) Each alternate air intake must be
located in a sheltered position and may
not open within the cowling if the emer
gence of backfire flames will result in a
hazard.
(3) The supplying of air to the engine
through the alternate air intake system
may not result in a loss of excessive
power in addition to the power loss due
to the rise in air temperature.
§ 23.1093 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(c) For turbine engine powered
airplanes—
(1) There must be means to prevent
hazardous quantities of fuel leakage or
overflow from drains, vents, or other
components of flammable fluid Systems
from entering the engine intake System;
and
(2) The air inlet ducts must be lo
cated or protected So as to minimize the
ingestion of foreign matter during take
off, landing, and taxiing.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13095,
Aug. 13, 1969)
Induction system icing pro
§ 23.1093
tection.
(a) Each reciprocating elugine air in
duction system must have means to pre
vent and eliminate icing. Unless this is
done by other means, it must be shown
that, in air free of visible moisture at a
temperature of 30° F.—
(1) Each airplane with sea level en
gines using conventional venturi carbure
tors has a preheater that can provide a
heat rise of 90° F. with the engines at 75
percent of maximum continuous power;
(2) Each airplane with altitude en
gines using conventional Venturi car
buretors has a preheater that can provide
a heat rise of 120° F. With the engines at
75 percent of maximum continuous
power;
(3) Each airplane with altitude en
gines using carburetors tending to pre
vent icing has a preheater that, with the
engines at 60 percent of maximum con
tinuous power, can provide a heat rise
of—
(i) 100°F.; or
(ii) 40° F., if a fluid deicing system
meeting the requirements of §§ 23.1095
through 23.1099 is installed;
(4) Each single-engine airplane with
a sea level engine using a carburetor
tending to prevent icing has a sheltered
alternate source of air with a preheat of
not less than that provided by the engine
cooling air down-stream of the cylinders;
and
(5) Each multiengine airplane with
sea level engines using a carburetor tend
ing to prevent icing has a preheater that
can provide a heat rise of 90° F. with the
engines at 75 percent of maximum con
tinuous power.
. (b) Each turbine engine must—
(1) Operate throughout its flight
power range (including idling) without
134
adverse effect on engine operation or
Serious loss of power or thrust, under the
icing conditions specified in Appendix C
of Part 25 of this Chapter, and in snow,
both falling and blowing, within the
limitations established for the airplane;
and
(2) Idle for 30 minutes on the ground
with the air bleed available for engine
icing protection at its critical condition,
without adverse effect, in an atmosphere
that is at a temperature of 29° F and has
a liquid water content of 0.6 grams per
cubic meter in the form of drops having
a mean effective diameter of 40 microns,
followed by a momentary operation at
takeoff power or thrust.
[Amdt. No. 27–3, 34 FR 13095, Aug. 13, 1969,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–15, 39 FR 35460,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 23.1095
Carburetor deicing fluid flow
rate.
(a) If a carburetor deicing fluid sys
tem is used, it must be able to simultane
Cusly supply each engine with a rate of
fluid flow, expressed in pounds per hour,
of not less than 2.5 times the square root
of the maximum continuous power of the
engine.
(b) The fluid must be introduced into
the air induction system—
(1) Close to, and upstream of, the
carburetor; and
(2) So that it is equally distributed
Over the entire cross section of the in
duction System air passages.
§ 23.1097 Carburetor deicing fluid sys
tem capacity.
(a) The capacity of each carburetor
deicing fluid system—
(1) May not be less than the greater
of—
(i) That required to provide fluid at
the rate specified in § 23.1095 for a time
equal to three percent of the maximum
endurance of the airplane; or
(ii) 20 minutes at that flow rate; and
(2) Need not exceed that required for
two hours of operation.
(b) If the available preheat exceeds
50° F. but is less than 100° F., the ca
pacity of the system may be decreased
in proportion to the heat rise available
in excess of 50° F.
§ 23.1099. Carburetor deicing fluid sys
tem detail design.
Each carburetor deicing fluid system
must meet the applicable requirements
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
for the design of a fuel system, except
as specified in §§ 23.1095 and 23.1097.
§ 23.1101 Carburetor air preheater de
sign.
Each carburetor air preheater must be
designed and constructed to
(a) Ensure ventilation of the pre
heater when the engine is operated in
cold air;
(b) Allow inspection of the exhaust
manifold parts that it surrounds; and
(c) Allow inspection of critical parts
of the preheater itself.
§ 23.1103 Induction system ducts.
(a) Each induction system duct must
have a drain to prevent the accumulation
of fuel or moisture in the normal ground
and flight attitudes. No drain may dis
charge where it will cause a fire hazard.
(b) Each duct connected to compo
nents between which relative motion
could exist must have means for flexi
bility.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13095,
Aug. 13, 1969)
§ 23.1105 Induction system screens.
If induction system screens are used—
(a) Each Screen must be upstream of
the carburetor;
(b) No screen may be in any part
of the induction System that is the only
passage through which air can reach
the engine, unless—
(1) The available preheat is at least
100°F.; and
(2) The screen can be deiced by
heated air;
(c) No screen may be deiced by alcohol
alone; and
(d) It must be impossible for fuel to
strike any screen.
§ 23.1111 Turbine engine bleed air sys
tem.
For turbine engine bleed air systems,
the following apply:
(a) No hazard may result if duct rup
ture or failure occurs anywhere between
the engine port and the airplane unit
served by the bleed air.
(b) The effect on airplane and engine
performance of using maximum bleed
air must be established.
(c) For bleed air Systems used for di
rect cabin pressurization, no failure of
the engine lubrication System may result
in contamination of cabin air Systems.
[Amdt. No. 27–3, 34 F.R. 13095, Aug. 13, 1969]
135
§ 23.1125
EXHAUST SYSTEM
§ 23.1121 General.
(a) Each exhaust system must ensure
Safe disposal of exhaust gases without
fire hazard or carbon monoxide contami
nation in any personnel compartment.
(b) Unless suitable precautions are
taken, no exhaust system part may be
dangerously close to any system carry
ing flammable fluids or vapors, or under
any such system that may leak.
(c) Each exhaust system component
must be separated by fireproof shields
from adjacent flammable parts of the
airplane that are outside the engine
COmpartment.
(d) No exhaust gases may discharge
dangerously near any fuel or oil system
drain.
(e) No exhaust gases may be dis
charged where they will cause a glare
Seriously affecting pilot vision at night.
(f) Each exhaust system component
must be ventilated to prevent points of
excessively high temperature.
(g) If significant traps exists, each
turbine engine exhaust System must have
drains discharging clear of the airplane,
in any normal ground and flight attitude,
to prevent fuel accumulation after the
failure of an attempted engine start.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13095,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.11.23 Exhaust manifold.
(a) Each exhaust manifold must be
fireproof and corrosion-resistant, and
must have means to prevent failure due
to expansion by operating temperatures.
(b) Each exhaust manifold must be
supported to withstand the vibration and
inertia loads to which it may be subjected
in Operation.
(c) Parts of the manifold connected
to components between which relative
motion could exist must have means
for flexibility.
§ 23.11.25 Exhaust heat exchangers.
(a) Each exhaust heat exchanger
must be constructed and installed to
withstand the vibration, inertia, and
other loads that it may be subjected to
in normal operation. In addition—
(1) Each exchanger must be suitable
for continued operation at high temper
atures and resistant to corrosion from
exhaust gases;
§ 23.1141 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(2) There must be means for inspec
tion of critical parts of each exchanger;
and
(3) Each exchanger must be venti
lated where it is Subject to contact with
exhaust gases.
(b) Each heat exchanger used for
heating ventilating air must be con
structed so that exhaust gases may not
enter the ventilating air.
POWERPLANT CONTROLS AND ACCESSORIES
§ 23.1141 Powerplant controls: general.
(a) Powerplant controls must be lo
cated and arranged under § 23.777 and
marked under § 23.1555(a).
(b) Each flexible control must be of
an acceptable kind.
(c) Each control must be able to
maintain any necessary position with
Out—
(1) Constant attention by flight crew
members; or
(2) Tendency to creep due to control
loads or vibration.
(d) Each control must be able to with
stand Operating loads without failure or
excessive deflection.
(e) For turbine engine powered air
planes, no single failure or malfunction,
or probable combination thereof, in any
powerplant control System may cause the
failure of any powerplant function nec
essary for safety.
(f) The portion of each powerplant
control located in the engine compart
ment that is required to be operated in
the event of fire must be at least fire
resistant.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13095,
Aug. 13, 1969; Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31823,
Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.11.43 Engine power and thrust, and
supercharger controls.
(a) There must be a separate power or
thrust control for each engine and a
separate control for each supercharger
that requires a control.
(b) Power, thrust, and supercharger
controls must be arranged to allow—
(1) Separate control of each engine
and each supercharger; and
(2) Simultaneous control of all en
gines and all superchargers.
(c) Each power, thrust, or super
charger control must give a positive and
immediate responsive means of control
ling its engine or supercharger.
(d) The power, thrust, or super
charger controls for each engine or
o
1: 6
Supercharger must be independent of
those for every other engine or
Supercharger.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13095, Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.1145 Ignition switches.
(a) Ignition switches must control
each ignition circuit on each engine.
(b) There must be means to quickly
shut off all ignition on multiengine air
planes by the grouping of Switches or by
a master ignition control.
(c) Each master ignition control must
have means to prevent its inadvertent
Operation.
§ 23.1 147 Mixture controls,
If there are mixture controls, each
engine must have a separate control, and
each mixture control must have guards
or must be shaped or arranged to pre
Vent confusion by feel with other con
trols. The controls must be grouped and
arranged to allow—
(a) Separate control of each engine;
and
(b) Simultaneous control of all en
gines.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13096
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.1149 Propeller speed and pitch
controls.
(a) If there are propeller speed or
pitch controls, they must be grouped and
arranged to allow—
(1) Separate control of each propel
ler; and
(2) Simultaneous control of all pro
pellers.
(b) The controls must allow ready
Synchronization of all propellers on mul
tiengine airplanes.
§ 23.1153 Propeller feathering controls.
If there are propeller feathering con
trols, each propeller must have a sepa
rate control. Each control must have
means to prevent inadvertent operation.
§ 23.1155 Turbine engine reverse thrust
and propeller pitch settings below
the ſlight regime.
For turbine engine installations, each
control for reverse thrust and for pro
peller pitch settings below the flight
regime must have means to prevent its
inadvertent operation. The means must
have a positive lock or stop at the flight
idle position and must require a separate
and distinct operation by the crew to dis
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
3: . place the control from the flight regime
II: E (forward thrust regime for turbojet
powered airplanes).
13.5 [Amdt. 27–3, 34 F.R. 13096, Aug. 18, 1960)
§ 23.1157 Carburetor air temperature
controls.
There must be a separate carburetor
air temperature control for each engine.
§ 23.1163 Powerplant accessories.
(a) Each engine-driven accessory
must—
(1) Be Satisfactory for mounting on
the engine concerned; and
(2) Use the provisions on the engine
for mounting.
tº: (b) Electrical equipment subject to
tº: arcing or sparking must be installed to
minimize the probability of contact with
g:
gº
any flammable fluids or vapors that
might be present in a free State.
f:
(c) Each generator rated at or more
than 6 kilowatts must be designed an
installed to minimize the probability of a
fire hazard in the event it malfunctions.
|Docket No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
| E.
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31823,
Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.1165 Engine ignition systems.
(a) Each battery ignition System must
be supplemented by a generator that
is automatically available as an alternate
source of electrical energy to allow con
tinued engine operation if any battery
becomes depleted.
(b) The capacity of batteries and gen
erators must be large enough to meet the
simultaneous demands of the engine ig
nition system and the greatest demands
of any electrical System components that
draw from the same Source.
(c) The design of the engine ignition
system must account for—
(1) The condition of an inoperative
generator;
(2) The condition of a completely de
:
sº
-
pleted battery with the generator run
ning at its normal operating speed; and
(3) The condition of a completely de
pleted battery with the generator oper
ating at idling speed, if there is only one
battery.
(d) There must be means to Warn
appropriate crewmembers if malfunc
tioning of any part of the electrical Sys
tem is causing the continuous discharge
of any battery used for engine ignition.
§ 23.1182 Nacelle areas behind firewalls.
Components, lines, and fittings, except
those subject to the provisions of
13 ſ
89–059–75—10.
§ 23.11.89
$23.1351(e), located behind the engine
compartment firewall must be con
structed of such materials and located at
such distances from the firewall that they
will not suffer damage sufficient to en
danger the airplane if a portion of the
engine side of the firewall is subjected to
a flame temperature of not less than 2000"
F for 15 minutes.
[Amdt. No. 23–16, 38 FR 31823, Nov. 19, 1973]
POWERPLANT FIRE PROTECTION
§ 23.1183 Lines and fittings and compo
ments.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(b) of this section, each component, line,
and fitting carrying flammable fluids,
gas, or air in any area subject to engine
fire conditions must be at least fire
resistant, except that flammable fluid
tanks and supports which are part of
and attached to the engine must be fire
proof or be enclosed by a fireproof shield
unless damage by fire to any non-fire
proof part will not cause leakage or
Spillage of flammable fluid. Components
must be shielded or located so as to
Safeguard against the ignition of leaking
flammable fluid. Flexible hose assemblies
(hose and end fittings) must be approved.
An integral oil sump of less than 20 quart
capacity on a reciprocating engine need
not be fireproof nor be enclosed by a
fireproof shield.
(b) Paragraph (a) of this section does
Inot apply to—
(1) Lines and fittings already ap
proved as part of a type certificated
engine under Part 33 of this chapter; and
(2) Vent and drain lines, and their
fittings, whose failure will not result in.
or add to, a fire hazard.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964.
as amended by Amdt. 23–5, 32 F R. 6912.
May 5, 1967; Amdt. No. 23–15, 39 FR 35460,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 23.1189 Shutoff means.
(a) For each multiengine airplane
subject to §§ 23.67(a) or 23.67(b) (1), the
following apply:
(1) Each engine must have means to
shut off or otherwise prevent hazardous
quantitles of fuel, oil, deicing fluid, and
other flammable fluids from flowing into,
within, or through any engine compart
ment, except in lines forming an integral
part of an engine.
(2) The closing of the fuel shutoff
valve for any engine may not make any
fuel unavailable to the remaining engines
-
§ 23.1.191 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
that would be available to those engines
with that valve open.
(3) Operation of any shutoff means
may not interfere with the later emer
gency operation of other equipment such
as propeller feathering devices.
(4) Each shutoff must be outside of
the engine compartment unless an
equal degree of safety is provided with
the shutoff inside the compartment.
(5) NO hazardous amount of flam
mable fluid may drain into the engine
compartment after shutoff.
(6) There must be means to guard
against inadvertent operation of each
shutoff means, and to make it possible
for the crew to reopen the shutoff means
in flight after it has been closed.
(b) Turbine engine installations need
not have an engine oil system shutoff if—
(1) The oil tank is integral with, or
mounted on, the engine; and
(2) All oil System components ex
ternal to the engine are fireproof.
(c) Power operated valves must have
means to indicate to the flight crew when
the valve has reached the selected posi
tion and must be designed so that the
valve Will not move from the Selected
position under vibration conditions like
ly to exist at the valve location.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13096,
Aug. 13, 1969; Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31823,
Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.1191 Firewalls.
(a) Each engine, auxiliary power unit,
fuel burning heater, and other combus
tion equipment intended for operation in
flight, must be isolated from the rest of
the airplane by firewalls, shrouds, or
equivalent means.
(b) Each firewall or shroud must be
constructed so that no hazardous quan
tity of liquid, gas, or flame can pass from
the engine compartment to other parts
of the airplane.
(c) Each opening in the firewall or
shroud must be sealed with close fltting,
fireproof grommets, bushings, or fire
wall fittings.
(d) Fire-resistant seals may be used
on single-engine airplanes and multi
engine airplanes not subject to § 23.67 (a)
or (b) (1), if–
(1) Each engine has a volumetric dis
placement of 1,000 cubic inches or less;
and
(2) No opening in the firewall or
shroud will allow the passage of a hazard
ous amount of flame without Seals.
138
(e) Each firewall and shroud must be
tº proot and protected against corro
S1011.
(f) Compliance with the criteria for
fireproof materials or components must
be shown as follows:
(1) The flame to which the materials
or components are Subjected must be
2,000+50°F.
(2) Sheet materials approximately 10
inches Square must be subjected to the
flame from a suitable burner.
(3) The flame must be large enough
to maintain the required test tempera
ture over an area approximately five
inches square.
(g) Firewall materials and fittings
must resist flame penetration for at least
15 minutes.
(h) The following materials may be
used in firewalls or shrouds without being
tested as required by this section:
(1) Stainless steel sheet, 0.015 inch
thick.
(2) Mild steel sheet (coated with alu
minum or otherwise protected against
corrosion) 0.018 inch thick.
(3) Terne plate, 0.018 inch thick.
(4) Monel metal, 0.018 inch thick.
(5) Steel or copper base alloy firewall
fittings.
§ 23.1192 Engine accessory compart
ment diaphragm.
For aircooled radial engines, the en
gine power section and all portions of the
exhaust system must be isolated from the
engine accessory compartment by a
diaphragm that meets the firewall re
quirements of § 23.1191.
[Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31823, Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.1193 Cowling.
(a) Each cowling must be constructed
and supported so that it can resist any
vibration, inertia, and air loads to which
It may be subjected in operation.
(b) There must be means for rapid
and complete drainage of each part of the
cowling in the normal ground and flight
attitudes. No drain may discharge
where it will cause a fire hazard.
(c) Cowling must be at least fire
resistant.
(d) Each part behind an opening in
the engine compartment cowling must be
at least fire resistant for a distance of at
least 24 inches aft of the opening.
(e) Each part of the cowling sub
jected to high temperatures due to its
nearness to exhaust System portS or ex
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
haust gas impingement, must be fire
proof.
Subpart F-Equipment
GENERAL
§ 23.1301 Function and installation.
(a) Each item of installed equipment
required by this chapter or otherwise es
sential to safe operation must:
(1) Adequately perform its intended
function under all probable operating
conditions.
(2) If appropriate, be labeled as to its
identification, function, or operating
limitations, or any applicable combina
tion of these factors;
(3) Be installed according to limita
tions prescribed for that equipment and
in compliance with $23.1431; and
(4) Function properly when installed.
(b) Whenever necessary, additional
equipment that is installed as prescribed
in the operating rules of this chapter,
must meet the requirements of this
Section.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13096,
Aug. 13, 1969; Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31823,
Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.1303 Flight and navigation instru
ments.
The following are required flight and
navigational instruments:
(a) An airspeed indicator.
(b) An altimeter.
(c) A magnetic direction indicator.
§ 23.1305 Powerplant instruments.
The following are required powerplant
instruments:
(a) A fuel quantity indicator for each
fuel tank.
(b) An oil pressure indicator for each
engine and for each turbosupercharger
oil system that is separate from other oil
Systems.
(c) An oil temperature indicator for
each engine and for each turbosuper
charger oil system that is separate from
other oil Systems.
(d) A tachometer for each reciprocat
ing engine.
(e) A tachometer (to indicate the
speed of the rotors with established
limiting speeds) for each turbine engine.
(f) A cylinder head temperature indi
cator for each air cooled engine with
cowl flaps, and for each airplane for
which compliance with $23.1041 is shown
at a Speed higher than Vy.
139
§ 23.1305
(g) A fuel pressure indicator for
pump-fed engines.
(h) A manifold pressure indicator for
each altitude engine.
(i) An oil quantity indicator for each
oil tank.
(j) A gas temperature indicator for
each turbine engine.
(k) A fuel flowmeter for each turbine
engine or fuel tank, if pilot action is re
quired to maintain fuel flow Within
limits.
(1) An indicator to indicate engine
thrust or to indicate a gas stream pres
Sure that can be related to thrust, for
each turbojet engine, including a free air
temperature indicator if needed for this
purpoSe.
(m) A torque indicator for each tur
bopropeller engine.
(n) A position indicating means to
indicate to the flight crew when the
propeller blade angle is below the flight
low pitch position, for each turbopropel
ler engine propeller. The source of indi
cation must directly sense the blade
position.
(o) A position indicating means to
indicate to the flight crew when the
thrust reverser is in the reverse thrust
position for each turbojet engine.
(p) For turbosupercharger installa
tions, if limitations are established for
either carburetor air inlet temperature
or exhaust gas temperature, indicators
must be furnished for each temperature
for which the limitation is established
unless it is shown that the limitation will
not be exceeded in all intended
Operations.
(q) A low oil pressure warning means
for each turbine engine.
(r) An induction System air tempera
ture indicator for each engine equipped
with a preheater and having induction
air temperature limitations which can be
exceeded with preheat.
(s) For each turbine engine, an indi
cator to indicate the functioning of the
powerplant ice protection system.
(t) For each turbine engine, an indi
cator for the fuel strainer or filter re
quired by § 23.997 to indicate the occur
rence of contamination of the strainer
or filter before it reaches the capacity
established in accordance with $23,997
(d).
(u) For each turbine engine, a warn
ing means for the oil strainer or filter re
quired by § 23.1019, if it has no bypass, to
§ 23.1307 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
warn the pilot of the occurrence of con
tamination of the strainer or filter not damage, or impair the accuracy of,
screen before it reaches the capacity any instrument.
established in accordance with $23.1019 . (d) For each airplane of more than
(a)(2).
(v) An indicator to indicate the func
tioning of any heater used to prevent ice
clogging of fuel system components.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 FR 13096, Aug. 13, 1969,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31823,
Nov. 19, 1973; Amdt. No. 23–15, 39 FR 35460,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 23.1307 Miscellaneous equipment.
(a) There must be an approved safety
belt for each occupant.
(b) The following miscellaneous
equipment is required as prescribed in
this subpart: - (3) The instrument that most effec
(1) A master switch arrangement.
(2) An adequate source of electrical
energy.
(3) Electrical protective devices.
§ 23.1309 Equipment systems and in
stallations.
(a) Each item of equipment, when per
forming its intended function, may not
adversely affect:
(1) The response, operation, or accu
racy of any equipment essential to Safe
operation; or
(2) The response, operation, or accu
racy of any other equipment unless there
is a means to inform the pilot of the
effect.
(b) The equipment, systems, and in
stallations of a multiengine airplane
must be designed to prevent hazards to
the airplane in the event of a probable
malfunction or failure.
(c) The equipment, systems, and in
stallations of a single-engine airplane
must be designed to minimize hazards to
the airplane in the event of a probable
malfunction or failure.
[Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31823, Nov. 19, 1973]
INSTRUMENTS: INSTALLATION
§ 23.1321 Arrangement and visibility.
(a) Each flight, navigation, and power
plant instrument for use by any pilot
must be plainly visible to him from his
station with the minimum practicable
deviation from his normal position and
line of vision when he is looking forward
along the flight path.
(b) For each multiengine airplane,
identical powerplant instruments must
be located so as to prevent confusion as
to which engine each instrument relates.
140
(c) Instrument panel vibration may
6,000 pounds maximum weight, the flight
instruments required by § 23.1303, and as
applicable, by Part 91 of this chapter
must be grouped on the instrument panel
and Centered as nearly as practicable
about the vertical plane of the pilot's
forward vision. In addition:
(1) The instrument that most effec
tively indicates the attitude must be on
the panel in the top center position;
(2) The instrument that most effec
tively indicates airspeed must be adja
cent to and directly to the left of the
instrument in the top center position;
tively indicates altitude must be adjacent
to and directly to the right of the instru
ment in the top center position; and
(4) The instrument that most effec
tively indicates direction of flight, other
than the magnetic direction indicator re
quired by § 23.1303(c), must be adjacent
to and directly below the instrument in
the top center position.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31824,
Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.1323 Airspeed indicating system.
(a) Except for an allowable installa
tional error of plus or minus three per
cent of the calibrated airspeed, or five
knots, whichever is greater, each air
Speed indicating system must indicate
true airspeed at sea level with a stand
ard atmosphere—
(1) At speeds from Wo to 1.3 Vs, with
flaps up; and
(2) At 1.3 Vs., with flaps extended.
(b) Calibration must be made in
flight.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13096,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.1325 Static pressure system.
(a) Each instrument provided with
static pressure case connections must be
So vented that the influence of airplane
Speed, the opening and closing of win
dows, airflow variations, moisture, or
other foreign matter will least affect the
accuracy of the instruments except as
noted in paragraph (b) (3) of this
Section.
(b) If a static pressure system is nec
essary for the functioning of instruments,
Systems, or devices, it must comply with
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
the provisions of subparagraphs (1)
through (3) of this paragraph.
(1) The design and installation of a
static pressure System must be such
that—
(1) Positive drainage of moisture is
provided;
(ii) Chafing of the tubing, and exces
sive distortion or restriction at bends in
the tubing, is avoided; and
(iii) The materials used are durable,
suitable for the purpose intended, and
protected against corrosion.
(2) A proof test must be conducted to
demonstrate the integrity of the static
* if: pressure System in the following manner:
C.# = (1) Unpressurized airplanes. Evacuate
KSI: the static pressure system to a pressure
differential of approximately 1 inch of
dź mercury or to a reading on the altimeter,
***
1,000 feet above the aircraft elevation
at the time of the test. Without addi
tional pumping for a period of 1 minute,
the loss of indicated altitude must not
exceed 100 feet on the altimeter.
(ii) Pressurized airplanes. Evacuate
the static pressure system until a pres
sure differential equivalent to the maxi
mum cabin pressure differential for
which the airplane is type certificated
is achieved. Without additional pumping
for a period of 1 minute, the loss of indi
cated altitude must not exceed 2 percent
of the equivalent altitude of the maxi
mum cabin differential pressure or 100
feet, whichever is greater.
:I
(3) If a static pressure system is pro
vided for any instrument, device, or Sys
tem required by the operating rules of
this chapter, each Static pressure port
must be designed or located in such a
manner that the correlation between air
pressure in the static pressure System
and true ambient atmospheric static
pressure is not altered when the airplane
encounters icing conditions. An anti
icing means or an alternate source of
static pressure may be used in showing
compliance with this requirement. If the
reading of the altimeter, when on the
alternate static pressure System differs
from the reading of the altimeter when
on the primary static system by more
than 50 feet, a correction card must be
º
provided for the alternate static Sys
tem.
[Amdt. 23–1, 30 F.R. 8261, June 29, 1965, as
amended by Amdt. 23–6, 32 F.R. 7586, May
24, 1967; 32 F.R. 13505, Sept. 27, 1967; 32 F.R.
13714, Sept. 30, 1967]
141
§ 23.1329
§ 23.1327 Magnetic direction indicator.
(a) Each magnetic direction indicator
must be installed so that its accuracy
is not excessively affected by the air
plane's vibration or magnetic fields.
(b) The compensated installation may
not have a deviation, in level flight,
greater than ten degrees on any head
ing.
§ 23.1329 Automatic pilot system.
If an automatic pilot system is in
Stalled, it must meet the following:
(a) Each System must be designed so
that the automatic pilot can—
(1) Be quickly and positively disen
gaged by the pilots to prevent it from
interfering with their control of the air
plane; or
(2) Be sufficiently overpowered by one
pilot to let him control the airplane.
(b) Unless there is automatic syn
chronization, each system must have a
means to readily indicate to the pilot
the alignment of the actuating device
in relation to the control system it op
erates.
(c) Each manually operated control
for the system operation must be read
ily accessible to the pilot. Each control
must operate in the same plane and
sense of motion as specified in § 23.779
for cockpit controls. The direction of
motion must be plainly indicated on or
near each Control.
(d) Each system must be designed and
adjusted so that, within the range of ad
justment available to the pilot, it cannot
produce hazardous loads on the airplane
or create hazardous deviations in the
flight path, under any flight condition
appropriate to its use, either during nor
mal operation or in the event of a mal
function, assuming that corrective action
begins within a reasonable period of
time.
(e) Each system must be designed so
that a single malfunction will not pro
duce a hardover signal in more than one
control axis. If the automatic pilot in
tegrates signals from auxiliary controls
or furnishes signals for operation of
other equipment, positive interlocks and
sequencing of engagement to prevent
improper operation are required.
(f) There must be protection against
adverse interaction of integrated Com
ponents, resulting from a malfunction.
§ 23.1331 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 23.1331 Instruments using a power
supply.
(a) For each airplane—
(1) Each gyroscopic instrument must
derive its energy from power sources
adequate to maintain its required ac
curacy at any speed above the best rate
of-climb speed;
(2) Each gyroscopic instrument must
be installed so as to prevent malfunc
tion due to rain, oil, and other detrl
mental elements; and
(3) There must be a means to indicate
the adequacy of the power being Sup
plied to the instruments.
(b) For each multiengine airplane—
(1) There must be at least two inde
pendent sources of power (not driven by
the same engine), a manual or an auto
matic means to select each power source,
and a means to indicate the adequacy
of the power being supplied by each
Source: and
(2) The installation and power supply
systems must be designed so that—
(i) The failure of one instrument will
not interfere with the proper supply of
energy to the remaining instruments;
and
(ii) The failure of the energy Supply
from one source will not interfere with
the proper supply of energy from any
other source.
§ 23.1335 Flight director instrument.
(a) The flight director instrument, if
installed, may not affect the performance
and accuracy of the required instru
ments.
(b) There must be a means to discon
nect the flight director instrument from
the required instruments or their instal
lations.
§ 23.1337 Powerplant instruments.
(a) Instrument lines. Each power
plant instrument line must meet the re
quirements of § 23.993. Each line carry
ing flammable fluids or gases under
pressure must have restricting orifices or
other safety devices at the source of
pressure to prevent escape of excessive
fluid or gas if the line fails.
(b) Fuel quantity indicator. There
must be a means to indicate to the flight
crewmembers the quantity of fuel in
each tank during flight. An indicator,
calibrated in either gallons or pounds,
and clearly marked to indicate which
scale is being used, may be used. In ad
dition—
142
(1) Each fuel quantity indicator must
be calibrated to read “Zero” during level
flight when the quantity of fuel remain
ing in the tank is equal to the unusable
fuel supply determined under § 23.959:
(2) Each exposed sight gauge used as
a fuel quantity indicator must be pro
tected against damage;
(3) Each sight gauge that forms a
trap in which water can collect and
freeze must have means to allow drain
age on the ground;
(4) Tanks with interconnected out
lets and airspaces may be considered as
one tank and need not have Separate
indicators; and
(5) No fuel quantity indicator is re
quired for a small auxiliary tank that is
used only to transfer fuel to other tanks
if the relative size of the tank, the rate of
fuel transfer, and operating instructions
are adequate to
(i) Guard against overflow; and
(ii) Give the flight crewmembers
prompt warning if transfer is not pro
ceeding as planned.
(c) Fuel flourmeter system. If a fuel
flowmeter system is installed, each
metering component must have a means
to by-pass the fuel supply if malfunc
tioning of that component severely re
stricts fuel flow.
(d) Oil quantity indicator. There
must be a means to indicate the quantity
of oil in each tank—
(1) On the ground (such as by a stick
gauge) ; and
(2) In flight, to the flight crew mem
bers, if there is an oil transfer System or
a reserve oil supply System.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F R. 13096.
Aug. 13, 1969]
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EquTPMENT
§ 23.1351 General.
(a) Electrical system capacity. Each
electrical system must be adequate for
the intended use. In addition—
(1) Electric power sources, their
transmission cables, and their associated
control and protective devices, must be
able to furnish the required power at the
proper voltage to each load circuit es
Sential for safe operation; and
(2) Compliance with subparagraph
(1) of this paragraph must be shown by
an electrical load analysis, or by elec
trical measurements, that account for
the electrical loads applied to the elec
trical system in probable combinations
and for probable durations.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(b) Function. For each electrical
System, the following apply:
(1) Each system, when installed, must
be—
(i) Free from hazards in itself, in its
method of operation, and in its effects
On other parts of the airplane;
(ii) Protected from fuel, oil, water,
other detrimental substances, and me
chanical damage; and
(iii) So designed that the risk of
electrical shock to crew, passengers, and
ground personnel is reduced to a
minimum.
(2) Electric power sources must func
tion properly when connected in com
bination or independently, except that
alternators may depend on a battery for
initial excitation or for stabilization.
(3) No failure or malfunction of any
electric power source may impair the
ability of any remaining source to supply
load circuits essential for safe operation,
except that the operation of an alterna
tor that depends on a battery for initial
excitation or for stabilization may be
Stopped by failure of that battery.
(4) Each electric power source con
trol must allow the independent opera
tion of each source, except that controls
associated with alternators that depend
On a battery for initial excitation or for
Stabilization need not break the connec
tion between the alternator and its
battery.
(c) Generating system. There must
be at least one generator if the electrical
System supplies power to load circuits
ºntal for safe operation. In addi
On
(1) Each generator must be able to
deliver its continuous rated power;
(2) Generator voltage control equip
ment must be able to dependably regu
late the generator output within rated
limits;
(3) Each generator must have a re
Verse current cutout designed to discon
nect the generator from the battery and
from the other generators when enough
reverse current exists to damage that
generator; and
(4) There must be a means to give
immediate warning to the flight crew of
a failure of any generator.
(d) InStruments. There must be a
means to indicate to appropriate flight
Crewmembers the electric power system
quantities essential for Safe operation.
For direct current systems, an ammeter
that can be switched into each generator
143
§ 23,1357
feeder may be used and if there is only
one generator, the ammeter may be in
the battery feeder.
(e) Fire resistance. Electrical equip
ment must be so designed and installed
that in the event of a fire in the engine
compartment, during which the surface
of the firewall adjacent to the fire is
heated to 2,000° F for 5 minutes or to a
lesser temperature substantiated by the
applicant, the equipment essential to
continued safe operation and located
behind the firewall will function satis
factorily and will not create an addi
tional fire hazard.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13096,
Aug. 13, 1969; Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31824,
Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.1353 Storage battery design and in
stallation.
(a) Each storage battery must be de
signed and installed as prescribed in this
Section.
(b) Safe cell temperatures and pres
Sures must be maintained during any
probable charging and discharging con
dition. No uncontrolled increase in cell
temperature may result when the battery
is recharged (after previous complete
discharge) —
(1) At maximum regulated voltage;
(2) During a flight of maximum dura
tion; and
(3) Under the most adverse cooling
condition likely to occur in service.
(c) Compliance with paragraph (b)
of this section must be shown by tests
unless experience with similar batteries
and installations has shown that main
taining safe cell temperatures and pres
sures presents no problem.
(d) No explosive or toxic gases
emitted by any battery in normal op
eration, or as the result of any probable
malfunction in the charging system or
battery installation, may accumulate in
hazardous quantities within the airplane.
(e) No corrosive fluids or gases that
may escape from the battery may dam
age surrounding structures or adjacent
essential equipment.
§ 23.1357 Circuit protective devices.
(a) Protective devices, such as fuses or
circuit breakers, must be installed in all
electrical circuits other than—
(1) The main circuits of Starter
motors; and
(2) Circuits in which no hazard is pre
sented by their omission.
§ 23.1.361 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(b) No protective device may protect
more than one circuit essential to flight
safety.
(c) Each resettable circuit protective
device (“trip free” device in which the
tripping mechanism cannot be overrid
den by the operating control) must be
designed so that—
(1) A manual operation is required to
restore service after tripping; and
(2) If an overload or circuit fault
exists, the device will open the circuit
regardless of the position of the oper
ating control.
(d) If the ability to reset a circuit
breaker or replace a fuse is essential to
safety in flight, that circuit breaker or
fuse must be so located and identified
that it can be readily reset or replaced in
flight.
(e) If fuses are used, there must be one
Spare of each rating, or 50 percent spare
fuses of each rating, whichever is greater.
§ 23.1361 Master switch arrangement.
(a) There must be a master Switch
arrangement to allow ready disconnec
tion of electric power sources from the
main bus. The point of disconnection
must be adjacent to the sources con
trolled by the Switch.
(b) Load circuits may be connected so
that they remain energized after the
switch is opened, if they are protected by
circuit protective devices, rated at five
amperes or less, adjacent to the electric
power source.
(c) The master Switch or its controls
must be so installed that the switch is
easily discernible and accessible to a
crewmember in flight.
§ 23.1365 Electric cables and equip
ment.
(a) Each electric connecting cable
must be of adequate capacity.
(b) Each cable and associated equip
ment that would overheat in the event
of circuit overload or fault must be at
least flame resistant and may not emit
dangerous quantities of toxic fumes.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31824,
Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.1367 Switches.
Each switch must be—
(a) Able to carry its rated current;
(b) Constructed with enough distance
or insulating material between current
Carrying parts and the housing so that
vibration in flight will not cause shorting;
144
(c) Accessible to appropriate flight
crewmembers; and
(d) Labeled as to operation and the
circuit controlled.
LIGHTS
§ 23.1381 Instrument lights.
The instrument lights must
(a) Make each instrument and con
trol easily readable and discernible;
(b) Be installed so that their direct
rays, and rays reflected from the wind
shield or other surface, are shielded from
the pilot's eyes; and
(c) Have enough distance or insulat
ing material between current carrying
parts and the housing so that vibration
in flight will not cause shorting.
A cabin dome light is not an instrument
light.
§ 23.1383 Landing lights.
(a) Each installed landing light must
be acceptable.
(b). Each landing light must be in
stalled so that
(i) No dangerous glare is visible to the
(2) The pilot is not seriously affected
pilot;
by halation; and
(3) It provides enough light for night
landing.
§ 23.1385 Position light system installa
tion.
(a) General. Each part of each post
tion light system must meet the appli
cable requirements of this section and
each system as a whole must meet the
requirements of $$ 23.1387 through
23.1397.
(b) Forward position lights. Forward
position lights must consist of a red and
a green light spaced laterally as far apart
as practicable and installed forward on
the airplane so that, with the airplane
in the normal flying position, the red
light is on the left side and the green
light is on the right side. Each light
must be approved. -
(c) Rear position light. The rear
position light must be a white light
mounted as far aft as practicable, and
must be approved.
(d) Circuit. The two forward post
tion lights and the rear position light
must make a single circuit.
(e) Light covers and color filters.
Each light cover or color filter must be
at least flame resistant and may not
 Chapter –Federal Aviation Administration
change color or shape or lose any appre
clable light transmission during normal
use.
§ 23.1387 Position light system dihedral
angles.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(e) of this section, each forward and
rear position light must, as installed,
show unbroken light within the dihedral
angles described in this section.
(b) Dihedral angle L (left) is formed
by two intersecting vertical planes, the
first parallel to the longitudinal axis
of the airplane, and the other at 110
degrees to the left of the first, as viewed
when looking forward along the longitu
dinal axis.
(c) Dihedral angle R (right) is
formed by two intersecting vertical
planes, the first parallel to the longitu
dinal axis of the airplane, and the other
at 110 degrees to the right of the first,
as viewed when looking forward along
the longitudinal axis.
(d) Dihedral angle A (aft) is formed
by two intersecting vertical planes
making angles of 70 degrees to the right
and to the left, respectively, to a verti
cal plane passing through the longitu
dinal axis, as viewed when looking aft
along the longitudinal axis.
(e) If the rear position light, when
mounted as far aft as practicable in ac
Cordance with $23.1385(c), cannot show
unbroken light within dihedral angle A
(as defined in paragraph (d) of this sec
tion), a Solid angle or angles of ob
structed visibility totaling not more than
0.04 steradians is allowable within that
dihedral angle, if such solid angle is
within a cone whose apex is at the rear
position light and whose elements make
an angle of 30° with a vertical line pass
ing through the rear position light.
(49 U.S.C. 1655(c)) [Docket No. 4030, 29 F.R.
17955, Dec. 18, 1964; 30 F.R. 258, Jan. 9, 1965,
as amended by Amdt. 23–12, 36 F.R. 21278,
Nov. 5, 1971]
$23.1389 Position light distribution and
intensities,
-
(a) General. The intensities pre
scribed in this section must be provided
by new equipment with each light cover
and color filter in place. Intensities
must be determined with the light Source
operating at a steady value equal to the
average luminous Output of the source at
the normal operating voltage of the
airplane. The light distribution and
145
§ 23.1389
intensity of each position light must meet
the requirements of paragraph (b) of
this section.
(b) Forward and rear position lights.
The light distribution and intensities of
forward and rear position lights must be
expressed in terms of minimum intensi
ties in the horizontal plane, minimum
intensities in any vertical plane, and
maximum intensities in overlapping
beams, within dihedral angles L, R, and
A, and must meet the following require
Inent S:
(1) Intensities in the horizontal plane.
Each intensity in the horizontal plane
(the plane containing the longitudinal
axis of the airplane and perpendicular
to the plane of symmetry of the airplane)
must equal or exceed the values in
§ 23, 1391.
(2) Intensities in any vertical plane.
Each intensity in any vertical plane (the
plane perpendicular to the horizontal
plane) must equal or exceed the appro
priate value in § 23.1393, where I is the
minimum intensity prescribed in
§ 23.1391 for the corresponding angles in
the hol'izontal plane.
(3) Intensities in overlaps between
adjacent signals. No intensity in any
overlap between adjacent signals may
exceed the values in § 23.1395, except
that higher intensities in overlaps may
be used with main beam intensities
substantially greater than the minima
specified in §§ 23.1391 and 23.1393, if
the overlap intensities in relation to the
main beam intensities do not adversely
affect signal clarity. When the peak in
tensity of the forward position lights 18
more than 100 candles, the maximum
overlap intensities between them may
exceed the values in § 23.1395 if the
overlap intensity in Area A is not more
than 10 percent of peak position light
intensity and the overlap intensity in
Area B is not more than 2.5 percent of
peak position light intensity.
(c) Rear position light installation.
A single rear position light may be in
stalled in a position displaced laterally
from the plane of symmetry of an air
plane if–
(1) The axis of the maximum cone of
illumination is parallel to the flight path
in level flight; and
(2) There is no obstruction aft of the
light and between planes 70 degrees to
the right and left of the axis of maxi
mum illumination.
§ 23.1391 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 23.1391 Minimum intensities in the through the light source and intersect
horizontal plane of forward and rear the common boundary plane at more
position lights. than 20 degrees.
Each position light intensity must § 23.1397 Color specifications.
equal or exceed the applicable values in
the following table: Each position light color must have
the applicable International Commis
sion on Illumination chromaticity coor
Angle from right or dinates as follows:
Tihedral angle left of longitudinal | Intensity
(light included) axis, measured from (candles) (a) Aviation red—
dead ahead
“y” is not greater than 0.335; and
“z” is not greater than 0.002.
L and R (forward 0° to 10°----- 40
red and green). 10° to 20°. 30 (b) Aviation green—
20° to 110° - 5
4 (rear white).------ 110° to 180°---------- 20 “r” is not greater than 0.440—0.320py;
“r” is not greater than y—0.170; and
“y” is not less than 0.390—0.1702.
§ 23.1393 Minimum intensities in any
vertical plane of forward and rear (c) Aviation white—
position lights. “r” is not less than 0.300 and not greater
Each position light intensity must than 0.540:
equal or exceed the applicable values in “y” is not less than "z–0.040” or “yo–
the following table: 0.010", whichever is the smaller; and
“y” is not greater than “r-H 0.020" nor
“0.636–0.400r”;
Angle above or below the horizontal plane | Intensity Where “y.” is the “y” coordinate of the
Planckian radiator for the value of “r”
considered.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
amended by Amdt. 23–11, 36 F.R. 12971,
i
§ 23.1395 Maximum intensities in over
.
i July 10, 1971)
§ 23.1399 Riding light.
(a) Each riding (anchor) light re
quired for a seaplane or amphibian, must
be installed so that it can—
lapping beams of forward and rear
position lights. (1) Show a white light for at least two
miles at night under clear atmospheric
No position light intensity may ex conditions; and
ceed the applicable values in the fol (2) Show the maximum unbroken
equal or exceed the applicable values in light practicable when the airplane is
§ 23.1389(b) (3): moored or drifting on the water.
(b) Externally hung lights may be
Maximum intensity used.
Overlaps
Area A Area B § 23.140l Anticollision light system.
(candles) (candles)
(a) G. e. n e r a l. If certification for
night operation is requested, the airplane
Green in dihedral angle L----- 10 1
Red in dihedral angle R------- 10 1 must have an anticollision light system
Green in dihedral angle A----- 5 l that—
Red in dihedral angle A------- 5 1
Rear white in dihedral angle L- 5 1 (1) Consists of one or more approved
Rear white in dihedral angle R. 5 1 anticollision lights located so that their
light will not impair the flight crew
Where— members’ vision or detract from the con
(a) Area A includes all directions in spicuity of the position lights; and
the adjacent dihedral angle that pass (2) Meets the requirements of para
through the light Source and intersect graphs (b) through (f) of this section.
the common boundary plane at more (b) Field of coverage. The system
than 10 degrees but less than 20 degrees; must consist of enough lights to illumi
and nate the vital areas around the airplane,
(b) Area B includes all directions in considering the physical configuration
the adjacent dihedral angle that pass and flight characteristics of the airplane.
146
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
The field of coverage must extend in
each direction within at least 30 degrees
above and 30 degrees below the hori
zontal plane of the airplane, except that
there may be solid angles of obstructed
visibility totaling not more than 0.5
steradians.
(c) Flashing characteristics. The ar
rangement of the System, that is, the
number of light sources, beam width,
Speed of rotation, and other characteris
tics, must give an effective flash fre
quency of not less than 40, nor more than
100, cycles per minute. The effective
flash frequency is the frequency at which
the airplane's complete anticollision
light system is observed from a distance,
and applies to each sector of light includ
ing any overlaps that exist when the Sys
tem consists of more than one light
source. In overlaps, flash frequencies
may exceed 100, but not 180, cycles per
minute.
(d) Color. Each anticollision light
must be either aviation red or aviation
white and must meet the applicable re
quirements of § 23.1397.
(e) Light intensity. The minimum
light intensities in any vertical plane,
measured with the red filter (if used)
and expressed in terms of “effective” in
tensities, must meet the requirements of
paragraph (f) of this section. The fol
lowing relation must be assumed:
tº
ſ ti
I(M)dt
**śīlū-75;
where:
1e =effective intensity (candles).
I(t) = instantaneous intensity as a func
tion of time.
ta—ti-flash time interval (seconds).
Normally, the maximum value of effec
tive intensity is obtained when tz and ti
are chosen so that the effective intensity
is equal to the instantaneous intensity at
t2 and ti.
(f) Minimum effective intensities for
anticollision lights. Each anticollision
light effective intensity must equal or
exceed the applicable values in the fol
lowing table.
Effective
Angle above or below intensity
the horizontal plane: (candles)
0° to 5’---------------------------- 400
5° to 10"--------------------------- 240
10° to 20 -------------------------- 80
20° to 30° ------------------------- 40
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 23–11, 36 F.R. 12972,
July 10, 1971]
147
§ 23.1419
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
§ 23.1411. Accessibility.
Required safety equipment to be used
by the flight crew in an emergency, such
as automatic liferaft releases, must be
readily accessible.
§ 23.1413 Safety belts and harnesses.
(a) The rated strength of safety belts
and harnesses may not be less than that
corresponding with the ultimate load fac
tors specified in $ 23.561 (b), consider
ing the dimensional characteristics of the
belt and harness installation for the
Specific seat or berth arrangement.
(b) For safety belts for berths parallel
to the longitudinal axis of the airplane,
the forward load factor Specified in
§ 23.561 (b) need not be applied.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13096,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.1415 Ditching equipment.
(a) Emergency flotation and signaling
equipment required by any operating
rule in this chapter must be installed so
that it is readily available to the crew
and passengers.
(b) Each raft and each life preserver
must be approved.
(c) Each raft released automatically
or by the pilot must be attached to the
airplane by a line to keep it alongside the
airplane. This line must be weak enough
to break before Submerging the empty
raft to which it is attached.
(d) Each signaling device required by
any operating rule in this chapter, must
be accessible, function Satisfactorily, and
must be free of any hazard in its opera
tion.
§ 23.1419 Ice protection.
If certification with ice protection pro
visions is desired, compliance with the
following requirements must be shown:
(a) The recommended procedures for
the use of the ice protection equipment
must be set forth in the Airplane Flight
Manual or in approved manual material.
(b) An analysis must be performed to
establish, on the basis of the airplane's
operational needs, the adequacy of the
ice protection system for the various
components of the airplane. In addition,
tests of the ice protection system must
be conducted to demonstrate that the
airplane is capable of operating safely
in continuous maximum and intermit
tent maximum icing conditions as de
scribed in Appendix C of Part 25 of this
chapter.
§ 23.1431 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(c) Compliance with all or portions
of this section may be accomplished by
reference, where applicable because of
similarity of the designs, to analysis and
tests performed for the type certifica
tion of a type certificated aircraft.
(d) When monitoring of the external
surfaces of the airplane by the flight
crew is required for proper operation of
the ice protection equipment, external
lighting must be provided which is ade
quate to enable the monitoring to be
done at night.
[Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31824, Nov. 19, 1973]
MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT
§ 23.1431 Electronic equipment.
Radio equipment and installations
must be free from hazards in themselves,
in their method of operation, and in
their effects on other components.
§ 23.1435 Hydraulic systems.
(a) Design. Each hydraulic system
must be designed as follows:
(1) Each hydraulic system and its ele
ments must withstand, without yield
ing, the structural loads expected in ad
dition to hydraulic loads.
(2) A means to indicate the pressure
in each hydraulic system which supplies
two or more primary functions must be
provided to the flight crew.
(3) There must be means to ensure
that the pressure, including transient
(Surge) pressure, in any part of the Sys
tem will not exceed the safe limit above
design operating pressure and to prevent
excessive pressure resulting from fluid
volumetric changes in all lines which are
likely to remain closed long enough for
Such changes to occur.
(4) The minimum design burst pres
sure must be 2.5 times the operating
pressure.
(b) Tests. Each system must be sub
stantiated by proof pressure tests. When
proof tested, no part of any system may
fail, malfunction, or experience a perma
nent set. The proof load of each system
must be at least 1.5 times the maximum
operating pressure of that system.
(c) Accumulators. No hydraulic ac
cumulator or pressurized reservoir may
be installed on the engine side of any
firewall, unless it is an integral part of
an engine or propeller.
|Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13096,
Aug. 13, 1969; Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31824,
Nov. 19, 1973 |
148
§ 23.1437 Accessories for multiengine
airplanes.
For multiengine airplanes, engine
driven accessories essential to safe oper
ation must be distributed among two or
more engines So that the failure of any
one engine will not impair safe operation
through the malfunctioning of these ac
CeSSOries.
Š 23 ºn Oxygen equipment and sup
piy.
(a) If certification with supplemental
oxygen equipment is requested, the
equipment must meet the requirements
of this section and §§ 23.1443 through
23.1449. Portable oxygen equipment may
be used to meet the requirements.
(b) The oxygen system must be free
from hazards in itself, in its method of
Operation, and its effect upon other
Components.
(c) There must be a means to allow
the crew to readily determine, during
the flight, the quantity of oxygen avail
able in each source of supply.
(d) Demand flow oxygen equipment,
and oxygen equipment for use above
40,000 feet (MSL), must be approved.
[Amdt. 23–9, 35 F.R. 6386, Apr. 21, 1970]
§ 23.1443 Minimum mass flow of sup
plemental oxygen.
If continuous flow oxygen equipment
is installed for use by occupants of the
airplane, the mass flow of supplemental
Oxygen Supplied for each user must be
at a rate not less than that shown in the
following figure for each altitude up to
and including the maximum operating
altitude of the airplane:
5 L
4 L
§
* 3.
R. 2 *|
:3
;:
5 ſº
§ 2 -
§: --
-
--
... l L 0.8 LPM
12,500
10 20 30 49
Cabin Pressure Altitude
Thousands of Feet
[Amdt. 23–9, 35 F.R. 6386, Apr. 21, 1970]
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 23.1447 Equipment standards for oxy
gen dispensing units.
If oxygen dispensing units are in
stalled, the following apply:
(a) There must be an individual dis
pensing unit for each occupant for whom
supplemental oxygen is to be supplied.
Each dispensing unit must:
(1) Provide for effective utilization of
the oxygen being delivered to the unit.
(2) Cover the nose and mouth of the
user.
(3) Be capable of being readily placed
into position on the face of the user.
(4) Be equipped with a suitable means
to retain the unit in position on the
face.
(b) For a pressurized airplane de
signed to operate at flight altitudes above
25,000 feet (MSL), an oxygen dispensing
unit connected to an oxygen supply ter
minal must be immediately available to
each occupant, wherever seated.
[Amdt. 23–9, 35 F.R. 6387, Apr. 21, 1970)
§ 23.1449 Means for determining use of
oxygen.
There must be a means to allow the
crew to determine whether oxygen
is being delivered to the dispensing
equipment.
[Amdt. 23–9, 35 F.R. 6387, Apr. 21, 1970]
Subpart G—Operating limitations
cºnd Information
§ 23.1501 General.
(a) Each operating limitation upon
which the type design is based must be
made available to the pilot and other
appropriate crewmembers.
(b) Any information not covered in
paragraph (a) of this section that is nec
essary for safety must be made available
to the crewmembers.
(c) Each operating limitation speci
fied in §§ 23.1505 through 23.1527, and
each similar limitation must, if necessary
for safety, be—
(1) Established for the airplane; and
(2) Made available to the crewmem
bers as prescribed in §§ 23.1541 through
23.1589.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13096,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.1505 Airspeed limitations.
(a) The never-exceed speed Vys must
be established so that it is—
149
§ 23.1511
(1) Not less than 0.9 times the min
imum value of Vp allowed under
§ 23.335; and
(2) Not more than the lesser of+
(i) 0.9 Vo established under § 23.335;
or
(ii) 0.9 times the maximum speed
shown under § 23.251.
(b) The maximum structural cruising
speed Vyo must be established so that it
is—
(1) Not less than the minimum value
of Vo allowed under § 23.335; and
(2) Not more than the lesser of—
(i) Wo established under § 23.335; or
(ii) 0.89 Vys established under para
graph (a) of this section.
(c) Paragraphs (a) and (b) of this
section do not apply to turbine airplanes
or to airplanes for which a design diving
speed VD/MD is established under § 23.-
335(b) (4). For those airplanes, a maxi
mum operating limit speed (VMo/M Mo
airspeed or Mach number, whichever is
critical at a particular altitude) must be
established as a speed that may not be
deliberately exceeded in any regime of
flight (climb, cruise, or descent) unless
a higher speed is authorized for flight
test or pilot training operations. VMo/
M Mo must be established so that it is not
greater than the design cruising speed
Vc/Mo and so that it is sufficiently below
Vd/M d and the maximum speed shown
under § 23.251 to make it highly im
probable that the latter speeds will be
inadvertently exceeded in operations.
The Speed margin between VMo/MMo and
VD/MD or the maximum speed shown
under § 23.251 may not be less than the
Speed margin established between Vcy
Mc and Vd/Mp under § 23.335(b), or the
Speed margin found necessary in the
flight tests conducted under § 23.253.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13096,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.1507 Maneuvering speed.
The maneuvering speed V4, deter
mined under § 23.335, must be estab
lished as an operating limitation.
§ 23.1511 Flap extended speed.
(a) The flap extended speed Vra must
be established so that it is—
(1) Not less than the minimum value
of V, allowed in 5; 23.345 and 23.457;
and
§ 23.1513 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(2) Not more than the lesser of . engines), or fuel designation (for tur
(i) Wr established under § 23.345; or
(ii) Wr established under § 23.457.
(b) Additional combinations of flap
setting, airspeed, and engine power may
be established if the structure has been
proven for the corresponding desi
conditions.
§ 23.1513 Minimum control speed.
The minimum control speed Wºo, de
termined under § 23.149, must be estab
lished as an operating limitation.
§ 23.1519 Weight and center of gravity.
The weight and center of gravity lim
itations determined under § 23.23 must
be established as operating limitations.
§ 23.1521 Powerplant limitations.
(a) General. The powerplant limita
tions prescribed in this section must be
established so that they do not exceed
the corresponding limits for which the
engines or propellers are type certifl
cated.
(b) Takeoff operation. The power
plant takeoff operation must be limited
by—
(1) The maximum rotational speed
(rpm);
(2) The maximum allowable manifold
pressure (for reciprocating engines);
(3) The maximum allowable gas tem
perature (for turbine engines);
(4) The time limit for the use of the
power or thrust corresponding to the
limitations established in subparagraphs
(1) through (3) of this paragraph; and
(5) If the time limit in subparagraph
(4) of this paragraph exceeds two min
utes, the maximum allowable cylinder
head (as applicable), liquid coolant, and
oil temperatures.
(c) Continuous operation. The con
tinuous operation must be limited by
(1) The maximum rotational speed;
(2) The maximum allowable manifold
pressure (for reciprocating engines);
(3) The maximum allowable gas tem
perature (for turbine engines); and
(4) The maximum allowable cylinder
head, oil, and liquid coolant tempera
tureS.
(d) Fuel grade or designation. The
minimum fuel grade (for reciprocating
bine engines), must be established so
that it is not less than that required for
the operation of the engines within the
limitations in paragraphs (b) and (c) of
this section.
§ 23.1523 Minimum flight crew.
-
The minimum flight crew for safe op
eration under VFR must be established,
considering the availability and satisfac
tory operation of the necessary controls
by each appropriate crewmember.
§ 23.1524 Maximum passenger seating
configuration.
The maximum passenger seating con
figuration must be established.
[Amdt. 23–10, 36 F.R. 2864, Feb. 11, 1971]
§ 23.1525 Kinds of operation.
The kinds of operation to which the
airplane is limited are established by the
Category in which it is eligible for cer
tification and by the installed equipment.
§ 23.1527 Maximum operating altitude.
(a) A maximum operating altitude
limitation of not more than 25,000 feet
must be established for pressurized air
planes, unless compliance with $23.775
(e) is shown.
(b) For turbine engine powered air
planes and turbosupercharged airplanes,
the maximum altitude up to which oper
ation is allowed, as limited by flight,
structural, powerplant, functional, or
equipment characteristics must be
established.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 18096, Aug. 18. 1969)
§ 23.1529 Maintenance Manual.
A maintenance manual containing the
information that the applicant considers
essential for proper maintenance must be
made available to the owner at the time
of delivery of the airplane. The applicant
must consider at least the following in
developing the essential information:
(a) Description of systems such as
electrical, hydraulic, fuel controls, etc.
(b) Lubrication instructions setting
forth the frequency and the lubricants
and fluids which are to be used in the
Various systems.
(c) Pressures and electrical loads ap
plicable to the various Systems.
150
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(d) Tolerances and adjustments nec
essary for proper functioning of the
airplane.
(e) Methods of leveling, raising, and
towing.
(f) Methods of balancing control
Surfaces.
(g) Identification of primary and Sec
ondary structures.
(h) Frequency and extent of inspec
tions necessary for proper maintenance
of the airplane.
(i) Special repair methods applicable
to the airplane.
(j) Special inspection techniques such
as X-ray, ultrasonic, magnetic particle
inspection, etc.
(k) List of special tools.
(Sec. 6(c) Department of Transportation Act,
49 U.S.C. 1655(c)) [Amdt. 23–8, 35 F.R. 303,
Jan. 8, 1970]
MARKINGS AND PLACARDS
$23.1541 General.
(a) The airplane must contain—
(1) The markings and placards speci
fied in §§ 23.1545 through 23.1567; and
(2) Any additional information, in
strument markings, and placards re
quired for the safe operation if it has
unusual design, operating, or handling
characteristics.
(b) Each marking and placard pre
scribed in paragraph (a) of this sec
tion— -
(1) Must be displayed in a conspicu
ous place; and
(2) May not be easily erased, disfig
ured, or obscured.
(c) For airplanes having a maximum
weight of more than 6,000 pounds and
which are to be certificated in more than
One category—
(1) The applicant must select one
category upon which the placards and
markings are to be based; and
(2) The placard and marking infor
mation for the other categories in which
the airplane is to be certificated must be
recorded in the airplane flight manual.
(d) For airplanes having a maximum
weight of 6,000 pounds or less and which
are to be certificated in more than one
Category—
(1) The applicant must Select One
category upon which the placards and
151
§ 23.1545
markings are to be based, except that he
may include Operating limitations cover
ing more than one category on a single
plaCard if the differences between the
Categories involve only a difference in
maximum Weights; a difference in the
Center of gravity range at the corre
Sponding maximum weight; a difference
involving approved maneuvers and cor
responding entry Speeds; or any com
bination thereof.
(2) Except as provided in subpara
graph (1) of this paragraph, the placard
and marking information for the other
Categories in which the airplane is to
be certificated must be recorded in the
airplane flight manual or in approved
manual material.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964;
30 F.R. 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt,
23–13, 37 F.R. 20023, Sept. 23, 1972]
§ 23.1543 Instrument markings: gen
eral.
For each instrument—
(a) When markings are on the cover
glass of the instrument, there must be
means to maintain the correct align
ment of the glass cover with the face of
the dial; and
(b) Each arc and line must be wide
enough and located to be clearly visible
to the pilot.
§ 23.1545 Airspeed indicator.
(a) Each airspeed indicator must be
marked to show calibrated airspeed.
(b) The following markings must be
made:
(1) For the never-exceed speed Wya,
a radial red line.
(2) For the caution range, a yellow
arc extending from the red line specified
in subparagraph (1) of this paragraph
to the upper limit of the green arc speci
fied in subparagraph (3) of this para
graph.
(3) For the normal operating range,
a green arc with the lower limit at Vs1.
with maximum weight and with landing
gear and Wing flaps retracted, and the
upper limit at the maximum structural
cruising speed Vyo established under
§ 23.1505(b).
(4) For the flap operating range, a
white arc with the lower limit at vs.
§ 23.1547 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
at the maximum weight, and the upper
limit at the flaps-extended speed VI's
established under § 23.1511.
(5) For the one-engine-inoperative
best rate-of-climb speed, Vr, a blue radial
line and for the minimum control Speed
(one engine inoperative), VMc, a red
radial line.
(c) If V we or Vyo vary with altitude,
there must be means to indicate to
the pilot the appropriate limitations
throughout the operating altitude range.
(d) Subparagraphs (1) through (3) of
paragraph (b) and paragraph (c) of this
section do not apply to aircraft for which
a maximum operating speed VMo/M Mo is
established under § 23.1505(c). For those
aircraft there must either be a maxi
mum allowable airspeed indication Show
ing the variation of VMo/M Mo with alti
tude or compressibility limitations (as
appropriate), or a radial red line mark
ing for VMo/Mºro must be made at lowest
value of V Mo/M Mo established for any
altitude up to the maximum operating
altitude for the airplane.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 23–3, 30 F.R. 14240. Nov.
13, 1965; Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13097,
Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.1547 Magnetic direction indicator.
(a) A placard meeting the require
ments of this section must be installed on
or near the magnetic direction indicator.
(b) The placard must show the cali
bration of the instrument in level flight
with the engines operating.
(c) The placard must state whether
the calibration was made with radio
receivers on or off.
(d) Each calibration reading must be
in terms of magnetic headings in not
more than 30 degree increments.
§ 23.1549 Powerplant instruments.
For each required powerplant instru
ment—
(a) Each maximum and, if applicable,
minimum safe operating limit must be
marked with a red radial line;
(b) Each normal operating range
must be marked with a green arc not
extending beyond the maximum and
minimum continuous safe operating
limits;
(c) Each takeoff and precautionary
range must be marked with a yellow arc,
and
(d) Each engine speed range that is
restricted because of excessive vibration
must be marked with a red arc.
§ 23.1551 Oil quantity indicator.
Each oil quantity indicator must be
marked in sufficient increments to indi
cate readily and accurately the quantity
of oil.
§ 23.1553. Fuel quantity indicator.
If the unusable fuel Supply for any
tank exceeds one gallon, or five percent
of the tank capacity, whichever is
greater, a red arc must be marked on its
indicator extending from the calibrated
zero reading to the lowest reading ob
tainable in level flight.
§ 23.1555 Control markings.
(a) Each cockpit control, other than
primary flight controls and Simple push
button type starter switches, must be
plainly marked as to its function and
method of operation.
(b) Each secondary control must be
suitably marked.
(c) For powerplant fuel controls—
(1) Each fuel tank selector control
must be marked to indicate the position
corresponding to each tank and to each
existing cross feed position;
(2) If safe Operation requires the use
of any tanks in a specific sequence, that
sequence must be marked on or near the
Selector for those tanks; and
(3) Each valve control for any engine
of a multiengine airplane must be
marked to indicate the position corre
sponding to each engine controlled.
(d) The usable capacity of each tank
must be marked on or near each selector
controlling that tank.
(e) For accessory, auxiliary, and
emergency controls—
(1) If retractable landing gear is
used, the indicator required by § 23.729
must be marked so that the pilot can,
at any time, ascertain that the wheels
are secured in the extreme positions;
and
(2) Each emergency control must be
red and must be marked as to method
of operation.
2
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 23.1557 Miscellaneous markings and
placards.
(a) Baggage and cargo compartments,
and ballast location. Each baggage and
cargo compartment, and each ballast lo
cation, must have a placard stating any
limitations on contents, including weight,
that are necessary under the loading re
quirements.
º (b) Seats. If the maximum allowable
weight to be carried in a seat is less than
170 pounds, a placard stating the lesser
Weight must be permanently attached to
the seat Structure.
(c) Fuel and oil filler openings. The
following must be marked on or near
each appropriate filler cover:
(1) The word “fuel” and the minimum
fuel grade or designation for the engines.
(2) The word “oil” and the oil tank
capacity and, for those aircraft for which
no approved Airplane Flight Manual or
º approved manual material is required,
the approved grade and specification of
oil. (If an approved Airplane Flight Man
ual or approved manual material is pro
vided, the approved grade and specifica
tion of oil may appear therein).
(d) Emergency erit placards. Each
placard and operating control for each
emergency exit must be red. A placard
must be near each emergency exit con
trol and must clearly indicate the loca
tion of that exit and its method of
Operation.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13097,
Aug. 13, 1969; Amdt. No. 23–14, 38 FR 31824,
Nov. 19, 1973]
§ 23.1559 Operating limitations plac
º ard.
2
(a) There must be a placard in clear
view of the pilot stating—
(1) For airplanes certificated in one
Category:
The markings and placards installed
in this airplane contain operating limitations
which must be complied with when operat
ing this airplane in the ------------ cate
gory. (Insert category.) Other operating
limitations which must be complied with
when operating this airplane in this category
are contained ln the ------------. (Insert
“airplane flight manual” for airplanes of
more than 6,000 pounds maximum weight.
Insert either “airplane flight manual" or “ap
proved manual material” whichever is ap
plicable, for airplanes of 6,000 pounds or less
39–059–75 11
§ 23.1563
maximum weight. If “approved manual ma
terial” is inserted, the placard must also
contain a statement setting forth the form
and location of the material.)
(2) For airplanes of more than 6,000
pounds maximum weight certificated in
more than one category:
The markings and placards installed in
this airplane contain operating limitations
which must be complied with when operat
ing this airplane in the ------------ Cate
gory. (Insert category.) Other operating lim
itations which must be complied with when
operating this airplane in this category or in
the ------------ Category are contained in
the Airplane Flight Manual. (Insert category
or categories.)
(3) For airplanes of 6,000 pounds or
less maximum weight certificated in
more than one category:
Except as may be otherwise indicated on
a placard, the markings and placards in
stalled in this airplane contain operating
limitations which must be complied with
when operating this airplane in the
category. (Insert category.)
Other operating limitations which must be
complied with when operating this airplane
in this category or in the ------------ Cate
gory (insert category) are contained in the
------------- ” (Insert “airplane night man
ual" or “approved manual material,” which
ever is applicable. If “approved manual ma
terial" is inserted, the placard must also
contain a statement setting forth the form
and location of the material.)
(b) There must be a placard in clear
view of the pilot that specifies the kind
of operations (such as VFR, IFR, day, or
night) and the meteorological conditions
(such as icing conditions) to which the
operation of the airplane is limited, or
from which it is prohibited, by the equip
ment installed.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964;
30 F.R. 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt.
23–13, 37 F.R. 20023, Sept. 23, 1972; 37 F.R.
21320, Oct. 7, 1972.]
§ 23. 156 l Saſety equipment.
(a) Safety equipment must be plainly
marked as to method of operation.
(b) Stowage provisions for required
safety equipment must be marked for the
benefit of occupants.
§ 23. 1563 Airspeed placards.
There must be an airspeed placard in
clear view of the pilot and as close as
153
§ 23.1567 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
practicable to the airspeed indicator.
This placard must list—
(a) The design maneuvering Speed
WA; and
(b) The maximum landing gear Oper
ating Speed VLo.
[Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13397, Aug. 13, 1969]
§ 23.1567 Airplane flight manual and
approved manual material.
(a) For normal category airplanes,
there must be a placard in front of and
in clear view of the pilot stating: “No
acrobatic maneuvers, including spins,
approved.”
(b) For utility category airplanes,
there must be a placard in clear view
of the pilot stating: “Acrobatic maneu
vers are limited to the following ------
(list approved maneuvers).
(c) For acrobatic category airplanes,
there must be a placard in clear view
of the pilot listing the approved acro
batic maneuvers and the recommended
entry airspeed for each. If inverted
flight maneuvers are not approved, the
placard must bear a notation to this
effect.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964;
30 F.R. 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt.
23–13, 37 F.R. 20023, Sept. 23, 1972.]
AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUAL
§ 23.1581 General.
(a) Furnishing information. The ap
plicable information in §§ 23.1583
through 23.1589 must be furnished—
(1) For each airplane of more than
6,000 pounds maximum weight, in an
Airplane Flight Manual; and
(2) For each airplane of 6,000 pounds
or less maximum weight, in an airplane
flight manual, or in any combination of
approved manual material, markings,
and placards.
(b) Approval and segregation of in
formation. Each part of the airplane
flight manual containing information
prescribed in §§ 23.1583 through 23.1589
must be approved, segregated, identified,
and clearly distinguished from each un
approved part of that airplane flight
manual. All approved manual material
must be clearly identified, and not easily
erased, disfigured, or misplaced, and it
must be in the form of individual sheets
capable of being inserted in a manual
provided by the applicant, or in a folder,
or in any other permanent form. Infor
mation not required to be furnished by
this section may not be included in the
approved manual material.
(c) Additional information. Any in
formation not specified in §§ 23.1583
through 23.1589 that is required for safe
operation because of unusual design, op
erating, or handling characteristics,
must be furnished.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964:
30 F.R. 258, Jan. 9, 1965, as amended by Amdt.
23–13, 37 F.R. 20023, Sept. 23, 1972]
§ 23.1583 Operating limitations.
(a) Airspeed limitations. The follow
pº
ing information must be furnished:
(1) Information necessary for the
marking of the airspeed limits on the
indicator as required in § 23.1545, and
the significance of each of those limits
and of the color coding used on the
indicator.
(2) The Speeds VA, Ves, and Vro and
their significance.
(b) Powerplant limitations. Infor
mation must be furnished to explain the
powerplant limitations and to allow
m a r k l ng the instruments under
§ 23.1549.
(c) Weight. The airplane flight man
ual must include—
(1) The maximum weight; and
(2) The maximum landing weight, if
the design landing weight selected by
the applicant is less than the maximum
Weight.
(d) Center of gravity. The established
center of gravity limits must be
furnished.
(e) Maneuvers. The following au
thorized maneuvers, appropriate air
Speed limitations, and unauthorized
maneuvers must be furnished as pre
Scribed in this section.
(1) Normal category airplanes. For
normal category airplanes, acrobatic
maneuvers, including spins, are unau
thorized. If the airplane has been
shown to be “characteristically incapable
of Spinning" under § 23.221 (d), a state
ment to this effect must be entered.
Other normal category airplanes must
be placarded against spins.
154
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(2) Utility category airplanes. For
utility category airplanes, authorized
maneuvers shown in the type flight tests
must be furnished, together with recom
mended entry speeds. No other maneu
ver is authorized. If the airplane has
been shown to be “characteristically in
capable of spinning” under § 23.221 (d),
a statement to this effect must
entered.
(3) Acrobatic category airplanes. For
acrobatic category airplanes, the ap
proved flight maneuvers shown in the
type flight tests must be included, to
gether with recommended entry speeds.
A placard listing the use of the controls
required to recover from spinning ma
neuvers must be in the cockpit.
(f) Flight load factor. The positive
limit load factors, in g’s, must be
furnished.
(g) Flight crew. If a flight crew of
more than one is required for safety, the
number and functions of the minimum
flight crew must be furnished.
(h) Kinds of operation. The kinds of
operation (such as WFR, IFR, day, or
night) in which the airplane may or may
not be used, and the meteorological Con
ditions under which it may or may not
be used, must be furnished. Any in
stalled equipment that affects any oper
ating limitation must be listed and iden
tified as to operational function.
(1) If the unusable fuel supply in any
tank exceeds five percent of the tank
capacity, or one gallon, whichever is
greater, information, showing that the
fuel remaining in the tank when the
quantity indicator reads “Zero” cannot
be safely used in flight, must be fur
nished. This information must be in the
Airplane Flight Manual (if provided)
and on a placard.
(j) Climb conditions. For turbine en
gines, the temperatures and correspond
ing altitudes used in the climb test pre
scribed in § 23.1043 (b) (2) must be
furnished.
(k) Marimum operating altitude. The
maximum altitude established under
§ 23.1527 must be furnished.
(1) Marimum passenger seating con
figuration. The maximum passenger seat
ing configuration must be furnished.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 84 F.R. 13097.
Aug. 13, 1969; Amdt. 23–10, 36 F.R. 2864,
Feb. 11, 1971]
§ 23.1587
§ 23.1585 Operating procedures.
(a) For each airplane, information
concerning normal and emergency pro
cedures and other pertinent information
necessary to Safe Operation must be
furnished, including the demonstrated
crosswind velocity and procedures and
be
information pertinent to operation of the
airplane in crosswinds.
(b) For airplanes of more than 6,000
pounds maximum weight, the airspeeds,
procedures, and information pertinent
to the use of the following airspeeds must
be furnished:
(1) The recommended climb speed;
(2) Vr; and
(3) The approach speeds, including
Speeds for transition to the balked land
ing condition.
(c) For multiengine airplanes, the in
formation must include:
(1) Procedures for maintaining or re
covering control of the airplane with one
engine inoperative at speeds above and
below Wuc.
(2) Procedures for making a landing
With One engine inoperative and proce
dures for making a go-around with one
engine inoperative, if this latter maneu
ver can be performed safely; otherwise,
a Warning against attempting the
Imaneuver.
(3) Procedures for obtaining the best
performance with one engine inoperative,
including the effects of the airplane
configuration.
(d) For multiengine airplanes, infor
mation identifying each operating condi
tion in which the fuel system independ
ence prescribed in § 23.953 is necessary
for safety must be furnished, together
with instructions for placing the fuel
system in a configuration used to show
compliance with that section.
[Doc. No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 23–3, 30 F.R. 14240,
Nov. 13, 1965: Amdt. 23–5, 32 F.R. 6912, May
5, 1967; Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13097,
Aug. 13, 1967]
§ 23.1587 Performance information.
(a) General. For each airplane, the
following information must be furnished:
(1) Any loss of altitude more than 100
feet, or any pitch more than 30 degrees
below flight level, occurring during the
recovery part of the maneuver pre
scribed in § 23.201 (b).
155
§ 23.1589 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(2) The conditions under which the
full amount of usable fuel in each tank
can safely be used. This information
must be in the Airplane Flight Manual
(if provided) or on a placard.
(b) Airplanes of more than 6,000
pounds marimum weight. For each air
plane of more than 6,000 pounds maxi
mum weight, the following information
must be furnished:
(1) The stalling speed, Vs, at maxi
mum Weight.
(2) The stalling speed, Vs, at maxi
mum weight and with landing gear and
wing flaps retracted, and the effect upon
this stalling speed of angles of bank up
to 60 degrees.
(3) The takeoff distance determined
under § 23.51 (a), the airspeed at the
50-foot height, the airplane configura
tion (if pertinent), the kind of surface
used in the tests, and the pertinent in
formation with respect to cowl flap po
sition, use of flight-path control devices,
and use of the landing gear retraction
system.
(4) The landing distance determined
under § 23.75(a), the airplane configura
tion (if pertinent), the kind of surface
used in the tests, and the pertinent in
formation with respect to flap position
and the use of flight-path control de
vices.
(5) The steady rate of climb, deter
mined under §§ 23.65 (a) , 23.67 (a) (if ap
propriate) and 23.77 (a), the airspeed,
power, and, if pertinent, the airplane
configuration.
(6) The calculated approximate effect
On takeoff distance (subparagraph (3)
of this paragraph), landing distance
(subparagraph (4) of this paragraph),
and steady rate of climb (subparagraph
(5) of this paragraph), of variations in—
(i) Altitude from sea level to 8,000
feet; and
(ii) Temperature at these altitudes
from minus 60 degrees F. below standard
to plus 40 degrees F. above standard.
For skiplanes, a statement in the Air
plane Flight Manual of the approximate
reduction in climb performance may be
used instead of complete new data for
the skiplane configuration if–
(1) The landing gear is fixed in both
landplane and skiplane configurations;
1 6
(2) The climb requirements are not
critical: and
(3) The climb reduction in the ski
plane configurations is small (30 to 50
feet per minute).
(c) Multiengine airplanes. For multi
engine airplanes, the following informa
tion must be furnished:
(1) The loss of altitude during the one
engine inoperative stall shown under
§ 23.205 (as measured from the altitude
at which the airplane starts to pitch un
controllably to the altitude at which level
flight is regained) and the pitch angle
during that maneuver. This informa
tion must be furnished—
(i) In the Airplane Flight Manual. for
airplanes of more than 6,000 pounds
maximum weight; and
(ii) On a placard, for airplanes of
6,000 pounds or less maximum weight.
(2) The best climb speed, or the mini
mum descent speed, with one engine in
Operative.
(3) The calculated approximate effect,
on the steady rate of climb determined
under § 23.67(b), of variations in—
(1) Altitude at sea level and at 8,000
feet in a standard atmosphere and
cruise configuration; and
(ii) Temperature, at those altitudes,
from 60° F. below standard to 40° F.
above standard.
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13097.
Aug. 13, 1969)
§ 23.1589 Loading information.
The following loading information
must be furnished:
(a) The weight and location of each
item of equipment installed when the
airplane was weighed under § 23.25.
(b) Appropriate loading instructions
for each possible loading condition be
tween the maximum and minimum
weights determined under § 23.25 that
can result in a center of gravity beyond—
(1) The extremes selected by the ap
plicant;
(2) The extremes Within which the
structure is proven; Or
(3) The extremes within which com
pliance with each functional requirement.
is shown.
Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
APPENDIx A–SIMPLIFIED DESIGN LOAD CRI
TERIA FOR CONVENTIONAL, SINGLE-ENGINE
AIRPLANES OF 6,000 Pounds on LEss MAXI
MUM WEIGHT
A23.1 General.
(a) The design load criteria in this
appendix are an approved equivalent of
those in §§ 23.321 through 23.459 of this
subchapter for the certification of conven
tional, single-engine airplanes of 6,000 pounds
or less maximum weight.
(b) Unless otherwise stated, the nomen
clature and symbols in this Appendix are
the same as the corresponding nomenclature
and symbols in Part 23.
A233 Special symbols.
n1= Airplane Positive Maneuvering
Limit Load Factor.
nam Airplane Negative Maneuvering
Limit Load Factor.
n, =Airplane Positive Gust Limit Load
Factor at Wo.
n, = Airplane Negative Gust Limit Load
Factor at Wo.
mnae - Airplane Positive Limit Load
Factor With Flaps Fully Ex
tended at Vr.
*Wr mis- Minimum Design Flap Speed=
12.5vn1 W/S
*VA min = Minimum Design Maneuvering
speed–17.ovni W7s
*WC min = Minimum Design Cruising Speed
= 19.5vni w/S
*VD anta- Minimum Design Dive Speed=
27.3vni W/s
*Also see paragraph A23.7(e)(2) of this
Appendix.
A28.5 Certification {n more that, one
category.
The criteria in thus Appendix may be used
for certification in the normal, utility, and
acrobatic categories, or in any combination
of these categories. If certification in more
than one category is desired, the design cate
gory weights must be selected to make the
term “n 1W" constant for all categories or
greater for one desired category than for
others. The wings and control surfaces (in
cluding wing flaps and tabs) need only be
Investigated for the maximum value of
“nt W’’, or for the category corresponding to
the maximum design weight, where “n 1W.”
is constant. If the acrobatic category is
selected, a special unsymmetrical flight load
investigation in accordance with subpara
graphs A23.9(c) (2) and A23.11(c)(2) of this
Appendix must be completed. The wing,
wing carrythrough, and the horizontal tail
structures must be checked for this cond1
tion. The basic fuselage structure need only
be investigated for the highest load factor
design category selected. The local support
ing structure for dead weight items need
157
Part 23, Appendix A
only be designed for the highest load factor
imposed when the particular items are in
stalled in the airplane. The engine mount,
however, must be designed for a higher side
load factor, if certification in the acrobatic
category is desired, than that required for
certification in the normal and utility cate
gories. When designing for landing loads,
the landing gear and the airplane as a
whole need only be investigated for the cate
gory corresponding to the maximum design
weight. These simplifications apply to
single-engine aircraft of conventional types
for which experience is available, and the
Administrator may require additional in
vestigations for alrcraft with unusual design
features.
A23.7 Flight loads.
(a) Each flight load may be considered
independent of altitude and, except for the
local supporting structure for dead weight
items, only the maximum design weight con
dutions must be investigated.
(b) Table 1 and figures 3 and 4 of this Ap
pendix must be used to determine values of
n1, m2, m3, and na, corresponding to the maxi
mum design weights in the desired categories.
(c) Figures 1 and 2 of this Appendix must
be used to determine values of m3 and na
corresponding to the minimum flying
weights in the desired categories, and, if
these load factors are greater than the load
factors at the design weight, the supporting
structure for dead weight items must be sub
stantiated for the resulting higher load
factors.
(d) Each specified wing and tail loading is
independent of the center of gravity range.
The applicant, however, must select a c.g.
range, and the basic fuselage structure must
be investigated for the most adverse dead
weight loading conditions for the c.g. range
selected.
(e) The following loads and loading condi
tions are the minimums for which strength
must be provided in the structure:
(1) Airplane equilibrium. The aerody
namic wing loads may be considered to act
normal to the relative wind, and to have a
magnitude of 1.05 times the airplane normal
loads (as determined from paragraphs A23.9
(b) and (c) of this appendix) for the positive
flight conditions and a magnitude equal to
the airplane normal loads for the negative
conditions. Each chordwise and normal
component of this wing load must be
considered.
(2) Minimum design airspeeds. The mini
mum design airspeeds may be chosen by the
applicant except that they may not be less
than the minimum speeds found by using
figure 3 of this Appendix. In addition,
WC min need not exceed values of 0.9WH
actually obtained at sea level for the lowest
design weight category for which certifica
 Part 23, Appendix A Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
tion is desired. In computing these mini
mum design airspeeds, n.1 may not be less
than 3.8.
(3) Flight load factor. The limit flight
load factors specified in Table 1 of this
Appendix represent the ratio of the aerody
namic force component (acting normal to
the assumed longitudinal axis of the air
plane) to the weight of the airplane. A pos
itive flight load factor is an aerodynamic
force acting upward, with respect to the air
plane.
A23.9 Flight conditions.
(a) General. Each design condition in
paragraphs (b) and (c) of this section must
be used to assure sufficient strength for each
condition of speed and load factor on or
within the boundary of a V-n diagram for
the airplane similar to the diagram in
figure 4 of this Appendix. This diagram
must also be used to determine the airplane
structural operating limitations as specified
in $$ 23.1501 (c) through 23.1513 and 23.1519.
(b) Symmetrical flight conditions. The
airplane must be designed for symmetrical
flight conditions as follows:
(1) The airplane must be designed for at
least the four basic flight conditions, “A”,
“D”, “E”, and “G” as noted on the flight
envelope of figure 4 of this Appendix. In
addition, the following requirements apply:
(1) The design limit flight load factors
corresponding to conditions “D” and “E”
of figure 4 must be at least as great as those
specified in Table 1 and figure 4 of this
Appendix, and the design speed for these
conditions must be at least equal to the value
of Vp found from figure 3 of this Appendix.
(11) For conditions “A” and “G” of figure
4, the load factors must correspond to those
specified in Table 1 of this Appendix, and
the design speeds must be computed using
these load factors With the maximum Static
lift coefficient cy, determined by the ap
plicant. However, in the absence of more
precise computations, these latter conditions
may be based on a value of Cw4-1-135 and
the design speed for condition “A” may be
less than VA min.
(111) Conditions “C” and “F” of figure 4
need only be investigated when m3 W/S or
n, W/S are greater than niWS or nzW/S
of this Appendix, respectively.
(2) If flaps or other high lift devices in
tended for use at the relatively low airspeed
of approach, landing, and takeoff, are in
stalled, the airplane must be designed for the
two flight conditions corresponding to the
values of limit flap-down factors specified in
Table 1 of this Appendix with the flaps fully
extended at not less than the design flap
speed VF min from figure 3 of this Appendix.
(c) Unsymmetrical flight conditions. Each
affected structure must be designed for un
symmetrical loadings as follows:
(1) The aft fuselage-to-wing attachment
must be designed for the critical vertical
19 8
surface load determined in accordance with
subparagraphs A23.11(c) (1) and (2) of this
Appendix.
(2) The wing and wing carry-through
structures must be designed for 100 percent
of condition “A” loading on one side of the
plane of symmetry and 70 percent on the
opposite side for certification in the normal
and utility categories, or 60 percent on the
Opposite side for certification in the acro
batic category.
(3) The wing and wing carry-through
structures must be designed for the loads
resulting from a combination of 75 percent
of the positive maneuvering wing loading
on both sides of the plane of symmetry and
the maximum wing torsion resulting from
alleron displacement. The effect of aileron
displacement on wing torsion at Vc or VA
using the basic airfoil moment coefficient
modified over the aileron portion of the
span, must be computed as follows:
(1) Cºm - Cm +0.018, (up alleron side) wing
basic airfoil.
(ii) Cin–CIn–0.0184 (down alleron side)
wing basic airfoil, where 8, is the up alleron
deflection and 84 is the down alleron
deflection.
(4) A critical, which is the sum of 8,-H 84.
must be computed as follows:
(1) Compute Aa and Ab from the formulas:
y
As= w: X Ap and
A-os”xa.
where An-the maximum total deflection
(sum of both alleron deflections) at V4 with
VA, Vc, and WD described in subparagraph
(2) of $23.7(e) of this Appendix.
(ii) Compute K from the formula:
(Cº-0.018b) VD2
(Cºn–0.018.a.) Vo2
where 8a is the down aileron deflection cor
responding to Aa, and 35 is the down alleron
deflection corresponding to Ab as computed
in step (1).
(111) If R is less than 1.0, Aa is A critical
and must be used to determine 8, and 34.
In this case, Vc is the critical speed which
must be used in computing the wing torsion
loads over the aileron span.
(iv) If K is equal to or greater than 1.0,
Ab is A critical and must be used to determine
8, and 84. In this case, Vp is the critical
speed which must be used in computing the
wing torsion loads over the aileron span.
(d) Supplementary conditions; rear lift
truss: engine torque; side load on engine
mount. Each of the following supplemen
tary conditions must be investigated:
(1) In designing the rear lift truss, the
special condition specified in $ 23.369 may
be investigated instead of condition “G” of
figure 4 of this Appendix. If this is done,
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
and if certification in more than one Cate
gory is desired, the value of W/S used in
the formula appearing in 23.369 must be
that for the category corresponding to the
maximum gross weight.
(2) Each engine mount and its supporting
structures must be designed for the maxi
mum limit torque corresponding to METO
power and propeller speed acting simul
taneously with the limit loads resulting
from the maximum positive maneuvering
flight load factor n1. The limit torque must
be obtained by multiplying the mean torque
by a factor of 1.33 for engines with five or
more cylinders. For 4, 3, and 2 cylinder
engines, the factor must be 2, 3, and 4,
respectively.
(3) Each engine mount and its supporting
structure must be designed for the loads re
sulting from a lateral limit load factor of not
less than 1.47 for the normal and utility
categories, or 2.0 for the acrobatic category.
A23.11 Control surface loads.
(a) General. Each control surface load
must be determined using the criteria of
paragraph (b) of this section and must lie
within the simplified loadings of paragraph
(c) of this section.
(b) Limit pilot forces. In each control
surface loading condition described in para
graphs (c) through (e) of this section, the
airloads on the movable surfaces and the
corresponding deflections need not exceed
those which could be obtained in flight by
employing the maximum limit pilot forces
specified in the table in § 23.397 (b). If the
surface loads are limited by these maximum
limit pilot forces, the tabs must either be
º
*
considered to be deflected to their maximum
travel in the direction which would assist the
pilot or the deflection must correspond to
the maximum degree of “out of trim” ex
pected at the speed for the condition under
consideration. The tab load, however, need
not exceed the value specified in Table 2 of
this Appendix.
º (c) Surface loading conditions. Each sur
face loading condition must be investigated
as follows:
(1) Simplified limit surface loadings and
::
distributions for the horizontal tail, vertical
tall, alleron, wing flaps, and trim tabs are
º:- specified in Table 2 and figures 5 and 6 of
this Appendix. If more than one distribu
tion is given, each distribution must be in
º
ºrs
vestigated.
(2) If certification in the acrobatic cate
gory is desired, the horizontal tall must be
investigated for an unsymmetrical load of
: 100 percent wo on one side of the airplane
centerline and 50 percent on the other side
of the airplane centerline.
(d) Outboard fins. Outboard fins must
meet the requirements of $ 23.455.
(e) Special devices. Special devices must
: meet the requirements of $ 23.459.
159
Part 23, Appendix A
A28.13 Control system loads.
(a) Primary flight controls and systems.
Each primary flight control and system must
be designed as follows:
(1) The flight control system and its sup
porting structure must be designed for loads
corresponding to 125 percent of the computed
hinge moments of the movable control sur
face in the conditions prescribed in A23.11 of
this Appendix. In addition—
(i) The system limit loads need not exceed
those that could be produced by the pilot
and automatic devices operating the controls;
and
(ii) The design must provide a rugged sys
tem for service use, including jamming,
ground gusts, taxiing downwind, control in
ertla, and friction.
(2) Acceptable maximum and minimum
limit pilot forces for elevator, alleron, and
rudder controls are shown in the table in
§ 23.397 (b). These pilots loads must be as
sumed to act at the appropriate control grips
or pads as they would under flight condi
tions, and to be reacted at the attachments
of the control system to the control surface
horn.
(b) Dual controls. If there are dual con
trols, the systems must be designed for pilots
operating in opposition, using individual
pilot loads equal to 75 percent of those ob
tained in accordance with paragraph (a) of
this section, except that individual pilot
loads may not be less than the minimum
limit pilot forces shown in the table in
§ 23.397 (b).
(c) Ground gust conditions. Ground gust
conditions must meet the requirements of
§ 23.415.
(d) Secondary controls and systems. Sec
ondary controls and systems must meet the
requirements of § 23.405.
TABLE 1–LIMIT. FLIGHT LOAD FACTORS
LIMIT. FLIGHT LOAD FACTORS
Nor- || Utility Acro
mal cate- I batic
cate- gory cate
gory gory
1,1 3.8 4.4 6.0
F- g #3 112 —0.5ni
E; ºnt Find ni from Fig. 1
E3 fºº Find nº from Fig. 2
a;
É3
fift sp
fifter
0.5m 1
Zero"
•Vertical wing load may be assumed equal to
*ś flap part of the wing need be
Eero and
checked for this condition.
| (8)
A
I

-
above, by
V
III,
II,
I,
loadings
surface
NoTE:
values
If
mºn.
Wr
is
IV
of
loading
The
in.
Vc
and
in
ºn
V4
speeds
on
based
are apulrtoiprliaetde
design,
for
selected
are
minimums
these
than
greater
speeds
mof
be
must
loadings
surface
ratio
the

w L
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-
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Figure
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b) w
T

OFDISTRIBUTION
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LOADING
MAGNITUDE
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categ—-
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For cories..
-
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se
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and
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Figure
(5)
urve
III
AILERON [...]
[#]
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V
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Wo
iptliyoinsg

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Left
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Down
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urve
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as
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TAB
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-
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CONTROL
LIMIT
2–AVERAGE
TABLE
–
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- |
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urveY
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§
Part 23, Appendix A

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Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration Part 23, Appendix A

FIGURE A3–DETERMINATION or MINIMUM DESIGN. SPEEDs—EquaTIONs

Wo min-24.0 ſm, W but need not exceed

S
1.4Vn,
=+Wo an in;
3.8

Wo -ts-17.0Vn, W but need not exceed

TST
0.9 WH; V4 enta- *V711 W
TST but need not exceed Wo used

W.
in design. Wr ---110 V n, ST

FIGURE 4–FLIGHT ENVELOPE

W W
1. Conditions "C" or "P" need only be investigated when *s or *F is greater

than *...**: , respectively.

2. Condition “G” need not be investigated when the supplementary condition
specified in $ 23.869 is investigated.

163
 7O
FIGURE
A5
–
A VERAGE
LINMIT
CONTROL
SURFACE
LOADIN G
i
l
3
=(1)
W .66
(n.3 %"
for
4&nº
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:
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TAIL
(2)
HORIZONTA
TAIL
(UP
D&OWN
LOADS) L
O

O
O
2
4O
6
80O
IOO
12O
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MANEUVE
DESIGN RING
WING
LOADING
POUNDS/SQ.
F.T.'
Part 23, Appendix A

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Part 23, Appendix B Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
APPENDIX B-Con TRo1. SURFACE Loan INGs
B23.1 General.
(a) If allowed by the specific requirements
in this part, the values of control surface
loading in this appendix may be used to de
termine the detailed rational requirements
of $$ 23.397 through 23.459 unless the Ad
ministrator finds that these values result
in unrealistic loads.
(b) In the control surface loading condi
tions of § B23.11, the airloads on the movable
surfaces need not exceed those that could be
obtained in flight by using the maximum
limit pilot forces prescribed in § 23.397 (b). If
the surface loads are limited by these maxi
mum limit pilot forces, the tabs must be
deflected—
(1) To their maximum travel in the direc
tion that would assist the pilot; or
(2) In an amount corresponding to the
greatest degree of out-of-trim expected at
the speed for the condition being considered.
(c) For a seaplane version of a landplane,
the landplane wing loadings may be used to
determine the limit maneuvering control
surface loadings (in accordance with B23.11
and figure B1 of Appendix B) if–
(1) The power of the seaplane engines
does not exceed the power of the landplane
engines;
(2) The placard maneuver speed of the
seaplane does not exceed the placard maneu
wer speed of the landplane:
(3) The maximum weight of the seaplane
does not exceed the maximum weight of the
landplane by more than 10 percent;
(4) The landplane service experience does
not show any serious control-surface load
problem; and
(5) The landplane service experience is of
sufficient scope to ascertain with reasonable
accuracy that no serious control-surface load
problem will develop on the seaplane.
B23.11 Control surface loads.
Acceptable values of limit average ma
neuvering control-surface loadings may be
obtained from figure B1 of this Appendix in
accordance with the following:
(a) For horizontal tail surfaces—
(1) With the conditions in § 23.423(a)(1)
obtain 75 as a function of W/s and surface
deflection, using—
(i) Curve C of figure B1 for a deflection of
10° or less;
(ii) Curve B of figure B1 for a deflection
of 20°;
(iii) Curve A for a deflection of 30° or
more;
(iv) Interpolation for all other deflections;
and
(v) The distribution of figure B7; and
(2) With the conditions in § 23.423(a)(2)
obtain wo from Curve B of figure 1 using the
distribution of figure B7.
(b) For vertical tail surfaces—
(1) with the conditions in § 23.441(a)(1)
obtain w as a function of W/S and surface
deflection using the same requirements as
used in subdivisions (a)(1)(1) through
(a) (1) (v);
(2) With the conditions in § 23.441(a)(2).
obtain 70 from Curve C, using the distribu
tion of figure B6; and

Figuan B1–LIMIT AvH.RAgn MANUFACTURING Control. SURFACn LOADING

*E LiMIT AvtºRAGE MANEuwe RING LOADIN0.

as F * * k = a + (PsF) where
E = is rºse positive Limir Maneuvening Loap
sor racron useo " Desion.

ssp. Lº
is 25E L^ cl”
× E L”
C -->

is E
to L.
5 T

o f 9. ro If zºo

W. (P
g (PsF)

Note: In no case may w be less than 12 psf.

166
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration - Part 23, Appendix B

* A obtain wo from Curve A, using the distri- (c) For ailerons, obtain w from Curve B,
bution of figure B8. acting in both the up and down directions,
* 3: (3) With the conditions in § 23.441(a)(3). using the distribution of figure B9.
Cºu

:- FIguar B2—MANEUvrai Ng TAIL Load INCREMENT (UP on Down)

1.5
|

1– -

>
i-i-
|-
:
i
3. ar
<-> -

Rºu z
- ~ 1.0
tº 5|_
– III. |-

ºx: =|3
; := H
3: ; c 12
E|S|2 -

º: 5:13 -

>!cº
->
-,

+= #| .5
hºſ. :
->
it; a E -

: -

L
|st º

gº H = -

2-3 -

tºº
Islf o: l .2 3 4 5 .6
sº
l. OVERALL LENGTH OF AIRPLANE (FT)
V DESIGN SPEED (KNOTS)
FIGURE B3–Down GUST LOADING on HoRIzoNTAL TAIL SURFACE.
sd

=
4O

3O
2 2
20

: o

O
5 10 15 20
Part 23, Appendix B Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
FIGURE B4–UP GUST LoanING on BioBIzoNTAL, TAIL SURFACE.

FIGURE B5–GUST LoADING ON VERTICAL TAIL SURFACE.

50
NOTS
we-200
40
160
i
30
Tl

* i
=- l 00
:
20 = ~T- 80
#
|- _-T =
E NOTE: THESE CURVES ARE FOR =
10 - ASPECT RATIO R =3; FOR OTHER -
|- ASPECT RATIOS MULTIPLY LOADINGS -
|-
[.
BY =# -
3(R+2) I

|- 1–––––––––––––
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

W MAXIMUM WEIGHT
sy"RRENOFVERTICAITATSURFACE

168
Chapter 1–Federal Aviation Administration Part 23, Appendix B

FIGURE B6–TAIL SURFACE Load DISTRIBUTION FIGURE B8–TAIL SURFACE Load DIETRIBUTION
—

l ~xi
C
Zºrrºr

Notes:
(a) In the balancing conditions in
$ 23.421—P=40% of net balancing load
(flaps retracted); and P=0 (flaps deflected).
(b) In the condition in 23.441(a)(2),
P=20% of net tail load.
(c) The load on the fixed surface must be:
(1) 140 percent of the net balancing load FIGURE B9—AILERon Load DISTRIBUTION
for the flaps retracted case of note (a):
(2) 100 percent of the net balancing load
for the flaps deflected case of note (a); and
(3) 120 percent of the net balancing load
for the case in note (b).
FIGURE B7–TAIL SUBPACE LOAD DISTRIBUTION

-
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964,
º: /2. 2% |
º
zº
*. .”
as amended by Amdt. 23–7, 84 F.R. 13097,
Aug. 13, 1969]

169
39–059–75–12
Part 23, Appendix C Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
APPENDIX C-BASIC LANDING CONDITIONs
C28.1 Basic landing conditions.
Tail wheel type Nose wheel type
Condition
Level landing with Level landing with
Level landing tail-down landing inclued reactions nose wheel just Tail-down landing
clear of ground

23.479(a)(2) 23.479(a)(2) .481(a)(2)

23-4
Reference section --------------- 23.47
-
3.479(a)(1) 23.481(a)(1) º - (ii) and (b)

Vertical component at c. g------- n Wº ºn W’ nW' n W. nWr

Fore and aft component at c. g--- Kn W. 0 Kn W. Kn W. 0.
Lateral component in either di
rection at c. g---------------- 0 0 0 0 o
Shock absorber extension (hy
draulic shock absorber) -- - - - - - - Note (2) Note (2) Note (2) Note (2) Note (2),
Shock absorber deflection (rubber
or spring shock absorbet) ------ 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Tire deflection------------------
r
Static
- -
Static
- -
Static
”, ' '… "
Static
- -
sº- -

Main wheel loads (both wheels).{}. (*#| Gº-Dºº! Gº "...}. (~1%

. (nose) wheel loads------ {} (1) o: (n
- I.Y. It'
lows: ** {{!!}. - a 1-1 r
§ §
Votes------------------------- 1), (3), ----- (4) ----- (l) (l), (3), (3) and (4)
and (4) and {:} -

NoTE (1). K may be determined as follows: K = 0.25 for W = 3,000 pounds or less;
K = 0.33 for W = 6,000 pounds or greater, with linear variation of K between these weights.
Not E (2). For the purpose of design, the maximum load factor is assumed to occur
throughout the shock absorber stroke from 25 percent deflection to 100 percent deflection
unless Otherwise shown and the load factor must be used with whatever shock absorber
extension is most critical for each element of the landing gear.
NotE (3). Unbalanced moments must be balanced by a rational or conservative method.
NoTE (4). L is defined in § 23.735(b).
NoTE (5). n is the limit inertia load factor, at the c.g. of the airplane, selected under
§ 23.473 (d), (f), and (g).
TAl L WHEEL. TYPE
NOSE WHEEL. TYPE
SEE NOTE 3
-- A TAN"k
(SEE NOTET; º
| ſº

© GB- fiBQuMD 11ME

| GROUND LINE

s/
/
ºn -1 nK
n-L
(SEE NOTE I) Áº
L EV E L
gº

LAND ING WITH

LE V E L L AND | N G | N C Ll NED REACTIONS
TAN"K
SEE notst
- SEE NOTE 3
º
º
-

© º ground Linz
TAN' nK
--~ +
LEVEL LAND ING WITH NOSE WHEEL
TA|L DOWN LAND| NG JUST CLEAR OF GROUND
S-SEE NOTE 3

BASI C LANDING CONDITIONS GRQVMD 1 JME

Note: See s23.48l (a)(2)
TATL DOWN LANDING
[Docket No. 4080, 29 F.R. 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 23–7, 34 F.R. 13099,
Aug. 13, 1969]
170
Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
APPENDIX D–WEIEEL, SPIN-UP LOADS
D23.1 Wheel spin-up loads.
(a) The following method for determining
wheel spin-up loads for landing conditions
is based on NACA T.N. 863. However, the
drag component used for design may not be
less than the drag load prescribed in
$ 23.479(b).
1 /2Ilo (VH-Ve) n Fy mar
Fit ma==r. t
e º
where
Fa ...—maximum rearward horizontal
force acting on the wheel (1n
pounds);
re=effective rolling radius of wheel
under impact based on recom
mended operating tire pressure
(which may be assumed to be
equal to the rolling radius under
a static load of n, W.) in feet;
I. =rotational mass moment of in
ertia of rolling assembly (in slug
feet);
=FA linear velocity of airplane parallel
to ground at instant of contact
(assumed to be 12 vs, in feet
per second);
Ve= peripheral speed of tire, if pre
rotation is used (in feet per
second) (there must be a posi
tive means of pre-rotation
before pre-rotation may be
considered) :
in- effective coefficient of friction
(0.80 may be used);
Fr ea.=maximum vertical force on wheel
(pounds) = n, W., where We and
n, are defined in § 23.725;
t,-time interval between ground
contact and attainment of
maximum vertical force on
wheel (seconds). (However, if
the value of Fw mar, from the
above equation exceeds 0.8
Fw mar, the latter value must be
used for FH mar.)
(b) This equation assumes a linear varia
tion of load factor with time until the peak
load is reached and under this assumption,
the equation determines the drag force at the
time that the wheel peripheral velocity at
radius re equals the airplane velocity. Most
shock absorbers do not exactly follow a linear
variation of load factor with time. There
fore, rational or conservative allowances
must be made to compensate for these varia
tions. On most landling gears, the time for
wheel spin-up will be less than the time re
quired to develop maximum vertical load
factor for the specified rate of descent and
forward velocity. For exceptionally large
wheels, a wheel peripheral velocity equal to
the ground speed may not have been attained
at the time of maximum vertical gear load.
However, as stated above, the drag spin-up
*
1i 1
Part 23, Appendix D
load need not exceed 0.8 of the maximum
Vertical loads.
APPENDIx E—LIMITED WEIGHT CREDTT Fort
AIRPLANES EQUIPPED WITH STANDBY PoWER
(a) Each applicant for an increase in the
maximum certificated takeoff and landing
weights of an airplane equipped with a type
certificated standby power rocket engine may
obtain an increase as specified in paragraph
(b) if—
(1) The installation of the rocket engine
has been approved and it has been estab
lished by flight test that the rocket engine
and its controls can be operated safely and
reliably at the increase in maximum weight;
and
(2) The Airplane Flight Manual, or the
placard, markings or manuals required in
place thereof, set forth in addition to any
other operating limitations the Adminis
trator may require, the increased weight ap
proved under this regulation and a prohibi
tion against the operation of the airplane
at the approved increased weight when—
(1) The installed standby power rocket
engines have been stored or installed in ex
cess of the time limit established by the
manufacturer of the rocket engine (usually
stenciled on the engine casing); or
(11) The rocket engine fuel has been ex
pended or discharged.
(b) The currently approved maximum
takeoff and landing weights at which an air
plane is certificated without a standby power
rocket engine installation may be increased
by an amount which does not exceed any of
the following:
(1) An amount equal in pounds to 0.014
IN, where I is the maximum usable impulse
in pounds-seconds available from each
standby power rocket engine and N is the
number of rocket engines installed.
(2) An amount equal to 5 percent of the
maximum certificated weight approved in
accordance with the applicable airworthiness
regulations without standby power rocket
engines installed.
(3) An amount equal to the weight of
the rocket engine installation.
(4) An amount that, together with the
currently approved maximum weight, would
equal the maximum structural weight estab
lished for the airplane without standby
rocket engines installed.
(c) For the purposes of this Appendix,
“standby power” is power or thrust, or both,
obtained from rocket engines for a relatively
short period and actuated only in cases of
emergency.
(d) For the purposes of limited weight
credit for airplanes equipped with standby
power, as set forth in § 23.25(a)(1) (111) and
this Appendix, an airplane certificated under
Part 4a of the Civil Air Regulations is treated
as if it had been certificated under Part 3
of the Civil Air Regulations or Part 23 of
the Federal Aviation Regulations.
[Amdt. 23–2, 30 F.R. 8468, July 2, 1965)
Part 25 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
Sec.
PART 25–AIRWORTHINESS STAND
25.177 Static directional and lateral sta
ARDS: TRANSPORT CATEGORY AIR bility.
PLANES 25.181 Dynamic longitudinal, directional,
and lateral stability.
Subport A–General
Sec. STALLs
25.1 Applicability. 25.201 Stall demonstration.
25.2 Special retroactive requirements. 25.203 Stall characteristics.
25.205 Stalls: Critical engine inoperative.
Subport B–Flight 25.207 Stall warning.
GENERAL
GROUND AND WATER HANDLING
25.21 Proof of compliance. CHARACTERISTICs
25.23 Load distribution limits.
25.231 Longitudinal stability and control.
25.25 Weight limits. 25.233 Directional stability and control.
25.27 Center of gravity limits. 25.235 Taxiing condition.
25.29 Empty weight and corresponding 25.237 Wind velocities.
center of gravity. 25.239 Spray characteristics, control, and
25.31 Removable ballast. stability on water.
25.33 Propeller speed and pitch limits. MISCELLANEOUs FLIGHT REQUIREMENTs
PERFORMANCE: RECIPROCATING ENGINE
Power ED AIRPLANES
25.251 Vibration and buffeting.
25.253 High-speed characteristics.
25.45 General.
Subpart C–Structure
25.47 Wing flap position.
GENERAL,
25.49 Stalling speeds.
25.51 Takeoff. 25.301 Loads.

25.55 Takeoff speeds. 25.303 Factor of safety.

25.305 Strength and deformation.
25.57 Accelerate-stop distance. 25.307 Proof of structure.
25.59 Takeoff path.
25.61 Temperature accountability. FLIGHT LOADs
25.65 Climb: all engines operating. 25.321 General.
25.67 Climb: one engine inoperative.
FLIGHT MANEUVER AND GUST ConDITIONS
25.69 Climb: two engines inoperative.
25.75 Landing. 25.331 General.
25.333 Flight envelope.
PERFORMANCE: TURBINE ENGINE
25.335 Design airspeeds.
PowrººD AIRPLANEE
25.337 Limit maneuvering load factors.
25.101 General. 25.341 Gust loads.
25.103 Stalling speed. 25.343 Design fuel and oil loads.
25.105 Takeoff. 25.345 High lift devices.
25.349 Rolling conditions.
25.107 Takeoff speeds.
25.351 Yawing conditions.
25.109 Accelerate-stop distance.
25.111 Takeoff path. SUPPLEMENTARY ConDITION's
25.113 Takeoff distance and takeoff run. 25.361 Engine torque.
25.115 Takeoff flight path. 25.363 Side load on engine mount.
25.117 Climb: general. 25.365 Pressurized cabin loads.
25.119 Landing climb: All-engine-operat 25.367 Unsymmetrical loads due to engine
ing. failure.
25.121 Climb: One-engine-inoperative. 25.371 Gyroscopic loads.
25.123 En route flight paths. 25.373 Speed control devices.
25.125 Landing. CoNTRol, SURFACE AND SYSTEM Loaps
CoNTROLLABILITY AND MANEUVERABILITY
25.391 Control surface loads: general.
25.143 General. 25.393 Loads parallel to hinge line.
25.145 Longitudinal control. 25.395 Control system.
25.147 Directional and lateral control. 25.397 Control system loads.
25.149 Minimum control speed. 25.399 Dual control system.
TRIM 25.405 Secondary control system.
25.407 Trim tab effects.
25.161 Trim.
25.409 Tabs.
STABILITY 25.415 Ground gust conditions.
25.171 General. 25.427 Unsymmetrical loads.
25.173 Static longitudinal stability. 25.445 Outboard fins.
25.175 Demonstration of static longitudi 25.457 Wing flaps.
nal stability. 25.459 Special devices.

172
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration Port 25

GROUND Loads CONTROL SURFACEs.

Sec.
25.471 General. 25.651 Proof of strength.
25478 Ground load conditions and assump 25.655 Installation.
tions. 25,657 Hinges.
25.477 Landing gear arrangement. CoNTROL SYSTEMs
25.479 Level landing conditions.
25.671 General.
25.481 Tail-down landing conditions.
25.672 Stability augmentation and auto
25.483. One-wheel landing conditions.
25.485 Side load conditions. matic and power-operated sys
tems.
25.487 Rebound landing condition.
25.673 Two-control airplanes.
25.489 Ground handling conditions.
25.491 Takeoff run. 25.675 Stops.
25.493 Braked roll conditions. 25.677 Trim systems.
25.679 Control system gust locks.
25.495 Turning.
25.681 Limit load static tests.
25.497 Tail-wheel yawing. 25.683
25.499 Nose-wheel yaw. Operation tests.
25.685 Control system details.
25.503 Pivoting.
25,689 Cable systems.
25.507 Reversed braking. 25.693 Joints.
25.509 Towing loads.
25.697 Lift and drag devices, controls.
25.511 Ground load: unsymmetrical loads
25.699 L1ſt and drag device indicator.
on multiple-wheel units.
25.701 Flap interconnection.
WATER LOADs
LANDING GEAR
25,521 General. 25.721 General.
25.523 Design weights and center of 25.723 Shock absorption tests.
gravity positions. 25.725 Limit drop tests.
25.525 Application of loads. 25.727 Reserve energy absorption drop
25.527 Hull and main float load factors. test8.
25.529 Hull and main float landing con 25.729 Retracting mechanism.
ditions. 25.731 Wheels.
25.531 Hull and main float takeoff condi 25.733 Tires.
tion. 25.735 Brakes.
25.533 Hull and main float bottom pres 25.737 Skls.
sures.
FLOATS AND HULLs
25.535 Auxiliary float loads.
25.751 Main float buoyancy.
25.537 Seawing loads.
25.753 Main float design.
EMERGENCY LANDING CONDITIONS 25.755 Hulls.
25.561 General. PERSONNEL AND CARGO Accom MODATIONS
25.563 Structural ditching provisions. 25.771 Pilot compartment.
PATIGUE Evaluation 25.772 Pilot compartment doors.
25.773 Pilot compartment view.
25.571 Fatigue evaluation of flight struc 25.775 Windshields and Windows.
ture. 25.777 Cockpit controls.
25.573 Fatigue evaluation of landing gear. 25.779 Motion and effect of cockpit con
trols.
LIGHTNING PROTECTION
25.781 Cockpit control knob shape.
25.581 Lightning protection. 25.783 Doors.
25.785 Seats, berths, safety belts, and
Subpart D–Design and Construction harnesses.
GENERAL 25.787 Stowage compartments.
25.789 Retention of items of mass in pas
25.601 General.
senger and crew compartments.
25.603 Materials. 25.791 Passengers information signs.
25.605 Fabrication methods. EMERGENCY PROVISIONS
25.607 Fasteners.
25.801 Ditching.
25.609 Protection of structure. 25.803 Emergency evacuation.
25.611. Accessibility provisions. 25.805 Flight crew emergency exits.
25.613 Material strength properties and 25.807 Passenger emergency exits.
design values. 25.809 Emergency exit arrangement.
25.615 Design properties. 25.811 Emergency exit marking.
25.619 Special factors. 25.812 Emergency lighting.
25.621 Casting factors. 25.813 Emergency exit access.
25.623 Bearing factors. 25.815 Width of aisle.
25.625 Fitting factors. 25.817 Maximum number of seats abreast.
25.629 Flutter, deformation, and fail-safe VENTILATION AND HEATING
criteria. 25.831 Ventilation.
25.631 Bird strike damage. 25.833 Heating systems.
º
14 3
Part 25 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
PRESSURIZATION Sec.
Sec. 25.101.7 Oil lines and fittings.
25.841 Pressurized cabins. 25.1019 Oil strainer or filter.
25.843 Tests for pressurized cabins. 25.1021 Oil drains.
FIRE PROTECTION 25.1023 Cil radiators.
25.1025 Oil valves.
25.851 Fire extinguishers. 25.102.7 Propeller feathering system.
25.853 Compartment interiors.
25.855 Cargo and baggage compartments. Cool.ING
25.857 Cargo compartment classification. 25.1041 General.
25.859 Combustion heater fire protection. 25.1043 Cooling tests.
25.863 Flammable fluid fire protection. 25.1045 Cooling test procedures.
25.865 Fire protection of flight controls,
engine mounts, and other flight INDUCTION SYSTEM
structure.
25.1091 Air induction.
25.867 Fire protection; other components. 25.1093 Induction system deicing and anti
MISCELLANEOUS 1cing provisions.
25.1101 Carburetor air preheater design.
25.871 Leveling means. 25.1103 Induction system ducts.
25.875 Reinforcement near propellers. 25.1105 Induction system screens.
Subpart E–Powerplant 25.1107 Inter-coolers and after-coolers.

GENERAL ExHAUST SYSTEM

25,901 Installation. 25.1121 General.
25.903 Engines. 25.1123 Exhaust plping.
25.905 Propellers. 25.1125 Exhaust heat exchangers.
25.907 Propeller vibration. 25.1127 Exhaust driven turbo-supercharg
25,925 Propeller clearance. ers.
25.929 Propeller deicing. PowerPLANT ControLs AND AccEssorrºs
25.933 Reversing systems.
25.934 Turbojet engine thrust reverser sys 25.1141 Powerplant controls: general.
ten testS. 25.1143 Engine power and thrust, and anti
25.937 Turbopropeller-drag limiting sys detonant injection system con
tems. trols.
25.939 Turbine engine operating charao 25.1145 Ignition switches.
teristics. 25.1147 Mixture controls.
25.1149 Propeller speed and pitch controls.
FUEL SYSTEM
25.1153 Propeller feathering controls.
25.951 General. 25.1155 Reverse thrust and propeller pitch
25.953 Fuel system independence. settings below the flight regime.
25.954 Fuel system lightning protection. 25.1157
25.955 Fuel flow.
Carburetor air temperature con
trols.
25.957 Flow between interconnected tanks.
25.1159 Supercharger controls.
25.959 Unusable fuel supply.
25.961 25.1161 Fuel jettisoning system controls.
Fuel system hot weather operation.
25.963 Fuel tanks: general. 25.1183 Flammable fluid-carrying compo
25,965 Fuel tank tests. nentS.
25.967 Fuel tank installations. 25.1165 Engine ignition systems.
25.969 Fuel tank expansion space. PoWERPLANT FIRE PROTECTIon
25.971 Fuel tank sump.
25.973 Fuel tank filler connection. 25.1181 Designated fire zones; regions in
25.975 Fuel tank vents and carburetor cluded.
vapor vents. 25.1182 Nacelle areas behind firewalls, and
25.977 Fuel tank outlet.
engine pod attaching structures
25.979 Pressure fueling system. containing flammable fluid lines.
25.981 Fuel tank temperature. 25.1183 Flammable fluid-carrying compon
FUEL SYSTEM Compon ENTs ents.
25.1.185 Flammable fluids.
25.991 Fuel pumps. 25.1187 Drainage and ventilation of fire
25.993 Fuel system lines and fittings. zones.
25.994 Fuel system components.
25,995 Fuel valves. 25.1189 Shutoff means.
25.997 Fuel Strainer or filter. 25.1.191 Firewalls.
25.999 25.1.192 Engine accessory section diaphragm.
Fuel system drains.
25.1001 25.1193 Cowling and nacelle skin.
Fuel jettisoning system.
25.1195 Fire extinguishing systems.
OIL SYSTEM 25.1197 Fire extinguishing agents.
25.1011 General. 25.1199 Extinguishing agent containers.
25.1013 Oil tanks. 25.120.1 Fire extinguishing System materials.
25.1015 Oil tank tests. 25.1203 Fire-detector system.

4
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration Part 25

Subpart F.—Equipment Sec.

25.1449 Means for determining use of oxy
GENERAL,
Sec. gen.
25.1451 Fire protection for oxygen equip
25.1301 Function and installation.
ment.
25.1303 Flight and navigation instruments. 25.1453
25.1305 Powerplant instruments. Protection of oxygen equipment
from rupture.
25.1307 Miscellaneous equipment. 25.1455
25.1309 Equipment systems and installa Draining of fluids subject to freez
tions. ing.
25.1457 Cockpit voice recorders.
INSTRUMENTs: INSTALLATION 25.1459 Flight recorders.
25.1321 Arrangement and visibility. Subpart G–Operating limitations and
25.1323 Airspeed indicating system. Information
25.1325 Static pressure systems.
25.1327 Magnetic direction indicator. 25.1501 General.
25.1329 Automatic pilot system. OPERATING LIMITATION's
25.1331 Instruments using a power supply.
25.1333 Instrument systems. 25.1503 Airspeed limitations: general.
25.1337 Powerplant instruments. 25.1505 Maximum operating limit speed.
25.1507 Maneuvering speed.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EquTPMENT
25.1511 Flap extended speed.
25.1351 General. 25.1513 Minimum control speed.
25.1353 Electrical equipment and installa 25.1515 Landing gear speeds.
tions.
25.1519 Weight, center of gravity, and
25.1355 Distribution system. weight distribution.
25.1357 Circuit protective devices. 25.1521 Powerplant limitations.
25.1359 Electrical system fire and smoke 25,1523
protection. Minimum flight crew.
25.1525 Kinds of operation.
25.1363 Electrical system tests.
25.1527 Maximum operating altitude.
LIGHTS 25.1529 Maintenance manual.
25.1381 Instrument lights. 25.1531 Maneuvering flight load factors.
25.1383 Landing lights. 25.1533 Additional operating limitations for
25.1385 Position light system installation. turbine engine powered airplanes.
25.1387 Position light system dihedral MARKINGS AND PLACARDS
angles.
25.1389 Position light distribution and in 25.1541 General.
tensities. 25.1543 Instrument markings: general.
25.1391 Minimum intensities in the hori 25.1545 Airspeed limitation information.
2Ontal plane of forward and rear 25.1547 Magnetic direction indicator.
position lights. 25.1549 Powerplant instruments.
25.1393 Minimum intensities in any vertical 25.1551 Oil quantity indicator.
plane of forward and rear position 25.1553
lights. Fuel quantity indicator.
25.1555 Control markings.
25.1895 Maximum intensities in overlap
ping beams of forward and rear 25.1557 Miscellaneous markings and plac
position lights. ards.
25.1397 Color specifications. 25.1561 Safety equipment.
25.1399 Riding light. 25.1563 Alrspeed placard.
25.1401 Anticollision light system. AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUAL
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
25.1581 General.
25.1411 General. 25.1583 Operating limitations.
25.1413 Safety belts. 25.1585 Operating procedures.
25.1415 Ditching equipment. 25.1587 Performance information.
25.1419 Ice protection.
APPENDIx A
MISCELLANEous EquTPMrrºr APPENDIx B
APPENDIX C
25.1431 Electronic equipment.
APPENDIx D
25.1433 Vacuum systems.
25.1435 Hydraulic systems. APPENDIx E
25.1439 Protective breathing equipment. APPENDIX F.
25.1441 Oxygen equipment and supply.
AUTHoRrry: The provisions of this Part
25.1448 Minimum mass flow of supple 25 issued under secs. 313, 601, 603, 72 Stat.
mental oxygen.
752, 775; 49 U.S.C. 1354, 1421, and 1423.
25.1445 Equipment standards for the oxy
gen distributing system. Source: The provisions of this Part 25
25.1447 Equipment standards for oxygen contained in Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291,
dispensing units. Dec. 24, 1964, except as otherwise noted.

175
Part 25 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
SPECIAL FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS
SFAR 13
1. Applicability. Contrary provisions of
the Civil Air Regulations regarding certifica
tion notwithstanding,” this regulation shall
provide the basis for approval by the Ad
ministrator of modifications of individual
Douglas DC-3 and Lockheed L-18 airplanes
subsequent to the effective date of this
regulation.
2. General modifications. Except as modi
fled in sections 8 and 4 of this regulation,
an applicant for approval of modifications to
a DC-3 or L-18 airplane which result in
changes in design or in changes to approved
limitations shall show that the modifications
were accomplished in accordance with the
rules of either Part 4a or Part 4b in effect on
September 1, 1958, which are applicable to
the modification being made: Provided, That
an applicant may elect to accomplish a
modification in accordance with the rules
of Part 4b in effect on the date of application
for the modification in lieu of Part 4a or
Part 4b as in effect on September 1, 1953:
And provided further, That each specific
modification must be accomplished in ac
cordance with all of the provisions contained
in the elected rules relating to the particular
Inodification.
3. Specific conditions for approval. An
applicant for any approval of the following
specific changes shall comply with section 2
of this regulation as modified by the appli
cable provisions of this section.
(a) Increase in take-off power limitation—
1,200 to 1,350 horsepower. The engine take
off power limitation for the airplane may be
increased to more than 1,200 horsepower but
not to more than 1,350 horsepower per engine
if the increase in power does not adversely
affect the flight characteristics of the air
plane.
(b) Increase in take-off power limitation
to more than 1,350 horsepower. The engine
take-off power limitation for the airplane
Imay be increased to more than 1,350 horse
power per engine if compliance is shown with
the flight characteristics and ground han
dling requirements of Part 4b.
(c) Installation of engines of not more
than 1,830 cubic inches displacement and not
having a certificated take-off rating of more
than 1,350 horsepower. Engines of not more
than 1,830 cubic inches displacement and not
having a certificated take-off rating of more
than 1,350 horsepower which necessitate a
major modification or redesign of the engine
installation may be installed, if the engine
fire prevention and fire protection are equiv
alent to that on the prior engine installation.
(d) Installation of engines of more than
1,830 cubic inches displacement or having
* It is not intended to waive compliance
with such airworthiness requirements as are
included in the operating parts of the Civil
Air Regulations for specific types of
operation.
Pºy
1 6
certificated take-off rating of more than
1,350 horsepower. Engines of more than
1,830 cubic inches displacement or having
certificated take-off rating of more than 1,350
horsepower may be installed if compliance
is shown with the engine installation re
quirements of Part 4b.: Provided, That where
literal compliance with the engine installa
tion requirements of Part 4b is extremely
difficult to accomplish and would not con
tribute materially to the objective sought,
and the Administrator finds that the ex
perience with the DC-3 or L-18 airplanes
justifies it, he is authorized to accept such
measures of compliance as he finds will
effectively accomplish the basic objective.
4. Establishment of new mazimum certiff
cated weights. An applicant for approval of
new maximum certificated weights shall ap
ply for an amendment of the airworthiness
certificate of the airplane and shall show
that the weights sought have been estab
lished, and the appropriate manual material
obtained, as provided in this section.
NotE: Transport category performance re
quirements result in the establishment of
maximum certificated weights for various
altitudes.
(a) Weights—25,200 to 26,900 for the DC-3
and 18,500 to 19,500 for the L-18. New maxi
mum certificated weights of more than
25,200 but not more than 26,900 pounds for
DC-3 and more than 18,500 but not more
than 19,500 pounds for L-18 airplanes may
be established in accordance with the trans
port category performance requirements of
either Part 4a or Part 4b, if the airplane at
the new maximum weights can meet the
structural requirements of the elected part.
(b) Weights of more than 26,900 for the
DC-3 and 19,500 for the L-18. New maxi
mum certificated weights of more than
26,900 pounds for DC-3 and 19,500 pounds
for L-18 airplanes shall be established in
accordance with the structural perform
ance, flight characteristics, and ground han
dling requirements of Part 4b.: Provided,
That where literal compliance with the
structural requirements of Part 4b is ex
tremely difficult to accomplish and would not
contribute materially to the objective sought,
and the Administrator finds that the experi
ence with the DC-3 or L-18 airplanes justi
fles it, he is authorized to accept such
measures of compliance as he finds will
effectively accomplish the basic objective.
(c) Airplane flight manual—performance
operating information. An approved air
plane flight manual shall be provided for
each DC-3 and L-18 airplane which has had
new maximum certificated weights estab
lished under this section. The airplane
flight manual shall contain the applicable
performance information prescribed in that
part of the regulations under which the new
certificated weights were established and
such additional information as may be nec
essary to enable the application of the take
off, en route, and landing limitations
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
prescribed for transport category airplanes
in the operating parts of the Civil Air Regu
lations.
(d) Performance operating limitations.
Each airplane for which new maximum cer
tificated weights are established in accord
ance with paragraphs (a) or (b) of this sec
tion shall be considered a transport category
airplane for the purpose of complying with
the performance operating limitations ap
plicable to the operations in which it is
utilized.
5. Reference: Unless otherwise provided,
all references in this regulation to Part 4a
and Part 4b are those parts of the Civil Air
Regulations in effect on September 1, 1953
This regulation supersedes Special Civil
Air Regulation SR-398 and shall remain
effective until superseded or rescinded by
the Board.
[19 F.R. 5039, Aug. 11, 1954. Redesignated at
29 F.R. 19099, Dec. 30, 1964]
Subpart A–General
§ 25.1 Applicability.
(a) This part prescribes airworthi
ness standards for the issue of type cer
tificates, and changes to those certifi
cates, for transport category airplanes.
(b) Each person who applies under
Part 21 for such a certificate or change
must show compliance with the appli
cable requirements in this part.
25.2 Special retroactive requirements.
Notwithstanding $$ 21.17 and 21.101 of
this chapter and irrespective of the date
of application, each applicant for a type
certificate and each applicant for
supplemental-type certificate (or an
amendment to a type certificate) involv
ing an increase in passenger seating
capacity to a total greater than that
for which the airplane has been type
certificated, must show:
(a) After October 23, 1967, that the
airplane concerned meets the require
ments of §§ 25.783 (g), 25.803 (c)
through (9), 25.803(d), 25.807 (a), (c),
and (d), 25.809 (f), and (h), 25.811 (a),
(b), (d), (e), (f), and (g), 25.812 (a) (1),
(b), (c), (d), (e), (h), (1), (j), and (k)
(1) and (2), 25.813 (a), (b), and (c),
25.815, 25.817, 25.853 (a) and (b), 25.855
(a), 25.993(f), and 25.1359 (c), in effect
on October 24, 1967, or June 20, 1968, and
(b) After April 24, 1969, that the air
plane concerned meets the requirements
of §§ 25.721 (d), 25.803(e), 25.811(c),
25.812 (a) (2), (f), (g), and (k) (3) in
effect on October 24, 1967; and
(c) After April 23, 1969, that the air
plane concerned meets the requirements
of § 25.785(c) in effect either prior to or
on that date; and
§ 25.21
(d) After April 23, 1969, that the air
plane concerned meets the requirements
of §§ 25.803(b) and 25.803 (c) (1) in ef
fect on that date.
(Sec. 604, 72 Stat. 778; 49 U.S.C. 1424)
[Amdt. 25—15, 32 F.R. 13262, Sept. 20, 1967;
32 F.R. 13635, Sept. 29, 1967; Amdt. 25–17,
33 F.R. 9066, June 20, 1968; Amdt. 25–20, 34
F.R. 5544, Mar. 22, 1969]
Subpart B–Flight
GENERAL
§ 25.21 Proof of compliance.
(a) Each requirement of this subpart
must be met at each appropriate combi
nation of Weight and center of gravity
within the range of loading conditions
for which certification is requested.
This must be shown—
(1) By tests upon an airplane of the
type for which certification is requested,
or by calculations based on, and equal
in accuracy to, the results of testing; and
(2) By systematic investigation of
each probable combination of weight
and center of gravity, if compliance can
not be reasonably inferred from combi
nations investigated.
(b) If there is less than a 2 knot dif
ference in the forward and rearward c.g.
stalling speeds, the flying qualities may
be based upon the forward c.g. stalling
Speeds.
(c) The controllability, stability, trim,
a and stalling characteristics of the air
plane must be shown for each altitude
up to the maximum expected in opera
tion.
(d) The following general tolerances
from Specified values are allowed during
flight testing. However, greater toler
ances may be allowed in particular tests.
(2) These tolerances are plus or minus varia
tions unless otherwise noted in the par
ticular test:
Itern Tolerance
Weight -------- +5%, -10%.
Critical items –H5%, -1%.
affected by
weight.
C.G. ----------- 7% total travel.
Airspeed ------ 3 knots or 3%, whichever is
higher.
Power --------- 5%.
Wind (takeoff As low as possible but not
and landing to exceed approximately
tests). 12% Ws or 10.0 knots,
1
whichever is lower, along
the runway—measured at
a height of six feet above
the runway surface.
177
$ 25.23 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(e) If compliance with the flight
characteristics requirements is depend
ent upon a stability augmentation Sys
tem or upon any other automatic Or
power-operated system, compliance must
be shown with $$ 25.671 and 25.672.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5671,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.23 Load distribution limits.
(a) Ranges of weights and centers of
gravity within which the airplane may
be safely operated must be established.
If a weight and center of gravity com
bination is allowable only within
Certain load distribution limits (such as
Spanwise) that could be inadvertently
exceeded, these limits and the corre
Sponding weight and center of gravity
Combinations must be established.
(b) The load distribution limits may
not exceed—
(1) The selected limits;
(2) The limits at which the structure
is proven; or
(3) The limits at which compliance
with each applicable flight requirement
of this subpart is shown.
§ 25.25 Weight limits.
(a) Maſrimum weights. Maximum
weights corresponding to the airplane
Operating conditions (such as ramp,
ground or water taxi, takeoff, en route,
and landing), environmental conditions
(such as altitude and temperature), and
loading conditions (such as zero fuel
weight, center of gravity position and
weight distribution) must be established
So that they are not more than–
(1) The highest weight selected by
the applicant for the particular condi
tions; or
(2) The highest weight nt which com
pliance with each applicable structural
loading and flight requirement is shown,
except that for airplanes equipped with
standby power rocket engines the maxi
mum weight must not be more than the
highest weight established in accord
ance with Appendix E of this part.
(b) Minimum weight. The minimum
weight (the lowest weight at which com
pliance with each applicable requirement
of this part is shown) must be estab
lished so that it is not less than—
(1) The lowest weight selected by the
applicant;
(2) The design minimum weight (the
lowest Weight at which compliance with
178
each structural loading condition of this
part is shown, or
(3) The lowest weight at which com
pliance with each applicable flight re
quirement is shown.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5671,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.27 Center of gravity limits.
The extreme forward and the extreme
aft center of gravity limitations must
be established for each practicably sep
arable operating condition. No Such
limit may lie beyond—
(a) The extremes Selected by the
applicant;
(b) The extremes Within Which the
structure is proven; or
(c) The extremes Within Which conn
pliance with each applicable flight re
quirement is shown.
§ 25.29 Empty weight and correspond
ing center of gravity.
(a) The empty weight and corre
Sponding center of gravity must be de
termined by Weighing the airplane
with—
(1) Fixed ballast;
(2) Unusable fuel determined under
§ 25.959;
(3) Undrainable oil; and
(4) Hydraulic fluid.
(b) The condition of the airplane at
the time of determining empty weight
must be one that is well defined and can
be easily repeated.
§ 25.31 Removable ballast.
Removable ballast may be used in
showing compliance with the flight re
quirements of this subpart.
§ 25.33 Propeller speed and pitch limits.
(a) The propeller speed and pitch
must be limited to Values that will en
sure–
(1) Safe operation under normal
operating conditions; and
(2) Compliance with the performance
requirements in §§ 25.45 through 25.75
for reciprocating engine powered air
planes, and $$ 25.101 through 25.125 for
turbopropeller powered airplanes.
(b) There must be a propeller speed
limiting means at the governor. It must
limit the maximum possible governed en
gine speed to a value not exceeding the
maximum allowable r.p.m.
(c) The low pitch blade stop, or other
means used to limit the low pitch posi
tion of the propeller blades, must be set
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration $25.51

so that the engine speed does not exceed (1) Engines idling, throttles closed
103 percent of the maximum allowable (or at not more than the power necessary
engine r.p.m. With— for zero thrust at a Speed not more than
(1) The propeller blades at the low 110 percent of the stalling speed);
pitch limit and governor inoperative; (2) Propeller pitch in the takeoff
and position;
(2) Takeoff manifold pressure with (3) Landing gear extended;
the airplane stationary under standard (4) Wing flaps in the landing posi
atmospheric conditions. tion;
(5) Cowl flaps closed;
†-r:
**t PERFORMANCE: RECIPROCATING ENGINE
(6) Center of gravity in the most un
§ -- POWERED AIRPLANES
favorable position within the allowable
§ 25.45 General. landing range; and
| E (7) Weight used. When Vs, is being
(a) For reciprocating engine powered
7: airplanes, compliance with each appli used as a factor to determine compliance
cable performance requirement of this with a required performance standard.
subpart must be shown— (b) Vs, is the calibrated stalling
tº 3
(1) For still air with a standard at speed, or the minimum steady speed, in
ºt mosphere; and knots, at which the airplane is control
º (2) Where engine power affects per lable, with the
formance, with air at 80 percent rela (1) Engines idling, throttles closed (or
tive humidity, in accordance with para at not more than the power necessary for
graph (c) of this section. Zero thrust at a Speed not more than 110
(b) Performance data required for a percent of the stalling speed);
particular flight condition must be de (2) Propeller pitch in the takeoff posi
be # termined with each powerplant accessory tion;
ſº absorbing the normal amount of power (3) Airplane in other respects (such
appropriate to that condition. as flaps and landing gear) in the condi
(c) Engine power corrections for tion existing in the test in which Vs, is
Vapor pressure must be made in accord being used; and
ance with the following table: (4) weight used when Vs, is being
used as a factor to determine compliance
Specific hu- Density With a required performance standard.
Altitude Vapor Inidity to ratio
A†
(ft.)
pressure (Lb. mois- p
e (In. Hg.) |ture per lb. **0.00.37%
(c) The stalling speeds Vs, and Vs,
dry air) are the minimum speeds obtained in
flight tests conducted as follows:
0 0.403 0.00849 0. 90508 (1) At a speed great enough above
1.000 . 354 . 00773 . 96672 the probable stall speed to ensure steady
2. (HK) . 311 . 00703 . 93.895
3. (MX) . 272 , 0.0638 .9l 178 conditions, apply the elevator control
4.000 . 238 . 0.0578 . SS514 at a rate so that the airplane speed re
5.000 . 207 . 0.0523 - 85910
6. (H0 . 1805 . 00:472 . 83361 duction does not exceed one knot per
7,000 . 1566 . 0.0425 . 80870 Second.
S. Gºx) . 1356 .00.382 .78434
9, CKM) . 1172 .00343 . 764).53 (2) During these tests—
10. (HH) ... 1010 .00307 . 737-22 (i) The airplane must be trimmed at
15, 000 .0453 .001710 . 62868
20, ſ,ſ}} . 0.1978 .00ſ,896 . 53.253 1.4 Vs, except that airplanes with ad
25,000 . 0.0778 .0004:36 . 44806
justable stabilizers may be trimmed at
any speed from 1.2 Vs, to 1.4 Vs,; and
§ 25.47 Wing flap position.
(ii) The flight requirements of § 25.203
Takeoff, en route, approach, and land must be met.
ing wing flap positions must be selected
by the applicant. Flap positions may § 25.51 Takeoff.
vary with Weight and altitude. (a) The takeoff speeds described in
§ 25.49 Stalling speeds. § 25.55, the accelerate-stop distance de

: (a) Vs, is the calibrated stalling

speed, or the minimum steady Speed, in
scribed in § 25.57, and the takeoff path
described in § 25.59, must be deter
mined—
knots, at which the airplane is control (1) At each weight and altitude Se
: lable, With the lected by the applicant;
:g
179
§ 25.55 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(2) With a constant takeoff flap posi
tion for the weight and altitude; and
(3) With the operating engines within
approved operating limitations.
(b) No takeoff made to determine the
data required by this section may require
exceptional piloting skill or alertness.
(c) The takeoff data must be based
On–
(1) A smooth, dry, hard-surfaced run
way, in the case of landplanes and
amphibians;
(2) Smooth water, in the case of Sea
planes and amphibians; and
(3) Smooth, dry snow, in the case of
skiplanes.
(d) Temperature accountability cor
rections must be made in accordance
with $ 25.61.
§ 25.55 Takeoff speeds.
(a) V, must be selected by the appli
cant and must be at least the minimum
calibrated airspeed at which controlla
bility is shown (during the takeoff run)
to be adequate to safely continue the
takeoff, using normal piloting skill, when
the critical engine is suddenly made in
operative. This need not be shown if
the engine failure is assumed to occur at
V. Or above.
(b) V, in terms of calibrated air
speed, must be selected by the applicant
to allow the rate of climb required in
§ 25.67 (a) and (b). However, V, may
not be less than–
(1) 1.2 Vs, for two-engine airplanes;
(2) 1.15 Vs, for airplanes with more
than two engines; or
(3) 1.10 times Vito established under
§ 25.149.
§ 25.57 Accelerate-stop distance.
(a) Means other than wheel brakes
may be used to determine the accelerate
stop distance if that means—
(1) Is Safe and reliable;
(2) Is used so that consistent results
can be expected under normal operating
conditions; and
(3) Is such that exceptional skill is
not required to control the airplane.
(b) The landing gear must remain
extended throughout the accelerate-stop
distance.
§ 25.59 Takeoff path.
(a) The takeoff path consists of the
following elements:
180
(1) The distance required to accel
erate to V2, assuming the critical engine
fails at V1.
(2) The horizontal distance traversed,
and the height reached, by the airplane
in the time required to retract the land
ing gear at V, with the landing gear ex
tended, the critical engine inoperative,
and—
(i) The propeller of the inoperative
engine windmilling and its control in a
position normally used during takeoff
until (if applicable) the rotation is
stopped; and
(ii) The propeller of the inoperative
engine feathered (if applicable) for the
rest of the gear retraction time.
(3) If applicable, the horizontal dis
tance traversed and the height reached
by the airplane in the time elapsed from
the end of the element in paragraph
(a) (2) of this section until the rotation
of the propeller of the inoperative engine
is stopped—
(i) With the stopping of the propeller
begun no earlier than the time at which
the airplane is 50 feet above the takeoff
surface;
(ii) At V, ;
(iii) With the landing gear retracted;
and
(iv) With the propeller of the inoper
ative engine windmilling with the pro
peller control in the normal takeoff posi
tion.
(4) If applicable, the horizontal dis
tance traversed and the height reached
by the airplane in the time from the end
of the element in paragraph (a)(3) until
the time limit on the use of takeoff power
is reached—
(1) At V,;
(ii) With the propeller of the inoper
ative engine stopped; and
(iii) With the landing gear retracted.
(5) The slope of the flight path fol
lowed by the airplane in the configura
tion prescribed in paragraph (a)(4) with
not more than maximum continuous
power on the operating engines.
(b) For automatically feathering pro
pellers for which the network produced,
from the instant of engine failure to
completion of feathering under any kind
of engine failure, is positive (using a
datum based on feathered propeller
drag), it may be assumed that the pro
peller of the failed engine is in the feath
ered drag condition from the instant Vs
is reached.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(c) For airplanes equipped with
standby power rocket engines, the takeoff
path may be determined in accordance
with section II of Appendix E.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964.
as amended by Amdt. 25–6, 30 F.R. 8468,
July 2, 1965]
§ 25.61 Temperature accountability.
(a) Operating correction factors for
temperatures above and below standard
must be determined for takeoff weight
and distance.
(b) The average full temperature ac
countability must be computed for the
range of Weights, altitudes above sea
level, and ambient tennperatures ex
pected in operations. The effect of tem
perature on the aerodynamic character
1stics and on engine power must be con
sidered. Full temperature accountabil
ity, in terms of a weight correction, a
takeoff distance correction, and a
change, if any, in V, must be expressed
per degree change in temperature.
(c) The operating correction factors
for the weight and takeoff distance must
be at least one-half of the full account
ability values. The value of V1 must be
further corrected by the average amount
necessary to ensure that the airplane can
stop within the runway length at the
ambient temperature. However, the
corrected value of V, may not be less
than the minimum at which the airplane
can be controlled with the critical engine
Inoperative.
§ 25.65 Climb: all engines operating.
(a) Cruising configuration. The
steady rate of climb in feet per minute
at 5,000 feet, in the cruising configura
tion, must be at least 9.0 Vs, (that is, the
number of feet per minute is obtained
by multiplying the number of knots by
9.0). In addition, the steady rate of
climb must be determined at any al
titude at which the airplane is expected
to operate and at any weight for which
certification is requested. The steady
rate of climb must be shown under the
following conditions:
(1) Landing gear fully retracted.
(2) Wing flaps in the most favorable
position.
(3) Cowl flaps (or other means of con
trolling the engine cooling air supply)
in the position that provides adequate
cooling in the hot-day Condition.
(4) Most unfavorable center of gravity
position.
181
§ 25.67
(5) Engines operating within the
maximum continuous power limitations.
(6) Maximum takeoff weight.
(b) Landing configuration. The
steady rate of climb in feet per minute
in the landing configuration must be at
least 0.092 Vs,” at any altitude within the
range of altitudes in which landing
weight is certificated, and must be shown
under the following conditions:
(1) Landing gear extended.
(2) Wing flaps in the landing position.
(3) Cowl flaps in the position nor
mally used in an approach to a landing.
(4) The most unfavorable center of
gravity allowed for landing.
(5) Engines operating at the take
off power available at that altitude.
(6) The weight equal to maximum
landing weight for that altitude.
V (7) A climb speed not more than 1.4
80”
$ 25.67 Climb; one engine inoperative.
(a) Flaps in takeoff position: landing
gear eartended. The steady rate of climb
without ground effect must be at least 50
ft./min. at any altitude within the range
of takeoff altitudes for which certifica
tion is requested, and must be shown at
V2 with—
(1) Wing fans in the takeoff position;
(2) Cowl flaps in the normal takeoff
position:
(3) The most unfavorable center of
gravity allowed for takeoff;
(4) The critical engine inoperative
and (except as provided in paragraph
(c) of this section) its propeller wind
milling with the propeller control in a
normal takeoff position:
(5) The remaining engines operating
at the available takeoff power;
(6) The maximum takeoff weight for
the takeoff altitude; and
(7) Landing gear extended.
(b) Flaps in takeoff position: landing
gear retracted. With the landing gear
retracted, the steady rate of climb in feet
per minute must be at least 0.046 Vs,”
under the conditions described in para
graph (a) of this section.
c Automatic feathering. The pro
peller of the inoperative engine may be
In the feathered condition during the
landing gear extended or retracted con
ditions if—
(1) The propeller would be completely
feathered at the beginning of these seg
ments of the takeoff flight path; or
$ 25.69 Title 14—Aerond utics
(2) The net work produced by the
feathering propeller during the segment
is positive, using a datum based on feath
ered propeller drag.
(d) Flaps in en route position. The
steady rate of climb in feet per minute,
at any expected operating altitude and at
any weight within the range of weights
for which certification is requested, must
be determined. At a standard altitude
of 5,000 feet and at the maximum takeoff
weight, this rate must be at least
0.106
( 0.079 -N- ) v.',
where N is the number of engines. The
steady rate of climb must be shown with
the
(1) Landing gear retracted;
(2) Wing flaps in the most favorable
position;
(3) Cowl flaps (or other means of
controlling the engine-cooling air Sup
ply) in the position that provides ade
quate cooling in the hot-day condition;
(4) The most unfavorable center of
gravity;
(5) Critical engine inoperative and its
propeller stopped; and
(6) Remaining engines at the maxi
mum continuous power available for the
altitude.
(e) Flaps in approach position. The
steady rate of climb in feet per minute
must be at least 0.053 Vs. at any altitude
within the range of altitudes for which
landing weight is certificated, and must
be shown with the
(1) Landing gear retracted:
(2) Wing flaps set in position so that
Vs, does not exceed 1.10 Vs.,
(3) Cowl flaps in the normal approach
position;
(4) The most unfavorable center of
gravity position allowed for landing:
(5) Critical engine inoperative and its
propeller stopped;
(6) Remaining engines at the avail
able takeoff power:
(7) Weight equal to the maximum
landing weight for the altitude; and
(8) Climb speed not more than 1.5
Vs,.
1 -
§ 25.69 Climb: two engines inoperative.
For airplanes with four or more en
gines, the steady rate of climb at any
expected operating altitude, and at any
weight within the range of weights spec
ified in the Airplane Flight Manual,
must be determined with the
1S O
-
and Space
(a) Landing gear retracted;
(b) Wing flaps in the most favorable
position;
(c) Cowl flaps (or other means of con
trolling the engine cooling air supply)
in the position that provides adequate
cooling in the hot-day condition;
(d) The most unfavorable center of
gravity:
(e) Two critical engines on one side
of the airplane inoperative and their pro
pellers stopped; and
(f) Remaining engines at the maxi
mum continuous power available at each
altitude.
§ 25.75 Landing.
(a) The horizontal distance necessary
to land and to come to a complete stop
(or to a speed of approximately 3 knots
for water landings) from a point 50 feet
above the landing surface must be deter
mined (for the range of weights and al
titudes selected by the applicant) as
follows:
(1) A steady gliding approach, with a
calibrated airspeed of at least 1.3 Vs.,
must be maintained down to the 50 foot
height.
(2) After reaching the 50 foot height—
(i) The nose may not be depressed;
and
(ii) Forward thrust may not be in
creased by the application of power.
(3) The flaps must be in the landing
position from a point immediately before
landing to the point at which the air
plane is on the landing surface and the
calibrated airspeed is reduced to 0.9 vs.
(4) The landing must be made with
Out excessive vertical acceleration, tend
ency to bounce, nose over, ground loop,
porpoise, or water loop.
(5) The landing may not require ex
Ceptionally favorable conditions.
(b) For landplanes and amphibians,
the landing distance on land must be
determined on a dry, hard-surfaced run
Way. In addition—
(1) The pressures on the wheel brak
ing System may not exceed those specified
by the brake manufacturer;
(2) The brakes may not be used so as
to cause tire skidding or excessive heating
requiring replacement during a series of
five test landings; and
(3) Means other than wheel brakes
may be used if that means—
(i) Is safe and reliable:
(ii) Is used so that consistent results
can be expected in service; and
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(iii) Is such that exceptional skill is
not required to control the airplane.
(c) For seaplanes and amphibians, the
landing distance on water must be de
termined on Smooth Water.
(d) For skiplanes, the landing dis
tance on snow must be determined on
smooth, dry Snow.
PERFORMANCE: TURBINE ENGINE
POWERED AIRPLANES
§ 25.101 General.
(a) Unless otherwise prescribed, tur
bine powered airplanes must meet the
applicable performance requirements of
this subpart for ambient atmospheric
conditions and still air.
(b) The performance, as affected by
engine power or thrust, must be based on
a relative humidity of—
(1) 80 percent, at and below standard
temperatures; and
(2) 34 percent, at and above standard
temperatures plus 50° F.
Between these two temperatures, the
relative humidity must vary linearly.
(c) The performance must correspond
to the propulsive thrust available under
the particular ambient atmospheric con
ditions, the particular flight condition,
and the relative humidity Specified in
paragraph (b) of this section. The
available propulsive thrust must corre
spond to engine power or thrust, not ex
ceeding the approved power or thrust,
less—
(1) Installation losses; and
(2) The power or equivalent thrust
absorbed by the accessories and services
appropriate to the particular ambient at
mospheric conditions and the particular
flight condition.
(d) Unless otherwise prescribed, the
applicant must select the takeoff, en
route, approach, and landing configura
tions for the airplane.
(e) The airplane configurations may
vary with weight, altitude, and tempera
ture, to the extent they are compatible
with the operating procedures required
by paragraph (f) of this section.
(f) Unless otherwise prescribed, in de
termining the accelerate-stop distances,
takeoff flight paths, takeoff distances,
and landing distances, changes in the
airplane's conſiguration, speed, power,
and thrust, must be made in accordance
with procedures established by the ap
plicant for operation in service.
(g) Procedures for the execution of
balked landings and missed approaches
1S3
§ 25.105
associated with the conditions prescribed
in §§ 25.119 and 25.121(d) must be es
tablished.
(h) The procedures established under
paragraphs (f) and (g) of this section
must—
(1) Be able to be consistently executed
in service by crews of average skill;
(2) Use methods or devices that are
Safe and reliable; and
(3) Include allowance for any time
delays, in the execution of the pro
cedures, that may reasonably be expect
ed in service.
§ 25.103 Stalling speed.
(a) Vs is the calibrated stalling speed,
or the minimum steady flight speed, in
knots, at which the airplane is control
lable, with—
(1) Zero thrust at the stalling speed,
or, if the resultant thrust has no appre
ciable effect on the stalling speed, with
engines idling and throttles closed;
(2) Propeller pitch controls (if appli
cable) in the position necessary for com
pliance with subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph and the airplane in other re
Spects (such as flaps and landing gear)
in the condition existing in the test in
which Vs is being used;
(3) The weight used when Vs is being
used as a factor to determine compliance
With a required performance standard;
and
(4) The most unfavorable center of
gravity allowable.
(b) The stalling speed Vs is the mini
mum speed obtained as follows:
(1) Trim the airplane for straight
flight at any speed not less than 1.2 Vs or
more than 1.4 Vs. At a speed sufficiently
above the stall speed to ensure steady
conditions, apply the elevator control at
a rate so that the airplane speed reduc
tion does not exceed one knot per second.
(2) Meet the flight characteristics pro
visions of § 25.203.
§ 25.105 Takeoff.
(a) The takeoff speeds described in
§ 25.107, the accelerate-stop distance
described in § 25.109, the takeoff path
described in $ 25.111, and the takeoff
distance and takeoff run described in
§ 25.113, must be determined—
(1) At each weight, altitude, and ann
bient temperature within the operational
limits selected by the applicant; and
(2) In the selected configuration for
takeoff.
§ 25.107 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(b) No takeoff made to determine the
data required by this section may re
quire exceptional piloting skill or alert
ness.
(c) The takeoff data must be based
On—
(1) A smooth, dry, hard-surfaced
runway, in the case of land planes and
amphibians;
(2) Smooth water, in the case of sea
planes and amphibians; and
(3) Smooth, dry snow, in the case of
skiplanes.
(d) The takeoff data must include,
within the established operational lim
its of the airplane, the following opera
tional correction factors:
(1) Not more than 50 percent of nom
inal wind components along the takeoff
path opposite to the direction of take
off, and not less than 150 percent of
nominal wind components along the
takeoff path in the direction of takeoff.
(2) Effective runway gradients.
§ 25.107 Takeoff speeds.
(a) V, must be selected by the appli
cant and must be at least the minimum
calibrated airspeed at which controlla
bility by primary aerodynamic controls
alone is shown (during the takeoff run )
to be adequate to safely continue the
takeoff, using normal piloting skill, when
the critical engine is suddenly made
inoperative.
(b) V, win, in terms of calibrated air
speed, may not be less than—
(1) 1.2 Vs for—
(1) Two-engine a n d three-engine
turbopropeller powered airplanes; and
(ii) Turbojet powered airplanes with
out provisions for obtaining a significant
reduction in the one-engine-inoperative
power-on stalling speed;
(2) 1.15 Vs for—
(i) Turbopropeller powered airplanes
with more than three engines; and
(ii) Turbojet powered airplanes with
provisions for obtaining a significant re
duction in the one-engine-inoperative
power-on stalling speed; and
(3) 1.10 times Vuo established under
§ 25.149.
(c) V, in terms of calibrated alr
speed, must be selected by the applicant
to provide at least the gradient of climb
required by § 25.121(b) but may not be
less than—
(1) V, rain; and
184
(2) VR plus the speed increment at
tained (in accordance with $ 25.111 (c)
(2) ) before reaching a height of 35 feet
above the takeoff surface.
(d) Varp is the calibrated airspeed at
and above which the airplane can safely
lift off the ground, and continue the
takeoff. Vur, speeds must be selected by
the applicant for the all-engines-operat
ing and the one-engine-inoperative con
ditions. These speeds may be estab
lished from free air data if these data are
Verified by ground takeoff tests.
(e) Vr, in terms of calibrated air
Speed, must be selected in accordance
with the conditions of subparagraphs
(1) through (4) of this paragraph:
(1) VR may not be less than—
(1) v.;
(11) 105 percent of Vye,
(li1) The speed (determined in ac
Cordance with $ 25.111 (c) (2) ) that al
lows reaching V, before reaching a
height of 35 feet above the takeoff sur
face; or
(iv) A speed that, if the airplane is
rotated at its maximum practicable rate,
will result in a Vlor of not less than 110
percent of Vur, in the all-engines-oper
ating condition or less than 105 percent
of Vyr. In the one-engine-inoperative
condition.
(2) For any given set of conditions
(such as weight, configuration, and tem
perature), a single value of V, obtained
in accordance with this paragraph, must
be used to show compliance with both
the one-engine-inoperative and the all
engines-operating takeoff provisions.
(3) It must be shown that the one
en g in e-inoperative takeoff distance,
using a rotation speed of 5 knots less
than VR established in accordance with
Subparagraphs (1) and (2) of this para
graph, does not exceed the correspond
ing one-engine-inoperative takeoff dis
tance using the established vs. The
takeoff distances must be determined in
accordance with $ 25.113(a)(1).
(4) Reasonably expected variations in
service from the established takeoff pro
cedures for the operation of the airplane
(such as over-rouation of the airplane
and out-of-trim conditions) may not re
sult in unsafe flight characteristics or in
marked increases in the scheduled take
off distances established in accordance
with $ 20.1 ! 3 (a).
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(f) Vlor is the calibrated airspeed at
which the airplane first becomes alr
borne.
$25.109 Accelerate-stop distance.
(a) The accelerate-stop distance is the
sum of the distances necessary to—
(1) Accelerate the airplane from
standing start to V, ; and
(2) Come to a full stop from the point
at which V, is reached, assuming that
the critical engine fails at V1.
(b) Means other than wheel brakes
may be used to determine the accelerate
stop distance if that means—
(1) Is safe and reliable;
(2) Is used so that consistent results
can be expected under normal operating
conditions; and
(3) Is such that exceptional skill is not
required to control the airplane.
(c) The landing gear must remain ex
tended throughout the accelerate-stop
distance.
(d) If the accelerate-stop distance in
cludes a stopway with surface character
istics substantially different from those
of a smooth hard-surfaced runway, the
takeoff data must include operational
correction factors for the accelerate
stop distance. The correction factors
must account for the particular surface
characteristics of the stopway and the
variations in these characteristics with
seasonal weather conditions (such as
temperature, rain, snow, and ice) within
the established operational limits.
§ 25.111 Takeoff path.
(a) The takeoff path extends from a
standing start to a point in the takeoff
at which the airplane is 1,500 feet above
the takeoff surface, or at which the tran
sition from the takeoff to the en route
configuration is completed and a speed
is reached at which compliance with
§ 25.121 (c) is shown, whichever point is
higher. In addition—
(1) The takeoff path must be based
on the procedures prescribed in § 25.101
(c) ;
(2) The airplane must be accelerated
on the ground to V1, at which point the
critical engine must be made inoperative
and remain inoperative for the
of the takeoff; and
(3) After reaching V, the airplane
must be accelerated to V.
(b) During the acceleration to Speed
V., the nose gear may be raised off the
£round at a speed not less than Vs.
39–059–75–13
§ 25.111
However, landing gear retraction may
not be begun until the airplane is air
borne.
(c) During the takeoff path determi
nation in accordance with paragraphs
(a) and (b) of this section—
(1) The slope of the airborne part of
a the takeoff path must be positive at each
point;
(2) The airplane must reach V, be
fore it is 35 feet above the takeoff surface
and must continue at a speed as close as
practical to, but not less than V, until it
is 400 feet above the takeoff surface;
(3) At each point along the takeoff
path, starting at the point at which the
airplane reaches 400 feet above the take
off surface, the available gradient of
climb may not be less than—
(i) 1.2 percent for two-engine air
planes;
(ii) 1.5 percent for three-engine air
planes; and
(iii) 1.7 percent for four-engine air
planes; and
(4) Except for gear retraction and
propeller feathering, the airplane con
figuration may not be changed until the
airplane is 400 feet above the takeoff
Surface.
(d) The takeoff path must be deter
mined by a continuous demonstrated
takeoff or by synthesis from segments.
If the takeoff path is determined by the
Segmental method—
(1) The segments must be clearly de
fined and must be related to the distinct
changes in the configuration, power or
thrust, and speed;
(2) The weight of the airplane, the
configuration, and the power or thrust
must be constant throughout each seg
ment and must correspond to the most
Critical condition prevailing in the seg
Illent;
(3) The flight path must be based on
the airplane's performance without
ground effect; and
(4) The takeoff nath data must be
checked by continuous demonstrated
takeoffs up to the point at which the
airplane is out of ground effect and its
speed is stabilized, to ensure that the
rest path is conservative relative to the con
tinous path.
The airplane is considered to be out of
the ground effect when it reaches a
height equal to its wing Span.
(e) For airplanes equipped with
standby power rocket engines, the take
185
$25.113 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
off path may be determined in accord
ance with section II of Appendix E.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–6, 30 F.R. 8468, July
2, 1965)
§ 25.113 Takeoff distance and takeoff
run.
(a) Takeoff distance is the greater
of—
(1) The horizontal distance along the
takeoff path from the start of the takeoff
to the point at which the airplane is 35
feet above the takeoff Surface, deter
mined under § 25.111; or
(2) 115 percent of the horizontal dis
tance along the takeoff path, with all
engines operating, from the start of the
takeoff to the point at which the airplane
is 35 feet above the takeoff surface, as
determined by a procedure consistent
With $ 25.111.
(b) If the takeoff distance includes a
clearway, the takeoff run is the greater
of—
(1) The horizontal distance along the
takeoff path from the start of the takeoff
to a point equidistant between the point
at which Vtor is reached and the point
at which the airplane is 35 feet above the
takeoff surface, as determined under
§ 25.111; or
(2) 115 percent of the horizontal dis
tance along the takeoff path, with all
engines operating, from the start of the
takeoff to a point equidistant between
the point at which Vtor is reached and
the point at which the airplane is 35 feet
above the takeoff surface, determined by
a procedure consistent with $ 25.111.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5671,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.115 Takeoff flight path.
(a) The takeoff flight path begins 35
feet, above the takeoff surface at the
end of the takeoff distance determined in
accordance with $ 25.113 (a).
(b) The net, takeoff flight path data
must be determined so that they repre
sent, the actual takeoff flight paths (de
termined in accordance with $ 25.111 and
with paragraph (a) of this section) re
duced at each point by a gradient of
climb equal to
(1) 0.8 percent for two-engine air
planes;
(2) 0.9 percent for three-engine alr
planes; and - out ground effect, the steady gradient of
(3) 1.0 percent for four-engine air
planes.
186
(c) The prescribed reduction in climb
gradient may be applied as an equivalent
reduction in acceleration along that part
of the takeoff flight path at which the
airplane is accelerated in level flight.
§ 25.117 Climb: general.
Compliance with the requirements of
§§ 25.119 and 25.121 must be shown at
each weight, altitude, and ambient tem
perature within the operational limits es
tablished for the airplane and with the
most unfavorable center of gravity for
each configuration.
§ 25.119 Landing climbi All-engine
operating.
In the landing configuration, the
steady gradient of climb may not be less
than 3.2 percent, with—
(a) The engines at the power or thrust
that is available eight seconds after ini
tiation of movement of the power or
thrust controls from the minimum flight
idle to the takeoff position; and
(b) A climb speed of not more than
1.3 Vs.
§ 25.121 Climb: One-engine-inoperative.
(a) Takeoff; landing gear ertended.
In the critical takeoff configuration ex
isting along the flight path (between the
points at which the airplane reaches
Vtor and at which the landing gear is
fully retracted) and in the configuration
used in § 25.111 but without ground ef
fect, the steady gradient of climb must
be positive for two-engine airplanes, and
not less than 0.3 percent for three-engine
airplanes or 0.5 percent for four-engine
airplanes, at Vlor and with—
(1) The critical engine inoperative
and the remaining engines at the power
or thrust available when retraction of
the landing gear is begun in accordance
With $25.111 unless there is a more criti
cal power operating condition existing
later along the flight path but before the
point at which the landing gear is fully
retracted; and
(2) The weight equal to the weight
existing when retraction of the landing
gear is begun, determined under § 25.111,
(b) Takeoff; landing gear retracted.
In the takeoff configuration existing at
the point of the flight path at which the
landing gear is fully retracted, and in the
configuration used in § 25.111 but with
climb may not be less than 2.4 percent
for two-engine airplanes, 2.7 percent for
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
three-engine airplanes, and 3.0 percent
for four-engine airplanes, at V, and
with—
(1) The critical engine inoperative, the
remaining engines at the takeoff power
or thrust available at the time the land
ing gear is fully retracted, determined
under § 25.111, unless there is a more
critical power operating condition exist
ing later along the flight path but before
the point where the airplane reaches a
height of 400 feet above the takeofI sur
face; and
(2) The weight equal to the weight
existing when the airplane's landing gear
is fully retracted, determined under
$ 25.111.
(c) Final takeoff. In the en route
configuration at the end of the takeoff
path determined in accordance with
§ 25.111, the steady gradient of climb
may not be less than 1.2 percent for two
engine airplanes, 1.5 percent for three
engine airplanes, and 1.7 percent for
four-engine airplanes, at not less than
1.25 Vs and with—
(1) The critical engine inoperative
and the remaining engines at the avail
able maximum continuous power
thrust; and
(2) The weight equal to the weight
existing at the end of the takeoff path,
determined under § 25.111.
(d) Approach. In the approach con
figuration corresponding to the normal
all-engines-operating procedure in which
Vs for this configuration does not exceed
110 percent of the Vs for the related
landing configuration, the steady gradi
ent of climb may not be less than 2.1
percent for two-engine airplanes, 2.4
percent for three-engine airplanes, and
2.7 percent for four-engine airplanes,
with—
(1) The critical engine inoperative,
the remaining engines at the available
takeoff power or thrust;
(2) The maximum landing weight;
and
(3) A climb speed established in con
nection with normal landing procedures,
but not exceeding 1.5 Vs.
§ 25.123 En route flight paths.
(a) For the en route configuration, the
flight paths prescribed in paragraphs (b)
and (c) of this section must be deter
mined at each weight, altitude, and am
bient temperature, within the operating
limits established for the airplane. The
$25.125
variation of weight along the flight path,
accounting for the progressive consump
tion of fuel and oil by the Operating
engines, may be included in the com
putation. The flight paths must be de
termined at any selected Speed, with—
(1) The most unfavorable center of
gravity;
(2) The critical engines inoperative:
(3) The remaining engines at the
available maximum continuous power or
thrust; and
(4) The means for controlling the
engine-cooling air supply in the position
that provides adequate cooling in the
hot-day condition.
(b) The one-engine-inoperative net
flight path data must represent the
actual climb performance diminished by
a gradient of climb of 1.1 percent for
two-engine airplanes, 1.4 percent for
three-engine airplanes, and 1.6 percent
for four-engine airplanes.
(c) For three- or four-engine air
planes, the two-engine-inoperative net
flight path data must represent the ac
tual climb performance diminished by a
gradient of climb of 0.3 percent for three
Or engine airplanes and 0.5 percent for
four-engine airplanes.
Landing.
§ 25.125
(a) The horizontal distance necessary
to land and to come to a complete stop
(or to a speed of approximately 3 knots
for water landings) from a point 50 feet
above the landing surface must be de
termined (for standard temperatures, at
each weight, altitude, and wind within
the operational limits established by the
applicant for the airplane) as follows:
(1) The airplane must be in the land
ing configuration.
(2) A steady gliding approach, with a
calibrated airspeed of not less than 1.3
Vs, must be maintained down to the 50
foot height.
(3) Changes in configuration, power
or thrust, and Speed, must be made in
accordance with the established proce
dures for service operation.
(4) The landing must be made with
out excessive vertical acceleration, tend
ency to bounce, nose over, ground loop,
porpoise, or water loop.
(5) The landings may not require ex
ceptional piloting skill or alertness.
(b) For landplanes and amphibians,
the landing distance on land must be de
termined on a level, smooth. dry, hard
Surfaced runway. In addition—
187
$25,143 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(1) The pressures on the wheel brak
ing systems may not exceed those speci
fled by the brake manufacturer;
(2) The brakes may not be used so as
to cause excessive Wear of brakes or tires;
and
(3) Means other than wheel brakes
may be used if that means—
(i) Is safe and reliable;
(ii) Is used so that consistent results
can be expected in service; and
(iii) Is such that exceptional skill is
not required to control the airplane.
(c) For seaplanes and amphibians, the
landing distance on water must be de
termined on Smooth Water.
(d) For skiplanes, the landing dis
tance on snow must be determined on
Smooth, dry, Snow.
(e) The landing distance data must
include correction factors for not more
than 50 percent of the nominal wind
components along the landing path op
posite to the direction of landing, and
not less than 150 percent of the nominal
wind components along the landing path
in the direction of landing.
(f) If any device is used that depends
on the operation of any engine, and if
the landing distance would be noticeably
increased when a landing is made With
that engine inoperative, the landing dis
tance must be determined with that
engine inoperative unless the use of com
pensating means will result in a landing
distance not more than that With each
engine operating.
CONTROLLABILITY AND MANETIVERABILITY
§ 25.143 General.
(a) The airplane must be safely con
trollable and maneuverable during—
(1) Takeoff;
(2) Climb;
(3) Level flight;
(4) Descent; and
(5) Landing.
(b) It must be possible to make a
smooth transition from one flight con
dition to any other without exceptional
piloting skill, alertness, or strength and
without danger of exceeding the limit
load factor under any probable operating
conditions (including the sudden failure
of any engine).
(c) If, during the testing required by
paragraphs (a) and (b) of this section,
marginal conditions exist with regard to
required pilot strength, the “strength of
188
pilots” limits may not exceed the limits
prescribed in the following table:
Values in pounds of force as
applied to the control wheel | Pitch Roll Yaw
or rudder pedals.
For temporary application.---- 75 60 180
For prolonged application.--- 10 5 20
(d) In showing the temporary contro:
force limitations of paragraph (c) of this
Section, approved Operating procedures
Or conventional Operating practices must
be followed (including being as nearly
trimmed as possible at the next preced
ing steady flight condition, except that,
in the case of takeoff, the airplane must
be trimmed in accordance with ap
proved Operating procedures).
(e) For the purpose of complying with
the prolonged control force limitations
of paragraph (c) of this section, the air
plane must be as nearly trimmed as
possible.
§ 25.145 Longitudinal control.
(a) It must be possible at any speed
between the trim speed prescribed in
§ 25.49 (c) (2) (1) and Vs, (for reciprocat
ing engine powered airplanes), or at any
speed between the trim speed prescribed
in § 25.103(b) (1) and Vs (for turbine en
gine powered airplanes), to pitch the
nose downward so that the acceleration
to this selected trim speed is prompt
with—
(1) The airplane trimmed at the trim
speed prescribed in § 25.49(c) (2) (i) (for
reciprocating engine powered airplanes),
or in § 25.103(b)(1) (for turbine engine
powered airplanes);
(2) The landing gear extended;
(3) The wing flaps (i) retracted and
(ii) extended; and
(4) Power (i) off and (ii) at maximum
continuous power on the engines.
(b) With the landing gear extended,
no change in trim control, or exer
tion of more than 50 pounds control
force (representative of the maximum
temporary force that readily can be
applied by one hand) may be required
for the following maneuvers:
(1) With power off, flaps retracted,
and the airplane trimmed at 1.4 Vs.,
extend the flaps as rapidly as possible
while maintaining the airspeed at ap
proximately 40 percent above the stalling
speed existing at each instant through
out the maneuver.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(2) Repeat subparagraph (1) except
initially extend the flaps and then re
tract them as rapidly as possible.
(3) Repeat. Subparagraph (2) except
with takeoff power.
(4) With power off, flaps retracted,
and the airplane trimmed at 1.4 Vs.,
apply takeoff power rapidly while main
taining the same airspeed.
(5) Repeat subparagraph (4) except
with flaps extended.
(6) With power off, flaps extended,
and the airplane trimmed at 1.4 Vs, ob
tain and maintain airspeeds between
1.1 Vs, and either 1.7 V3, or Vre, which
ever is lower.
(c) It must be possible, without excep
tional piloting skill, to prevent loss of
altitude when complete retraction of the
high lift devices from any position is
begun during steady, straight, level flight
at 1.1 V8, for propeller powered airplanes,
or 1.2 V8, for turbojet powered airplanes,
with—
(1) Simultaneous application of not
more than takeoff power taking into
account the critical engine operating
conditions;
(2) The landing gear extended; and
(3) The critical combinations of land
ing weights and altitudes.
If gated high-lift device control positions
are provided, retraction must be shown
from any position from the maximum
landing position to the first gated posi
tion, between gated positions, and from
the last gated position to the full
retraction position. In addition, the first
gated control position from the landing
position must correspond with the
high-lift devices configuration used to
establish the go-around procedure from
the landing configuration. Each gated
control position must require a separate
and distinct motion of the control to pass
through the gated position and must
have features to prevent inadvertent
movement of the control through the
gated position.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5671,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.147 Directional and lateral control.
(a) Directional control: general. It
must be possible, while holding the wings
approximately level, to safely make rea
sonably sudden changes in heading in
both directions. This must be shown at
1.4 Vs, for heading changes up to 15°
189
§ 25.147
(except that the heading change at
which the rudder pedal force is 180
pounds need not be exceeded), and
with—
(1) The critical engine inoperative and
its propeller in the minimum drag posi
tion;
(2) The power required for level flight
at 1.4 Vs, but not more than maximum
continuous power;
(3) The most unfavorable center of
gravity;
(4) Landing gear retracted;
(5) Flaps in the approach position;
and
(6) Maximum landing weight.
(b) Directional control; airplanes with
four or more engines. Airplanes with
four or more engines must meet the re
quirements of paragraph (a) of this sec
tion except that—
(1) The two critical engines must be
inoperative with their propellers (if ap
plicable) in the minimum drag position;
(2) The center of gravity must be in
the most forward position; and
(3) The flaps must be in the most
favorable climb position.
(c) Lateral control; general. It must
be possible to make 20° banked turns,
with and against the inoperative engine,
from steady flight at a speed equal to
1.4 Vs," With—
(1) The critical engine inoperative and
its propeller (if applicable) in the mini
mum drag position;
(2) The remaining engines at maxi
mum continuous power;
(3) The most unfavorable center of
gravity;
(4) Landing gear (1) retracted and (ii)
extended;
(5) Flaps in the most favorable climb
position; and
(6) Maximum takeoff weight.
(d) Lateral control; airplanes with
four or more engines. Airplanes with
four or more engines must be able to
make 20° banked turns, with and against
the inoperative engines, from steady
flight at a speed equal to 1.4 Vs, with
maximum continuous power, and with
the airplane in the configuration pre
scribed by paragraph (b) of this section.
(e) Lateral control: all engines oper
ating. With the engines operating, roll
response must allow normal maneuvers
(such as recovery from upsets produced
by gusts and the initiation of evasive
maneuvers). There must be enough ex
$25,149 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
cess lateral control in sideslips (up to
sldeslip angles that might be required in
normal operation), to allow a limited
amount of maneuvering and to correct
for gusts. Lateral control must be
enough at any speed up to Vro/Mro to
provide a peak roll rate necessary for
safety, without excessive control forces
or travel.
§ 25.149 Minimum control speed.
(a) Viro is the calibrated airspeed, at
which, when the critical engine is Sud
denly made inoperative, it is possible to
recover control of the airplane with that
engine still inoperative, and maintain
straight flight either with zero yaw or, at
the option of the applicant, with an
angle of bank of not more than five
degrees.
(b) For reciprocating engine powered
airplanes, Vuo may not exceed 1.2 Vs,
With—
(1) Takeoff or maximum available
power on the engines;
(2) The rearmost center of gravity;
(3) The airplane trimmed for takeoff;
(4) The maximum sea level takeoff
weight (or any lesser weight necessary
to show Varo);
(5) Flaps in the takeoff position;
(6) Landing gear retracted;
(7) Cowl flaps in the normal takeoff
position:
(8) The propeller of the inoperative
engine—
(i) Windmilling;
(ii) In the most probable position for
the specific design of the propeller con
trol; or
(iii) Feathered, if the airplane has an
automatic feathering device acceptable
for showing compliance with the climb
requirements of § 25.67; and
(9) The airplane airborne and the
ground effect negligible.
(c) For turbine engine powered air
planes, Viro may not exceed 1.2 Vs with—
(1) Maximum available takeoff power
or thrust on the engines;
(2) The most unfavorable center of
gravity:
(3) The airplane trimmed for takeoff:
(4) The maximum Sea level takeoff
weight (or any lesser weight necessary to
show Viſo) ;
(5) The airplane in the most critical
takeoff configuration existing along the
flight path after the airplane becomes
airborne, except with the landing gear
retracted; and
190
(6) The airplane airborne and the
ground effect negligible.
(d) The rudder forces required to
maintain control at Vro may not exceed
180 pounds nor may it be necessary to
reduce power or thrust of the operative
engines. During recovery, the airplane
may not assume any dangerous attitude
or require exceptional piloting skill,
alertness, or strength to prevent a head
ing change of more than 20 degrees.
TRIM
§ 25.161 Trim.
(a) General. Each airplane must
meet the trim requirements of this sec
tion after being trimmed, and without
further pressure upon, or movement of,
either the primary controls or their cor
responding trim controls by the pilot or
the automatic pilot.
(b) Lateral and directional trim. The
airplane must maintain lateral and di
rectional trim with the most adverse lat
eral displacement of the center of gravity
within the relevant operating limita
tions, during normally expected condi
tions of operation (including operation
at any Speed from 1.4 Vs, to Vuo/MMo).
(c) Longitudimal trim. The airplane
must maintain longitudinal trim dur
ing—
(1) A climb With maximum continu
OllS power at a Speed not more than 1.4
Vs, with the landing gear retracted, and
the flaps (1) retracted and (ii) in the
takeoff position;
(2) A glide with power off at a speed
not more than 1.4 vs, with the landing
gear extended, the wing flaps (1) re
tracted and (ii) extended, the most un
favorable center of gravity position
approved for landing with the maximum
landing weight, and with the most un
favorable center of gravity position
approved for landing regardless of
weight; and
(3) Level flight at any speed from 1.4
Vs, to Vuo/Muo, with the landing gear
and flaps retracted, and from 1.4 Vs, to
Vze with the landing gear extended.
(d) Longitudinal, directional, and lat
eral trim. The airplane must maintain
longitudinal, directional, and lateral
trim (and for lateral trim, the angle of
bank may not exceed five degrees) at
1.4 Vs, during climbing flight with—
(1) The critical engine inoperative;
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(2) The remaining engines at maxi
mum continuous power; and
(3) The landing gear and flaps re
tracted.
(e) Airplanes with four or more
engines. Each airplane with four or
more engines must maintain trim in
rectilinear flight—
(1) At the climb speed, configuration,
and power required by § 25.69 for the
purpose of establishing the rate of climb;
(2) With the most unfavorable center
of gravity position; and
(3) At the weight at which the two
engine-inoperative climb is equal to at
least 0.013 Vs, at an altitude of 5,000
feet.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5671,
Apr. 8, 1970]
STABILITY
§ 25.171 General.
The airplane must be longitudinally,
directionally, and laterally stable in ac
cordance with the provisions of §§ 25.173
through 25.177. In addition, suitable
stability and control feel (static stability)
is required in any condition normally en
countered in Service, if flight tests show
it is necessary for safe Operation.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–7, 30 F.R. 13117,
Oct. 15, 1965)
§ 25.173 Static longitudinal stability.
Under the conditions specified in
§ 25.175, the characteristics of the ele
vator control forces (including friction)
must be as follow:
(a) A pull must be required to obtain
and maintain Speeds below the specified
trim speed, and a push must be required
to obtain and maintain speeds above the
specified trim speed. This must be
shown at any speed that can be obtained
except Speeds higher than the landing
gear or wing flap operating limit speeds
or Vro/Mro, whichever is appropriate, or
lower than the minimum speed for
steady unstalled flight.
(b) The airspeed must return to with
In 10 percent of the original trim speed
for the climb, approach, and landing
conditions specified in § 25.175 (a), (c),
and (d), and must return to within 7.5
percent of the original trim speed for
the cruising condition specified in
§ 25.175(b), when the control force is
slowly released from any speed within the
191
§ 25.175
range specified in paragraph (a) of this
Section.
(c) The average gradient of the stable
slope of the stick force versus speed curve
may not be less than 1 pound for each
6 knots.
(d) Within the free return speed range
Specified in paragraph (b) of this
Section, it is permissible for the airplane,
Without control forces, to stabilize on
speeds above or below the desired trim
Speeds if exceptional attention on the
part of the pilot is not required to return
to and maintain the desired trim speed
and altitude.
[Amdt. 25–7, 30 F.R. 13117, Oct. 15, 1965)
§ 25.175 Demonstration of static longi
tudinal stability.
Static longitudinal stability must be
shown as follows:
(a) Climb. The stick force curve must
have a stable slope at speeds between 85
and 115 percent of the speed at which the
airplane—
(1) Is trimmed, with–
(i) Wing flaps retracted;
(ii) Landing gear retracted:
(iii) Maximum takeoff weight; and
(iv) 75 percent of maximum continu
ous power for reciprocating engines or
the maximum power or thrust selected
by the applicant as an operating limita
tion for use during climb for turbine
engines; and
(2) Is trimmed at the speed for best
rate-of-climb except that the Speed need
not be less than 1.4 Vs.
(b) Cruise. Static longitudinal sta
bility must be shown in the cruise con
dition as follows:
(1) With the landing gear retracted at
high speed, the stick force curve must
have a stable slope at all speeds within
a range which is the greater of 15 percent
of the trim speed plus the resulting free
return speed range, or 50 knots plus the
resulting free return speed range, above
and below the trim speed (except that
the speed range need not include speeds
less than 1.4 Vs, nor speeds greater than
Wrc/Mro, nor speeds that require a stick
force of more than 50 pounds), with—
(i) The wing flaps retracted;
(ii) The center of gravity in the most
adverse position (see § 25.27);
(iii) The most critical weight between
the maximum takeoff and maximum
landing weights;
(iv) 75 percent of maximum continu
ous power for reciprocating engines Or,
§ 25.177 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
for turbine engines, the maximum cruis
ing power selected by the applicant as an
operating limitation (see § 25.1521), ex
cept that the power need not exceed that
required at Vito/Mato; and
(v) The airplane trimmed for level
flight with the power required in Sub
paragraph (iv) above.
(2) With the landing gear retracted
at low speed, the stick force curve must
have a stable slope at all speeds within
a range which is the greater of 15 percent
of the trim speed plus the resulting free
return speed range, or 50 knots plus the
resulting free return speed range, above
and below the trim speed (except that
the speed range need not include speeds
less than 1.4 Vs, nor speeds greater than
the minimum speed of the applicable
speed range prescribed in subparagraph
(1), nor speeds that require a stick force
of more than 50 pounds), with—
(i) Wing flaps, center of gravity po
sition, and weight as specified in sub
paragraph (1) of this paragraph;
(ii) Power required for level flight at
V 1.4 V
a speed equal ******, and
(iii) The airplane trimmed for level
flight with the power required in sub
paragraph (ii) above.
(3) With the landing gear extended,
the stick force curve must have a stable
slope at all speeds within a range which
is the greater of 15 percent of the trim
speed plus the resulting free return Speed
range, or 50 knots plus the resulting free
return speed range, above and below the
trim speed (except that the speed range
need not include speeds less than 1.4 Vs.,
nor speeds greater than Vla, nor speeds
that require a stick force of more than
50 pounds), with—
(i) Wing flap, center of gravity posi
tion, and weight as specified in subpara
graph (1) ;
(ii) 75 percent of maximum continu
ous power for reciprocating engines or,
for turbine engines, the maximum cruis
ing power selected by the applicant as an
operating limitation, except that the
power need not exceed that required for
level flight at Vra; and
(iii) The aircraft trimmed for level
flight with the power required in sub
paragraph (ii) above.
(c) Approach. The stick force curve
must have a stable slope at Speeds be
tween 1.1 Vs, and 1.8 Vs, with—
192
(1) Wing flaps in the approach posi
tion;
(2) Landing gear retracted;
(3) Maximum landing weight; and
(4) The airplane trimmed at 1.4 Vs,
with enough power to maintain level
flight at this speed.
(d) Landing. The stick force curve
must have a stable slope, and the Stick
force may not exceed 80 pounds, at speeds
between 1.1 Vs., and 1.8 Vs, with—
(1) Wing flaps in the landing position;
(2) Landing gear extended;
(3) Maximum landing weight:
(4) Power or thrust off on the engines:
and
(5) The airplane trimmed at 1.4 Vs.
with power or thrust off.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–7, 30 F.R. 13117,
Oct. 15, 1965)
§ 25.177 Static directional and lateral
stability.
(a) The static directional stability (as
shown by the tendency to recover from a
skid with the rudder free) must be posi
tive for any landing gear and flap posi
tion and Symmetrical power condition,
at speeds from 1.2 Vs, up to Vrh, Vir, or
VrcyMr, (as appropriate).
(b) The static lateral stability (as
shown by the tendency to raise the low
wing in a sideslip with the aileron con
trols free and for any landing gear and
flap position and symmetrical power
condition) must be positive at Vre, Vts,
or Vro/Mro (as appropriate) and may
not be negative at 1.2 Vs.
(c) In straight, steady, sideslips (un
accelerated forward slips) the aileron
and rudder control movements and
forces must be substantially proportional
to the angle of sideslip, and the factor of
proportionality must lie between limits
found necessary for safe operation
throughout the range of sideslip angles
appropriate to the operation of the air
plane. At greater angles, up to the angle
at which full rudder control is used or a
rudder pedal force of 180 pounds is ob
tained, the rudder pedal forces may not
reverse and increased rudder deflection
must produce increased angles of side
slip. Unless the airplane has a yaw
indicator, there must be enough bank ac
companying sideslipping to clearly indi
cate any departure from steady unyawed
flight.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 25.181 Dynamic longitudinal, direc
tional, and lateral stability.
Any short period oscillation occurring
between stalling speed and maximum al
lowable speed appropriate to the config
uration of the airplane (for example,
Vre, VLR, or Vro/MFG) must be heavily
damped with the primary controls (1)
free and (2) in a fixed position.
STALLS
§ 25.201 Stall demonstration.
(a) Stalls must be shown in straight
flight and in 30 degree banked turns
with—
(1) Power off; and
(2) The power necessary to maintain
level flight at 1.6 vs, where Vs, corre
sponds to the stalling speed with flaps in
the approach position, the landing gear
retracted, and maximum l and i ng
weight).
(b) In either condition required by
paragraph (a) of this section, it must
be possible to meet the applicable re
quirements of § 25.203 with—
(1) Flaps and landing gear in any
likely combination of positions;
(2) Representative weights within the
range for which certification is re
quested; and
(3) The most adverse center of grav
ity for recovery.
(c) The following procedure must be
used to show compliance with $ 25.203:
(1) With the airplane trimmed for
straight flight at the Speed prescribed in
§ 25.49(c) (2) (i) for reciprocating en
gine powered airplanes, or in § 25.103(b)
(1) for turbine engine powered air
planes, reduce the speed with the ele
vator control until it is steady at slightly
above stalling speed. Apply elevator
control so that the speed reduction does
not exceed one knot per second until (i)
the airplane is stalled, or (ii) the control
reaches the stop.
(2) The airplane is considered stalled
when, at an angle of attack measurably
greater than that for maximum lift, the
inherent flight characteristics give a
clear and distinctive indication to the
pilot that the airplane is stalled, except
that for airplanes demonstrating unmis
takable inherent aerodynamic warning,
associated with the stall in all required
configurations, of a magnitude and se
verity that is a strong and effective de
terrent to further speed reduction, the
speed need not be reduced below this
193
§ 25.207
value. Typical indications of a stall are
a nose-down pitch, or a roll, that cannot
be readily arrested, or, if clear enough, a
loss of control effectiveness, an abrupt
change in control force or motion, char
acteristic buſſeting, or a distinctive
vibration of the pilot's controls.
(3) As soon as the airplane is stalled,
recover by normal recovery techniques.
[Doc. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–7, 30 F.R. 13117,
Oct. 15, 1965)
§ 25.203 Stall characteristics.
(a) It must be possible to produce and
to correct roll and yaw by unreversed use
of the aileron and rudder controls, up to
the time the airplane is stalled. No
abnormal nose-up pitching may occur.
The longitudinal control force must be
positive up to and throughout the stall.
In addition, it must be possible to
promptly prevent stalling and to recover
from a stall by normal use of the controls.
(b) For level wing stalls, the roll oc
curring between the stall and the com
pletion of the recovery may not exceed
approximately 20 degrees.
(c) For turning flight stalls, the action
of the airplane after the stall may not
be so violent or extreme as to make it
difficult, with normal piloting skill, to
effect a prompt recovery and to regain
control of the airplane.
§ 25.205 Stalls: Critical engine inopera
tive.
(a) It must be possible to safely re
cover from a stall with the critical engine
inoperative—
(1) Without applying power to the in
operative engine;
(2) With ſlaps and landing gear re
tracted; and
(3) With the remaining engines at up
to 75 percent of maximum continuous
power, or up to the power at which the
wings can be held level with the use of
maximum control travel, whichever is
less.
(b) The operating engines may be
throttled back during stall recovery from
stalls with the critical engine inopera
tive.
§ 25.207 Stall warning.
(a) Stall warning with sufficient
margin to prevent inadvertent stalling
with the flaps and landing gear in any
normal position must be clear and dis
tinctive to the pilot in straight and turn
ing flight.
§ 25.231 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(b) The warning may be furnished
either through the inherent aerodynamic
qualities of the airplane or by a device
that will give clearly distinguishable in
dications under expected conditions of
flight. However, a Visual stall warning
device that requires the attention of the
crew within the Cockpit is not acceptable
by itself.
(c) The stall warning must begin at a
Speed exceeding the stalling speed (i.e.,
the speed at which the airplane stalls or
the minimum speed demonstrated,
whichever is applicable under the pro
visions of § 25.201 (c) (2) ) by seven per
cent or at any lesser margin if the stall
warning has enough clarity, duration,
distinctiveness, or similar properties.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–7, 30 F.R. 13118,
Oct. 15, 1965)
GROUND AND WATER HANDLING
CHARACTERISTICS
§ 25.231 Longitudinal stability and con
trol.
(a) Landplanes may have no uncon
trollable tendency to nose over in any
reasonably expected operating condition
or when rebound occurs during landing
or takeoff. In addition—
(1) Wheel brakes must operate
Smoothly and may not cause any undue
tendency to nose over; and
(2) If a tail-wheel landing gear is
used, it must be possible, during the
takeoff ground run on concrete, to main
tain any attitude up to thrust line level,
at 80 percent of Vs.,
(b) For seaplanes and amphibians, the
most adverse water conditions safe for
takeoff, taxiing, and landing, must be
established.
§ 25.233 Directional stability and con
trol.
(a) There may be no uncontrollable
ground-looping tendency in 90° cross
winds, up to a wind velocity of 0.2 Vs, at
any speed at which the airplane may be
expected to be operated on the ground.
This may be shown while establishing
the 90° cross component of wind velocity
required by § 25.237.
(b) Landplanes must be satisfactorily
controllable, without exceptional piloting
skill or alertness, in power-off landings
at normal landing Speed, without using
brakes or engine power to maintain a
straight path. This may be shown dur
194
ing power-off landings made in conjunc
tion. With other tests.
(c) The airplane must have adequate
directional control during taxiing. This
may be shown during taxiing prior to
takeoffs made in conjunction with other
testS.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5671,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.235 Taxiing condition.
The shock absorbing mechanism may
not damage the structure of the air
plane when the airplane is taxied on the
roughest ground that may reasonably be
expected in normal Operation.
§ 25.237 Wind velocities.
(a) For landplanes, a 90° cross com
ponent of wind velocity, shown to be
safe for takeoff and landing, must be
established.
(b) For seaplanes and amphibians, the
following wind Velocities must be estab
lished:
(1) A 90° cross component of Wind ve
locity, not less than 0.2 Vso, up to which
takeoff and landing is safe under any
water condition that may reasonably be
expected in normal operation.
(2) A wind velocity up to which taxi
ing is safe in any direction under water
conditions that may reasonably be ex
pected in normal operation.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5671,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.239 Spray characteristics, control,
and stability on water.
(a) For seaplanes and amphibians,
during takeoff, taxiing, and landing, and
in the conditions set forth in paragraph
(b) of this section, there may be no—
(1) Spray characteristics that would
impair the pilot's view, cause damage, or
result in the taking in of an undue quan
tity of water;
(2) Dangerously uncontrollable por
polsing, bounding, or Swinging tendency;
Or
(3) Immersion of auxiliary floats or
sponsons, wing tips, propeller blades, or
other parts not designed to withstand
the resulting water loads.
(b) Compliance with the requirements
of paragraph (a) of this section must be
shown—
(1) In water conditions, from smooth
to the most adverse condition established
in accordance with $ 25.231;
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(2) In Wind and cross-wind velocities,
Water currents, and associated waves and
Swells that may reasonably be expected
in operation on water;
(3) At speeds that may reasonably be
expected in operation on water;
(4) With Sudden failure of the critical
engine at any time while on Water; and
(5) At each weight and center of
gravity position, relevant to each oper
ating condition, within the range of
loading conditions for which certification
is requested.
(c) In the Water conditions of para
graph (b) of this section, and in the cor
responding Wind conditions, the seaplane
or amphibian must be able to drift for
five minutes with engines inoperative,
aided, if necessary, by a sea anchor.
MISCELLANEOUS FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS
§ 25.251 Vibration and buffeting.
(a) The airplane must be designed to
withstand any vibration and buffeting
that might occur in any likely operating
condition. This must be shown by cal
culations, resonance tests, or other tests
found necessary by the Administrator.
(b) Each part of the airplane must be
shown in flight to be free from excessive
vibration, under any appropriate Speed
and power conditions up to at least the
minimum value of Vp allowed in § 25.335.
The maximum speeds shown must be
used in establishing the operating limi
tations of the airplane in accordance
With $25.1505. In addition, it must be
shown by analysis or tests, that the air
plane is free from such vibration that
would prevent safe flight under the con
ditions in § 25.629 (d).
(c) Except as provided in paragraph
(d) of this section, there may be no buf
feting condition, in normal flight, in
cluding configuration changes during
cruise, severe enough to interfere with
the control of the airplane, to cause ex
cessive fatigue to the crew, or to cause
structural damage. Stall Warning buf
feting within these limits is allowable.
(d) There may be no perceptible buf
feting condition in the cruise configura
tion in straight flight at any speed up to
VºoZM wo, except that stall warning buf
feting is allowable.
(e) With the airplane in the cruise
configuration, the positive maneuvering
195
§ 25.253
load factors at which the onset of per
ceptible buffeting occurs must be deter
mined for the ranges of airspeed or
Mach Number, weight, and altitude for
which the airplane is to be certificated.
The envelopes of load factor, speed, al
titude, and weight must provide a Suf
ficient range of Speeds and load factors
for normal operations. Probable inad
vertent excursions beyond the bound
aries of the buffet onset envelopes may
not result in unsafe conditions.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5671,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.253 High-speed characteristics.
(a) Speed increase and recovery char
acteristics. The following speed increase
and recovery characteristics must be
met:
(1) Operating conditions and charac
teristics likely to cause inadvertent speed
increases (including upsets in pitch and
roll) must be simulated with the airplane
trimmed at any likely cruise speed up to
Viro/Myro. These conditions and char
acteristics include gust upsets, inadver
tent control movements, low stick force
gradient in relation to control friction,
passenger movement, leveling off from
climb, and descent from Mach to air
Speed limit altitudes.
(2) Allowing for pilot reaction time
after effective inherent or artificial Speed
warning occurs, it must be shown that
the airplane can be recovered to a nor
mal attitude and its speed reduced to
Viro/Miro, without—
(i) Exceptional piloting strength or
skill;
(ii) Exceeding Vn/Mp, Wor/M prl or
the structural limitations; and
(iii) Buffeting that would cause struc
ture damage.
(3) There may be no control reversal
about any axis at any Speed up to VDr/
Mor. Any reversal of elevator control
force or tendency of the airplane to
pitch, roll, or yaw must be mild and read
ily controllable, using normal piloting
techniques.
(b) Marimum speed for stability
characteristics, Vroſ Mrg. Wrcſ Mrg is
the maximum speed at which the re
quirements of $$ 25.147(e), 25.175(b)(1),
25.177, and 25.181 must be met
with flaps and landing gear retracted.
It may not be less than a speed midway
between Vito/Mato and VDF/M prº except
§ 25.301 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
that, for altitudes where Mach number is
the limiting factor, Mro need not exceed
the Mach number at which effective
Speed warning occurs.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5671,
Apr. 8, 1970]
Subpart C–Structure
GENERAL
$ 25.301 Loads.
(a) Strength requirements are speci
fled in terms of limit loads (the maxl
mum loads to be expected in service) and
ultimate loads (limit loads multiplied by
prescribed factors of safety). Unless
otherwise provided, prescribed loads are
limit loads.
(b) Unless otherwise provided, the
specified air, ground, and water loads
must be placed in equilibrium with inertia
forces, considering each item of mass in
the airplane. These loads must be dis
tributed to conservatively approximate
or closely represent actual conditions.
Methods used to determine load intensi
ties and distribution must be validated
by flight load measurement unless the
methods used for determining those
loading conditions are shown to be
reliable.
(c) If deflections under load would
significantly change the distribution of
external or internal loads, this redistri
bution must be taken into account.
(Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5672,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.303 Factor of safety.
Unless otherwise specified, a factor of
safety of 1.5 must be applied to the pre
scribed limit load which are considered
external loads on the structure. When a
loading condition is prescribed in terms
of ultimate loads, a factor of safety need
not be applied unless otherwise specified.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5672, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.305 Strength and deformation.
(a) The structure must be able to sup
port limit loads without detrimental per
manent deformation. At any load up to
limit loads, the deformation may not in
terfere with safe Operation.
196
(b) The structure must be able to sup
port ultimate loads without failure for
at least 3 seconds. However, when proof
of strength is shown by dynamic tests
simulating actual load conditions, the 3
Second limit does not apply. Static tests
Conducted to ultimate load must include
the ultimate deflections and ultimate
deformation induced by the loading.
When analytical methods are used to
Show COmpliance with the ultimate load
strength requirements, it must be shown
that—
(1) The effects of deformation are not
significant;
(2) The deformations involved are
fully accounted for in the analysis; or
(3) The methods and assumptions
used are sufficient to cover the effects of
these deformations.
(c) Where structural flexibility is
such that any rate of load application
likely to occur in the operating condi
tions might produce transient stresses
appreciably higher than those corre
Sponding to static loads, the effects of
this rate of application must be
considered.
(d) The dynamic response of the air
plane to vertical and lateral continuous
turbulence must be taken into account.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5672,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.307 Proof of structure.
(a) Compliance with the strength and
deformation requirements of this sub
part must be shown for each critical
loading condition. Structural analysis
may be used only if the structure con
forms to those for which experience has
shown this method to be reliable. In
other cases, substantiating load tests
must be made.
(b) Compliance with the fatigue eval
uation requirements of §§ 25.571 and
25,573 must be shown.
(c) Certain parts of the structure must
be tested as specified in § 25.601.
(d) When static or dynamic tests are
used to show compliance With the re
quirements of § 25.305(b) for flight
structures, appropriate material correc
tion factors must be applied to the test
results, unless the structure, or part
thereof, being tested has features such
that a number of elements contribute to
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
the total strength of the structure and
the failure of one element results in the
redistribution of the load through alter
nate load paths.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5672,
Apr. 8, 1970)
FLIGHT LOADS
§ 25.321 General.
(a) Flight load factors represent the
ratio of the aerodynamic force compo
nent (acting normal to the assumed
longitudinal axis of the airplane) to the
weight of the airplane. A positive load
factor is one in which the aerodynamic
force acts upward with respect to the
airplane.
(b) Considering compressibility ef
fects at each speed, compliance with the
flight load requirements of this subpart
must be shown—
(1) At each critical altitude within the
range of altitudes selected by the appli
cant;
(2) At each weight from the design
minimum weight to the design maximum
weight appropriate to each particular
flight load condition; and
(3) For each required altitude and
weight, for any practicable distribution
of disposable load within the operating
limitations recorded in the Airplane
Flight Manual.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5672,
Apr. 8, 1970]
FLIGHT MANEUVER AND GUST CONDITIONS
§ 25.331 General.
(a) Procedure. The analysis of sym
metrical flight must include at least the
conditions Specified in paragraphs (b)
through (d) of this section. The follow
ing procedure must be used:
(1) Enough points on the maneuver
ing and gust envelopes must be investi
gated to ensure that the maximum load
for each part of the airplane structure
is obtained. A conservative combined
envelope may be used.
(2) The significant forces acting on the
airplane must be placed in equilibrium in
a rational or conservative manner. The
linear inertia forces must be considered
in equilibrium with thrust and all aero
dynamic loads, while the angular (pitch
ing) inertia forces must be considered in
197
§ 25.331
equilibrium with thrust and all aero
dynamic moments, including moments
due to loads on components such as tail
Surfaces and nacelles. Critical thrust
values in the range from zero to maxi
mum continuous thrust must be
considered.
(3) Where sudden displacement of a
control is specified, the assumed rate of
control surface displacement may not be
less than the rate that could be applied
by the pilot through the control system.
(4) In determining elevator angles
and chordwise load distribution (in the
maneuvering conditions of paragraphs
(b) and (c) of this section) in turns
and pullups, the effect of corresponding
pitching velocities must be taken into
aCCOulnt.
(b) Maneuvering balanced conditions.
Assuming the airplane to be in equi
librium with zero pitching acceleration,
the maneuvering conditions A through
I on the maneuvering envelope in
$ 25.333(b) must be investigated.
(c) Maneuvering pitching conditions.
The following conditions involving pitch
ing acceleration must be investigated:
(1) Marimum elevator displacement
at VA. The airplane is assumed to be
flying in steady level flight (point A,
§ 25.333 (b)) and, except as limited by pi
lot effort in accordance with $25,397 (b),
the pitching control is suddenly moved
to obtain extreme positive pitching (nose
up).
(2) Checked maneuver at speeds be
tween V4 and Vo. The airplane is as
Sumed to be subjected to a checked ma
neuver (a maneuver in which the pitch
ing control is suddenly displaced in one
direction and then suddenly moved in
the opposite direction) from steady level
flight (points A, to D, $ 25.333(b)), and
from the positive load factor (points A,
to D, $ 25.333(b)) as follows:
(i) Unless lesser values could not be
exceeded, a positive pitching acceleration
(nose up) is assumed to be reached con
currently with the airplane load factor
of 1.0 (points A1 to D, $ 25.333 (b) ).
This positive acceleration must be equal
to at least #n
(m—1.5) (radians/sec.),
where—
(a) m is the positive load factor at the
speed under consideration; and
$ 25.333 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(b) V is the airplane equivalent speed
in knots.
(11) Unless lesser values could not be
exceeded, a negative pitching accelera
tion (nose down) is assumed to be
reached concurrently with the positive
maneuvering load factor (points A, to
D2, $ 25.333(b)). This negative pitch
ing acceleration must be equal to at least
—ºn (n-1.5) (radians/sec.”)
where—
(a) n is the positive load factor at the
speed under consideration; and
(b) V is the airplane equivalent speed
in knots.
(3) Specified control displacement.
Instead of the conditions in subpara
graph (2) of this paragraph, a checked
maneuver, based on a rational pitching
control motion vs. time profile, may be
established in which the design limit load
factor specified in § 25.337 will not be ex
ceeded. Unless lesser values cannot be
exceeded, the airplane response must re
sult in pitching accelerations not less
than those specified in subparagraph (2).
(d) Gust conditions. The gust Con
ditions B’ through J’, $ 25.333(c), must
be investigated. The following provi
Sions apply:
(1) The air load increment due to a
Specified gust must be added to the initial
balancing tail load corresponding to
Steady level flight.
(2) The alleviating effect of wing
down-wash and of the airplane's motion
in response to the gust may be included
in computing the tail gust load incre
ment.
(3) Instead of a rational investigation
of the airplane response, the gust allevia
tion factor K, may be applied to the
Specified gust intensity for the horizontal
tall.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5672,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.333 Flight envelope.
(a) General. The strength require
ments must be met at each combination
of airspeed and load factor on and with
in the boundaries of the representative
maneuvering and gust envelopes (V-n
diagrams) of paragraphs (b) and (c) of
this section. These envelopes must also
be used in determining the airplane
structural operating limitations as Spec
ified in § 25.1501.
(b) Maneuvering envelope.

FLAPS UP

2 + Cw MAX

S
: 1 ------------->ſ---i----ºf-------------
ſº
O
H
O

à o
Q "EQUIVALENT tº AIR SPEED
<!
O
H
-1–

FLAPS UP

198
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
C, MAX
C, MAX
(FLAFs 56WN), 2^
/ l
GUST LINE 21 X2”
S +2 º
FOR: 22.cº.
Qº w
, ---T--~~7
- 2r?
§ N.º s :- Sº; N
2 +1}<-->4%--->;--> #------- F-----------
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25.335 Design airspeeds.
The selected design airspeeds are
equivalent airspeeds (EAS). Estimated
values of Vs, and Vs, must be conserva
tive.
(a) Design cruising speed, Wo. For
Wo, the following apply:
(1) The minimum value of Vo must be
sufficiently greater than Vs to provide
for inadvertent speed increases likely to
occur as a result of severe atmospherlo
turbulence.
(2) In the absence of a rational in
vestigation substantiating the use of
other values, Vo may not be less than
Va-H43 knots. However, it need not ex
ceed the maximum speed in level flight
at maximum continuous power for the
corresponding altitude.
(3) At altitudes where Vb is limited by
Mach number, Vo may be limited to a
selected Mach number.
(b) Design dive speed, Vp. Vo must be
selected so that Vo/Mo is not greater than
0.8 Vo/Mp, or so that the minimum speed
margin between Vo/Mo and Vp/Mp is the
greater of the following values:
(1) From an initial condition of stabl
lized flight at Wo/Mo, the airplane is up
set, flown for 20 seconds along a flight
path 7.5° below the initial path, and then
pulled up at a load factor of 1.5 g (0.5 g.
acceleration increment). The speed in
crease occurring in this maneuver may
be calculated if reliable or conservative
aerodynamic data is used. POWer as Spec
$25,335
B' Cº
~f: _2~ D"
: --~~
!
:
T-i---_ I "EQUIVALENT"AIR SPEED
-
S-i, E"
:
ified in § 25.175(b)(1) (iv) is assumed
until the pullup is initiated, at which
time power reduction and the use of pilot
controlled drag devices may be assumed;
(2) The minimum speed margin must
be enough to provide for atmospheric
variations (such as horizontal gusts, and
penetration of jet streams and cold
fronts) and for instrument errors and
airframe production variations. These
factors may be considered on a probabil
ity basis. However, the margin at altitude
where Mo is limited by compressibility
effects may not be less than 0.05 M.
(c) Design maneuvering speed VA.
For VA, the following apply:
(1) V, may not be less than Vs., Vn
Where—
(1) n is the limit positive maneuvering
load factor at Vo: and
(ii) Vs, is the stalling speed with flaps
retracted.
(2) V4 and Vs must be evaluated at
the design weight and altitude under
Consideration.
(3) V, need not be more than Vo or
the speed at which the positive Cw me,
curve intersects the positive maneuver
load factor line, whichever is less.
(d) Design speed for marimum gust
intensity, Vs. For Va, the following
apply:
(1) Wa may not be less than the speed
determined by the intersection of the
line representing the maximum posi
tive lift Cx sa, and the line representing
199
 $25.337 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
the rough air gust velocity on the gust
V-n diagram, or (Vn, Vs, whichever
is less, where—
(i) no is the positive airplane gust
load factor due to gust, at speed Vo (in
accordance with 3 25.341), and at the
particular weight under consideration;
and
(ii) Vs, is the stalling speed with the
flaps retracted at the particular weight
under consideration.
(2) Va need flot be greater than Vo.
(e) Design flap speeds, Vr. For Vr,
the following apply:
(1) The design flap speed for each flap
position (established in accordance with
§ 25.697 (a) ) must be Sufficiently greater
than the Operating Speed recommended
for the corresponding stage of flight (in
cluding balked landings) to allow for
probable variations in control of air
speed and for transition from one flap
position to another.
(2) If an automatic flap positioning
or load limiting device is used, the Speeds
and corresponding flap positions pro
grammed or allowed by the device may be
used.
(3) Wr may not be less than—
(1) 1.6 Vs, with the flaps in takeoff
position at maximum takeoff weight;
(ii) 1.8 Vs, with the flaps in approach
position at maximum landing weight,
and
(iii) 1.8 Vs, with the flaps in landing
position at maximum landing weight.
(f) Design drag device speeds, Vop.
The selected design speed for each drag
device must be sufficiently greater than
the speed recommended for the operation
of the device to allow for probable vari
ations in speed control. For drag devices
intended for use in high speed descents,
WDD may not be less than Vd. When an
automatic drag device positioning or load
limiting means is used, the speeds and
corresponding drag device positions pro
grammed or allowed by the automatic
means must be used for design.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5672,
Apr. 8, 1970)
§ 25.337 Limit maneuvering load fac
tors.
(a) Except where limited by maxi
mum (static) lift coefficients, the air
plane is assumed to be subjected to sym
metrical maneuvers resulting in the limit
200
maneuvering load factors prescribed in
this section. Pitching velocities appro
briate to the corresponding pull-up and
steady turn maneuvers must be taken
into account.
(b) The positive limit maneuvering
load factor “n” for any speed up to WD
may not be less than 2.1+ (wº. -
W-i-10,000.
)
except that “n” may not be less than 2.5
and need not be greater than 3.8—where
“W’’ is the design maximum takeoff
weight.
(c) The negative limit maneuvering
load factor—
(1) May not be less than —1.0 at
speeds up to Vo; and
(2) Must vary linearly with speed from
the value at Vo to zero at Vo.
(d) Maneuvering load factors lower
than those specified in this section may
be used if the airplane has design fea
tures that make it impossible to exceed
these values in flight.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5672.
Apr. 8, 1970]
25.341 Gust loads.
(a) The airplane is assumed to be sub
jected to Symmetrical vertical gusts in
level flight. The resulting limit load
factors must correspond to the condi
tions determined as follows:
(1) Positive (up) and negative (down)
rough air gusts of 66 fps at Vn must be
considered at altitudes between sea level
and 20,000 feet. The gust velocity may
be reduced linearly from 66 fps at 20,000
feet to 38 fps at 50,000 feet.
(2) Positive and negative gusts of 50
fps at Vo must be considered at altitudes
between sea level and 20,000 feet. The
gust velocity may be reduced linearly
from 50 fps at 20,000 feet to 25 fps at
50,000 feet.
(3) Positive and negative gusts of 25
fps at Vr, must be considered at altitudes
between sea level and 20,000 feet. The
gust velocity may be reduced linearly
from 25 fps at 20,000 feet to 12.5 fps at
50,000 feet.
(b) The following assumptions must
be made:
(1) The shape of the gust is
U 2ns
where—
v=#(1-co.
2 25C
s= distance penetrated into gust (ft);
C=mean geometric chord of wing (ft);
and
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
Uae=derived gust velocity referred to in
paragraph (a) (fps).
(2) Gust load factors vary linearly be
tween the specified conditions B’ through
G', as shown on the gust envelope in
§ 25.333 (c).
(c) In the absence of a more rational
analysis, the gust load factors must be
computed as follows:
K, Ude Va
*=1+375 (WS)
where—
0.88wo
Ka - 5.3+40 = g
gust alleviation factor;
Ag= 2 was ) = airplane mass ratio;
pC(10
U.=derived gust velocities referred to in
paragraph (a) (fps);
p= density of air (slugs/cu. ft.);
W/S = wing loading (pst);
C– mean geometric chord (ft.);
g=acceleration due to gravity (ft/
Sec.”);
V = airplane equivalent speed (knots);
and
a = slope of the airplane normal force
coefficient curve CN, per radian
if the gust loads are applied to the
wings and horizontal tail surfaces
simultaneously by a rational
method. The wing lift curve slope
cr per radian may be used When
the gust load is applied to the
wings only and the horizontal
tail gust loads are treated as a
separate condition.
§ 25.343 Design fuel and oil loads.
(a) The disposable load combinations
must include each fuel and oil load in the
range from zero fuel and oil to the Se
lected maximum fuel and oil load. A
structural reserve fuel condition, not
exceeding 45 minutes of fuel under the
operating conditions in § 25.1001(h) and
(i), as applicable, may be selected.
(b) If a structural reserve fuel condi
tion is selected, it must be used as the
minimum fuel weight condition for
showing compliance with the flight load
requirements as prescribed in this sub
part. In addition—
(1) The structure must be designed
for a condition of zero fuel and oil in the
wing at limit loads corresponding to
(i) A maneuvering load factor of
+2.25; and
(ii) Gust intensities equal to 85 per
cent of the values prescribed in § 25.341;
and
(2) Fatigue evaluation of the struc
ture must account for any increase in
operating stresses resulting from the de
39-039–75 14
201
§ 25.349
sign condition of subparagraph (b) (1)
of this paragraph; and
(3) The flutter, deformation, and Wi
bration requirements must also be met
with zero fuel.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–18, 33 F.R. 12226,
Aug. 30, 1968]
§ 25.345 High lift devices.
(a) If flaps are to be used during take
off, approach, or landing, at the design
flap speeds established for these stages
of ſlight under § 25.335(e) and with the
flaps in the corresponding positions, the
airplane is assumed to be subjected to
Symmetrical maneuvers and gusts with
in the range determined by—
(1) Maneuvering to a positive limit
load factor of 2.0; and
(2) Positive and negative 25 fos de
rived gusts acting normal to the flight
path in level flight.
(b) The airplane must be designed
for the conditions prescribed in para
graph (a) of this section, except that the
airplane load factor need not exceed 1.0,
taking into account, as separate condi
tions, the effects of—
(1) Propeller slipstream correspond
ing to maximum continuous power at the
design flap speeds Vr, and with takeoff
power at not less than 1.4 times the
Stalling Speed for the particular flap
position and associated maximum
weight; and
(2) A head-on gust of 25 feet per Sec
ond velocity (EAS).
(c) If flaps or similar high lift devices
are to be used as speed brakes in en route
conditions, and with flaps in the appro
priate position at speeds up to the flap
design Speed chosen for these conditions,
the airplane is assumed to be subjected
to symmetrical maneuvers and gusts
within the range determined by—
(1) Maneuvering to a positive limit
load factor of 2.5; and
(2) Positive and negative derived gusts
as prescribed in § 25.341 acting normal to
the flight path in level flight.
§ 25.349 Rolling conditions.
The airplane must be designed for roll
ing loads resulting from the conditions
specified in paragraphs (a) and (b) of
this section. Unbalanced aerodynamic
moments about the center of gravity
must be reacted in a rational or con
servative manner, considering the prin
cipal masses furnishing the reacting in
ertia forces.
§ 25.351 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(a) Maneuvering. The following con
ditions, Speeds, and aileron deflections
(except as the deflections may be limited
by pilot effort) must be considered in
combination with an airplane load factor
of zero and of two-thirds of the positive
maneuvering factor used in design. In
determining the required aileron deflec
tions, the torsional flexibility of the wing
must be considered in accordance with
§ 25.301 (b):
(1) Conditions corresponding to steady
rolling velocities must be investigated.
In addition, conditions corresponding to
maximum angular acceleration must be
investigated for airplanes with engines or
other weight concentrations outboard of
the fuselage. For the angular accelera
tion conditions, Zero rolling velocity may
be assumed in the absence of a rational
time history investigation of the ma
neuVer.
(2) At 74, a sudden deflection of the
aileron to the stop is assumed.
(3) At Vo, the aileron deflection must
be that required to produce a rate of roll
not less than that obtained in subpara
graph (2) of this paragraph.
(4) At Vp, the aileron deflection must
be that required to produce a rate of
roll not less than one-third of that in
subparagraph (2) of this paragraph.
(b) Unsymmetrical gusts. The condi
tion of unsymmetrical gusts must be
considered by modifying the symmetrical
flight conditions B’ or C" (in § 25.333
(c) ) whichever produces the critical
load. It is assumed that 100 percent of
the wing air load acts on One side of the
airplane and 80 percent acts on the other
side.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5672,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.351 Yawing conditions.
The airplane must be designed for
loads resulting from the conditions spec
ified in paragraphs (a) and (b) of this
section. Unbalanced aerodynamic mo
ments about the center of gravity must
be reacted in a rational or conservative
manner considering the principal masses
furnishing the reacting inertia forces:
(a) Maneuvering. At speeds from
Viro to VA, the following maneuvers
must be considered. In computing the
tail loads, the yawing velocity may be
assumed to be zero:
(1) With the airplane in unaccelerated
flight at zero yaw, it is assumed that the
O 02
4-w
rudder control is suddenly displaced to
the maximum deflection, as limited by
the control surface stops, or by a 300
pound rudder pedal force, whichever is
less.
(2) With the rudder deflected as
specified in subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph, it is assumed that the air
plane yaws to the resulting sideslip
angle.
(3) With the airplane yawed to the
static sideslip angle corresponding to the
rudder deflection specified in subpara
graph (1) of this paragraph, it is as
sumed that the rudder is returned to
neutral.
(b) Lateral gusts. The airplane is as
sumed to encounter derived gusts nor
mal to the plane of symmetry while in
unaccelerated flight. The derived gusts
and airplane speeds corresponding to
conditions B’ through J’ (in § 25.333(c))
(as determined by §§ 25.341 and 25.345
(a)(2) or 25.345 (c) (2)) must be investi
gated. The shape of the gust must be
as specified in § 25.341. In the ab
sence of a rational investigation of the
airplane's response to a gust, the gust
loading on the vertical tail surfaces must
be computed as follows:
Kot UdeVa, St
t– 498
where—
Lt =vertical tail load (1bs.);
0.88wo
Kg --- =gust alleviation factor;
*T 5.3+un,
2W. RN=
Avt= = lateral mass ratio;
pCrgat St \lt
Ude-derived gust velocity (fps);
p= air density (slugs/cu. ft.);
W= airplane weight (lbs.):
St - area of vertical tail (ft.”);
Cº- mean geometric chord of vertical
surface (ft.);
at = lift curve slope of vertical tail (per
radian);
K= radius of gyration in yaw (ft.);
lt = distance from airplane c.g. to lift
center of vertical surface (ft.);
g= acceleration due to gravity (ft./
sec.”); and
V= airplane equivalent speed (knots).
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5672,
Apr. 8, 1970)
SUPPLEMENTARY CONDITIONS
§ 25.361 Engine torque.
(a) Each engine mount and its sup
porting structures must be designed for
engine torque effects combined with
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(1) The limit engine torque corre
sponding to takeoff power and propeller
speed acting simultaneously with 75 per
cent of the limit loads from flight condi
tion A of § 25.333(b);
(2) The limit engine torque corre
sponding to maximum continuous power
and propeller speed acting simultane
ously with the limit loads from flight
condition A of § 25.333(b); and
(3) For turbopropeller installations, in
addition to the conditions specified in
subparagraphs (1) and (2) of this para
graph, the limit engine torque corre
sponding to takeoff power and propeller
speed, multiplied by a factor accounting
for propeller control system malfunction,
including quick feathering, acting simul
taneously with 19 level flight loads. In
the absence of a rational analysis, a fac
tor of 1.6 must be used.
(b) For turbine engine installations,
the limit engine torque load imposed by
sudden engine stoppage due to malfunc
tion or structural failure (such as Com
pressor jamming) must be considered in
the design of the engine mounts and
supporting structure.
(c) The limit engine torque is ob
tained by multiplying the mean torque
for maximum continuous power by a
factor of—
(1) 1.25 for turbopropeller installa
tions;
(2) 1.33 for reciprocating engines with
five or more cylinders; Or
(3) Two, three, or four, for engines
with four, three, or two cylinders, respec
tively.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5672,
Apr. 8, 1970]
25.363 Side load on engine mount.
(a) Each engine mount and its Sup
porting structure must be designed for a
limit load factor in a lateral direction,
for the side load on the engine mount,
at least equal to the maximum load factor
obtained in the yawing conditions but
not less than—
(1) 1.33; or
(2) One-third of the limit load factor
for flight condition A as prescribed in
§ 25.333(b).
(b) The side load prescribed in para
graph (a) of this section may be assumed
to be independent of other flight Condi
tions.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5672,
Apr. 8, 1970]
203
§ 25.367
§ 25.365 Pressurized cabin loads.
For each pressurized compartment for
occupants, the following apply:
(a) The airplane structure must be
strong enough to withstand the flight
loads combined with pressure differential
loads from zero up to the maximum
relief valve setting.
(b) The external pressure distribution
in flight, and stress concentrations and
fatigue effects must be accounted for.
(c) If landings may be made with the
Cabin pressurized, landing loads must be
combined with pressure differential loads
from zero up to the maximum allowed
during landing.
(d) The airplane structure must be
strong enough to withstand the pressure
differential loads corresponding to the
maximum relief valve setting multiplied
by a factor of 1.33, omitting other loads.
(e) If a pressurized cabin has two or
more compartments separated by parti
tions, bulkheads, or floors, the structure
supporting the prescribed flight and
grounds loads (and any other structure
that, if it failed, could interfere with
continued safe flight and landing) must
be designed to withstand the effects of
sudden release of pressure in any com
partment through an opening resulting
from the failure or penetration of an
external door, window, or windshield
panel, or from structural fatigue or
penetration of the fuselage in this com
partment, unless it is shown that the
probability of failure or penetration is
extremely remote.
(f) In determining the probability of
failure or penetration and probable size
of openings, the fail-safe features of the
design may be considered if possible im
proper operation of closure devices and
inadvertent door openings are also con
sidered. The pressure relief provided by
intercompartment venting may also be
considered.
(g) Reasonable design precautions
must be taken to minimize the prob
ability of parts becoming detached and
injuring occupants while in their seats.
§ 25.367 Unsymmetrical loads due to
engine failure.
(a) The airplane must be designed for
the unsymmetrical loads resulting from
the failure of the critical engine. Tur
bopropeller airplanes must be designed
for the following conditions in combina
tion with a single malfunction of the pro
peller drag limiting system, considering
§ 25.371 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
the probable pilot corrective action on
the flight controls:
(1) At speeds between Varo and VD,
the loads resulting from power failure
because of fuel flow interruption are
considered to be limit loads.
(2) At speeds between Vito and Vo,
the loads resulting from the disconnec
tion of the engine compressor from the
turbine or from loss of the turbine blades
are considered to be ultimate loads.
(3) The time history of the thrust
decay and drag build-up occurring as a
result of the prescribed engine failures
must be substantiated by test or other
data applicable to the particular engine
propeller combination.
(4) The timing and magnitude of the
probable pilot corrective action must be
conservatively estimated, considering the
characteristics of the particular engine
propeller-airplane combination.
(b) Pilot, corrective action may be as
Sumed to be initiated at the time maxi
mum yawing velocity is reached, but not
earlier than two seconds after the en
gine failure. The magnitude of the cor
rective action may be based on the con
trol forces specified in § 25.397 (b) ex
cept that lower forces may be assumed
where it is shown by analysis or test that
these forces can control the yaw and roll
resulting from the prescribed engine fall
ure conditions.
§ 25.371 Gyroscopic loads.
The structure supporting the engines
must be designed for gyroscopic loads
associated with the conditions specified
in §§ 25.331, 25.349, and 25.351, with the
engines at maximum continuous r.p.m.
§ 25.373 Speed control devices.
If speed control devices (such as
spoilers and drag flaps) are installed for
use in en route conditions—
(a) The airplane must be designed for
the symmetrical maneuvers and gusts
prescribed in §§ 25.333, 25.337, and 25.341,
and the yawing maneuvers and lateral
gusts in § 25.351, with the device ex
tended at speeds up to the placard device
extended speed; and
(b) If the device has automatic Oper
ating or load limiting features, the air
plane must be designed for the maneuvel
and gust conditions prescribed in para
graph (a) of this section, at the speeds
and corresponding device positions that
the mechanism allows.
204
CONTROL SURFACE AND SYSTEM LOADs
§ 25.391 Control surface loads: general.
The control Surfaces must be designed
for the limit loads resulting from the
flight conditions in §§ 25.331, 25.349, and
25.351 and the ground gust conditions in
; 25.415,
Ot
considering the requirements
(a) Loads parallel to hinge line, in
§ 25.393;
(b) Pilot effort effects, in § 25.397;
(c) Trim tab effects, in § 25.407;
(d) Unsymmetrical loads, in § 25.427;
and
(e) Outboard fins, in § 25.445.
§ 25.393 Loads parallel to hinge line.
(a) Control surfaces and supporting
hinge brackets must be designed for
inertia loads acting parallel to the hinge
line.
(b) In the absence of more rational
data, the inertia loads may be assumed
to be equal to KW, where—
(1) K=24 for vertical Surfaces:
(2) K=12 for horizontal surfaces;
and
(3) W=weight of the movable sur
faces.
§ 25.395 Control system.
(a) Longitudinal, lateral, directional,
and drag control system and their sup
porting structures must be designed for
loads corresponding to 125 percent of the
computed hinge moments of the mov
able control surface in the conditions
prescribed in § 25.391.
(b) The system limit loads, except the
loads resulting from ground gusts, need
not exceed the loads that can be pro
duced by the pilot (or pilots) and by
automatic or power devices operating
the controls. The loads must be great
enough to provide a rugged system for
Service use.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5672,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.397 Control system loads.
(a) General. The maximum and min
imum pilot forces, specified in paragraph
(c) of this section, are assumed to act at
the appropriate control grips or pads
(in a manner simulating flight condi
tions) and to be reacted at the attach
ment of the control System to the control
Surface horn.
(b) Pilot effort effects. In the control
surface flight loading condition, the air
loads on movable surfaces and the cor
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration § 25.415

Tesponding deflections need not exceed § 25.407 Trim tab effects.

those that would result in flight from the The effects of trim tabs on the control
application of any pilot force within the surface design conditions must be ac
ranges specified in paragraph (c) of this counted for only where the surface loads
Section. • Two-thirds of the maximum are limited by maximum pilot effort. In
values specified for the aileron and ele these cases, the tabs are considered to be
wator may be used if control Surface deflected in the direction that would as
hinge moments are based on reliable sist the pilot, and the deflections are—
data. In applying this criterion, the (a) For elevator trim tabs, those re
effects of servo mechanisms, tabs, and quired to trim the airplane at any point
automatic pilot Systems, must be con within the positive portion of the perti
sidered. nent flight envelope in § 25.333(b), ex
(c) Limit pilot forces. The limit pilot cept as limited by the stops; and
forces are as follows: (b) For aileron and rudder trim tabs,
those required to trim the airplane in the
Control Maximum forces Minimum critical unsymmetrical power and load
forces
ing conditions, with appropriate allow
ance for rigging tolerances.
100 lbs---------------- 40 lbs. § 25.409 Tabs.
80 D in.-lbs.”--------- 40 D in.-lbs.
(a) Trim tabs. Trim tabs must be
100 lbs.
- --- 100 lbs. designed to withstand loads arising from
Rudder--------- 130 lbs. all likely combinations of tab setting,
primary control position, and airplane
*The critical parts of the aileron control system Speed (obtainable without exceeding the
must be designed for a single tangential force with a flight load conditions prescribed for the
limit value equal to 1.25 times the couple force determined
from these criteria. airplane as a whole), when the effect of
** D = wheel diameter (inches). the tab is opposed by pilot effort forces
§ 25.399 Dual control system. up to those specified in § 25.397 (b).
(b) Balancing tabs. Balancing tabs
(a) Each dual control system must be
must be designed for deflections Con
designed for the pilots operating in op sistent with the primary control surface
position, using individual pilot forces not
less than—
loading conditions.
(c) Servo tabs. Servo tabs must be
(1) 0.75 times those obtained under
designed for deflections consistent with
$ 25.395; or
the primary control surface loading
(2) The minimum forces specified in
conditions obtainable within the pilot
$ 25.397 (c).
maneuvering effort, considering possible
(b) The control System must be de opposition from the trim tabs.
signed for pilot forces applied in the
same direction, using individual pilot § 25.415 Ground gust conditions.
forces not less than 0.75 times those ob (a) The control system must be de
tained under § 25.395. signed as follows for control surface
§ 25.405 Secondary control system. loads due to ground gusts and taxiing
downwind:
Secondary controls, Such as Wheel
brake, spoiler, and tab controls, must be (1) The control system between the
stops nearest the Surfaces and the cock
designed for the maximum forces that
pit controls must be designed for loads
a pilot is likely to apply to those controls. corresponding to the limit hinge mo
The following values may be used: ments H of subparagraph (2) of this
PILOT CONTROL FORCE LIMITS (SECONDARY CONTROLS) paragraph. These loads need not ex
ceed—
Control Limit pilot forces
(i) The loads corresponding to the
maximum pilot loads in § 25.397 (c) for
Mi
ºil. :
or **)xsolbs., but not less each pilot alone; or
(ii) 0.75 times these maximum loads
lever. than 50 lbs. nor more than
150 lbs. (R= radius). (A p for each pilot when the pilot forces are
plicable to any angle within applied in the same direction.
20° of plane of control.)
Twist------------------ 133 in.-lbs. (2) The control System stops nearest
Push-pull-------------- To be chosen by applicant. the Surfaces, the control system locks,
and the parts of the Systems (if any) be
*Limited to flap, tab, stabilizer, spoiler, and landing
gear operation controls. tween these stops and locks and the con
205
$ 25.427 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
trol Surface horns, must be designed for § 25.445 Outboard fins.
limit hinge moments H obtained from (a) If outboard fins are on the hori
the formula, H = H(cSq, where— zontal tail surface, the tail surfaces must
H=limit hinge moment (ft. lbs.); be designed for the maximum horizontal
c=mean chord of the control Surface aft surface load in combination ..with the
of the hinge line (ft.); corresponding loads induced on the
S= area of the control surface aft of the
vertical surfaces by endplate effects.
hinge line (sq. ft.); These induced effects need not be com
q= dynamic pressure (p.s.f.) based on
bined with other vertical Surface loads.
a design speed not less than
14.6VW/S-H-14.6 (f.p.s.), except that
(b) To provide for unsymmetrical
the design speed need not exceed 88 loading when outboard fins extend above
f.p.s.; and and below the horizontal surface, the
K=limit hinge moment factor for ground critical vertical surface loading (load per
gusts derived in paragraph (b) of unit area) determined under § 25.391
this Section. must also be applied as follows:
(b) The limit hinge moment factor K. (1) 100 percent to the area of the ver
tical surfaces above (or below) the hori
for ground gusts must be derived as
Zontal Surface.
follows:
(2) 80 percent to the area below (or
Surface r Position of controls
above) the horizontal surface.
§ 25.457 Wing ſlaps.
(a) Aileron----- 0.75 Control column locked or
lashed in mid-position. Wing flaps, their operating mecha
ſº Aileron-----| *-ī-0.50 *ºevator
at full | º nisms, and their supporting structures
*…
c

e
*-ī-0.75 ſº iº
c

(e
full down.
full º
udder in neutral.
{}}Rudder---- 0.75 {} Rudder at full throw.
*A positive value of Kindicates a moment tending to
depress the surface, while a negative value of Kindicates
a moment tending to raise the surface.
§ 25.427 Unsymmetrical loads.
(a) Horizontal tail surfaces and their
Supporting structure must be designed
for unsymmetrical loads arising from
yawing and slipstream effects, in com
bination with the prescribed flight con
ditions.
(b) In the absence of more rational
data, the following apply:
(1) For airplanes that are conven
tional in regard to location of propellers,
Wings, tail surfaces, and fuselage shape—
(i) 100 percent of the maximum load
ing from the symmetrical flight condi
ditions may be assumed to act on the
Surface on one side of the plane of sym
metry; and
(ii) 80 percent of this loading may be
BSSumed to act on the other side.
(2) For empennage arrangements
Where the horizontal tail surfaces have
appreciable dihedral or are supported by
the Vertical tail surfaces, the surfaces
and supporting structure must be de
signed for the combined vertical and
horizontal surface loads resulting from
each prescribed flight load condition
considered separately.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5673,
Apr. 8, 1970]
must be designed for critical loads oc
curring in the conditions prescribed in
§ 25.345, accounting for the loads occur
ring during transition from one flap po
sition and airspeed to another.
§ 25.459 Special devices.
The loading for special devices using
aerodynamic surfaces (such as slots and
spoilers) must be determined from test
data.
GROUND LOADS
§ 25.471 General.
(a) Loads and equilibrium. For limit
ground loads—
(1) Limit ground loads obtained
under this subpart are considered to be
external forces applied to the airplane
structure; and
(2) In each specified ground load con
dition, the external loads must be placed
in equilibrium with the linear and angu
lar inertia loads in a rational or con
Servative manner.
(b) Critical centers of gravity. The
critical centers of gravity within the
range for which certification is requested
must be selected so that the maximum
design loads are obtained in each land
ing gear element. Fore and aft, vertical,
and lateral airplane centers of gravity
must be considered. Lateral displace
ments of the c.g. from the airplane cen
terline which would result in main gear
loads not greater than 103 percent of
the critical design load for symmetrical
loading conditions may be selected with

206
 Chapter 1–Federal Aviation Administration
out considering the effects of these
lateral c.g. displacements on the loading
of the main gear elements, or on the air
plane structure provided—
(1) The lateral displacement of the
c.g. results from random passenger Or
cargo disposition within the fuselage or
from random unsymmetrical fuel load
ing or fuel usage; and
(2) Appropriate loading instructions
for random disposable loads are included
under the provisions of § 25.1583 (c) (1)
to ensure that the lateral displacement
of the center of gravity is maintained
Within these limits.
(c) Landing gear dimension data.
Figure 1 of Appendix A contains the basic
landing gear dimension data.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5673, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.473 Ground load conditions and as
sumptions.
(a) For the landing conditions speci
fled in §§ 25.479 through 25.485, the
following apply:
(1) The Selected limit Vertical inertia
load factors at the center of gravity of
the airplane may not be less than the
Values that would be obtained—
(i) In the attitude and subject to the
drag loads associated with the particular
landing condition;
(ii) With a limit descent velocity of
10 f.p.s. at the design landing weight (the
maximum weight for landing conditions
at the maximum descent velocity); and
(iii) With a limit descent velocity of
6 f.p.s. at the design takeoff weight (the
maximum weight for landing conditions
at a reduced descent velocity).
(2) Airplane lift, not exceeding the
airplane weight, may be assumed to exist
throughout the landing impact and to
act through the center of gravity of the
airplane.
(b) The prescribed descent velocities
may be modified if it is shown that the
airplane has design features that make it
impossible to develop these velocities.
(c) The minimum limit inertia load
factors corresponding to the required
limit descent Velocities must be deter
mined in accordance with $ 25.723(a).
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5673,
Apr. 8, 1970]
207
§ 25.479
§ 25.477 Landing gear arrangement.
Sections 25.479 through 25.485 apply
to airplanes with conventional arrange
ments of main and nose gears, Or main
and tail gears, when normal Operating
techniques are used.
§ 25.479 Level landing conditions.
(a) In the level attitude, the airplane
is assumed to contact the ground at for
ward velocity components, ranging from
VL, to 1.25 V1, parallel to the ground,
and to be subjected to the load factors
prescribed in § 25.473(a)(1) with—
(1) VE, equal to Vs. (TAS) at the ap
propriate landing weight and in stand
ard sea level conditions; and
(2) V1, equal to Vs. (TAS) at the ap
propriate landing weight and altitudes
in a hot day temperature of 41 degrees F.
above standard.
(b) The effects of increased contact
speeds must be investigated if approval
of downwind landings exceeding 10
knots is desired.
(c) Assuming that the following com
binations of vertical and drag compo
nents act at the axle centerline, the fol
lowing apply:
(1) For the condition of maximum
wheel spin-up load, drag components
simulating the forces required to accele
rate the wheel rolling assembly up to the
specified ground speed must be combined
with the vertical ground reactions
existing at the instant of peak drag
loads. The coefficient of friction between
the tires and the ground may be estab
lished by considering the effects of skid
ding velocity and tire pressure. How
ever, this coefficient of friction need not
be more than 0.8. This condition must
be applied to the landing gear, directly
affected attaching structure, and large
mass items such as external fuel tanks
and nacelles.
(2) For the condition of maximum
wheel vertical load, an aft acting drag
component of not less than 25 percent
of the maximum vertical ground reac
tion must be combined with the maxi
mum ground reaction of § 25.473.
(3) For the condition of maximum
springback load, forward-acting hori
zontal loads resulting from a rapid re
duction of the spin-up drag loads must
§ 25.481 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
be combined with the vertical ground
reactions at the instant of the peak for
ward load. This condition must be ap
plied to the landing gear, directly affected
attaching structure, and large mass items
such as external fuel tanks and nacelles.
(d) For the level landing attitude for
airplanes with tail wheels, the condi
tions specified in paragraphs (a) through
(c) of this section must be investigated
with the airplane horizontal reference
line horizontal in accordance with figure
2 of Appendix A.
(e) For the level landing attitude for
airplanes with nose wheels, shown in
Figure 2 of Appendix A, the conditions
Specified in paragraphs (a) through (c)
of this section must be investigated, as
Suming the following attitudes:
(1) An attitude in which the main
wheels are assumed to contact the
ground with the nose wheel just clear of
the ground.
(2) If reasonably attainable at the
Specified descent and forward velocities,
an attitude in which the nose and main
wheels are assumed to contact the ground
simultaneously. For this attitude—
(i) The nose and main gear may be
Separately investigated under the condi
tions in paragraph (c) (1) and (3) of this
section; and
(ii) The pitching moment is assumed,
under the condition in paragraph (c) (2)
of this section, to be resisted by the nose
gear.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5673,
Apr. 8, 1970]
$25,481 Tail-down landing condition.
(a) In the tail-down attitude, the air
plane is assumed to contact the ground
at forward velocity components, ranging
from Vl, to VI, parallel to the ground,
and is subjected to the load factors pre
scribed in § 25.473 (a) (1) with—
(1) VL, equal to Vs. (TAS) at the ap
propriate landing weight and in stand
ard sea level conditions; and
(2) V, equal to vs. (TAS) at the ap
propriate landing weight and altitudes in
a hot day temperature of 41 degrees F.
above standard.
The combination of vertical and drag
components specified in § 25.479 (c) (1)
20S
and (3) is considered to be acting at the
main wheel axle centerline.
(b) For the tail-down landing condi
tion for airplanes with tail wheels, the
main and tail wheels are assumed to Con
tact the ground simultaneously, in ac
Cordance with figure 3 of Appendix A.
Ground reaction conditions on the tail
wheel are assumed to act—
(1) Vertically; and
(2) Up and aft through the axle at
45 degrees to the ground line.
(c) For the tail-down landing condi
tion for airplanes with nose wheels, the
airplane is assumed to be at an attitude
Corresponding to either the stalling angle
or the maximum angle allowing clear
ance with the ground by each part of the
airplane other than the main wheels, in
accordance with figure 3 of Appendix A,
Whichever is less.
§ 25.483. One-wheel landing conditions.
For the one-wheel landing condition,
the airplane is assumed to be in the level
attitude and to contact the ground on
one side of the main landing gear, in
accordance with Figure 4 of Appendix A.
In this attitude—
(a) The ground reactions must be the
Same as those obtained on that side
under § 25.479 (c) (2); and
(b) Each unbalanced external load
must be reacted by airplane inertia in a
rational or conservative manner.
§ 25.485 Side load conditions.
(a) For the side load condition, the
airplane is assumed to be in the level
attitude with only the main wheels con
tacting the ground, in accordance with
figure 5 of Appendix A.
(b) Side loads of 0.8 of the vertical
reaction (on one side) acting inward and
0.6 of the vertical reaction (on the other
side) acting outward must be combined
with one-half of the maximum vertical
ground reactions obtained in the level
landing conditions. These loads are as
Sumed to be applied at the ground con
tact point and to be resisted by the
Inertia of the airplane. The drag loads
may be assumed to be zero.
§ 25.487 Rebound landing condition.
(a) The landing gear and its support
ing structure must be investigated for
the loads occurring during rebound of
the airplane from the landing surface.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(b) With the landing gear fully ex
tended and not in contact with the
ground, a load factor of 20.0 must act
on the unsprung weights of the landing
gear. This load factor must act in the
direction of motion of the unsprung
Weights as they reach their limiting
positions in extending with relation to
the Sprung parts of the landing gear.
§ 25.489 Ground handling conditions.
Unless otherwise prescribed, the land
ing gear and airplane structure must be
investigated for the conditions in
§§ 25.491 through 25.509 with the air
plane at the design ramp weight (the
maximum Weight for ground handling
conditions). No wing lift may be consid
ered. The shock absorbers and tires may
be assumed to be in their static position.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5673,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.491 Takeoff run.
The landing gear and the airplane
structure are assumed to be subjected
to loads not less than those obtained
under conditions described in § 25.235.
§ 25.493 Braked roll conditions.
(a) An airplane with a tail wheel is
assumed to be in the level attitude with
the load on the main wheels, in ac
cordance with figure 6 of Appendix A.
The limit vertical load factor is 1.2 at the
design landing weight, and 1.0 at the
design ramp weight. A drag reaction
equal to the vertical reaction multiplied
by a coefficient of friction of 0.8, must be
combined with the vertical ground reac
tion and applied at the ground contact
point.
(b) For an airplane with a nose wheel,
the limit vertical load factor is 1.2 at the
design landing weight, and 1.0 at the
design ramp weight. A drag reaction
equal to the vertical reaction, multiplied
by a coefficient of friction of 0.8, must be
combined with the vertical reaction and
applied at the ground contact point of
each wheel with brakes. The following
two attitudes, in accordance with figure
6 of Appendix A, must be considered:
(1) The level attitude With the wheels
contacting the ground and the loads dis
tributed between the main and nose gear.
Zero pitching acceleration is assumed.
(2) The level attitude with only the
main gear contacting the ground and
209
§ 25.499
with the pitching moment resisted by
angular acceleration.
(c) A drag reaction lower than that
prescribed in paragraphs (a) and (b)
of this section may be used if it is sub
stantiated that an effective drag force of
0.8 times the vertical reaction cannot be
attained under any likely loading condi
tion.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5673,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.495 Turning.
In the static position, in accordance
with figure 7 of Appendix A, the airplane
is assumed to execute a steady turn by
nose gear steering, or by application of
sufficient differential power, so that the
limit load factors applied at the center
of gravity are 1.0 vertically and 0.5
laterally. The side ground reaction of
each wheel must be 0.5 of the vertical
reaction.
§ 25.497 Tail-wheel yawing.
(a) A vertical ground reaction equal.
to the static load on the tail wheel, in
combination with a side component of
equal magnitude, is assumed. -
(b) If there is a swivel, the tail wheel
is assumed to be swiveled 90° to the air
plane longitudinal axis with the result
ant load passing through the axle.
(c) If there is a lock, Steering device,
or shimmy damper the tail Wheel is also
assumed to be in the trailing position
with the side load acting at the ground
contact point.
§ 25.499 Nose-wheel yaw.
(a) A vertical load factor of 1.0 at
the airplane center of gravity, and a side
component at the nose wheel ground
contact equal to 0.8 of the vertical ground
reaction at that point are assumed.
(b) With the airplane assumed to be
in static equilibrium with the loads re
Sulting from the use of brakes on One Side
of the main landing gear, the nose gear,
its attaching structure, and the fuselage
structure forward of the center of
gravity must be designed for the follow
ing loads:
(1) A vertical load factor at the center
of gravity of 1.0.
(2) A forward acting load at the air
plane center of gravity of 0.8 times the
vertical load on One main gear.
$25,503 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(3) Side and Vertical loads at the
ground Contact point on the nose gear
that are required for static equilibrium.
(4) A side load factor at the airplane
center of gravity of zero.
(c) If the loads prescribed in para
graph (b) of this section result in a nose
gear side load higher than 0.8 times the
vertical nose gear load, the design nose
gear side load may be limited to 0.8 times
the vertical load, with unbalanced yaw
ing moments assumed to be resisted by
airplane inertia forces.
(d) For other than the nose gear, its
attaching structure, and the forward
fuselage structure, the loading conditions
are those prescribed in paragraph (b) of
this Section, except that—
(1) A lower drag reaction may be used
if an effective drag force of 0.8 times the
vertical reaction cannot be reached un
der any likely loading condition; and
(2) The forward acting load at the
center of gravity need not exceed the
maximum drag reaction on One main
gear, determined in accordance with
§ 25.493(b).
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5673,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.503 Pivoting.
(a) The airplane is assumed to pivot
about one side of the main gear with the
brakes on that side locked. The limit
vertical load factor must be 1.0 and the
coefficient of friction 0.8.
(b) The airplane is assumed to be in
static equilibrium, with the loads being
applied at the ground contact points, in
accordance with figure 8 of Appendix A.
25.507 Reversed braking.
(a) The airplane must be in a three
point static ground attitude. Horizontal
reactions parallel to the ground and di
rected forward must be applied at the
ground contact point of each wheel with
brakes. The limit loads must be equal
to 0.55 times the Vertical load at each
wheel or to the load developed by 1.2
times the nominal maximum static brake
torque, whichever is less.
(b) For airplanes with nose wheels,
the pitching moment must be balanced
by rotational inertia.
210
(c) For airplanes with tail wheels, the
resultant of the ground reactions must
pass through the center of gravity of the
airplane.
§ 25.509 Towing loads.
(a) The towing loads specified in
paragraph (d) of this Section must be
considered separately. These loads must
be applied at the towing fittings and
must act parallel to the ground. In
addition—
(1) A vertical load factor equal to
1.0 must be considered acting at the
center of gravity;
(2) The shock struts and tires must be
in their static positions; and
(3) With Wr as the design ramp
weight, the towing load, From, is
(i) 0.3 Wr for Wr less than 30,000
pounds;
(ii) 6Wr--450,000
70
for Wr between
30,000 and 100,000 pounds; and
(iii) 0.15 Wr for Wr over 100,000
pounds.
(b) For towing points not on the
landing gear but near the plane of sym
metry of the airplane, the drag and side
tow load components specified for the
auxiliary gear apply. For towing points
located outboard of the main gear, the
drag and side tow load components spec
ified for the main gear apply. Where
the specified angle of swivel cannot be
reached, the maximum obtainable angle
must be used.
(c) The towing loads specified in par
agraph (d) of this section must be re
acted as follows:
(1) The side cemponent of the towing
load at the main gear must be reacted
by a side force at the static ground line
of the wheel to which the load is applied.
(2) The towing loads at the auxiliary
gear and the drag components of the
towing loads at the main gear must be
reacted as follows:
(i) A reaction with a maximum value
equal to the vertical reaction must be
applied at the axle of the wheel to which
the load is applied. Enough airplane in
ertia to achieve equilibrium must be
applied.
(ii) The loads must be reacted by air
plane inertia.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(d) The prescribed towing loads are as follows:
Tew point Position
Main gear.
Swiveled forward.
Swiveled aft.
Auxiliary gear.
Swiveled 45° from forward.
Swiveled 45° from aſt.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5673,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.511 Ground load; unsymmetrical
loads on multiple-wheel units.
(a) General. Multiple-wheel landing
gear units are assumed to be subjected to
the limit ground loads prescribed in this
subpart under paragraphs (b) through
(f) of this section. In addition—
(1) A tandem strut gear arrangement
is a multiple-wheel unit; and
(2) In determining the total load on
a gear unit with respect to the provisions
of paragraphs (b) through (f) of this
section, the transverse shift in the load
centroid, due to unsymmetrical load dis
tribution on the wheels, may be neglected.
(b) Distribution of limit
wheels; tires inflated. The distribution
of the limit loads annong the wheels
of the landing gear must be established
for each landing, taxiing, and ground
handling condition, taking into account
the effects of the following factors:
(1) The number of Wheels and their
physical arrangements. For truck type
landing gear units, the effects of any see
saw motion of the truck during the land
ing impact must be considered in deter
mining the maximum design loads for
the fore and aft wheel pairs.
(2) Any differentials in tire diameters
resulting from a combination of manu
facturing tolerances, tire growth, and
tire Wear. A maximum tire-diameter
differential equal to 2% of the most un
favorable combination of diameter Var
lations that is obtained when taking into
account manufacturing tolerances, tire
growth, and tire wear, may be assumed.
$25.511
Load
Magnitude No Direction
Forward, parallel to drag axis.
0.75 Frow per main Forward, at 30° to drag axis.
gear unit. Aft, parallel to drag axis.
Aſt, at 30° to drag axis.
Forward.
Aſt.
1.0 From'.
Forward.
Aft.
Forward, in plane of wheel.
1 Aft, in plane of wheel.
0.5 Frow.
Forward, in plane of wheel.
}% Aft, in plane of wheel.
(3) Any unequal tire inflation pres
Sure, assuming the maximum Variation
to be + 5 percent of the nominal tire
inflation pressure.
(4) A runway crown of zero and a
runway crown having a convex upward
shape that may be approximated by a
slope of 1% percent with the horizontal.
Runway crown effects must be considered
with the nose gear unit on either slope
of the crown.
(5) The airplane attitude.
(6) Any structural deflections.
(c) Deflated tires. The effect of de
flated tires on the structure must be con
sidered with respect to the loading
conditions specified in paragraphs (d)
through (f) of this section, taking into
account the physical arrangement of the
loads to gear Component.S. In addition—
(1) The deflation of any one tire for
each multiple wheel landing gear unit,
and the deflation of any two critical
tires for each landing gear unit using
four or more wheels per unit, must be
considered; and
(2) The ground reactions must be ap
plied to the wheels with inflated tires
except that, for multiple-wheel gear
units with more than one shock strut, a
rational distribution of the ground reac
tions between the deflated and inflated
tires, accounting for the differences in
Shock Strut extensions resulting from a
deflated tire, may be used.
(d) Landing conditions. For one and
for two deflated tires, the applied load
to each gear unit is assumed to be 60
percent and 50 percent, respectively, of
the limit load applied to each gear for
each of the prescribed landing condi
tions. However, for the drift landing
211
§ 25.521 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
condition of § 25.485, 100 percent of the
vertical load must be applied.
(e) Taaciing and ground handling con
ditions. For one and for two deflated
tires—
(1) The applied side or drag load
factor, or both factors, at the center of
gravity must be the most critical value
up to 50 percent and 40 percent, respec
tively, of the limit side or drag load
factors, or both factors, corresponding to
the most severe condition resulting from
consideration of the prescribed taxiing
and ground handling conditions:
(2) For the braked roll conditions of
§ 25.493 (a) and (b) (2), the drag loads
on each inflated tire may not be less than
those at each tire for the symmetrical
load distribution with no deflated tires;
(3) The vertical load factor at the
center of gravity must be 60 percent and
50 percent, respectively, of the factor
with no deflated tires, except that it may
not be less than 1g; and
(4) Pivoting need not be considered.
(f) Totping conditions. For one and
for two deflated tires, the towing load,
From, must be 60 percent and 50 percent,
respectively, of the load prescribed.
WATER LOADS
§ 25.521 General.
(a) Seaplanes must be designed for the
water loads developed during takeoff and
landing, with the seaplane in any atti
tude likely to occur in normal operation,
and at the appropriate forward and sink
ing velocities under the most severe sea
conditions likely to be encountered.
(b) Unless a more rational analysis of
the water loads is made, or the standards
in ANC-3 are used, §§ 25.523 through
25.537 apply.
(c) The requirements of this section
and $$ 25.523 through 25.537 apply also
to amphibians.
§ 25.523 Design weights and center of
gravity positions.
(a) Design weights. The water load
requirements must be met at each oper
ating weight up to the design landing
weight except that, for the takeoff con
dition prescribed in § 25.531, the design
water takeoff weight (the maximum
weight for water taxi and takeoff run)
must be used.
(b) Center of gravity positions. The
critical centers of gravity within the
limits for which certification is requested
must be considered to reach maximum
212
design loads for each part of the seaplane
Structure.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5673.
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.525 Application of loads.
(a) Unless otherwise prescribed, the
seaplane as a whole is assumed to be Sub
jected to the loads corresponding to the
load factors specified in § 25.527.
(b) In applying the loads resulting
from the load factors prescribed in
§ 25.527, the loads may be distributed
over the hull or main float bottom (in
order to avoid excessive local snear loads
and bending moments at the location of
water load application) using pressures
º:
(b).
less than those prescribed in § 25.533
(c) For twin float seaplanes, each float
must be treated as an equivalent hull
On a fictitious seaplane with a weight
equal to one-half the weight of the twin
float seaplane.
(d) Except in the takeoff condition of
§ 25.531, the aerodynamic lift on the sea
plane during the impact is assumed to be
% of the weight of the seaplane.
§ 25.527 Hull and main float load fac
tors.
(a) Water reaction load factors nw
must be computed in the following
manner:
(1) For the step landing case
C.Vs.”
*w-ian Fºwſ:
(2) For the bow and stern landing
cases
C.Vs.” X K,
*w-ian Fºswº’s (1+rºſs
(b) The following values are used:
(1) nm -water reaction load factor
(that is, the water reaction divided by
seaplane weight).
(2) c, -empirical seaplane operations
factor equal to 0.012 (except that this
factor may not be less than that neces
sary to obtain the minimum value of
step load factor of 2.33).
(3) vs.-seaplane st all in g speed
in knots with flaps extended in the ap
propriate landing position and with no
slipstream effect.
(4) 8–angle of dead rise at the longi
tudinal station at which the load factor
is being determined, in accordance with
figure 1 of Appendix B.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(5) W =seaplane design landing
weight in pounds.
(6) Ki-empirical hull station weigh
ing factor, in accordance with figure 2 of
Appendix B.
(7) re=ratio of distance, measured
parallel to hull reference axis, from the
center of gravity of the seaplane to the
hull longitudinal station at which the
load factor is being computed to the
radius of gyration in pitch of the sea
plane, the hull reference axis being a
straight line, in the plane of symmetry,
tangential to the keel at the main step.
(c) For a twin float seaplane, because
of the effect of flexibility of the attach
ment of the floats to the seaplane, the
factor K, may be reduced at the bow
and stern to 0.8 of the value shown in
figure 2 of Appendix B. This reduction
applies only to the design Of the carry
through and Seaplane Structure.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5673,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.529 Hull and main float landing
conditions.
(a) Symmetrical step, bow, and stern
land in 7. For symmetrical step, bow, and
stern landings, the limit water reaction
load factors are those computed under
§ 25.527. In addition—
(1) For symmetrical step landings, the
resultant water load must be applied at
the keel, through the center of gravity,
and must be directed perpendicularly to
the keel line;
(2) For symmetrical bow landings, the
resultant water load must be applied at
the keel, one-fifth of the longitudinal
distance from the bow to the step, and
must be directed perpendicularly to the
keel line; and
(3) For symmetrical stern landings,
the resultant water load must be applied
at the keel, at a point 85 percent of the
longitudinal distance from the step to
the stern post, and must be directed
perpendicularly to the keel line.
(b) Unsymmetrical landing for hull
and single float seaplanes. Unsym
metrical step, bow, and stern landing
conditions must be investigated. In
addition—
(1) The loading for each condition
consists of an upward component and a
side component equal, respectively, to
0.75 and 0.25 tan 8 times the resultant
load in the corresponding symmetrical
landing condition; and
21.ed
§ 25.533
(2) The point of application and direc
tion of the upward component of the load
is the same as that in the symmetrical
condition, and the point of application
of the side component is at the same
longitudinal station as the upward com
ponent but is directed inward perpendic
ularly to the plane of symmetry at a
point midway between the keel and chine
lines.
(c) Unsymmetrical landing; twin float
seaplanes. The unsymmetrical loading
consists of an upward load at the step of
each float of 0.75 and a side load of 0.25
tan 8 at one float times the step landing
load reached under § 25.527. The side
load is directed inboard, perpendicularly
to the plane of symmetry midway be
tween the keel and chine lines of the
float, at the same longitudinal station
as the upward load.
§ 25.531 Hull and main float takeoff
condition.
For the wing and its attachment to the
hull or main float—
(a) The aerodynamic wing lift is as
Sumed to be zero; and
(b) A downward inertia load, corre
Sponding to a load factor computed from
the following formula, must be applied:
croVs,”
**tan 7755WI75
where—
m=inertia load factor;
Cro-empirical seaplane operations factor
equal to 0.004;
Vs, =seaplane stalling speed (knots) at the
design takeoff weight with the
flaps extended in the appropriate
takeoff position;
5=angle of dead rise at the main step
(degrees); and
W = design water takeoff weight in
pounds.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5673,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.533 Hull and main float bottom
pressur s.
(a) General. The hull and main float
structure, including frames and bulk
heads, stringers, and bottom plating,
must be designed under this section.
(b) Local pressures. For the design
of the bottom plating and stringers and
their attachments to the supporting
structure, the following pressure distri
butions must be applied:
y
 $25,535 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(1) For an unflared bottom, the pres
Sure at the chine is 0.75 times the pres
sure at the keel, and the pressures be
tween the keel and chine vary linearly,
in accordance with figure 3 of Appendix
B. The pressure at the keel (psi) is
computed as follows:
K2Vs,”
Pk= °aian-i- Bl,
Where—
P =pressure (p.s.l.) at the keel;
C2=0.00213;
K,-hull station weighing factor, in ac
cordance with figure 2 of Appendix
B:
vs, -seaplane stalling speed (Knots) at
the design water takeoff weight
with flaps extended in the appro
priate takeoff position; and
prº-angle of dead rise at keel, in accord
ance with figure 1 of Appendix B.
(2) For a flared bottom, the pressure
at the beginning of the flare is the same
as that for an unflared bottom, and the
pressure between the chine and the be
ginning of the flare varies linearly, in
accordance with figure 3 of Appendix B.
The pressure distribution is the same as
that prescribed in subparagraph (1) of
this paragraph for an unflared bottom
except that the pressure at the chine is
computed as follows:
Where—
P.,-pressure (p.s.l.) at the chine;
c3=0.0016:
K2=hull station weighing factor, in ac
cordance with figure 2 of Ap
pendix B;
vs.-seaplane stalling speed at the design
water takeoff weight with flaps
extended in the appropriate take
off position; and
B=angle of dead rise at appropriate
station.
The area over which these pressures are
applied must simulate pressures occur
ring during high localized impacts on the
hull or float, but need not extend over an
area that would induce critical stresses
in the frames or in the overall structure.
(c) Distributed pressures. For the
design of the frames, keel, and chine
structure, the following pressure distri
butions apply:
(1) Symmetrical pressures are com
puted as follows:
214
- K2Vs.”
T“Tanâ
where—
P=pressure (p.s.l.);
C4=0.078 C1 (with C1 computed under
§ 25.527):
Ka=hull station weighing factor, de
termined in accordance with fig
ure 2 of Appendix B;
Vso-seaplane stalling speed (Knots) with
landing flaps extended in the ap
propriate position and With no
slipstream effect; and
vs.-seaplane stalling speed with landing
flaps extended in the appropriate
position and with no slipstream
effect; and
8=angle of dead rise at appropriate
station.
(2) The unsymmetrical pressure dis
tribution consists of the pressures pre
scribed in subparagraph (1) of this para
graph on one side of the hull or main
float centerline and one-half of that
pressure on the other side of the hull
or main float centerline, in accordance
with figure 3 of Appendix B.
These pressures are uniform and must
be applied simultaneously over the entire
hull or main float bottom. The loads
obtained must be carried into the side
Wall structure of the hull proper, but
ineed not be transmitted in a fore and
aft direction as shear and bending loads.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5673,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.535 Auxiliary float loads.
(a) General. Auxiliary floats and
their attachments and supporting struc
tures must be designed for the conditions
prescribed in this section. In the cases
specified in paragraphs (b) through
(e) of this section, the prescribed water
loads may be distributed over the float
bottom to avoid excessive local loads,
using bottom pressures not less than
those prescribed in paragraph (g) of this
section.
(b) Step loading. The resultant wa
ter load must be applied in the plane
of symmetry of the float at a point three
fourths of the distance from the bow
to the step and must be perpendicular
to the keel. The resultant limit load is
computed as follows, except that the
value of L need not exceed three times
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
the weight of the displaced water when
the float is completely submerged:
L
cs vs.” was
*Tan 2/38, (1+1,2)2/3
Where—
L-limit load (lbs.);
Cs=0.0053;
Vso =seaplane stalling speed (knots) with
landing flaps extended in the ap
propriate position and with no
slipstream effect;
W=seaplane design landing weight in
pounds;
8,-angle of dead rise at a station 34 of
the distance from the bow to the
step, but need not be less than 15
degrees; and
r,<ratio of the lateral distance between
the center of gravity and the plane
of symmetry of the float to the
radius of gyration in roll.
(c) Boud loading. The resultant limit
load must be applied in the plane of Sym
metry of the float at a point one-fourth
of the distance from the bow to the step
and must be perpendicular to the tangent
to the keel line at that point. The mag
nitude of the resultant load is that speci
fied in paragraph (b) of this section.
(d) Unsymmetrical step loading. The
resultant water load consists of a com
ponent equal to 0.75 times the load
specified in paragraph (a) of this section
and a side component equal to 0.25 tan 8
times the load specified in paragraph (b)
of this section. The side load must be
applied perpendicularly to the plane of
symmetry of the float at a point midway
between the keel and the chine.
(e) Unsymmetrical bow loading. The
resultant water load consists of a corn
ponent equal to 0.75 times the load
specified in paragraph (b) of this section
and a side component equal to 0.25 tan 8
times the load specified in paragraph (c)
of this section. The side load must be
applied perpendicularly to the plane of
symmetry at a point midway between
the keel and the Chine.
(f) Immersed float condition. The re
Sultant load must be applied at the cen
troid of the cross section of the float at
a point one-third of the distance from
the bow to the step. The limit load com
ponents are as follows:
vertical = pg.V.
art—c vºkyº).
Where
side-cº"(RVs).
215
§ 25.561
p=mass density of water (slugs/ft.*):
V=volume of float (ft.*);
Cr-coefficient of drag force, equal to
0.133;
Cy=coefficient of side force, equal to
0.106;
K=0.8, except that lower values may be
used if it is shown that the floats
are incapable of submerging at a
speed of 0.8 Vso in normal opera
tions:
Vso-seaplane stalling speed (knots) with
landing flaps extended in the ap
propriate position and with no
slipstream effect; and
g=acceleration due to gravity (ft/secº).
(g) Float bottom pressures. The float
bottom pressures must be established
under § 25.533, except that the value of
Ka in the formulae may be taken as 1.0.
The angle of dead rise to be used in de
termining the float bottom pressures is
set forth in paragraph (b) of this
section.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5673,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.537 Seawing loads.
Seawing design loads must be based
On applicable test data.
EMERGENCY LANDING ConDITIONS
§ 25.561 General.
(a) The airplane, although it may be
damaged in emergency landing condi
tions on land or water, must be designed
as prescribed in this section to protect
each occupant under those conditions.
(b) The structure must be designed to
give each occupant every reasonable
chance of escaping serious injury in a
minor crash landing when–
(1) Proper use is made of seats, belts,
and all other safety design provisions;
(2) The wheels are retracted (where
applicable); and
(3) The occupant experiences the fol
lowing ultimate inertia forces acting
separately relative to the Surrounding
Structure:
(i) Upward—2.0 g.
(ii) Forward–9.0 g.
(iii) Sideward—1.5 g.
(iv) Downward—4.5 g, or any lesser
force that Will not be exceeded When the
airplane absorbs the landing loads re
sulting from impact with an ultimate
descent velocity of five f.p.s. at design
landing Weight.
§ 25.563 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(c) The supporting structure must be
designed to restrain, under all loads up
to those specified in paragraph (b) (3)
of this section, each item of mass that
could injure an occupant if it came loose
in a minor crash landing.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5673,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.563 Structural ditching provisions.
Structural strength considerations of
ditching provisions must be in accord
ance with $ 25.801(e). -
FATIGUE EVALUATION
§ 25.571 Fatigue evaluation of flight
structure.
(a) Strength, detail design, and fab
rication. Those parts of the structure
(including wings, fixed and movable con
trol surfaces, the fuselage, and their re
lated primary attachments), whose fail
ure could result in catastrophic failure
of the airplane, must be evaluated under
the provisions of either paragraph (b)
or (c) of this Section. For turbojet p0W
ered airplanes, those parts must also be
evaluated under paragraph (d) of this
section. - to 20,000 feet, thereafter decreasing lin
(b) Fatigue strength. The structure
must be shown by analysis, tests, or both,
to be able to withstand the repeated loads
of variable magnitude expected in serv
ice. In addition, the following apply:
(1) The evaluation must include—
(i) The typical loading spectrum ex
pected in service;
(ii) Identification of principal struc
tural elements and detail design points,
the fatigue failure of which could cause
catastrophic failure of the airplane; and
(iii) An analysis or repeated load
tests, or a combination of analysis and
load tests, of principal structural ele
ments and detail design points identified
in subdivision (ii) of this subparagraph.
(2) The service history of airplanes of
similar structural design, taking due ac
count of differences in Operating condi
tions and procedures, may be used.
(3) If substantiation of the pressure
cabin by fatigue tests is required, the
cabin, or representative parts of it, must
be cycle-pressure tested, using the nor
mal operating pressure plus the effects of
external aerodynamic pressure combined
with the flight loads. The effects of
flight loads may be represented by an
increased cabin pressure or may
omitted if they are shown to have no
significant effect upon fatigue.
(c) Fail safe strength. It must be
shown by analysis, tests, or both, that
catastrophic failure or excessive struc
tural deformation, that could adversely
affect the flight characteristics of the air
plane, are not probable after fatigue
failure or obvious partial failure of a
single principal structural element.
After these types of failure of a single
principal structural element, the re
maining structure must be able to with
stand static loads corresponding to the
following:
(1) An ultimate maneuvering load
factor of 2.0 at Wo.
(2) Gust loads as Specified in §§ 25.341
and 25.351(b), except that these gust
loads are considered to be ultimate loads
and the gust velocities are–
(i) At speed Vn, 49 fps from sea level
to 20,000 feet, thereafter decreasing lin
early to 28 fps at 50,000 feet;
(ii) At speed Vo, 33 fps from sea level
to 20,000 feet, thereafter decreasing lin
early to 16.5 fos at 50,000 feet; and
(iii) At speed Vp, 15 fps from sea level
early to 6 fps at 50,000 feet.
(3) Eighty percent of the limit loads
resulting from the conditions specified
in § 25.427. These loads are considered
to be ultimate loads.
(4) Eighty percent of the limit maneu
vering loads resulting from the condi
tions specified in § 25.351(a), except that
the load need not exceed 100 percent of
the critical load obtained in compliance
with $ 25.351(a), using a pilot effort of
ºpounds.
Oaol.
This load is an ultimate
(d) Sonic fatigue strength. It must
be shown by tests, by analysis and sup
porting tests, or by the service history of
airplanes of similar structural design and
Sonic excitation environment, that—
(1) Sonic fatigue cracks are not prob
able in any part of the flight structure
subject to sonic excitation; or
(2) Catastrophic failure caused by
Sonic fatigue cracks is not probable, as
suming that the loads prescribed in para
graph (c) of this section are applied to
all areas affected by those cracks.
(e) The loads prescribed in this para
graph and paragraph (c) of this section
must be multiplied by a factor of 1.15
unless the dynamic effects of failure un
be der static load are otherwise considered.
216
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
In addition, the following apply as ulti
mate loading conditions:
(1) For a pressurized cabin, the
normal operating pressures combined
with the expected external aerodynamic
pressures must be applied simultane
ously with the flight loading conditions
specified in paragraph (c) of this Sec
tion; and
(2) The combined pressures set forth
in subparagraph (1) of this paragraph
multiplied by a factor of 1.33 must be
applied to the pressurized cabin with
out any other load.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25—10, 31 FR 11934,
Sept. 10, 1966; Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5673, Apr.
8, 1970]
§ 25.573 Fatigue evaluation of landing
gear.
(a) The strength, detail design, and
fabrication of those parts of the airplane
landing gear and its attachment fittings
in which fatigue may be critical, must be
evaluated under either the provisions of
paragraph (b) or (c) of this section.
(b) The fatigue strength of the land
ing gear must be evaluated as follows:
(1) The evaluation must include—
(i) The typical loading Spectrum ex
pected in service;
(ii) Identification of principal struc
tural elements and detail design points,
the fatigue failure of which could cause
catastrophic failure of the landing gear;
and
(iii) Analysis or repeated load testing
of the principal structural elements and
detail design points identified in subdivi
sion (ii) of this Subparagraph.
(2) Where the evaluation indicates its
necessity, inspection or other procedures
must be established to prevent cata
strophic fatigue failure.
(3) The service history of airplanes of
similar structural design, taking due ac
count of differences in Operating condi
tions and procedures, may be used.
(c) The fail-safe strength of the land
ing gear must be shown as follows:
(1) It must be shown by analysis or
tests that catastrophic failure is not
probable after fatigue failure, or obvious
partial failure, of any single principal
structural element.
(2) After these kinds of failure, the
remaining structure must be able to
withstand static loads corresponding to
80 percent of the limit loads resulting
from the conditions prescribed in
39–059–75 15
217
§ 25.607
§ 25.473. These static loads are ultimate
loads.
LIGHTNING PROTECTION
§ 25.581 Lightning protection.
(a) The airplane must be protected
against catastrophic effects from
lightning.
(b) For metallic components, compli
ance with paragraph (a) of this section
may be shown by—
(1) Bonding the components prop
erly to the airframe; or
(2) Designing the components so that
a strike will not endanger the airplane.
(c) For nonmetallic components, com
pliance with paragraph (a) of this sec
tion may be shown by—
(1) Designing the components to
minimize the effect of a strike; or
(2) Incorporating acceptable means of
diverting the resulting electrical current
So as not to endanger the airplane.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5674, Apr. 8, 1970]
Subpart D–Design and Construction
GENERAL
§ 25.601 General.
The airplane may not have design
features or details that experience has
shown to be hazardous or unreliable.
The suitability of each questionable de
sign detail and part must be established
by tests.
§ 25.603 Materials.
The suitability and durability of mate
rials used in the structure must–
(a) Be established on the basis of ex
perience or tests; and
(b) Conform to approved specifica
tions (such as industry or military speci
fications, or Technical Standard Orders)
that ensure their having the strength
and other properties assumed in the de
Sign data.
§ 25.605 Fabrication methods.
The methods of fabrication used must
produce a consistently sound structure.
If a fabrication process (such as gluing,
spot welding, or heat treating) requires
close control to reach this objective, the
process must be performed under an ap
proved process Specification.
§ 25.607 Fasteners.
(a) Each removable bolt, screw, nut,
pin, or other removable fastener must
§ 25.609 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
incorporate two separate locking devices
if—
(1) Its loss could preclude continued
flight and landing within the design limi
tations of the airplane using normal pilot
Skill and Strength; Or
(2) Its loss could result in reduction
in pitch, yaw, or roll control capability
or response below that required by Sub
part B of this chapter.
(b) The fasteners Specified in para
graph (a) of this section and their lock
ing devices may not be adversely affected
by the environmental conditions associ
ated with the particular installation.
(c) No self-locking nut may be used
on any bolt subject to rotation in opera
tion unless a nonfriction locking device
is used in addition to the self-locking
device.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5674, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.609 Protection of structure.
Each part of the structure must—
(a) Be Suitably protected against de
terioration or loss of strength in Service
due to any cause, including—
(1) Weathering;
(2) Corrosion; and
(3) Abrasion; and
(b) Have provisions for ventilation
and drainage where necessary for pro
tection.
§ 25.6ll Accessibility provisions.
Means must be provided to allow in
Spection (including inspection of prin
cipal structural elements and control
systems), replacement of parts normally
requiring replacement, adjustment, and
lubrication as necessary for continued
airworthiness. The inspection means for
each item must be practicable for the
inspection interval for the item. Non
destructive inspection aids may be used
to inspect structural elements where it is
impracticable to provide means for direct
visual inspection if it is shown that the
inspection is effective and the inspection
procedures are specified in the mainte
nance manual required by § 25.1529.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5674, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.613 Material strength properties
and design values.
(a) Material strength properties must
be based on enough tests of material
meeting approved specifications to es
tablish design values on a statistical
basis.
(b) Design values must be chosen So
that the probability of any structure be
218
ing understrength because of material
variations is extremely remote.
(c) The effects of temperature on al
lowable stresses used for design in an
essential component or structure must
be considered where thermal effects are
significant under normal operating Con
ditionS.
(d) The strength, detail design, and
fabrication of the Structure must mini
mize the probability of disastrous fatigue
failure, particularly at points of stress
concentration.
(e) Unless they are shown to be inap
plicable in a particular case, the design
values must be those contained in the
following publications (obtainable from
the Superintendent of Documents, Gov
ernment Printing Office. Washington,
D.C., 20402) :
MIL-HDBK-5, "Metallic Materials and Ele
ments for Flight Vehicle Structure”;
MIL-HDBK-17, “Plastics for Flight Vehicles”;
ANC–18, “Design of Wood Aircraft Struc
tures”; and
MIL-HDBK-23, “Composite Construction for
Flight Vehicles”.
§ 25.615 Design properties.
(a) Design properties outlined in
MIL-HDBK-5 may be used subject to the
following conditions:
(1) Where applied loads are eventual
ly distributed through a single member
within an assembly, the failure of which
would result in the loss of the struc
tural integrity of the component in
volved, the guaranteed minimum design
mechanical properties (“A” values) when
listed in MIL-HDBK-5 must be met.
(2) Redundant structures, in which
the failure of individual elements would
result in applied loads being safely dis
tributed to other load-carrying members,
may be designed on the basis of the “90
percent probability (“B” values)" when
listed in MIL-HDBK-5.
(b) Design Values greater than the
guaranteed minimums required by para
graph (a) of this section may be used
where only guaranteed minimum values
are normally allowed if a “premium se
lection” of the material is made in which
a specimen of each individual item is
tested before use to determine that the
actual strength properties of that par
ticular item will equal or exceed those
used in design.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5674.
Apr. 8, 1970]
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 25.619 Special factors.
The factor of safety prescribed in
§ 25.303 must be multiplied by the high
est pertinent special factor of Safety pre
scribed in §§ 25.621 through 25.625 for
each part of the structure Whose
strength is—
(a) Uncertain;
(b) Likely to deteriorate in service
before normal replacement; Or
(c) Subject to appreciable variability
because of uncertainties in manufactur
ing processes or inspection methods.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5674,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.621 Casting factors.
(a) General. The factors, tests, and
inspections specified in paragraphs (b)
through (d) of this section must be ap
plied in addition to those necessary to
establish foundry quality control. The
inspections must meet approved Specifi
cations. Paragraphs (c) and (d) of
this section apply to any structural cast
ings except castings that are pressure
tested as parts of hydraulic or other fluid
systems and do not support structural
loads.
(b) Bearing stresses and surfaces.
The casting factors Specified in para
graphs (c) and (d) of this section—
(1) Need not exceed 1.25 with respect
to bearing stresses regardless of the
method of inspection used; and
(2) Need not be used with respect to
the bearing surfaces of a part whose
bearing factor is larger than the appli
cable casting factor.
(c) Critical castings. For each cast
ing whose failure would preclude con
tinued safe flight and landing of the
airplane or result in serious injury to
occupants, the following apply:
(1) Each critical casting must—
(i) Have a casting factor of not less
than 1.25; and
(ii) Receive 100 percent inspection by
visual, radiographic, and magnetic par
ticle or penetrant inspection methods or
approved equivalent nondestructive in
spection methods.
(2) For each critical casting with a
casting factor less than 1.50, three Sam
ple castings must be static tested and
shown to meet—
(1) The strength requirements of
$ 25.305 at an ultimate load correspond
ing to a casting factor of 1.25; and
219
§ 25.623
(ii) The deformation requirements of
§ 25.305 at a load of 1.15 times the limit
load.
(3) Examples of these castings are
structural attachment fittings, parts of
flight control systems, control surface
hinges and balance weight attachments,
seat, berth, safety belt, and fuel and oil
tank supports and attachments, and
cabin pressure valves.
(d) Noncritical castings. For each
casting other than those Specified in
paragraph (c) of this section, the follow
ing apply:
(1) Except as provided in subpara
graphs (2) and (3) of this paragraph,
the casting factors and corresponding
inspections must meet the following
table:
Casting factor Inspection
2.0 or more---- 100 percent visual.
Less than 2.0 100 percent visual, and
but m or e magnetic particle or
than 1.5. penetrant or equivalent
nondestructive inspection
methods.
1.25 through 100 percent visual, mag
1.50. netic particle or pene
trant. and radiographic,
or approved equivalent
nondestructive inspection
methods.
(2) The percentage of castings in
Spected by nonvisual methods may be
reduced below that specified in subpara
graph (1) of this paragraph when an
approved quality control procedure is
established.
(3) For castings procured to a specifl
cation that guarantees the mechanical
properties of the material in the casting
and provides for demonstration of these
properties by test of coupons cut from
the castings on a sampling basis—
(i) A casting factor of 1.0 may be
used; and
(ii) The castings must be inspected as
provided in subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph for casting factors of “1.25
through 1.50” and tested under para
graph (c) (2) of this section.
§ 25.623 Bearing factors.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(b) of this section, each part that has
clearance (free fit), and that is subject
to pounding or vibration, must have a
bearing factor large enough to provide
for the effects of normal relative motion.
(b) No bearing factor need be used for
a part for which any larger special fac
tor is prescribed.
§ 25.625 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 25.625 Fitting factors.
For each fitting (a part or terminal
used to join one structural member to
another), the following apply:
(a) For each fitting whose strength is
not proven by limit and ultimate load
tests in which actual stress conditions
are simulated in the fitting and Sur
rounding structures, a fitting factor of at
least 1.15 must be applied to each part
of—
(1) The fitting;
(2) The means of attachment; and
(3) The bearing on the joined mem
bers.
(b) No fitting factor need be used—
(1) For joints made under approved
practices and based on comprehensive
test data (such as continuous joints in
metal plating, welded joints, and Scarf
joints in wood); or
(2) With respect to any bearing Sur
face for which a larger special factor is
used.
(c) For each integral fitting, the part
must be treated as a fitting up to the
point at which the section properties
become typical of the member.
(d) For each seat, berth, safety belt,
and harness, the fitting factors specified
in §§ 25.785 (i) (3) and 25.1413 (c) apply.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5674,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.629 Flutter, deformation, and fail
safe criteria.
(a) General. Compliance with this
section must be shown by calculations,
resonance tests, or other tests found nec
essary by the Administrator. Full scale
flight flutter tests at speeds up to
Wor/Mor for the critical airplane flutter
modes must be conducted when—
(1) Mo is equal to or greater than 0.8M;
(2) The adequacy of flutter analysis
and wind tunnel tests have not been es
tablished by previous experience with air
craft having similar design features; or
(3) The conditions Specified in sub
paragraph (1) or (2) of this paragraph
exist, and modifications to the type
design have a significant effect on the
critical flutter modes.
(b) Flutter and divergence prevention.
The dynamic evaluation of the airplane
must include an investigation of the sig
nificant elastic, inertia, and aerodynamic
forces associated with the rotations and
displacements of the plane of the propel
ler. In addition, the following apply:
220
(1) The airplane must be designed to
be free from flutter and divergence (un
stable structural distortion due to aero
dynamic loading) for all combinations of
altitude and speed encompassed by the
Vp/Mp versus altitude envelope enlarged
at all points by an increase of 20 percent
in equivalent airspeed at both constant
Mach number and constant altitude, ex
Cept that Mach effects for Mach numbers
greater than 1.0 need not be included
when Md is less than 1.0 at all design
altitudes and the following is estab
lished—
(i) A proper margin of damping exists
at all Speeds up to Mp; and
(ii) There is no large and rapid reduc
tion in damping as MD is approached.
(2) If concentrated balance weights
are used on control surfaces, their effec
tiveness and strength, including support
ing structure, must be substantiated.
(c) Loss of control due to structural
deformation. The airplane must be de
signed to be free from control reversal
and from undue loss of longitudinal,
lateral, and directional stability and
Control, as a result of structural defor
mation (including that of the control
Surface covering) at speeds up to the
Speed prescribed in paragraph (b) of
this section for flutter prevention.
(d) Fail-safe criteria. The following
fail-safe criteria must be met:
(1) It must be shown, by analysis or
tests, that the airplane is free from such
flutter or divergence that would preclude
safe flight, at any speed up to Vn, after—
(i) Each of the failures, malfunctions,
or adverse conditions listed in subpara
graph (4) of this paragraph; and
(ii) Any other reasonably probable
single failure, malfunction, or adverse
condition affecting flutter or divergence
(2) If a failure, malfunction, or ad
verse condition described in subpara
graph (4) of this paragraph is simulated
during a flight test in showing compli
ance with this paragraph, the maximum
speed investigated need not exceed Vrc
if it is shown, by correlation of the flight
test data with other test data or anal
yses, that hazardous flutter or diver
gence will not occur at any speed up to
VD.
(3) The structural failures described
in Subparagraph (4) (1) and (4) (ii) of
this paragraph need not be considered
in showing compliance with this para
graph if engineering data Substantiate
that the probability of their occurrence
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
is negligible by showing that the struc
tural element is designed with—
(i) Conservative Static Strength mar
gins for each ground and flight loading
condition Specified in this part; or
(ii) Sufficient fatigue strength for the
loading Spectrum expected in operation.
(4) The failures, malfunctions, or ad
verse conditions used to show compliance
with this paragraph are as follows:
(1) Failure of any single element of
the structure Supporting any engine, in
dependently mounted propeller shaft,
large auxiliary power unit, or large ex
ternally mounted aerodynamic body
(such as an external fuel tank).
(ii) Any single failure of the engine
structure, on turbopropeller airplanes,
that would reduce the yaw or pitch ri
gidity of the propeller rotational axis.
(iii) Absence of propeller aerodynamic
forces resulting from the feathering of
any single propeller, and, for airplanes
with four or more engines, the feather
ing of the critical combination of two
propellers. In addition, any single
feathered propeller must be paired with
the failures, Specified in Subdivision (i)
of this subparagraph, involving failure
of any single element of the structure
Supporting any engine or independently
mounted propeller shaft, and the failures
specified in Subdivision (ii) of this sub
paragraph.
(iv) Any single propeller rotating at
the highest likely overspeed.
(v) Failure of each principal struc
tural element for which compliance with
the alternative provisions of $25,571 (c)
is selected. Safety following a failure
may be substantiated by showing that
possible losses in rigidity or changes in
frequency, modal form, or damping, re
Sulting from the failure, are within the
general parameter variations covered in
the flutter and divergence investigations.
(vi) Failure, malfunction, or discon
nection of any single element in the main
flight control System (including auto
matic flight control systems, if in
stalled), in any tab control system, or in
any flutter damper connected to a con
trol Surface or tab. Investigation of the
forced structural vibrations, other than
flutter resulting from failures, malfunc
tions, or adverse conditions in the auto
matic flight control system, may be lim
ited to airspeeds up to Wo.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5674,
Apr. 8, 1970]
221
§ 25.657
§ 25.631 Bird strike damage.
The empennage structure must be de
signed to assure capability of continued
Safe flight and landing of the airplane
after impact with an 8-pound bird when
the velocity of the airplane (relative to
the bird along the airplane's flight path)
is equal to Vc at sea level, selected under
§ 25.335(a). Compliance with this section
by provision of redundant structure and
protected location of control System ele
ments or protective devices such as split
ter plates or energy absorbing material
is acceptable. Where compliance is shown
by analysis, tests, or both, use of data
on airplanes having similar structural
design is acceptable.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5674, Apr. 8, 1970)
CONTROL SURFACES
§ 25.651 Proof of strength.
(a) Limit load tests of control sur
faces are required. These tests must in
clude the horn or fitting to which the
Control System is attached.
(b) Compliance with the special fac
tors requirements of §§ 25.619 through
25.625 and 25.657 for control surface
hinges must be shown by analysis or in
dividual load tests.
§ 25.655 Installation.
(a) Movable tail surfaces must be in
stalled so that there is no interference
between any surfaces when one is held in
its extreme position and the others are
Operated through their full angular
movement.
(b) If an adjustable stabilizer is used,
it must have stops that will limit its
range of travel to the maximum for
which the airplane is shown to meet the
trim requirements of § 25.161.
§ 25.657 Hinges.
(a) For control surface hinges, includ
ing ball, roller, and self-lubricated bear
ing hinges, the approved rating of the
bearing may not be exceeded. For non
standard bearing hinge configurations,
the rating must be established on the
basis of experience or tests and, in the
absence of a rational investigation, a
factor of safety of not less than 6.67
must be used with respect to the ultimate
bearing strength of the softest material
used as a bearing.
(b) Hinges must have enough strength
and rigidity for loads parallel to the
hinge line.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5674, Apr. 8, 1970)
§ 25.671 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
CoNTROL SYSTEMS
§ 25.671 General.
(a) Each control and control System
must operate with the ease, Smoothness,
and positiveness appropriate to its func
tion.
(b) Each element of each flight con
trol System must be designed, or distinc
tively and permanently marked, to
minimize the probability of incorrect
assembly that could result in the mal
functioning of the System.
(c) The airplane must be shown by
analysis, tests, or both, to be capable of
Continued Safe flight and landing after
any of the following failures or jamming
in the flight control system and surfaces
(including trim, lift, drag, and feel sys
tems), Within the normal flight envelope,
Without requiring exceptional piloting
skill or strength. Probable malfunctions
must have only minor effects on control
System operation and must be capable of
being readily counteracted by the pilot.
(1) Any single failure, excluding jam
ming (for example, disconnection or fail
ure of mechanical elements, or structural
failure of hydraulic components, such as
actuators, control Spool housing, and
Valves).
(2) Any combination of failures not
shown to be extremely improbable, ex
cluding jamming (for example, dual
electrical or hydraulic System failures, or
any single failure in combination with
any probable hydraulic or electrical
failure).
(3) Any jam in a control position nor
mally encountered during takeoff, climb,
cruise, normal turns, descent, and land
ing unless the jam is shown to be ex
tremely improbable, or can be alleviated.
A runaway of a flight control to an
adverse position and jam must be ac
counted for if such runaway
subsequent jamming is not extremely
improbable.
(d) The airplane must be designed so
that it is controllable if all engines fail.
Compliance with this requirement may
be shown by analysis where that method
Has been shown to be reliable.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5674,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.672 Stability augmentation
automatic and power-operated sys
tenns.
If the functioning of stability augmen
tation or other automatic or power
operated Systems is necessary to show
compliance with the flight character
istics requirements of this part, such
systems must comply with $ 25.671 and
the following:
(a) A warning which is clearly dis
tinguishable to the pilot under expected
flight conditions without requiring his
attention must be provided for any fail
ure in the stability augmentation system
or in any other automatic Or power
Operated system which could result in
an unsafe condition if the pilot were not
aware of the failure. Warning Systems
must not activate the control systems.
(b) The design of the stability aug
mentation system or of any other auto
matic or power-operated system must
permit initial counteraction of failures
of the type specified in § 25.671 (c) with
out requiring exceptional pilot skill or
strength, by either the deactivation of
the System, or a failed portion thereof,
or by overriding the failure by movement
of the flight controls in the normal sense.
(c) It must be shown that after any
Single failure of the stability augmenta
tion System or any other automatic or
power-operated System—
(1) The airplane is safely controllable
When the failure or malfunction occurs
at any speed or altitude within the ap
proved Operating limitations that is crit
ical for the type of failure being con
sidered;
(2) The controllability and maneuver
ability requirements of this part are met
Within a practical Operational flight en
velope (for example, Speed, altitude, nor
mal acceleration, and airplane configu
rations) which is described in the Air
plane Flight Manual; and
(3) The trim, stability, and stall char
acteristics are not impaired below a level
needed to permit continued safe flight
and and landing.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5675, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.673 Two-control airplanes.
Two-control airplanes must be able
to continue safely in flight and landing
if any one connecting element in the di
rectional-lateral flight control system
fails.
§ 25.675 Stops.
(a) Each control System must have
and stops that positively limit the range of
motion of the control surfaces.
(b) Each stop rust be located so that
Wear, slackness, or take-up adjustments
Will not adversely affect the control char
222 -w
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
acteristics of the airplane because of a
change in the range of surface travel.
(c) Each stop must be able to with
stand any loads corresponding to the
design conditions for the control System.
: § 25.683 Operation tests.
§ 25.677 Trim systems.
(a) Trim controls must be designed to
prevent inadvertent or abrupt operation
and to operate in the plane, and with the
sense of motion, of the airplane.
(b) There must be means adjacent to
the trim control to indicate the direction
of the control movement relative to the
airplane motion. In addition, there must
be clearly visible means to indicate the
position of the trim device with respect to
the range of adjustment.
(c) Trim control systems must be de
signed to prevent creeping in flight. Trim
tab controls must be irreversible unless
the tab is appropriately balanced and
shown to be free from flutter.
(d) If an irreversible tab control sys
tem is used, the part from the tab to the
attachment of the irreversible unit to the
airplane structure must consist of a rigid
COnnection.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5675,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.679 Control system gust locks.
(a) There must be a device to prevent
damage to the control surfaces (includ
ing tabs), and to the control system, from
gusts Striking the airplane while it is on
the ground or water. If the device, when
engaged, prevents normal operation of
the control surfaces by the pilot, it
must—
(1) Automatically disengage when the
pilot operates the primary flight controls
in a normal manner; or
(2) Limit the operation of the airplane
So that the pilot receives unmistakable
warning at the start of takeoff.
(b) The device must have means to
preclude the possibility of it becoming in
advertently engaged in flight.
§ 25.681 Limit load static tests.
(a) Compliance with the limit load re
quirements of this Part must be shown
by tests in which—
(1) The direction of the test loads
produces the most severe loading in the
control system; and
(2) Each fitting, pulley, and bracket
used in attaching the System to the main
structure is included.
223
§ 25.689
(b) Compliance must be shown (by
analyses or individual load tests) with
the special factor requirements for con
trol system joints Subject to angular
motion.
It must be shown by Operation tests
that when portions of the control System
subject to pilot effort loads are loaded to
80 percent of the limit load specified for
the system and the powered portions of
the control System are loaded to the max
imum load expected in normal Operation,
the System is free from—
(a) Jamming;
(b) Excessive friction; and
(c) Excessive deflection.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5675,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.685 Control system details.
(a) Each detail of each control sys
tem must be designed and installed to
prevent jamming, chafing, and interfer
ence from cargo, passengers, or loose
objects.
(b) There must be means in the cock
pit to prevent the entry of foreign ob
jectS into places where they would jam
the System.
(c) There must be means to prevent
the slapping of cables or tubes against
other parts.
(d) Sections 25.689 and 25.693 apply
to cable Systems and joints.
§ 25.689 Cable systems.
(a) Each cable, cable fitting, turn
buckle, Splice, and pulley must be ap
proved. In addition—
(1) No cable smaller than % inch in
diameter may be used in the aileron, ele
vator, or rudder Systems; and
(2) Each cable system must be de
signed so that there will be no hazardous
change in cable tension throughout the
range of travel under operating condi
tions and temperature variations.
(b) Each kind and size of pulley must
correspond to the cable with which it is
used. Pulleys and Sprockets must have
closely fitted guards to prevent the cables
and chains from being displaced or
fouled. Each pulley must lie in the plane
passing through the cable so that the
cable does not rub against the pulley
flange.
(c) Fairleads must be installed so that
they do not cause a change in cable di
rection of more than three degrees.
§ 25.693 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(d) Clevis pins subject to load or mo
tion and retained Only by cotter pins
may not be used in the control system.
(e) Turnbuckles must be attached to
parts having angular motion in a man
ner that will positively prevent binding
throughout the range of travel.
(f) There must be provisions for visual
inspection of fairleads, pulleys, termi
nals, and turnbuckles.
§ 25.693 Joints.
Control system joints (in push-pull
Systems) that are subject to angular mo
tion, except those in ball and roller bear
ing Systems must have a Special factor
of safety of not less than 3.33 with re
Spect to the ultimate bearing strength of
the Softest material used as a bearing.
This factor may be reduced to 2.0 for
joints in cable control systems. For ball
or roller bearings, the approved ratings,
including those established in MIL
HDBK-5 “Metallic Materials and Ele
ments for Flight Vehicle Structure”, may
not be exceeded.
§ 25.697 Lift and drag devices, controls.
(a) Each lift device control must be
designed so that the pilots can place the
device in any takeoff, en route, approach,
or landing position established under
§ 25.47. Lift and drag devices must main
tain the Selected positions, except for
movement produced by an automatic
positioning or load limiting device, with
out further attention by the pilots.
(b) The lift and drag device controls
must be designed and located to make
inadvertent operation improbable.
(c) The rate of motion of the surfaces
in response to the operation of the con
trol and the characteristics of the auto
matic positioning or load limiting device
must give satisfactory flight and per
formance characteristics under steady or
changing conditions of airspeed, engine
power, and airplane attitude.
(d) The lift device control must be de
signed to retract the surfaces from the
fully extended position, during steady
flight at maximum continuous engine
power at any speed below Vr-H 9.0
(knots).
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5675, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.699 Lift and drag device indicator.
(a) There must be means to indicate
to the pilots the position of each lift or
drag device having a separate control in
the cockpit to adjust its position. In addi
tion, an indication of unsymmetrical Op
3.)
--4.
eration or other malfunction in the lift
or drag device Systems must be provided
when such indication is necessary to en
able the pilots to prevent or counteract
an unsafe ſlight or ground condition,
considering the effects on flight char
acteristics and performance.
(b) There must be means to indicate
to the pilots the takeoff, en route, ap
proach, and landing lift device positions.
(c) If any extension of the lift and
drag devices beyond the landing posi
tion is possible, the controls must be
clearly marked to identify this range of
extension.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5675, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.701 Flap interconnection.
(a) The motion of flaps on opposite
sides of the plane of Symmetry must be
Synchronized by a mechanical intercon
nection unless the airplane has safe flight
characteristics with the flaps retracted
on one side and extended on the other.
(b) If a wing flap interconnection is
used, it must be designed to account for
the applicable unsymmetrical loads, in
cluding those resulting from flight with
the engines on one side of the plane of
Symmetry inoperative and the remain
ing engines at takeoff power.
(c) For airplanes with flaps that are
not subjected to Slipstream conditions,
the structure must be designed for the
loads imposed when the wing flaps on one
Side are carrying the most Severe load
occurring in the prescribed symmetrical
conditions and those on the other side are
carrying not more than 80 percent of that
load.
(d) The flap interconnection must be
designed for the loads resulting when the
flap surfaces on one side of the plane
Symmetry are jammed and immovable
while the surfaces on the other side are
free to move and the full power of the
Surface actuating System is applied.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5675, Apr. 8, 1970]
LANDING GEAR
25.721 General.
(a) The main landing gear system
must be designed so that if it fails due
to overloads during takeoff and landing
(assuming the overloads to act in the
upward and aft directions), the failure
mode is not likely to cause—
(1) For airplanes that have a passen
ger seating configuration, excluding
pilots seats, of nine seats or less, the spill
age of enough fuel from any fuel sys
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
tem in the fuselage to constitute a fire
hazard; and
(2) For airplanes that have a pas
senger seating configuration, excluding
pilots seats, of 10 seats or more, the Spill
age of enough fuel from any part of the
fuel system to constitute a fire hazard.
(b) Each airplane that has a passen
ger seating configuration excluding pilots
seats, of 10 seats or more must be de
signed so that with the airplane under
control it can be landed on a paved run
way with any one or more landing gear
legs not extended without sustaining a
structural component failure that is
like to cause the spillage of enough
fuel to constitute a fire hazard.
(c) Compliance with the provisions of
this section may be shown by analysis
or tests, or both.
[Amdt. 25–32, 37 F.R. 3969, Feb. 24, 1972.]
§ 25.723 Shock absorption tests.
(a) It must be shown by energy ab
sorption tests that the limit load fac
tors selected for design in accordance
with $25,473 for takeoff and landing
weights, respectively, will not be
exceeded.
(b) The landing gear may not fail in
a test, demonstrating its reserve energy
absorption capacity, Simulating a descent
velocity of 12 f.p.s. at design landing
weight, assuming airplane lift not greater
than the airplane weight acting during
the landing impact.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5675, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.725 Limit drop tests.
(a) If compliance with $ 25.723(a) is
shown by free drop tests, these tests must
be made on the complete airplane, or on
units consisting of a wheel, tire, and
shock absorber, in their proper positions,
from free drop heights not less than—
(1) 18.7 inches for the design landing
weight conditions; and
(2) 6.7 inches for the design takeoff
weight conditions.
(b) If airplane lift is simulated by air
cylinders or by other mechanical means,
the weight used for the drop must be
equal to W. If the effect of airplane lift
is represented in free drop tests by an
equivalent reduced mass, the landing
gear must be dropped with an effec
- * h-i- (1–L) d
-
tive mass equal to W. = W h-i-d
where—
we=the effective weight to be used in the
drop test (lbs.);
h =specified free drop height (inches);
25
§ 25.727
d=deflection under impact of the tire
(at the approved inflation pressure)
plus the vertical component of the
axle travel relative to the drop
Inass (inches);
W = WM for main gear units (lbs.), equal
to the static weight on that unit
with the airplane in the level at
titude (with the nose wheel clear
in the case of nose wheel type
airplanes);
W= Wr for tail gear units (lbs.), equal to
the static weight on the tail unit
with the airplane in the tail-down
attitude;
W= WN for nose wheel units (lbs.), equal
to the vertical component of the
static reaction that would exist
at the nose wheel, assuming that
the mass of the airplane acts at the
center of gravity and exerts a force
of 1.0g downward and 0.25g for
ward; and
L– The ratio of the assumed airplane lift
to the airplane weight, but not more
than 1.0.
(c) The drop test attitude of the
landing gear unit and the application of
appropriate drag loads during the test
must Simulate the airplane landing COn
ditions in a manner consistent with the
development of a rational or conserva
tive limit load factor Value.
(d) The value of d used in the com
putation of W. in paragraph (b) of this
section may not exceed the Value actu
ally obtained in the drop test.
(e) The limit inertia load factor n
must be determined from the free drop
test in paragraph (b) of this section ac
cording to the following formula:
W.
n;
78-184—
W +L.
Where—
n;=the load factor developed in the drop
test (that is, the acceleration
dv/dt in g's recorded in the drop
test) plus 1.0; and
W., W, and L are the same as in the drop
test computation.
(f) The value of n determined in para
graph (e) of this section may not be
Inore than the limit inertia load factor
used in the landing conditions in
§ 25.473.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5675,
Apr. 8, 1970)
§ 25.727 Reserve energy absorption
drop tests.
(a) If compliance with the reserve
energy absorption condition specified in
§ 25.723(b) is shown by free drop tests,
§ 25.729 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
the drop height may not be less than 27
inches.
(b) If airplane lift is simulated by air
cylinders or by other mechanical means,
the weight used for the drop must be
equal to W. If the effect of airplane lift
is represented in free drop tests by an
equivalent reduced mass, the landing
gear must be dropped with an effective
Wh.
mass, W. = W 7. Ed where the symbols
and other details are the same as in
§ 25.725 (b).
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5675,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.729 Retracting mechanism.
(a) General. For airplanes with re
tractable landing gear, the following
apply:
(1) The landing gear retracting
mechanism, wheel well doors, and sup
porting structure, must be designed for—
(i) The loads occurring in the flight
conditions when the gear is in the re
tracted position:
(ii) The combination of friction loads,
inertia loads, brake torque loads, air
loads, and gyroscopic loads resulting
from the wheels rotating at a peripheral
Speed equal to 1.3 V, (with the flaps in
takeoff position at design takeoff
Weight), occurring during retraction and
extension at any airspeed up to 1.6 V,i
(With the flaps in the approach position
at design landing weight), and
(iii) Any load factor up to those spec
ified in § 25.345(a) for the flaps ex
tended condition.
(2) Unless there are other means to
decelerate the airplane in flight at this
speed, the landing gear, the retracting
mechanism, and the airplane structure
(including wheel well doors) must be
designed to withstand the flight loads
occurring with the landing gear in the
extended position at any speed up to
0.67 vo.
(3) Landing gear doors, their operat
ing mechanism, and their supporting
structures must be designed for the yaw
ing maneuvers prescribed for the air
plane in addition to the conditions of
airspeed and load factor prescribed in
Subparagraphs (1) and (2) of this
paragraph.
(b) Landing gear lock. There must
be positive means to keep the landing
226
gear extended, in flight and on the
ground.
(c) Emergency operation. There must
be an emergency means for extending
the landing gear in the event of
(1) Any reasonably probable failure in
the normal retraction system; or
(2) The failure of any single source
of hydraulic, electric, or equivalent
energy supply.
(d) Operation test. The proper func
tioning of the retracting mechanism
must be shown by operation tests.
(e) Position indicator and warning
device. If a retractable landing gear is
used, there must be a landing gear posi
tion indicator (as well as necessary
switches to actuate the indicator) or
other means to inform the pilot that
the gear is secured in the extended (or
retracted) position. This means must
be designed as follows:
(1) If Switches are used, they must be
located and coupled to the landing gear
mechanical Systems in a manner that
prevents an erroneous indication of
“down and locked” if the landing gear is
not in a fully extended position, or of
“up and locked” if the landing gear is not
in the fully retracted position. The
switches may be located where they are
operated by the actual landing gear
locking latch or device.
(2) Landplanes must have an aural
warning device that will function con
tinuously when one or more throttles
are closed, if the landing gear is not fully
extended and locked.
(3) If there is a manual shutoff for
the warning device prescribed in Sub
paragraph (2) of this paragraph, it must
be installed so that reopening the
throttles will reset the warning
mechanism.
(4) Landplanes must have an aural
warning device that will function contin
uously, when the wing flaps are ex
tended beyond the maximum approach
position determined under § 25.67(e), if
the gear is not fully extended and
locked. There may not be a manual
shutoff for this warning device. The
flap position sensing unit may be in
stalled at any suitable location. The
system for this device may use any part
of the system (including the aural warn
ing device) for the device required in
Subparagraph (2) of this paragraph.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(f) Protection of equipment in wheel
wells. Equipment that is essential to
safe operation of the airplane and that
is located in Wheel Wells must be pro
tected from the damaging effects of—
(1) A bursting tire, unless it is shown
that a tire cannot burst from Overheat;
and
(2) A loose tire tread, unless it is
shown that a loose tire tread cannot
cause damage.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5676,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.731 Wheels.
(a) Each main and nose wheel must
be approved.
(b) The maximum static load rating
of each wheel may not be less than the
corresponding static ground reaction
with—
(1) Design takeoff weight; and
(2) Critical center of gravity.
(c) The maximum limit load rating
of each wheel must equal or exceed the
maximum radial limit load determined
under the applicable ground load le
quirements of this part.
§ 25.733 Tires.
(a) Each landing gear wheel must be
fitted with a suitable tire of proper fit
whose speed rating approved by the Ad
ministrator is not exceeded under criti
cal conditions, and whose load rating ap
proved by the Administrator is not ex
ceeded under—
(1) Equal static loads, corresponding
to the most critical combination of
maximum takeoff weight and center of
gravity position, on each main Wheel
tire; and
(2) Equal loads corresponding to the
ground reactions in paragraph (b) of
this section, on each nose wheel tire.
(b) The applicable ground reactions
are as follows:
(1) The static ground reaction for the
tire with the most critical combination
of takeoff weight and center of gravity
position. This load may not exceed the
static rating of the tire.
(2) The dynamic ground reaction for
the tire at maximum landing weight, as
suming that the mass of the airplane is
concentrated at the most critical loca
tion of the center of gravity for this
weight and is exerting a force of 1.0g
227
§ 25,735
downward and 0.319 forward with the
reactions being distributed to the nose
and main wheels by the principles of
statics and with a 0.319 drag reaction at
the ground applied at each wheel with
brakes. This load may not exceed the
dynamic rating of the tire.
(3) The dynamic ground reaction for
the tire at design takeoff weight, assum
ing that the mass of the airplane is con
centrated at the most critical location
of the center of gravity for this weight
and is exerting a force of 1.0g downward
and 0.20g forward. The reactions in this
case must be distributed to the nose and
main wheels by the principles of statics
and a 0.20g drag reaction at the ground
is applied at each wheel with brakes.
This load may not exceed the dynamic
rating of the tire.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5676,
Apr. 8, 1970)
§ 25.735 Brakes.
(a) Each brake must be approved.
(b) The brake system must be de
signed and constructed so that, if any
connecting or transmitting element (ex
cluding the operating pedal or handle)
fails, or if any single source of hydraulic
or other brake operating energy supply is
lost, it is possible to bring the airplane
to rest under conditions specified in
§ 25.75, with a mean deceleration during
the landing roll of at least 50 percent
of that obtained in determining the land
ing distance as prescribed in that Sec
tion. Unless the leakage of hydraulic
fluid resulting from failure of the seal
ing elements in hydraulic brakes, the
brake drum, shoes, and actuators, (or
their equivalents) does not reduce the
braking effectiveness below that required
by this paragraph, these units are con
sidered to be connecting or transmitting
elements.
(c) Brake controls may not require ex
cessive control force in their operation.
(d) The airplane must have a parking
control that, when set by the pilot, will
without further attention, prevent the
airplane from rolling on a paved, level
runway with takeoff power on the critical
engine.
(e) If antiskid devices are installed,
the devices and associated Systems must
be designed So that no single probable
malfunction will result in a hazardous
loss of braking ability or directional con
trol of the airplane.
 § 25.737 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(f) The brake kinetic energy capacity
rating of each main wheel-brake as
sembly may not be less than the kinetic
energy absorption requirements deter
mined under either of the following
methods:
(1) The brake kinetic energy absorp
tion requirements must be based on a
rational analysis of the sequence of
events expected during operational land
ings at maximum landing weight. This
analysis must include conservative
values of airplane speed at which the
brakes are applied, braking coefficient of
friction between tires and runway, aero
dynamic drag, propeller drag or power
plant forward thrust, and (if more
critical) the most adverse single engine
or propeller malfunction.
(2) Instead of a rational analysis, the
kinetic energy absorption requirements
for each main wheel brake assembly may
be derived from the following formula,
which assumes an equal distribution of
braking between main wheels:
0.0444 WVs. 2
E=—t-
N capsizing in rough, fresh water.
where—
KE=kinetic energy per wheel (ft. lb.);
W= design landing weight (1b.):
Vs = power-off stalling speed (knots) of
o the airplane at sea level, at the
design landing weight, and in the
landing configuration; and
N = number of main wheels.
The formula must be modified in cases
of unequal braking distribution.
(g) The minimum stalling speed rat
ing of each main wheel-brake assembly
(that is, the initial speed used in the
dynamometer tests) may not be more
than the Vs, used in the determination
of kinetic energy in accordance with
paragraph (f) of this section, assuming
that the test procedures for wheel-brake
asSemblies involve a specified rate of
deceleration, and, therefore, for the same
amount of kinetic energy, the rate of
energy absorption (the power absorbing
ability of the brake) varies inversely with
the initial Speed.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5676,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.737 Skis.
Each ski must be approved. The maxi
mum limit load rating of each ski must
228
equal or exceed the maximum limit load
determined under the applicable ground
load requirements of this Part.
FLOATS AND HULLS
§ 25.751 Main float buoyancy.
Each main float must have—
(a) A buoyancy of 80 percent in ex
CeSS of that required to support the max
imum weight of the seaplane or amphib
ian in fresh water; and
(b) Not less than five watertight com
partments approximately equal in vol
unne.
§ 25.753 Main float design.
Each main float must be approved and
must meet the requirements of § 25.521.
§ 25.755 Hulls.
(a) Each hull must have enough
watertight compartments So that, with
any two adjacent compartments flooded,
the buoyancy of the hull and auxiliary
floats (and wheel tires, if used) provides
a margin of positive stability great
enough to minimize the probability of
(b) Bulkheads with watertight doors
may be used for communication between
compartments.
PERSONNEL AND CARGO ACCOMMODATIONS
§ 25.771 Pilot compartment.
(a) Each pilot compartment and its
equipment must allow the minimum
flight crew (established under § 25.1523)
to perform their duties without unrea
sonable concentration or fatigue.
(b) The primary controls listed in
$ 25.779(a), excluding cables and con
trol rods, must be located with respect
to the propellers so that no member of
the minimum flight crew (established
under § 25.1523), or part of the controls,
lies in the region between the plane of
rotation of any inboard propeller and
the surface generated by a line passing
through the center of the propeller hub
making an angle of five degrees forward
or aft of the plane of rotation of the
propeller.
(c) If provision is made for a second
pilot, the airplane must be controllable
with equal safety from either pilot seat.
(d) The pilot compartment must be
constructed so that, when flying in rain
or snow, it will not leak in a manner
that will distract the crew Or harm the
Structure.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(e) Vibration and noise characteris
tics of cockpit equipment may not inter
fere with safe operation of the airplane.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–4, 30 F.R. 6113,
Apr. 30, 1965)
§ 25.772 Pilot compartment doors.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(b) of this section, if a lockable door is
installed between the pilot compartment
and the passenger compartment to Com
ply with $121.313(f) of this chapter, the
emergency exit configuration of the air
plane must be designed so that neither
crewmembers nor passengers need use
that door in order to reach the emer
gency exits provided for them.
(b) The provisions of paragraph (a)
of this section do not apply to an airplane
that—
(1) Has a maximum passenger seating
configuration of 20 Seats or less; or
(2) Is excepted from the equipment
requirements of § 121.313(f) under the
provisions of § 12.1.583 (a) of this chapter.
[Doc. No. 10115, Amdt. 25–33, 37 F.R. 19608,
Sept. 21, 1972]
§ 25.773 Pilot compartment view.
(a) Nonprecipitation conditions. For
nonprecipitation conditions, the follow
ing apply:
(1) Each pilot compartment must be
arranged to give the pilots a Sufficiently
extensive, clear, and undistorted view, to
enable them to safely perform any
maneuvers within the operating limita
tions of the airplane, including taxiing,
takeoff, approach, and landing.
(2) Each pilot compartment must be
free of glare and reflection that could
interfere with the normal duties of the
minimum flight crew (established under
§ 25.1523). This must be shown in day
and night flight tests under nonprecipi
tation conditions.
(b) Precipitation conditions. For
precipitation conditions, the following
apply:
(1) The airplane must have a means
to maintain a clear portion of the wind
shield, during precipitation conditions,
sufficient for both pilots to have a suf
ficiently extensive view along the flight
path in normal flight attitudes of the
airplane. This means must be designed
to function, without continuous atten
tion on the part of the crew, in—
(i) Heavy rain at speeds up to 1.6
Vs, with flaps retracted; and
229
§ 25.775
(ii) The icing conditions Specified in
§ 25.1419 if certification with ice protec
tion provisions is requested.
(2) The first pilot must have a Window
that—
(1) When the cabin is not pressurized,
is openable under the conditions pre
scribed in subparagraph (1) of this para
graph and provides the view specified in
that paragraph; and
(ii) Gives sufficient protection from
the elements against impairment of the
pilot's Vision.
(c) Internal windshield and window
fogging. The airplane must have a means
to prevent fogging of the internal por
tions of the windshield and window
panels over an area which would pro
vide the visibility specified in paragraph
(a) Of this Section under all internal and
external ambient conditions, including
precipitation conditions, in which the
airplane is intended to be operated.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5676,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.775 Windshields and windows.
(a) Internal panes must be made of
nonSplintering material.
(b) Windshield panes directly in front
of the pilots in the normal conduct of
their duties, and the supporting struc
tures for these panes, must withstand,
Without penetration, the impact of a
four-pound bird when the velocity of the
airplane (relative to the bird along the
airplane's flight path) is equal to the
value of Vo, at sea level, selected under
§ 25.335(a).
(c) Unless it can be shown by analysis
or tests that the probability of occur
rence of a critical windshield fragmen
tation condition is of a low order, the
airplane must have a means to mini
mize the danger to the pilots from flying
windshield fragments due to bird impact,
This must be shown for each transparent
pane in the cockpit that—
(1) Appears in the front view of the
airplane;
(2) Is inclined 15 degrees or more to
the longitudinal axis of the airplane; and
(3) Has any part of the pane located
where its fragmentation will constitute a
hazard to the pilots.
(d) The design of windshields and
windows in pressurized airplanes must
be based on factors peculiar to high al
titude operation, including the effects of
§ 25.777 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
continuous and cyclic pressurization
loadings, the inherent characteristics of
the material used, and the effects of tem
peratures and temperature differentials.
The Windshield and Window panels must
be capable of withstanding the maximum
cabin pressure differential loads Com
bined with critical aerodynamic pressure
and temperature effects after any single
failure in the installation or associated
systems. It may be assumed that, after a
single failure that is obvious to the flight
crew (established under § 25.1523), the
cabin pressure differential is reduced
from the maximum, in accordance with
appropriate operating limitations,
allow continued safe flight of the airplane
with a cabin pressure altitude of not
more than 15,000 feet.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5676,
Apr. 8, 1970]
(f) The landing gear control must be
located forward of the throttles and must
be operable by each pilot when seated
With Seat belts fastened.
(g) Control knobs must be shaped in
accordance with $ 25.781. In addition,
the knobs must be of the same color, and
this color must contrast with the color
of control knobs for other purposes and
the Surrounding cockpit.
(h) If a flight engineer is required as
part of the minimum flight crew (estab
lished under § 25.1523), the airplane
must have a flight engineer station lo
to cated and arranged so that the flight
crewmembers can perform their func
tions efficiently and without interfering
With each other.
§ 25.779 Motion and effect of cockpit
controls.

§ 25.777 Cockpit controls. Cockpit controls must be designed so

that they operate in accordance with the
(a) Each cockpit control must be lo
following movement and actuation:
cated to provide convenient operation
(a) Aerodynamic controls:
and to prevent confusion and inadvertent
operation. (1) Primary.
(b) The direction of movement of Controls Motion and effect
cockpit controls must meet the require Aileron ---- Right (clockwise)) for right
ments of § 25.779. Wherever practica wing down.
Elevator --- Rearward for nose up.
ble, the sense of motion involved in the Rudder ---- Right pedal forward for nose
operation of other controls must corre right.
spond to the sense of the effect of the (2) Secondary.
operation upon the airplane or upon the Controls Motion and effect
part operated. Controls of a variable
Flaps (or auxil- Forward for flaps up;
nature using a rotary motion must move lary lift de- rearward for flaps
clockwise from the off position, through vices). down.
an increasing range, to the full on posi Trim tabs (or Rotate to produce sim
tion. equivalent). llar rotation of the
airplane about an axis
(c) The controls must be located and parallel to the axis of
arranged, with respect to the pilots' seats, the control.
so that there is full and unrestricted
movement of each control without inter (b) Powerplant and auxiliary con
trols:
ference from the cockpit structure or the
(1) Powerplant.
clothing of the minimum flight crew
Controls Motion and effect
(established under § 25.1523) when any
Throttles ---- Forward to increase forward
member of this flight crew, from 5'2'' to thrust and rearward to in
6'0’’ in height, is seated with the seat belt Crease rearWard thrust.
fastened. Propellers --- Forward to increase rpm.
(d) Identical powerplant controls for Mixture ----- Forward or upward for rich.

each engine must be located to prevent Carburetor air Forward or upward for cold.
heat.
confusion as to the engines they control. Super- Forward or upward for low
(e) Wing flap controls and other aux charger. blower. For turbosuper
iliary lift device controls must be located chargers, forward, upward,
on top of the pedestal, aft of the or clockwise, to increase
pressure.
throttles, centrally or to the right of
the pedestal centerline, and not less than (2) Auriliary.
10 inches aft of the landing gear con Controls Motion and effect
trol. Landing gear-------------- Down to extend.

2: 0
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration § 25.783

§ 25.781 Cockpit control knob shape.

Cockpit control knobs must conform to the general shapes (but not necessarily
: the exact sizes or specific proportions) in the following figure:

|
FLAP CONTROL KNOB LANDING GEAR CONTROL KNOB

– 11.
T
SUPERCHARGER CONTROL KNOB

THROTTLE CONTROL KNOB
§ 25.783 Doors.
(a) Each cabin must have at least one
easily accessible external door.
(b) There must be a means to lock
and safeguard each external door against
opening in flight (either inadvertently by
persons or as a result of mechanical
failure or failure of a single structural
element). Each external door must be
openable from both the inside and the
outside, even though persons may be
crowded against the door on the inside of
the airplane. Inward opening doors may
231
tº T.
RPM CONTROL KNOB
be used if there are means to prevent
occupants from crowding against the
door to an extent that would interfere
with the opening of the door. The
means of opening must be simple and ob
vious and must be arranged and marked
So that it can be readily located and
operated, even in darkness. Auxiliary
locking devices may be used.
(c) Each external door must be rea
Sonably free from jamming as a result of
fuselage deformation in a minor crash.
(d) Each external door must be lo
cated where persons using them will not
 § 25.785 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
be endangered by the propellers when
appropriate operating procedures are
used.
(e) There must be a provision for
direct visual inspection of the locking
mechanism by crewmembers to deter
mine Whether external doors, for which
the initial opening movement is outward
(including passenger, crew, service, and
Cargo doors), are fully locked. In addi
tion, there must be a visual means to
signal to appropriate crewmembers when
normally used external doors are closed
and fully locked.
(f) Cargo and Service doors not suit
able for use as an exit in an emergency
need only meet paragraph (e) of this
Section and be safeguarded against open
ing in flight as a result of mechanical
failure or failure of a single structural
element.
(g) Each passenger entry door in the
side of the fuselage must qualify as a
Type A, Type I, or Type II passenger
emergency exit and must meet the re
quirements of $$ 25.807 through 25.813
that apply to that type of passenger
emergency exit. If an integral stair is
installed at Such a passenger entry door,
the stair must be designed so that when
subjected to the inertia forces Specified
in § 25.561, and following the collapse
of one or more legs of the landing gear,
it will not interfere to an extent that will
reduce the effectiveness of emergency
egress through the passenger entry door
(Sec. 604, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424)
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25—15, 32 F.R. 13262,
Sept. 20, 1967; Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5676,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.785 Seats, berths, safety belts, and
harnesses.
(a) Each seat, berth, Safety belt, llar
ness, and adjacent part of the airplane
at each station designated as occupiable
during takeoff and landing must be
designed so that a person making proper
use of these facilities will not suffer
serious injury in an emergency landing
as a result of the inertia forces specified
in § 25.561.
(b) Each seat and berth must be ap
proved.
(c) Each occupant of a seat that
makes more than an 18° angle with the
vertical plane containing the airplane
centerline, must be protected from head
injury by a safety belt and an energy ab
sorbing rest that will support the arms,
shoulders, head, and spine, or by a safety
belt and shoulder harness that will pre
º
2 32
vent the head from contacting any in
jurious object. Each occupant of any
other seat must be protected from head
injury by a safety belt and, as appro
priate to the type, location, and angle of
facing of each seat, by one or more of
the following:
(1) A shoulder harness that will pre
Vent the head from Contacting any in
jurious object.
(2). The elimination of any injurious
object within striking radius of the head.
(3) An energy absorbing rest that will
Support the arms, shoulders, head, and
Sp1116.
(d) If the seat backs do not have a
firm hand hold, there must be a hand
grip or rail along each aisle to enable
Occupants to steady themselves while
using the aisles in moderately rough air.
(e) Each projecting object that would
injure persons seated or moving about the
airplane in normal flight must be padded.
(f) Each berth must be designed so
that the forward part has a padded end
board, canvas diaphragm, or equivalent
means, that can withstand the static load
reaction of the occupant when subjected
to the forward inertia force specified in
$ 25.561. Berths must be free from
Corners and protuberances likely to cause
serious injury to a person Occupying the
berth during emergency conditions.
(g) Each crewmember seat at flight
deck stations must have provisions for
a shoulder harness. These seats must
meet the strength requirements of par
agraph (i) of this section.
(h) Cabin attendant seats must be in
the passenger compartment near ap
proved floor level emergency exits.
(i) Each seat berth, and its support
ing structure, must be designed for an
occupant Weight of 170 pounds, consider
ing the maximum load factors, inertia
forces, and reactions between the occu
pant, Seat, and Safety belt or harness, at
each relevant flight and ground load con
dition (including the emergency landing
conditions prescribed in § 25.561). For
berths, the forward inertia force must be
considered in accordance with paragraph
(f) of this Section and need not be con
sidered with respect to the safety belt.
In addition—
(1) The structural analysis and test
ing of the seats, berths, and their sup
porting structures may be determined
by—
(i) Assuming that the critical load in
the forward, sideward, downward, and
rearward directions (as determined from
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
the prescribed flight, ground, and emer
gency landing conditions) acts sepa
rately; and
(ii) Using selected combinations of
loads if the required strength in each
specified direction is Substantiated;
(2) Each pilot seat must be designed
for the reactions resulting from the ap
plication of the pilot forces prescribed
in § 25.395; and
(3) The inertia forces specified in
§ 25.561 must be multiplied by a factor of
1.33 (instead of the fitting factor pre
scribed in § 25.625) in determining the
strength of the attachment of—
(i) Each seat to the Structure; and
(ii) Each belt or harness to the seat
or structure.
(Sec. 604, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424)
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25—15, 32 F.R. 18262,
Sept. 20, 1967; Amdt. 25–20, 34 F.R. 5544,
Mar. 22, 1969; Amdt. 25–32, 37 F.R. 3969,
Feb. 24, 1972]
§ 25.787 Stowage compartments.
(a) Each compartment for the stowage
of cargo, baggage, carry-on articles, and
equipment (such as life rafts), and any
other stowage compartment must be de
signed for its placarded maximum weight
of contents and for the critical load dis
tribution at the appropriate maximum
load factors corresponding to the speci
fied flight and ground load conditions,
and to the emergency landing conditions
of § 25.561 (b), except that the forces
specified in the emergency landing condi
tions need not be applied to compart
ments located below, or forward, of all
occupants in the airplane. If the airplane
has a passenger Seating configuration,
excluding pilots seats, of 10 seats or
more, each stowage compartment in the
passenger cabin, except for underseat
and overhead compartments for passen
ger convenience, must be completely
enclosed.
(b) There must be a means to prevent
the contents in the compartments from
becoming a hazard by shifting, under the
loads specified in paragraph (a) of this
section.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–32, 37 F.R. 3969,
Feb. 24, 1972.]
§ 25.789 Retention of items of mass in
passenger and crew compartments.
Means must be provided to prevent
each item of mass (that is part of the
airplane type design) in a passenger or
crew compartment from becoming a
o
39–059–75—16 2 º) 3
§ 25.801
hazard by shifting under the appropriate
maximum load factors corresponding to
the Specified flight and ground load con
ditions, and to the emergency landing
conditions of § 25.561 (b).
[Amdt. 25–32, 37 F.R. 3969, Feb. 24, 1972.]
§ 25.791 Passenger information signs.
When passenger information signs are
installed to comply with the operating
rules of this chapter, at least one sign
(using either letters or symbols) notify
ing when Smoking is prohibited and one
Sign (using either letters or symbols)
notifying when safety belts should be
fastened must, when illuminated, be legi
ble to each person seated in the passen
ger cabin under all probable conditions
of cabin illumination. Signs which notify
When Safety belts should be fastened and
When Smoking is prohibited must be so
Constructed that the crew can turn them
On and Off.
[Amdt. 25–32, 37 F.R. 3969, Feb. 24, 1972]
EMERGENCY PROVISIONS
§ 25.801 Ditching.
(a) If certification with ditching pro
visions is requested, the airplane must
meet the requirements of this section
and §§ 25.807 (d), 25.1411, and 25.1415(a).
(b) Each practicable design measure,
compatible with the general character
istics of the airplane, must be taken to
minimize the probability that in an
emergency landing on water, the be
havior of the airplane would cause im
mediate injury to the occupants or would
make it impossible for them to escape.
(c) The probable behavior of the air
plane in a water landing must be investi
gated by model tests or by comparison
With airplanes of similar configuration
for which the ditching characteristics
are known. Scoops, flaps, projections,
and any other factor likely to affect the
hydrodynamic characteristics of the air
plane, must be considered.
(d) It must be shown that, under rea
Sonably probable water conditions, the
flotation time and trim of the airplane
Will allow the occupants to leave the
airplane and enter the liferafts required
by § 25.1415. If compliance with this
provision is shown by buoyancy and trim
Computations, appropriate allowances
must be made for probable structural
damage and leakage. If the airplane has
fuel tanks (with fuel jettisoning provi
Slons) that can reasonably be expected
to withstand a ditching without leakage,
§ 25.803 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
the jettisonable volume of fuel may be
considered as buoyancy volume.
(e) Unless the effects of the collapse
of external doors and Windows are ac
counted for in the investigation of the
probable behavior of the airplane in a
water landing (as prescribed in para
graphs (c) and (d) of this section), the
external doors and windows must be de
signed to withstand the probable maxi
mum local pressures.
§ 25.803 Emergency evacuation.
(a) Each crew and passenger
must have emergency means to allow
rapid evacuation in crash landings, with
the landing gear extended and retracted,
considering the possibility of the air
plane being on fire.
(b) Passenger ventral and tail cone
exits and any floor level door or exit in
the side of the fuselage (other than those
leading into a cargo or baggage
partment that is not accessible
the passenger cabin) that is 44 or
inches high and 20 or more inches
but not wider than 46 inches, must meet
the applicable emergency exit require
ments of this section and §§ 25.807
through 25.813.
(c) Except as provided in paragraph
(d) of this section, on airplanes having
a seating capacity of more than 44 pas
sengers, it must be shown by actual dem
onstration that the maximum seating
capacity, including the number of crew
members required by the operating rules,
for which certification is requested can
be evacuated from the airplane to the
ground within 90 seconds. Evacuees us
ing stands or ramps allowed by Subpara
graph (8) of this paragraph are con
sidered to be on the ground when they
are on the stand or ramp, provided that
the passage width of the stand or ramp
is no greater than the acceptance rate
of the means available on the airplane
for descent from the wing during an ac
tual crash situation. The demonstration
must be conducted under the following
conditions:
(1) It must be conducted either dur
ing the dark of the night or during day
light with the dark of the night simu
lated, utilizing only the emergency light
ing system and utilizing only the mini
mum number of required emergency
exits and the emergency evacuation
equipment on one side of the fuselage
with the airplane in the normal ground
attitude, with landing gear extended.
(2) All emergency equipment must be
installed in accordance with specified
limitations of the equipment.
(3) Each external door and exit, and
each internal door and curtain must be
in a configuration to simulate a normal
takeoff.
(4) Seat belts and shoulder harnesses
(as required) must be fastened.
(5) A representative passenger load of
persons in normal health must be used
as follows:
(i) At least 30 percent must be female.
area (ii) Approximately 5 percent must be
over 60 years of age, with a proportion
ate number of females.
(iii) At least 5 percent but no more
than 10 percent must be children under
12 years of age, prorated through that
age group.
(6) Persons who have knowledge of
the operation of the exits and emergency
com equipment may be used to represent an
from air carrier crew. Such representative
more crewmembers must be in their seats as
wide, signed for takeoff and landing and none
may be seated next to an emergency exit
unless that seat is his assigned seat for
takeoff. They must remain in their as
signed seats until receiving the signal
for the beginning of the demonstration.
(7) There can be no practice or re
hearsal of the demonstration for the pas
sengers except that they may be briefed
as to the location of all emergency exits
before the demonstration. However, no
indication may be given of the particular
exits to be used in the demonstration.
(8) Stands or ramps may be used for
descent from the wing to the ground.
(9) All evacuees other than those us
ing an overwing exit must leave the air
plane by the means provided as part of
the airplane's equipment.
(d) The emergency evacuation dem
onstration need not be repeated after a
change in the interior arrangement of
the airplane or an increase of not more
than 5 percent in passenger seating
capacity over that previously approved
by actual demonstration, or both, if it
can be substantiated by analysis, taking
due account of the differences, that all
the passengers for which the airplane
is certificated can evacuate within 90
Seconds.
(e) An escape route must be estab
lished from each overwing emergency
exit, and (except for flap surfaces suit
able as slides) covered with a slip re
sistant surface. Except where a means for
234
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
channeling the flow of evacuees is
provided—
(1) The escape route must be at least
42 inches wide at Type A passenger emer
gency exits and must be at least 2 feet
wide at all other passenger emergency
exits, and
(2) The escape route surface must have
a reflectance of at least 80 percent, and
must be defined by markings with a Sur
face-to-marking contrast ratio of at least
5.1.
(Sec. 604, 72 Stat. 778; 49 U.S.C. 1424)
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25—15, 32 F.R. 13262,
sept. 20, 1967; Amdt. 25–17, 33 F.R. 9066,
June 20, 1968; Amdt. 25–20, 34 F.R. 5544,
Mar. 22, 1969; Amdt. 25–32, 37 F.R. 3969,
Feb. 24, 1972]
§ 25.805 Flight crew emergency exits.
Except for airplanes with a passenger
capacity of 20 or less in which the prox
imity of passenger emergency exits to
the flight crew area offers a convenient
and readily accessible means of evacua
tion for the ſlight crew, the following
apply:
(a) There must be either one exit on
each side of the airplane or a top hatch,
in the flight crew area.
(b) Each exit must be of sufficient size
and must be located so as to allow rapid
evacuation of the crew. An exit size and
shape of other than at least 19 by 20
inches unobstructed rectangular opening
may be used only if exit utility is Satis
factorily shown, by a typical flight crew
member, to the Administrator.
§ 25.807 Passenger emergency exits.
(a) Type and location. For the pur
pose of this part, the types and locations
of exits are as follows:
(1) Type I. This type must have a
rectangular opening of not less than 24
inches wide by 48 inches high, With
corner radil not greater than one-third
the width of the exit. Type I exits must
be floor level exits.
(2) Type II. This type must have a
rectangular opening of not less than 20
inches wide by 44 inches high, with
corner radii not greater than one-third
the width of the exit. Type II exits must
be floor level exits unless located over
the wing, in which case they may not
have a step-up inside the airplane of
more than 10 inches nor a stepdown out
side the airplane of more than 17 inches.
(3) Type III. This type must have a
rectangular opening of not less than 20
inches wide by 36 inches high, with corner
235
§ 25.807
radii not greater than one-third the
Width of the exit, and with a step-up in
side the airplane of not more than 20
inches. If the exit is located over the
Wing the step-down outside the airplane
may not exceed 27 inches.
(4) Type IV. This type must have a
rectangular opening of not less than 19
inches wide by 26 inches high, with
Corner radii not greater than one-third
the width of the exit, located over the
Wing, with a step-up inside the airplane
of not more than 29 inches and a step
down outside the airplane of not more
than 36 inches.
(5) Ventral. This type is an exit from
the passenger compartment through the
pressure shell and the bottom fuselage
skin. The dimensions and physical con
figuration of this type of exit must allow
at least the same rate of egress as a Type
I with the airplane in the normal ground
attitude, with landing gear extended.
(6) Tail come. This type is an aft exit
from the passenger compartment
through the pressure shell and through
an Openable cone of the fuselage aft of
the pressure shell. The means of opening
the tail cone must be simple and obvious,
and must employ a single operation.
(7) Type A. An emergency exit may
be designated as a Type A exit if the fol
lowing criteria are met:
(i) There must be a rectangular open
Ing not less than 42 inches wide by 72
inches high, with corner radii not greater
than one-sixth of the width of the exit.
(ii) It must be a floor level exit.
(iii) Unless there are two or more
main (fore and aft) aisles, the exit must
be located so that there is passenger flow
along the main aisle to that exit from
both the forward and aft direction.
(iv) There must be an unobstructed
passageway at least 36 inches wide lead
ing from each exit to the nearest main
aisle.
(v) If two or more main aisles are
provided, there must be unobstructed
cross alsles at least 20 inches wide be
tween main aisles. There must be a cross
aisle leading directly to each passageway
between the exit and the nearest main
aisle.
(vi) There must be a least one seat
adjacent to each Such exit that could
be occupied by a flight attendant.
(vii) Adequate assist Space next to
each Type A exit must be provided at
each side of the passageway, to allow the
crewmember(s) to assist in the evacua
tion of passengers without reducing the
§ 25.807 Title 14—Aeronqutics and Space
unobstructed width of the passageway
below that required by subdivision (iv)
of this subparagraph.
(viii) At each non-over-wing exit
there must be installed a slide capable
of carrying simultaneously two parallel
lines of evacuees.
(ix) Each overwing exit having
stepdown must have an assist means un
less the exit without an assist means can
be shown to have a rate of passenger
egress at least equal to that of the same
type of non-over-wing exit. If an assist
means is required it must be automati
cally deployed, and automatically erected,
concurrent with the opening of the exit
and self-supporting within 10 seconds.
Stepdown distance as used in this section
means the actual distance between the
bottom of the required opening and a
usable foothold, extending out from the
fuselage, that is large enough to be ef
fective without searching by sight or
feel.
(b) Accessibility. Each required pas
senger emergency exit must be accessible
to the passengers and located where it
will afford the most effective means of
passenger evacuation. Openings larger
than those specified in this section,
whether or not of rectangular shape, may
be used if–
(1) The specified rectangular opening
can be inscribed within the opening; and
(2) The base of the inscribed rectan
gular opening meets the specified step
up and step-down heights.
(c) Passenger emergency eſcits. The
prescribed exits need not be diametrical
ly opposite each other nor identical in
size and location on both sides. They must
be distributed as uniformly as prac
ticable taking into account passenger
distribution. If only one floor level exit
per side is prescribed, and the airplane
does not have a tail cone or ventral
emergency exit, the floor level exits must
be in the rearward part of the passenger
compartment, unless another location
affords a more effective means of pas
senger evacuation. Where more than one
floor level exit per side is prescribed, at
least one floor level exit per side must be
located near each end of the cabin, ex
cept that this provision does not apply
to combination cargo/passenger Con
figurations. Exits must be provided as
follows:
(1) Except as provided in Subpara
graphs (2) through (6) of this para
graph, the number and type of passenger
emergency exits must be in accordance
with the following table:
Emergency exits for each
Passenger seating side of the ſuselage
configuration (crewmember —
seats not included) Type
I
Tire Type Type
III 1.V.
a
1 through 9-------------------------------------- 1
10 through 19
20 through 39----
40 through 79---------------
80 through 109--- -
110 through 139--
140 through 179--
(2) An increase in the passenger seat
ing configuration above the maximum
permitted under subparagraph (1) of
this paragraph but not to exceed a total
of 299 seats may be allowed in accord
ance with the following table for each
additional pair of emergency exits in
excess of the minimum number pre
scribed in subparagraph (1) of this para
graph for 179 passenger seats:
Additional Increase
emergency in
eacits passenger
(each side seating
of config
fuselage): turation
allowed
Type A------------------ 100
Type I------------------ 45
Type II----------------- 40
Type III---------------- 35
(3) For passenger seating configura
tions in excess of 299 seats, each emer
gency exit in the side of the fuselage
must be either a Type A or Type I. A
passenger seating configuration of 100
seats is allowed for each pair of Type A
exits and a passenger Seating configura
tion of 45 seats is allowed for each pair
of Type I exits.
(4) If a passenger ventral or tail cone
exit is installed and can be shown to
allow a rate of egress at least equivalent
to that of a Type III exit with the air
plane in the most adverse exit opening
condition because of the collapse of one
or more legs of the landing gear, an in
crease in the passenger Seating con
figuration beyond the limits specified in
subparagraph (1), (2), or (3) of this
paragraph may be allowed as follows:
(i) For a Ventral exit, 12 additional
passenger seats.
(ii) For a tail cone exit incorporating
a floor level opening of not less than 20
inches wide by 60 inches high, with cor
ner radii not greater than one-third the
width of the exit. in the pressure shell
236
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
and incorporating an approved assist
means in accordance with $ 25.809 (f) (1),
25 additional passenger Seats.
(iii) For a tail cone exit incorporating
an opening in the pressure shell which
is at least equivalent to a Type III emer
gency exit with respect to dimensions,
step-up and step-down distance, and
with the top of the opening not less than
56 inches from the passenger compart
ment floor, 15 additional passenger seats.
(5) For airplanes on which the ver
tical location of the wing does not allow
the installation of overwing exits, an exit
of at least the dimensions of a Type III
exit must be installed instead of each
Type IV exit required by subparagraph
(1) of this paragraph.
(6) Each emergency exit in the pas
senger compartment in excess of the
minimum number of required emergency
exits must meet the applicable require
ments of §§ 25.809 through 25.812, and
must be readily accessible.
(d) Ditching emergency eſcits for pas
sengers. Ditching emergency exits must
be provided in accordance with the fol
lowing requirements, unless the emer
gency exits required by paragraph (c) of
this section already meet them:
(1) For airplanes that have a pas
senger seating configuration, excluding
pilots seats, of nine seats or less, One
exit above the waterline in each side of
the airplane, meeting at least the dimen
sions of a Type IV exit.
(2) For airplanes that have a pas
senger seating configuration, excluding
pilots seats, of 10 seats or more, one exit
above the Waterline in a side of the air
plane, meeting at least the dimensions
of a Type III exit, for each unit (or part
of a unit) of 35 passenger seats, but no
less than two such exits in the passenger
cabin, With One on each side of the air
plane. However, where it has been shown
through analysis, ditching demonstra
tions, or any other tests found necessary
by the Administrator, that the evacua
tion capability of the airplane during
ditching is improved by the use of larger
exits, or by other means, the passenger
Seat/exit ratio may be increased.
(3) If side exits cannot be above the
waterline, the side exits must be replaced
by an equal number of readily accessible
overhead hatches of not less than the
dimensions of a Type III exit except that,
for airplanes with a passenger configura
tion, excluding pilots seats, of 35 seats
or less, the two required Type III side
2 7
§ 25.809
exits need be replaced by only One Over
head hatch.
(Sec. 604, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424)
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25—15, 32 F.R. 13263,
Sept. 20, 1967; Amdt. 25–32, 37 F.R. 3969,
Feb. 24, 1972]
§ 25.809 Emergency exit arrangement.
(a) Each emergency exit, including a
flight crew emergency exit, must be a
movable door or hatch in the external
walls of the fuselage, allowing unob
structed opening to the outside.
(b) Each emergency exit must be
openable from the inside and the outside
except that sliding window emergency
exits in the flight crew area need not be
openable from the outside if other ap
proved exits are convenient and readily
accessible to the flight crew area. Each
emergency exit must be capable of being
opened, when there is no fuselage
deformation—
(1) With the airplane in the normal
ground attitude and in each of the at
titudes corresponding to collapse of one
or more legs of the landing gear; and
(2) Within 10 seconds measured from
the time when the opening means is
actuated to the time when the exit is
fully opened.
(c) The means of Opening emergency
exists must be simple and obvious and
may not require exceptional effort. In
ternal exit-opening means involving Se
quence operations (such as operation of
two handles or latches or the release of
safety catches) may be used for flight
crew emergency exits if it can be rea
sonably established that these means
are simple and obvious to crewmembers
trained in their use.
(d) There must be a means to lock
each emergency exit and to safeguard
against its opening in flight, either in
advertently by persons or as a result of
mechanical failure. In addition, there
must be a means for direct visual inspec
tion of the locking mechanism by crew
members to determine that each emer
gency exit, for which the initial opening
movement is outward, is fully locked.
(e) There must be provisions to mini
mize the probability of jamming of the
emergency exits resulting from fuse
lage deformation in a minor crash land
ling.
(f) Each landplane emergency exit
(other than exits located over the Wing)
more than 6 feet from the ground with
the airplane on the ground and the land
§ 25.811 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
ing gear extended must have an approved
means to assist the occupants in de
scending to the ground as follows:
(1) The assisting means for each pas
senger emergency exit must be a self
supporting slide or equivalent, and must
be designed to meet the following
requirementS:
(i) It must be automatically deployed
and deployment must begin during the
interval between the time the exit Open
ing means is actuated from inside the
airplane and the time the exit is fully
opened. However, each passenger emer
gency exit which is also a passenger en
trance door or a service door must be
provided with means to prevent deploy
ment of the assisting means when it is
opened from either the inside or the
outside under non-emergency conditions
for normal use.
(ii) It must be automatically erected
within 10 seconds after deployment is
begun.
(iii) It must be of such length that the
lower end is self-supporting on the
ground after collapse of one or more legs
of the landing gear.
(2) The assisting means for flight
crew emergency exits may be a rope or
any other means demonstrated to be
suitable for the purpose. If the assisting
means is a rope, or an approved device
equivalent to a rope, it must be—
(1) Attached to the fuselage structure
at or above the top of the emergency
exit opening, or, for a device at a pilot's
emergency exit window, at another ap
proved location if the Stowed device, or
its attachment, would reduce the pilot's
view in flight;
(g) Each emergency exit must be
shown by tests, or by a combination of
analysis and tests, to meet the require
ments of paragraphs (b) and (c) of this
Section.
(h) If the place on the airplane struc
ture at which the escape route required
in § 25.803 (e) terminates is more than 6
feet from the ground with the airplane
On the ground and the landing gear ex
tended, means must be provided to assist
evacuees (who have used the overwing
exits) to reach the ground. If the escape
route is over a flap, the height of the
terminal edge must be measured with the
flap in the takeoff or landing position,
whichever is higher from the ground. The
assisting means must be of such length
that the lower end is self-supporting on
the ground after collapse of any one or
more landing gear legs.
23S
(i) If a single power-boost or single
power-operated system is the primary
System for Operating more than one exit
in an emergency, each exit must be
capable of meeting the requirements of
paragraph (b) of this section in the event
of failure of the primary System. Manual
operation of the exit (after failure of
the primary system) is acceptable.
(j) When required by the Operating
rules for any large passenger-carrying
turbojet-powered airplane, each ventral
exit and tailcone exit must be—
(1) Designed and constructed so that
it cannot be opened during flight; and
(2) Marked with a placard readable
from a distance of 30 inches and in
stalled at a conspicuous location near the
means of opening the exit, stating that
the exit has been designed and con
structed so that it cannot be opened dur
ing flight.
(Sec. 604, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424)
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25—15, 32 F.R. 13264,
Sept. 20, 1967; Amdt. 25–32, 37 F.R. 3970,
Feb. 24, 1972; Amdt. 25–34, 37 F.R. 25355,
Nov.30, 1972.]
§ 25.811 Emergency exit marking.
(a) Each passenger emergency exit, its
means of access, and its means of open
ing must be conspicuously marked.
(b) The identity and location of each
passenger emergency exit must be recog
nizable from a distance equal to the
width of the cabin.
(c) Means must be provided to assist
the occupants in locating the exits in
conditions of dense smoke.
(d) The location of each passenger
emergency exit must be indicated by a
sign visible to occupants approaching
along the main passenger aisle (or
aisles). There must be—
(1) A passenger emergency exit lo
cator sign above the aisle (or aisles) near
each passenger emergency exit, or at
another overhead location if it is more
practical because of low headroom, ex
cept that one sign may serve more than
One exit if each exit can be seen
readily from the sign;
(2) A passenger emergency exit
marking sign next to each passenger
emergency exit, except that one sign
may serve two such exits if they both
can be seen readily from the sign; and
(3) A sign on each bulkhead or di
vider that prevents fore and aft vision
along the passenger cabin to indicate
emergency exits beyond and obscured by
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
the bulkhead or divider, except that if
this is not possible the sign may be
placed at another appropriate location.
(e) The location of the operating
handle and instructions for opening the
exit from the inside must be shown as
follows:
(1) For each passenger emergency
exit, by a marking on or near the exit
that is readable from a distance of 30
inches. In addition, the operating handle
for each Type III passenger emergency
exit must be self-illuminated with an
initial brightness of at least 160 micro
lamberts. If the operating handle is
covered, self-illuminated cover removal
instructions having an initial brightness
of at least 160 microlamberts must also
be provided.
(2) For each Type A, Type I, or Type
II passenger emergency exit with a lock
ing mechanism released by rotary motion
of the handle, by—
(i) A red arrow, with a shaft at least
three-fourths inch wide and a head twice
the width of the shaft, extending along at
least 70° of arc at a radius approximately
equal to three-fourths of the handle
length; and
(ii) The word “open” in red letters 1
inch high, placed horizontally near the
head of the arrow.
(f) Each emergency exit that is re
quired to be openable from the outside,
and its means of opening, must be
marked on the outside of the airplane.
In addition, the following apply:
(1) The outside marking for each pas
senger emergency exit in the side of the
fuselage must include a 2-inch colored
band outlining the exit.
(2) Each outside marking including
the band, must have color contrast to be
readily distinguishable from the Sur
rounding fuselage surface. The contrast
must be such that if the reflectance
of the darker color is 15 percent or less,
the reflectance of the lighter color must
be at least 45 percent. “Reflectance” is
the ratio of the luminous flux reflected
by a body to the luminous flux it receives.
When the reflectance of the darker color
is greater than 15 percent, at least a
30-percent difference between its reflect
ance and the reflectance of the lighter
color must be provided.
(3) In the case of exists other than
those in the side of the fuselage, such as
ventral or tail cone exists, the external
means of opening, including instructions
if applicable, must be conspicuously
marked in red, or bright chrome yellow
239
§ 25.812
if the background color is such that red is
inconspicuous. When the opening means
is located on only one side of the fuselage,
a conspicuous marking to that effect must
be provided on the other side.
(g) Each sign required by paragraph
(d) of this section may use the word
“exit” in its legend in place of the term
“emergency exit”.
(Sec. 604, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424)
[Amdt. 25—15, 32 F.R. 13264, Sept. 20, 1967,
as amended by Amdt. 25–32, 37 F.R. 3970,
Feb. 24, 1972.]
§ 25.812 Emergency lighting.
(a) An emergency lighting system, in
dependent of the main lighting system,
must be installed. However, the sources
of general cabin illumination may be
common to both the emergency and the
main lighting systems if the power Sup
ply to the emergency lighting system is
independent of the power supply to the
main lighting system. The emergency
lighting System must include:
(1) Illuminated emergency exit mark
ing and locating signs, sources of general
cabin illumination, and interior lighting
in emergency exit areas.
(2) Exterior emergency lighting.
(b) Emergency exit signs—
(1) For airplanes that have a pas
Senger seating configuration, excluding
pilot Seats, of 10 seats or more must
meet the following requirements:
(i) Each passenger emergency exit lo
cator sign required by § 25.811 (d) (1) and
each passenger emergency exit marking
Sign required by § 25.811 (d) (2) must have
red letters at least 1% inches high on
an illuminated white background, and
must have an area of at least 21 square
inches excluding the letters. The lighted
background-to-letter contrast must be
at least 10:1. The letter height to stroke
width ratio may not be more than 7:1
nor less than 6:1. These signs must be
internally electrically illuminated with
a background brightness of at least 25
foot-lamberts and a high-to-low back
ground contrast no greater than 3:1.
(ii) Each passenger emergency exit
sign required by § 25.811 (d) (3) must
have red letters at least 1% inches high
On a white background having an area
of at least 21 square inches excluding
the letters. These signs must be inter
nally electrically illuminated or self
illuminated by other than electrical
means and must have an initial bright
ness of at least 400 microlamberts. The
colors may be reversed in the case of a
§ 25.812 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
sign that is self-illuminated by other
than electrical means.
(2) For airplanes that have a pas
senger seating configuration, excluding
pilot Seats, of nine seats or less, that are
required by § 25.811(d) (1), (2), and (3)
must have red letters at least 1 inch
high on a white background at least 2
inches high. These signs may be inter
nally electrically illuminated, or self
illuminated by other than electrical
means, with an initial brightness of at
least 160 microlamberts. The colors may
be reversed in the case of a sign that is
Self-illuminated by other than electrical
meanS.
(c) General illumination in the pas
Senger cabin must be provided so that
when measured along the centerline of
main passenger aisle (S), and cross
aisle (s) between main aisles, at seat arm
rest height and at 40-inch intervals, the
average illumination is not less than
0.05 foot-candle and the illumination at
each 40-inch interval is not les than 0.01
foot-candle. A main passenger aisle (s)
is considered to extend along the fuselage
from the most forward passenger emer
gency exit or cabin Occupant seat, which
ever is farther forward, to the most rear
ward passenger emergency exit or cabin
occupant seat, whichever is farther aft.
(d) The floor of the passageway lead
ing to each floor-level passenger emer
gency exit, between the main aisles and
the exit openings, must be provided with
illumination that is not less than 0.02
foot-candle measured along a line that
is within 6 inches of and parallel to the
floor and is centered on the passenger
evacuation path.
(e) Except for subsystems provided in
accordance with paragraph (g) of this
Section that serve no more than one as
sist means, are independent of the air
plane's main emergency lighting system,
and are automatically activated when
the assist means is erected, the emer
gency lighting system must be designed
as follows.
(1) The lights must be operable man
ually from the flight crew station and (if
required by the operating rules of this
chapter) from a point in the passenger
compartment that is readily accessible
to a normal flight attendant seat.
(2) There must be a flight crew warn
ing light which illuminates when power
is on in the airplane and emergency light
ing control device is neither armed nor
turned On.
24()
(3) When armed or turned on, the
lights must remain lighted or become
lighted upon interruption (except an in
terruption caused by a transverse verti
cal separation of the fuselage during
crash landing) of the airplane's normal
electric power. There must be means to
safeguard against inadvertent operation
of the control device from the “armed”
or “on” position.
(f) Exterior emergency lighting must
be provided as follows:
(1) At each overwing emergency exit
the illumination must be—
(i) Not less than 0.03 foot-candle
(measured normal to the direction of the
incident light) on a 2-square-foot area
where an evacuee is likely to make his
first step outside the cabin;
(ii) Not less than 0.05 foot-candle
(measured normal to the direction of the
incident light) for a minimum width of
42 inches for a Type A overwing emer
gency exit and of 2 feet for all other
overwing emergency exits along the 30
percent of the slip-resistant portion of
the escape route required in § 25.803(e)
that is farthest from the exit; and
(iii) Not less than 0.03 foot-candle on
the ground surface with the landing gear
extended (measured normal to the direc
tion of the incident light) where an
evacuee using the established escape
route would normally make first contact
with the ground.
(2) At each non-overwing emergency
exit not required by § 25.809 (f) to have
descent assist means the illumination
must be not less than 0.03 foot-candle
(measured normal to the direction of the
incident light) on the ground surface
with the landing gear extended where an
evacuee is likely to make his first contact.
with the ground outside the cabin.
(g) The means required in § 25.809
(f) (1) and (h) to assist the occupants
in descending to the ground must be illu
minated so that the erected assist means
is visible from the airplane.
(1) If the assist means is illuminated
by exterior emergency lighting, it must
provide illumination of not less than
0.03 foot-candle (measured normal to
the direction of the incident light) at
the ground end of the erected assist
means where an evacuee using the estab
lished escape route would normally make
first contact with the ground, with the
airplane in each of the attitudes cor
responding to the collapse of one or more
legs of the landing gear.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(2) If the emergency lighting sub
system illuminating the assist means
serves no other assist means, is inde
pendent of the airplane's main emer
gency lighting system, and is auto
matically activated when the assist
means is erected, the lighting provi
SlonS—
(i) May not be adversely affected by
Stowage; and
(ii) Must provide illumination of not
leSS than 0.03 foot-candle (measured
normal to the direction of incident light)
at the ground and of the erected assist
means where an evacuee would normally
make first contact with the ground, with
the airplane in each of the attitudes
corresponding to the collapse of one or
more legs of the landing gear.
(h) The energy supply to each emer
gency lighting unit must provide the re
quired level of illumination for at least
10 minutes at the critical ambient con
ditions after emergency landing.
(1) If storage batteries are used as the
energy supply for the emergency lighting
System, they may be recharged from the
airplane's main electric power system:
Provided, That, the charging circuit is
designed to preclude inadvertent battery
discharge into charging circuit faults.
(j) Components of the emergency
lighting system, including batteries, wir
ing relays, lamps, and switches must be
Capable of normal operation after hav
ing been subjected to the inertia forces
listed in § 25.561 (b).
(k) The emergency lighting System
must be designed so that after any single
transverse vertical separation of the
fuselage during crash landing—
(1) Not more than 25 percent of all
electrically illuminated emergency lights
required by this section are rendered
inoperative, in addition to the lights
that are directly damaged by the sep
aration;
(2) Each electrically illuminated exit
sign required under § 25.811(d) (2) re
mains operative exclusive of those that
are directly damaged by the separation;
and
(3) At least one required exterior
emergency light for each side of the air
plane remains operative exclusive of
those that are directly damaged by the
Separation.
(Sec. 604, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424)
[Amdt. 25—15, 32 F.R. 13265, Sept. 20, 1967,
as amended by Amdt. 25–28, 36 F.R. 16899,
Aug. 26, 1971; Amdt. 25–32. 37 F.R. 3971,
Feb. 24, 1972]
241
§ 25.813
§ 25.813 Emergency exit access.
(a) There must be a passageway be
tween individual passenger areas, and
leading from each aisle to each Type I
and Type II emergency exit. These pas
sageways must be unobstructed and at
least 20 inches wide.
(b) For each passenger emergency
exit covered by § 25.809 (f), there must be
enough space next to the exit to allow a
crewmember to assist in the evacuation
of passengers without reducing the un
obstructed width of the passageway be
low that required for the exit.
(c) There must be access from each
aisle to each Type III or Type IV exit,
and—
(1) For airplanes that have a
passenger seating configuration, exclud
ing pilot seats, of 20 or more, the
projected opening of the exit provided
must not be obstructed by seats, berths,
or other protrusions (including seat
backs in any position) for a distance
from that exit not less than the width
of the narrowest passenger seat installed
On the airplane;
(2) For airplanes that have a pas
senger seating configuration, excluding
pilots seats, of 19 or less, there may be
minor obstructions in this region, if
there are compensating factors to main
tain the effectiveness of the exit.
(d) If it is necessary to pass through a
passageway between passenger compart
ments to reach any required emergency
exit from any seat in the passenger
cabin, the passageway must be unob
structed. However, curtains may be
used if they allow free entry through the
paSSageWay.
(e) No door may be installed in any
partition between passenger compart
mentS.
(f) If it is necessary to pass through
a doorway separating the passenger cabin
from other areas to reach any required
emergency exit from any passenger seat,
the door must have a means to latch it
in open position. The latching means
must be able to withstand the loads in
posed upon it when the door is subjected
to the ultimate inertia forces, relative to
the surrounding structure, listed in
§ 25.561 (b) .
(Sec. 604, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424)
[Amdt. 25-1, 30 F.R. 3204, Mar. 9. 1965, as
amended by Amdt. 25—15, 32 F.R. 13265,
Sept. 20, 1967; Amdt. 25–32, 37 F.R. 3971,
Feb. 24, 1972]
§ 25.815 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 25.815 Width of aisle.
The passenger aisle width at any point
between seats must equal or exceed the
values in the following table:
Minimum passenger
aisle width (inches)
Passenger seating capacity
Less than || 25 inches
25 inches and Inore
from floor from floor
10 or less---------------------- 12
11 through 19.----------------- 12
20 or more-------------------- 15
(Sec. 604, 72 Stat. 778; 49 U.S.C. 1424)
[Amdt. 25—15, 32 F.R. 13265, Sept. 20, 1967]
§ 25.817 Maximum number of seats
abreast.
On airplanes having only one passen
ger aisle, no more than 3 seats abreast
may be placed on each side of the aisle
in any one row.
(Sec. 604, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424)
[Amdt. 25—15, 32 F.R. 13265, Sept. 20, 1967]
VENTILATION AND HEATING
§ 25.831 Wentilation.
(a) Each passenger and crew com
partment must be ventilated, and each
Crew Compartment must have enough
fresh air (but not less than 10 cu. ft. per
minute per crewmember) to enable crew
members to perform their duties without
undue discomfort or fatigue.
(b) Crew and passenger compartment
air must be free from harmful or hazard
ous concentrations of gases or vapors.
In meeting this requirement, the follow
ing apply:
(1) Carbon monoxide concentrations
in excess of one part in 20,000 parts of
air are considered hazardous. For test
purposes, any acceptable carbon mon
oxide detection method may be used.
(2) Carbon dioxide in excess of three
percent by Volume (sea level equivalent)
is considered hazardous in the case of
crewmembers. Higher concentrations of
carbon dioxide may be allowed in crew
compartments if appropriate protective
breathing equipment is available.
(c) There must be provisions made
to ensure that the conditions prescribed
in paragraph (b) of this Section are met
after reasonably probable failures or
malfunctioning of the ventilating, heat
ing, pressurization, or other Systems and
equipment.
(d) If accumulation of hazardous
quantities of Smoke in the cockpit area
is reasonably probable, Smoke evacua
tion must be readily accomplished, start
ing with full pressurization and without
depressurizing beyond safe limits.
(e) There must be a means to enable
the crew to control the temperature and
quantity of ventilating air supplied to
the crew compartment, independently of
the temperature and quantity of venti
lating air supplied to other compart
15 ments.
20
20 § 25.833 Heating systems.
(a) Combustion heaters must be ap
proved and must meet the fire protection
requirements of § 25.859.
(b) Engine exhaust heaters must meet
the provisions of § 25.1125.
PRESSURIZATION
§ 25.841 Pressurized cabins.
(a) Pressurized cabins and compart
ments to be occupied must be equipped
to provide a cabin pressure altitude of
not more than 8,000 feet at the maxi
mum operating altitude of the airplane
under normal operating conditions. If
certification for operation over 25,000
feet is requested, the airplane must be
able to maintain a cabin pressure alti
tude of not more than 15,000 feet in the
event of any reasonably probable failure
Or malfunction in the pressurization
System.
(b) Pressurized cabins must have at
least the following valves, controls, and
indicators for controlling cabin pressure:
(1) Two pressure relief valves (at
least one of which is the normal regulat
ing valve) to automatically limit the
positive pressure differential to a pre
determined value at the maximum rate
of flow delivered by the pressure source.
The combined capacity of the relief
valves must be large enough so that the
failure of any one valve would not cause
an appreciable rise in the pressure dif
ferential. The pressure differential is
positive when the internal pressure is
greater than the external.
(2) Two reverse pressure differential
relief valves (or their equivalents) to
automatically prevent a negative pres
sure differential that Would damage the
Structure. One valve is enough, how
ever, if it is of a design that reasonably
precludes its malfunctioning.
(3) A means by which the pressure
differential can be rapidly equalized.
242
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(4) An automatic or manual regula
tor for controlling the intake or exhaust
airflow, or both, for maintaining the re
quired internal pressures and airflo
rateS.
(5) Instruments at the pilot or flighli
engineer station to show the pressure
differential, the absolute pressure in the
cabin, and the rate of change of the ab
Solute pressure.
(6) Warning indication at the pilot
or flight engineer station to indicate
when the safe or preset pressure differ
ential and absolute cabin pressure limits
are exceeded. Appropriate warning
markings on the cabin pressure differen
tial indicator meet the warning require
ment for pressure differential limits and
an aural or visual signal (in addition
to Cabin altitude indicating means)
meets the warning requirement for ab
solute cabin pressure limits if it warns
the flight crew. When the cabin absolute
pressure is below that equivalent to
10,000 feet.
(7) A warning placard at the pilot or
flight engineer station if the structure is
not designed for pressure differentials
up to the maximum relief valve setting
in combination with landing loads.
§ 25.843 Tests for pressurized cabins.
(a) Strength test. The complete
pressurized cabin, including doors, win
dows, and Valves, must be tested as a
pressure vessel for the pressure differ
ential specified in § 25.365 (d).
(b) Functional tests. The following
functional tests must be performed:
(1) Tests of the functioning and ca
pacity of the positive and negative pres
sure differential valves, and of the emer
gency release valve, to simulate the
effects of closed regulator valves.
(2) Tests of the pressurization sys
tem to show proper functioning under
each possible condition of pressure,
temperature, and moisture, up to the
maximum altitude for which certifica
tion is requested.
(3) Flight tests, to show the perform
ance of the pressure supply, pressure
and flow regulators, indicators, and
warning signals, in steady and stepped
climbs and descents at rates correspond
ing to the maximum attainable within
the operating limitations of the airplane,
up to the maximum altitude for which
certification is requested.
(4) Tests of each door and emergency
exit, to show that they operate prop
243
§ 25,853
erly after being subjected to the flight
tests prescribed in subparagraph (3) of
this paragraph.
FIRE PROTECTION
§ 25.851 Fire extinguishers.
(a) Hand fire eactinguishers. For
hand fire extinguishers the following ap
ply:
(1) Each hand fire extinguisher must
be approved.
(2) The types and quantities of each
extinguishing agent used must be appro
priate to the kinds of fires likely to occur
where used.
(3) Each extinguisher for use in a
personnel compartment must be designed
to minimize the hazard of toxic gas con
Centrations.
(4) A readily accessible hand fire ex
tinguisher must be available for use in
each Class A or Class B cargo compart
ment.
(b) Built-in fire eactinguishers. If a
built-in fire extinguishing system is re
quired—
(1) The capacity of each System, in
relation to the volume of the compart
ment where used and the ventilation
rate, must be adequate for any fire likely
to Occur in that Compartment; and
(2) Each System must be installed so
that—
(i) No extinguishing agent likely to
enter personnel compartments will be
hazardous to the occupants; and
(ii) No discharge of the extinguisher
Can Cause Structural damage.
§ 25.853 Compartment interiors.
Materials (including finishes or deco
rative surfaces applied to the materials)
used in each compartment Occupied by
the crew or passengers must meet the
following test criteria as applicable:
(a) Interior ceiling panels, interior
wall panels, partitions, galley structure,
large cabinet walls, structural flooring,
and materials used in the construction
of stowage compartments (other than
underseat stowage compartments and
compartments for stowing small items
such as magazines and maps) must be
self-extinguishing when tested vertically
in accordance with the applicable por
tions of Appendix F of this part, or other
approved equivalent methods. The aver
age burn length may not exceed 6 inches
and the average flame time after removal
of the flame source may not exceed 15
§ 25.855 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
seconds. Drippings from the test speci
men may not continue to flame for more
than an average of 3 seconds after
falling.
(b) Floor covering, textiles (including
draperies and upholstery), seat cushions,
padding, decorative and nondecorative
coated fabrics, leather, trays and gallery
furnishings, electrical conduit, thermal
and acoustical insulation and insulation
covering, air ducting, joint and edge cov
ering, cargo compartment liners, insula
tion blankets, cargo covers, and trans
parencies, molded and thermoformed
parts, air ducting joints, and trim strips
(decorative and chafing), that are con
structed of materials not covered in para
graph (b–2) of this section, must be self
extinguishing when tested vertically in
accordance with the applicable portions
of Appendix F of this part, or other ap
proved equivalent methods. The average
burn length may not exceed 8 inches and
the average flame time after removal of
the flame source may not exceed 15
seconds. Drippings from the test speci
men may not continue to flame for more
than an average of 5 seconds after
falling.
(b–1) Motion picture film must be
Safety film meeting the Standard Speci
fications for Safety Photographic Film
PH 1.25 (available from the United
States of America Standards Institute,
10 East 40th Street, New York, NY.
10018), or an FAA-approved equivalent.
If the film travels through ducts, the
ducts must meet the requirements of
paragraph (b) of this section.
(b–2) Acrylic windows and signs, parts
constructed in whole or in part of elasto
meric materials, edge lighted instrument
assemblies consisting of two or more
instruments in a common housing, seat
belts, shoulder harnesses, and cargo and
baggage tiedown equipment, including
containers, bins, pallets, etc., used in pas
senger or crew compartments, may not
have an average burn rate greater than
2.5 inches per minute when tested hori
Zontally in accordance with the applica
ble portions of Appendix F of this part,
or other approved equivalent methods.
(b–3) Except for electrical wire and
cable insulation, and for small parts
(such as knobs, handles, rollers, fasten
ers, clips, grommets, rub strips, pulleys,
and small electrical parts) that the Ad
ministrator finds would not contribute
significantly to the propagation of a fire,
materials in items not specified in para
244
graphs (a), (b), (b–1), or (b-2) of this
section may not have a burn rate greater
than 4 inches per minute when tested
horizontally in accordance with the ap
plicable portions of Appendix F of this
part or other approved equivalent
methods.
(c) Each compartment where smoking
is to be allowed must have self-contained,
removable, ash trays, and each other
compartment must be placarded against
smoking:
(d) Each receptable for towels, paper,
Or waste must be at least fire resistant
and must have means for containing
possible fires;
(e) There must be at least one hand
fire extinguisher conveniently located in
the pilot compartment.
(f) There must be at least the follow
ing number of hand fire extinguishers
conveniently located in passenger com
partments:
Minimumn mºutmber
of hand fire
Passenger capacity: eactinguishers
7 through 30------------------------ 1.
31 through 60----------------------- 2
61 or more-------------------------- 3
(Sec. 604, 72 Stat. 778; 49 U.S.C. 1424)
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5676,
Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. 25–32, 37 F.R. 3971,
Feb. 24, 1972]
§ 25.855 Cargo and baggage compart
ments.
(a) Thermal and acoustic insulation
(including coverings) and liners, used in
each cargo and baggage compartment
not occupied by passengers or crew, must
be constructed of materials that at least
meet the requirements set forth in
§ 25.853 (b).
(a–1) Class B through Class E cargo or
baggage compartments as defined in
§ 25.857, must have a liner and the liner
must be constructed of materials that at
least meet the requirements set forth in
§ 25.853(b), must be separate from (but
may be attached to) the airplane struc
ture, and must be tested at a 45° angle in
accordance with the applicable portions
of Appendix F of this part or other ap
proved equivalent methods. In the course
of the 45° angle test, the flame may not
penetrate (pass through) the material
during application of the flame or sub
sequent to its removal, the average flame
tinne after removal of the flame source
may not exceed 15 seconds, and the av
erage glow time may not exceed 10
SecondS.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(a–2) Insulation blankets and cargo
covers used to protect cargo in compart
ments not occupied by passengers Or crew
must be constructed of materials that at
least meet the requirements of § 25.-
853 (b), and tiedown equipment (includ
ing containers, bins, and pallets) used in
each cargo and baggage compartment
not occupied by passengers or crew must
be constructed of materials that at least
meet the requirements set forth in
§ 25.853(b-3).
(b) No compartment may contain any
controls, wiring, lines, equipment, or ac
cessories whose damage or failure would
affect safe operation, unless those items
are protected so that—
(1) They cannot be damaged by the
movement of cargo in the compartment;
and
(2) Their breakage or failure will not
create a fire hazard.
(c) There must be means to prevent
cargo or baggage from interfering with
the functioning of the fire-protective
features of the compartment.
(d) Sources of heat within the Com
partment must be shielded and insulated
to prevent igniting the cargo.
(e) Cargo compartments must meet
one of the class requirements of $ 25.857.
In addition, flight tests must be conduct
ed to show compliance with the provi
sions of § 25.857 concerning—
(1) Compartment accessibility;
(2) The entry of hazardous quanti
ties of smoke or extinguishing agent into
compartments occupied by the crew or
passengers; and
(3) The dissipation of the extinguish
ing agent in Class C compartments.
During these tests, it must be shown that
no inadvertent operation of Smoke or
fire detectors in any compartment would
occur as a result of fire contained in any
one compartment, either during or after
extinguishment, unless the extinguish
ing system floods each such compartment
simultaneously.
(sec. 604, 72 stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424)
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291. Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25—15, 32 F.R. 13266,
sept. 20, 1967; Amdt. 25–32, 37 F.R. 3972,
Feb. 24, 1972)
§ 25.857 Cargo compartment classiſica
tion.
(a) Class A. A Class A cargo or bag
gage compartment is one in which—
(1) The presence of a fire would be
easily discovered by a crewmember while
at his station; and
245
§ 25.857
(2) Each part of the compartment is
easily accessible in flight.
(b) Class B. A Class B cargo or bag
gage compartment is one in which—
(1) There is sufficient access in flight
to enable a crewmember to effectively
reach any part of the compartment with
the contents of a hand fire extinguisher;
(2) When the access provisions are be
ing used, no hazardous quantity of
Smoke, flames, or extinguishing agent,
will enter any compartment occupied by
the Crew or passengers;
(3) There is a separate approved
Smoke detector or fire detector System
to give warning at the pilot or flight en
gineer station; and
(4) [Reserved]
(c) Class C. A Class C cargo or bag
gage compartment is One not meeting the
requirements for either a Class A or B
Compartment but in Which—
(1) There is a separate approved
Smoke detector or fire detector System to
give warning at the pilot or flight engi
neer Station:
(2) There is an approved built-in fire
extinguishing system controllable from
the pilot or flight engineer stations;
(3) There are means to exclude haz
ardous quantities of Smoke, flames, or
extinguishing agent, from any compart
ment occupied by the crew or pas
Sengers;
(4) There are means to control venti
lation and drafts within the compart
ment SO that the extinguishing agent
used can control any fire that may start
within the compartinent; and
(5) [Reserved
(d) Class D. A Class D cargo or bag
gage compartment is one in Which–
(1) A fire occurring in it will be com
pletely confined without endangering the
Safety of the airplane or the occupants;
(2) There are means to exclude hāz
ardous quantities of smoke, flames, or
other noxious gases, from any compart
ment occupied by the crew or passen
gers;
(3) Ventilation and drafts are con
trolled within each compartment so that
any fire likely to occur in the compart
ment will not progress beyond safe
limits:
(4) [Reserved]
and
(5) Consideration is given to the ef
fect of heat Within the compartment. On
adjacent critical parts of the airplane.
For compartments of 500 cu. ft. or less,
§ 25.859 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
an airflow of 1500 cu. ft. per hour is
acceptable.
(e) Class E. A. Class E cargo com
partment is one on airplanes used only
for the carriage of cargo and in which—
(1) [Reserved]
(2) There is a separate approved
Smoke or fire detector system to give
warning at the pilot or flight engineer
station;
(3) There are means to shut off the
ventilating airflow to, or within, the
compartment, and the controls for these
means are accessible to the flight crew
in the crew compartment;
(4) There are means to exclude haz
ardous quantities of smoke, flames, or
noxious gases, from the flight crew
compartment; and
(5) The required crew emergency
exists are accessible under any cargo
loading condition.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–32, 37 FR 3972,
Feb. 24, 1972]
§ 25.1103 Induction system ducts.
tion.
(a) Each induction system duct up
The following combustion heater fire
zones must be protected from fire in
accordance with the applicable provi
Sions of §§ 25.1181 through 25.1191 and
25.1195 through 25.1203:
(1) The region Surrounding the
heater, if this region contains any flam
mable fluid System components (exclud
ing the heater fuel System), that could—
(i) Be damaged by heater malfunc
tioning; or
(ii) Allow flammable fluids or vapors
to reach the heater in case of leakage.
(2) The region surrounding the
heater, if the heater fuel System has fit
tings that, if they leaked, would allow
fuel or vapors to enter this region.
(3) The part of the ventilating air
passage that surrounds the combustion
chamber. However, no fire extinguish
ment is required in cabin ventilating air
paSSageS.
(b) Ventilating air ducts. Each ven
tilating air duct passing through any fire
zone must be fireproof. In addition—
(1) Unless isolation is provided by
fireproof valves or by equally effective
means, the ventilating air duct down
stream of each heater must be fireproof
for a distance great enough to ensure
that any fire originating in the heater
can be contained in the duct; and
246
(2) Each part of any ventilating duct
passing through any region having a
flammable fluid system must be con
structed or isolated from that System
So that the malfunctioning of any com
ponent of that System cannot introduce
flammable fluids or vapors into the
Ventilating airstream.
(c) Combustion air ducts. Each com
bustion air duct must be fireproof for
a distance great enough to prevent dam
age from backfiring or reverse flame
propagation. In addition—
(1) No combustion air duct may have
a common opening with the ventilating
airstream unless flames from backfires
Or reverse burning cannot enter the
Ventilating airstream under any operat
ing condition, including reverse flow or
malfunctioning of the heater or its as
Sociated Components; and
(2) No combustion air duct may re
strict the prompt relief of any backfire
that, if so restricted, could cause heater
failure.
(d) Heater controls; general. Provi
Sion must be made to prevent the
hazardous accumulation of water or ice
On or in any heater control component,
control system tubing, or safety control.
(e) Heater safety controls. For each
combustion heater there must be the fol
lowing Safety control means:
(1) Means independent of the com
ponents provided for the normal con
tinuous control of air temperature, air
flow, and fuel flow must be provided, for
each heater, to automatically shut off
the ignition and fuel supply to that
heater at a point remote from that
heater when any of the following occurs:
(i) The heat exchanger temperature
exceeds safe limits.
(ii) The ventilating air temperature
exceeds Safe limits.
(iii) The combustion airflow becomes
inadequate for safe operation.
(iv) The ventilating airflow becomes
inadequate for safe operation.
(2) The means of complying with Sub
paragraph (1) of this paragraph for any
individual heater must—
(i) Be independent of components
serving any other heater Whose heat out
put is essential for safe operation; and
(ii) Keep the heater off until restarted
by the crew.
(3) There must be means to warn the
crew when any heater whose heat output
is essential for Safe Operation has been
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
shut off by the automatic means pre
scribed in subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph.
(f) Air intakes. Each combustion and
ventilating air intake must be located so
that, no flammable fluids or Vapors can
enter the heater system under any op
erating Condition—
(1) During normal operation; Or
(2) As a result of the malfunctioning
of any other component.
(g) Heater eachaust. Heater exhaust
systems must meet the provisions of
§§ 25.1121 and 25.1123. In addition, there
must be provisions in the design of the
heater exhaust system to safely expel
the products of combustion to prevent
the occurrence of—
(1) Fuel leakage from the exhaust to
surrounding compartments;
(2) Exhaust gas impingement on Sur
rounding equipment or structure;
(3) Ignition of flammable fluids by
the exhaust, if the exhaust is in a com
partment containing flammable fluid
lines; and
(4) Restriction by the exhaust of the
prompt relief of backfires that, if so re
stricted, could cause heater failure.
(h) Heater fuel systems. Each heater
fuel system must meet each powerplant
fuel system requirement affecting Safe
heater operation. Each heater fuel Sys
tem component within the ventilating
airstream must be protected by shrouds
so that no leakage from those compo
nents can enter the ventilating airstream.
(i) Drains. There must be means to
safely drain fuel that might accumulate
within the combustion chamber or the
heat exchanger. In addition—
(1) Each part of any drain that oper
ates at high temperatures must be pro
tected in the same manner as heater ex
hausts; and
(2) Each drain must be protected from
hazardous ice accumulation under any
operating condition.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–11, 32 F.R. 6912,
May 5, 1967; Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5676,
Apr. 8, 1970)
§ 25.863 Flammable fluid fire protec
tion.
(a) In any area where flammable fluids
or vapors might be liberated by the leak
age of fluid systems, there must be means
to prevent the ignition of those fluids or
vapors, and means to minimize the haz
ards in the event ignition does occur.
247
§ 25.871
(b) Compliance with paragraph (a) of
this section must be shown by analysis
Or tests, and the following factors must
be considered:
(1) Possible sources and paths of fluid
leakage, and means of detecting leakage.
(2) Flammability characteristics of
fluids, including effects of any combus
tible or absorbing materials.
(3) Possible ignition sources, includ
ing electrical faults, overheating of
equipment, and malfunctioning of pro
tective devices.
(4) Means available for controlling or
extinguishing a fire, such as stopping flow
of fluids, shutting down equipment, fire
proof containment, or use of extinguish
ing agents.
(5) Ability of airplane components
that are critical to safety of flight to
Withstand fire and heat.
(c) If action by the flight crew is re
quired to prevent or counteract a fluid
fire (e.g. equipment shutdown or actua
tion of a fire extinguisher) quick acting
means must be provided to alert the crew.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5676, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.865 Fire protection of flight con
trols, engine mounts, and other flight
structures
Essential flight controls, engine
mounts, and other flight structures lo
cated in designated fire zones or in ad
jacent areas which would be subjected to
the effects of fire in the fire zone must
be constructed of fireproof material or
shielded so that they are capable of with
Standing the effects of fire.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5676, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.867 Fire protection: other com
ponents.
(a) Surfaces to the rear of the nacelles,
Within one nacelle diameter of the nacelle
centerline, must be at least fire-resistant.
(b) Paragraph (a) of this section does
not apply to tail surfaces to the rear
of the nacelles that could not be readily
affected by heat, flames, or sparks coming
from a designated fire zone or engine
Compartment of any nacelle.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5676, Apr. 8, 1970]
MISCELLANEOUS
§ 25.871 Leveling means.
There must be means for determining
When the airplane is in a level position
on the ground.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5676, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.875 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 25.875 Reinforcement near propellers.
(a) Each part of the airplane near the
propeller tips must be strong and stiff
enough to withstand the effects of the
induced vibration and of ice thrown from
the propeller.
(b) No window may be near the pro
peller tips unless it can withstand the
most severe ice impact likely to Occur.
Subpart E–Powerplant
GENERAL
§ 25.901 Installation.
(a) For the purpose of this part, the
airplane powerplant installation includes
each component that—
(1) Is necessary for propulsion;
(2) Affects the control of the major
propulsive units; or
(3) Affects the safety of the major
propulsive units between normal inspec
tions or overhauls.
(b) For each powerplant—
(1) The engine installation must meet
the applicable provisions of this subpart;
(2) The components of the installation
must be constructed, arranged, and in
stalled so as to ensure their continued
safe Operation between normal inspec
tions or overhauls;
(3) The installation must be accessible
for necessary inspections and mainte
nance; and
(4) The major components of the in
stallation must be electrically bonded to
the other parts of the airplane.
(c) The powerplant installation must
comply with $ 25.1309.
|Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5676,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.903 Engines.
(a) Engine type certification. Each
engine must be type certificated under
Part 33.
(b) Engine isolation. The powerplants
must be arranged and isolated from each
other to allow operation, in at least one
configuration, so that the failure or mal
function of any engine, or of any System
that can affect the engine, will not.—
(1) Prevent the continued safe Opera
tion of the remaining engines; Or
(2) Require immediate action by any
crewmember for continued safe Opera
tion.
(c) Control of engine rotation and re
start capability. There must be means for
stopping the rotation of any engine in
dividually in flight, except that, for tur
bine engine installations, the means for
24S
stopping the rotation of any engine need
be provided only where continued rota
tion could jeopardize the safety of the
airplane. Each component of the stop
ping and restarting system on the engine
side of the firewall that might be exposed
to fire must be at least fire-resistant.
Means to restart any engine in flight
must be provided. If hydraulic propeller
feathering systems are used for this pur
pose, the feathering lines must be at least
fire resistant under the Operating Condi
tions that may be expected to exist
during feathering.
(d) Turbine engine installationS. For
turbine engine installations—
(1) Design precautions must be taken
to minimize the hazards to the airplane
in the event of an engine rotor failure
or of a fire originating within the engine
which burns through the engine case.
(2) The powerplant Systems associated
with engine control devices, systems, and
instrumentation, must be designed to
give reasonable assurance that those
engine Operating limitations that ad
versely affect turbine rotor structural
integrity will not be exceeded in service.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5676,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.905 Propellers.
(a) Each propeller must be type cer
tificated under Part 35 [New J.
(b) Engine power and propeller shaft
rotational speed may not exceed the
limits for which the propeller is certifi
Cated.
§ 25.907 Propeller vibration.
(a) The magnitude of the propeller
blade vibration stresses under any nor
mal condition of operation must be de
termined by actual measurement or by
comparison with similar installations for
which these measurements have been
made.
(b) The determined vibration stresses
may not exceed values that have been
shown to be safe for continuous opera
tion.
§ 25.925 Propeller clearance.
Unless smaller clearances are substan
tiated, propeller clearances with the air
plane at maximum Weight, with the most
adverse center of gravity, and with the
propeller in the most adverse pitch posi
tion, may not be less than the following:
(a) Ground clearance. There must
be a clearance of at least Seven inches
(for each airplane with nose wheel land
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
ing gear) or nine inches (for each air
plane with tail wheel landing gear) be
tween each propeller and the ground with
the landing gear Statically deflected and
in the level takeoff, or taxiing attitude,
whichever is most critical. In addition,
there must be positive clearance between
the propeller and the ground when in the
level takeoff attitude with the critical tire
completely deflated and the correspond
ing landing gear strut bottomed.
(b) Water clearance. There must be
a clearance of at least 18 inches between
each propeller and the water, unless
compliance with $ 25.239 (a) can be
shown with a lesser clearance.
(c) Structural clearance. There must
be—
(1) At least one inch radial clearance
between the blade tips and the airplane
structure, plus any additional radial
clearance necessary to prevent harmful
vibration;
(2) At least one-half inch longitudinal
clearance between the propeller blades
or cuffs and stationary parts of the air
plane; and
(3) Positive clearance between other
rotating parts of the propeller Or Spinner
and stationary parts of the airplane.
§ 25.929 Propeller deicing.
(a) For airplanes intended for use
where icing may be expected, there must
be a means to prevent or remove hazard
ous ice accumulation on propellers or on
accessories where ice accumulation would
jeopardize engine performance.
(b) If combustible fluid is used for
propeller deicing, §§ 25.1181 through
25.1185 and 25.1189 apply.
§ 25.933 Reversing systems.
(a) Reversing systems intended for
ground operation only must be designed
so that no single failure or malfunction
of the System will result in unwanted
reverse thrust under any expected Oper
ating condition. Failure of structural
elements need not be considered if the
probability of this kind of failure is ex
tremely remote.
(b) Turbojet reversing systems in
tended for inflight use must be designed
so that no unsafe condition will result
during normal operation of the system,
or from any failure (or reasonably likely
combination of failures) of the reversing
system, under any anticipated condition
of operation of the airplane. Failure of
structural elements need not be consid—
ered if the probability of this kind of fail
ure is extremely remote.
249
39–059–75–17
§ 25.939
(c) Compliance with this section may
be shown by failure analysis, testing, or
both, for propeller systems that allow
propeller blades to move from the flight
low-pitch position to a position that is
Substantially less than that at the nor
mal flight low-pitch stop position. The
analysis may include or be supported by
the analysis made to show compliance
with the requirements of § 35.21 for the
propeller and associated installation
Components.
(d) Each turbojet reversing System
must have means to prevent the engine
from producing more than idle forward
thrust when the reversing system mal
functions, except that it may produce
any greater forward thrust that is shown
to allow directional control to be main
tained, with aerodynamic means alone,
under the most critical reversing con
dition expected in operation.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–11, 32 F.R. 6912,
May 5, 1967]
§ 25.934 Turbojet engine thrust re
verser system tests.
Thrust reversers installed on turbojet
engines must meet the requirements of
§ 33.97 of this chapter.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5677, Apr. 8, 1970]
$25.937 Turbopropeller-drag limiting
systems.
Turbopropeller powered airplane pro
peller-drag limiting systems must be
designed so that no single failure or
malfunction of any of the systems during
normal or emergency operation results in
propeller drag in excess of that for which
the airplane was designed under § 25.367.
Failure of structural elements of the
drag limiting systems need not be con
sidered if the probability of this kind of
failure is extremely remote.
§ 25.939 Turbine engine operating char
acteristics.
(a) Turbine engine operating charac
teristics must be investigated in flight to
determine that no adverse characteristics
(such as stall, surge, or flameout) are
present, to a hazardous degree, during
normal and emergency operation within
the range of operating limitations of the
airplane and of the engine.
(b) No hazardous malfunction of the
turbine engine may occur when the air
plane is operated at the negative accel
eration, within the flight envelope pre
scribed in § 25.333, that is most critical
from a fuel flow standpoint. This must
§ 25.951 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
be shown for the greatest duration ex
pected for that acceleration.
(c) The turbine engine air inlet Sys
tem may not, as a result of air flow dis
tortion during normal operation, cause
vibration harmful to the engine.
[Amdt. 25–11, 32 Fr. 6912, May 5, 1967]
FUEL SYSTEM
§ 25.951 General.
(a) Each fuel system must be con
structed and arranged to ensure a flow
of fuel at a rate and pressure established
for proper engine functioning under each
likely operating condition, including any
maneuver for which certification is re
quested.
(b) Each fuel system must be arranged
so that any air which is introduced into
the system will not result in—
(1) Power interruption for more than
20 seconds for reciprocating engines; or
(2) Flameout for turbine engines.
(c) Each fuel system for a turbine
engine must be capable of sustained Oper
ation throughout its flow and pressure
range with fuel initially saturated with
water at 80° F and having 0.75cc of free
water per gallon added and cooled to the
most critical condition for icing likely to
be encountered in operation.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23. 35 F.R. 5677.
Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. No. 25–36, 39 FR 35460,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 25.953 Fuel system independence.
Each fuel system must meet the re
quirements of § 25.903(b) by—
(a) Allowing the supply of fuel to each
engine through a system independent of
each part of the system supplying fuel
to any other engine; or
(b) Any other acceptable method.
§ 25.954 Fuel system lightning protec
tion.
The fuel system must be designed and
arranged to prevent the ignition of fuel
vapor within the system by—
(a) Direct lightning strikes to areas
having a high probability of stroke
attachment;
(b) Swept lightning strokes to areas
where swept strokes are highly probable;
and
(c) Corona and streamering at fuel
vent outlets.
[Amdt. 25–14, 32 F.R. 11629, Aug. 11, 1967]
250
§ 25.955 Fuel flow.
(a) Each fuel System must provide at
least 100 percent of the fuel flow re
quired under each intended operating
condition and maneuver. Compliance
must be shown as follows:
(1) Fuel must be delivered to each en
gine at a pressure within the limits spec
ified in the engine type certificate.
(2) The quantity of fuel in the tank
may not exceed the amount established
as the unusable fuel supply for that tank
under the requirements of § 25.959 plus
that necessary to show compliance with
this section.
(3) Each main pump must be used
that is necessary for each Operating con
dition and attitude for which compli
ance with this section is shown, and the
appropriate emergency pump must be
Substituted for each main pump so used.
(4) If there is a fuel flowneter, it must
be blocked and the fuel must flow
through the meter or its bypass.
(b) If an engine can be supplied with
fuel from more than one tank, the fuel
System must—
(1) For each reciprocating engine,
Supply the full fuel pressure to that en
gine in not more than 20 Seconds after
switching to any other fuel tank contain
ing uSable fuel When engine malfunc
tioning becomes apparent due to the de
pletion of the fuel supply in any tank
from which the engine can be fed; and
(2) For each turbine engine, in addi
tion to having appropriate manual
Switching capability, be designed to pre
vent interruption of fuel flow to that
engine, without attention by the flight
crew, when any tank supplying fuel to
that engine is depleted of usable fuel
during normal operation, and any other
tank, that normally supplies fuel to that
engine alone, contains usable fuel.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–11, 32 F.R. 6912,
May 5, 1967]
§ 25.957 Flow between interconnected
tanks.
If fuel can be pumped from one tank
to another in flight, the fuel tank vents
and the fuel transfer system must be
designed so that no structural damage
to the tanks can occur because of over
filling.
25.959 Unusable fuel supply.
The unusable fuel quantity for each
fuel tank and its fuel system compo
 Chapter –Federal Aviation Administration
nents must be established at not less
than the quantity at which the first evi
dence of engine malfunction occurs un
der the most adverse fuel feed condi
tion for all intended operations and
flight maneuvers involving fuel feeding
from that tank.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5677, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.961 Fuel system hot weather oper
ation.
(a) The fuel system must perform sat
isfactorily in hot weather operation. This
must be shown by showing that the fuel
system from the tank outlets to each
engine is pressurized, under all intended
operations, so as to prevent vapor forma
tion, or must be shown by climbing from
the altitude of the airport elected by the
applicant to the maximum altitude es
tablished as an operating limitation un
der § 25.1527. If a climb test is elected,
there may be no evidence of vapor lock
or other malfunctioning during the climb
test conducted under the following Con
ditions:
(1) For reciprocating engine powered
airplanes, the engines must operate at
maximum continuous power, except that
takeoff power must be used for the alti
tudes from 1,000 feet below the critical
altitude through the critical altitude. The
time interval during which takeoff power
is used may not be less than the takeoff
time limitation.
(2) For turbine engine powered air
planes, the engines must operate at take
off power for the time interval selected
for showing the takeoff flight path, and
at maximum continuous power for the
rest of the climb.
(3) The weight of the airplane must
be the weight with full fuel tanks, mini
mum crew, and the ballast necessary to
maintain the center of gravity within
allowable limits.
(4) The climb airspeed may not ex
ceed—
(i) For reciprocating engine powered
airplanes, that speed allowing compli
ance with the minimum climb require
ment specified in § 25.65(a) ; and
(ii) For turbine engine powered air
planes, the maximum airspeed estab
lished for climbing from takeoff to the
maximum operating altitude.
(5) The fuel temperature must be at
least 110° F.
(b) The test prescribed in paragraph
(a) of this section may be performed in
flight or on the ground under closely
251
§ 25.965
simulated flight conditions. If a flight
test is performed in weather cold enough
to interfere with the proper conduct of
the test, the fuel tank surfaces, fuel lines,
and other fuel system parts subject to
Cold air must be insulated to simulate,
insofar as practicable, flight in hot
Weather.
[Amdt. 25–11, 32 F.R. 6912, May 5, 1967]
§ 25.963 Fuel tanks: general.
(a) Each fuel tank must be able to
withstand, without failure, the vibration,
inertia, fluid, and structural loads that
it may be subjected to in Operation.
(b) Flexible fuel tank liners must be
approved or must be shown to be suitable
for the particular application.
(c) Integral fuel tanks must have
facilities for interior inspection and re
pair.
(d) Fuel tanks within the fuselage
contour must be able to resist rupture,
and to retain fuel, under the inertia
forces prescribed for the emergency land
ing conditions in § 25.561. In addition,
these tanks must be in a protected posi
tion so that exposure of the tanks to
Scraping action with the ground is un
likely.
(e) The augmentation liquid tank
capacity available for the use of each
engine must be large enough to allow op
eration of the airplane under the ap
proved procedures for the use of liquid
augmented power. The computation of
liquid consumption must be based on the
maximum approved rate appropriate for
the desired engine output, and must in
clude the effect of temperature on engine
performance as well as any other factors
that might vary the amount of liquid
required.
§ 25.965 Fuel tank tests.
(a) It must be shown by tests that
the fuel tanks, as mounted in the air
plane, can withstand, without failure or
leakage, the more critical of the pres
Sures resulting from the conditions spec
ified in subparagraphs (1) and (2) of
this paragraph. In addition, it must be
shown by either analysis or tests, that
tank Surfaces subjected to more critical
pressures resulting from the condition of
Subparagraphs (3) and (4) of this para
graph, are able to withstand the follow
ing pressures:
(1) An internal pressure of 3.5 psi.
(2) 125 percent of the maximum air
.* developed in the tank from ram
ect.
§ 25.967 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(3) Fluid pressures developed during
maximum limit accelerations, and de
flections, of the airplane with a full tank.
(4) Fluid pressures developed during
the most adverse combination of air
plane roll and fuel load.
(b) Each metallic tank with large un
supported or unstiffened flat surfaces,
whose failure or deformation could cause
fuel leakage, must be able to withstand
the following test, or its equivalent, with
out leakage or excessive deformation of
the tank walls:
(1) Each complete tank assembly and
its supports must be vibration tested
while mounted to simulate the actual
installation.
(2) Except as specified in subpara
graph (4) of this paragraph, the tank
assembly must be vibrated for 25 hours
at an amplitude of not less than %2 of
an inch (unless another amplitude is
substantiated) while % filled with Water
or other suitable test fluid.
(3) The test frequency of vibration
must be as follows:
(1) If no frequency of vibration result
ing from any r.p.m. within the normal
operating range of engine speeds is
critical, the test frequency of vibration
must be 2,000 cycles per minute.
(ii) If only one frequency of vibration
resulting from any r.p.m. within the nor
mal operating range of engine speeds is
critical, that frequency of vibration must
be the test frequency.
(iii) If more than one frequency of
vibration resulting from any r.p.m. with
in the normal operating range of engine
speeds is critical, the most critical of
these frequencies must be the test fre
quency.
(4) Under subparagraph (3) (ii) and
(iii) of this paragraph, the time of test
must be adjusted to accomplish the same
number of vibration cycles that would
be accomplished in 25 hours at the fre
quency specified in subparagraph (3) (1)
of this paragraph.
(5) During the test, the tank assembly
must be rocked at the rate of 16 to 20
complete cycles per minute, through an
angle of 15° on both sides of the horizon
tal (30° total), about the most critical
axis, for 25 hours. If motion about more
than one axis is likely to be critical, the
tank must be rocked about each critical
axis for 12% hours.
(c) Except where satisfactory operat
ing experience with a similar tank in a
similar installation is shown, nonmetallic
O ~...)
tanks must withstand the test specified
in paragraph (b) (5) of this section, with
fuel at a temperature of 110° F. During
this test, a representative Specimen of
the tank must be installed in a Support
ing Structure simulating the installation
in the airplane.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–11, 32 F.R. 6913,
May 5, 1967]
§ 25.967 Fuel tank installations.
(a) Each fuel tank must be supported
so that tank loads (resulting from the
weight of the fuel in the tanks) are not
Concentrated on unsupported tank Sur
faces. In addition—
(1) There must be pads, if necessary,
to prevent chafing between the tank and
its supports;
(2) Padding must be nonabsorbent or
treated to prevent the absorption of
fluids;
(3) If a flexible tank liner is used, it
must be supported so that it is not re
quired to withstand fluid loads; and
(4) Each interior surface of the tank
compartment must be Smooth and free of
projections that could cause Wear of the
liner unless—
(i) Provisions are made for protection
of the liner at these points; or
(ii) The construction of the liner it
self provides that protection.
(b) Spaces adjacent to tank surfaces
must be ventilated to avoid fume accu
mulation due to minor leakage. If the
tank is in a Sealed compartment, ventila
tion may be limited to drain holes large
enough to prevent excessive pressure re
Sulting from altitude changes.
(c) The location of each tank must
meet the requirements of § 25.1185 (a).
(d) No engine nacelle skin immedi
ately behind a major air outlet from the
engine compartment may act as the wall
of an integral tank.
(e) Each fuel tank must be isolated
from personnel compartments by a funne
proof and fuelproof enclosure.
§ 25.969 Fuel tank expansion space.
Each fuel tank must have an expan
sion space of not less than 2 percent of
the tank capacity. It must be impossible
to fill the expansion space inadvertently
with the airplane in the normal ground
attitude. For pressure fueling systerns,
compliance with this section may be
shown with the means provided to
comply with $ 25.979 (b).
[Amdt. 25–11, 32 F.R. 6913, May 5, 1967]
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 25.971 Fuel tank sump.
(a) Each fuel tank must have a Sump
with an effective capacity, in the normal
ground attitude, of not less than the
greater of 0.10 percent of the tank ca
pacity or one-sixteenth of a gallon un
less operating limitations are established
to ensure that the accumulation of water
in service will not exceed the Sump
capacity.
(b) Each fuel tank must allow drain
age of any hazardous quantity of water
from any part of the tank to its sump
with the airplane in the ground attitude.
(c) Each fuel tank sump must have an
accessible drain that—
(1) Allows complete drainage of the
sump on the ground;
(2) Discharges clear of each part of
the airplane; and
(3) Has manual or automatic means
for positive locking in the closed
position.
§ 25.973 Fuel tank filler connection.
Each fuel tank filler connection must
prevent the entrance of fuel into any part
of the airplane other than the tank it
self. In addition—
(a) Each filler must be marked as pre
scribed in § 25.1557 (c) :
(b) Each recessed filler connection
that can retain any appreciable quantity
of fuel must have a drain that discharges
clear of each part of the airplane; and
(c) Each filler cap must provide a
fuel-tight seal.
§ 25.975 Fuel tank vents and carburetor
vapor vents.
(a) Fuel tank vents. Each fuel tank
must be vented from the top part of the
expansion space so that venting is ef
fective under any normal flight condi
tion. In addition—
(1) Each vent must be arranged to
avoid stoppage by dirt or ice formation;
(2) The vent arrangement must pre
vent siphoning of fuel during normal
operation;
(3) The venting capacity and vent
pressure levels must maintain acceptable
differences of pressure between the in
terior and exterior of the tank, during—
(i) Normal flight Operation;
(ii) Maximum rate of ascent and de
scent: and
(iii) Refueling and defueling (where
applicable) ;
(4) Airspaces of tanks with intercon
nected outlets must be interconnected;
(5) There may be no point in any vent
line where moisture can accumulate With
253
§ 25.979
the airplane in the ground attitude or
the level flight attitude, unless drainage
ls provided; and
(6) No vent or drainage provision may
end at any point—
(i) Where the discharge of fuel from
the vent outlet would constitute a fire
hazard; or
(ii) From which fumes could enter
personnel compartments.
(b) Carburetor vapor vents. Each
carburetor with vapor elimination Con
nections must have a vent line to lead
vapors back to one of the fuel tanks.
In addition—
(1) Each vent system must have
means to avoid stoppage by ice; and
(2) If there is more than one fuel
tank, and it is necessary to use the tanks
in a definite sequence, each vapor vent
return line must lead back to the fuel
tank used for takeoff and landing.
§ 25.977 Fuel tank outlet.
(a) There must be a fuel Strainer for
the fuel tank outlet or for the booster
pump. This strainer must—
(1) For reciprocating engine powered
airplanes, have 8 to 16 meshes per inch:
and
(2) For turbine engine powered air
planes, prevent the passage of any object
that could restrict fuel flow or damage
any fuel system component.
(b) For turbine engine powered air
planes, there must be a means to ensure
uninterrupted fuel flow to the engine if
the strainer prescribed in paragraph (a)
of this section is subject to ice accumu
lation. This means must provide protec
tion to the fuel System components equal
to that provided by the strainer pre
scribed in paragraph (a) of this section.
(c) The clear area of each fuel tank
outlet Strainer must be at least five times
the area of the outlet line.
(d) The diameter of each Strainer
must be at least that of the fuel tank
Outlet.
(e) Each finger strainer must be ac
cessible for inspection and cleaning.
[Amdt. 25–11, 32 F.R. 6913, May 5, 1967]
§ 25.979 Pressure fueling system.
For pressure fueling systems, the fol
lowing apply:
(a) Each pressure fueling system fuel
manifold connection must have means
to prevent the escape of hazardous quan
tities of fuel from the System if the fuel
entry valve fails.
(b) An automatic shutoff means must
be provided to prevent the quantity of
§ 25.981 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
fuel in each tank from exceeding the
maximum quantity approved for that
tank. This means must—
(1) Allow checking for proper shutoff
Operation before each fueling of the
tank; and
(2) Provide indication, at each fueling
station, of failure of the shutoff means
To stop fuel flow at the desired level.
(c) A means must be provided to pre
Vent damage to the fuel system in the
event of failure of the automatic shutoff
Imeans prescribed in paragraph (b) of
this section.
[Amdt. 25–11, 32 F.R. 6913, May 5, 1967]
§ 25.981 Fuel tank temperature.
(a) The highest temperature allowing
a safe margin below the lowest expected
autoignition temperature of the fuel in
the fuel tanks must be determined.
(b) No temperature at any place in
side any fuel tank where fuel ignition is
possible may exceed the temperature de
termined under paragraph (a) of this
Section. This must be shown under all
probable operating, failure, and mal
function conditions of any component
whose operation, failure, or malfunction
Could increase the temperature inside the
tank.
[Amdt. 25–11, 32 F.R. 6913, May 5, 1967]
FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
§ 25.991 Fuel pumps.
(a) Main pumps. Each fuel pump re
quired for proper engine Operation, or
required to meet the fuel System require
ments of this Subpart (other than those
in paragraph (b) of this section), is a
main pump. For each main pump, pro
vision must be made to allow the bypass
of each positive displacement fuel pump
other than a fuel injection pump (a
pump that Supplies the proper flow and
pressure for fuel injection when the in
jection is not accomplished in a carbu
retor) approved as part of the engine.
(b) Emergency pumps. There must be
emergency pumps or another main pump
to feed each engine immediately after
failure of any main pump (other than a
fuel injection pump approved as part of
he engine).
$ 25.993 Fuel system lines and fittings.
(a) Each fuel line must be installed
And supported to prevent excessive vibra
lion and to withstand loads due to fuel
pressure and accelerated flight condi
tions.
254
(b) Each fuel line connected to Com
ponents of the airplane between which
relative motion could exist must have
provisions for flexibility.
(c) Each flexible connection in fuel
lines that may be under pressure and
subjected to axial loading must use flex
ible hose assemblies.
(d) Flexible hose must be approved or
must be shown to be suitable for the par
ticular application
(e) No flexible hose that might be ad
versely affected by exposure to high tem
peratures may be used where excessive
temperatures will exist during operation
or after engine shut-down.
(f) Each fuel line within the fuselage
must be designed and installed to allow a
reasonable degree of deformation and
stretching without leakage.
(Sec. 604, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424)
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25—15, 32 F.R. 13266,
Sept. 20, 1967]
25.994 Fuel system components.
Fuel system components in an engine
nacelle or in the fuselage must be pro
tected from damage which could cause
the release of fuel as a result of a
wheels-up landing.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5677, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.995 Fuel valves.
In addition to the requirements of
§ 25.1189 for shutoff means, each fuel
valve must—
(a) Have positive stops or suitable in
dex provisions in the “on” and “off”
positions; and
(b) Be Supported so that no loads re
Sulting from their operation or from ac
celerated flight conditions are trans
mitted to the lines attached to the Valve.
§ 25.997 Fuel strainer or filter.
There must be a fuel strainer or filter
between the fuel tank Outlet and the in
let of either the fuel metering device or
an engine driven positive displacement
pump, whichever is nearer the fuel tank
outlet. This fuel strainer or filter must—
(a) Be accessible for draining and
cleaning and must incorporate a screen
or element which is easily removable;
(b) Have a sediment trap and drain
except that it need not have a drain if
the strainer or filter is easily removable
for drain purposes;
(c) Be mounted so that its weight is
not supported by the connecting lines Or
by the inlet or outlet connections of the
strainer or filter itself; and
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(d) Have the capacity (with respect
to Operating limitations established for
the engine) and the mesh to ensure that
engine fuel system functioning is not im
paired, with the fuel contaminated to a
degree (with respect to particle size and
density) that is greater than that estab
lished for the engine in Part 33 of this
chapter.
[Amdt. No. 25–36, 39 FR 35460, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 25.999 Fuel system drains.
(a) Drainage of the fuel system must
be accomplished by the use of fuel
strainer and fuel tank sump drains.
(b) Each drain must discharge clear of
each part of the airplane and must have
manual or automatic means for positive
locking in the closed position.
§ 25.1001 Fuel jettisoning system.
(a) A reciprocating engine powered
airplane must have a fuel jettisoning Sys
tem installed that meets the require
ments of this section unless it is shown
that the airplane meets the climb re
quirements of §§ 25.65(b) and 25.67(e)
at the weight specified in paragraph (c)
of this Section.
(b) A turbine engine powered air
plane must have a fuel jettisoning sys
tem installed that meets the require
ments of this Section unless it is shown
that the airplane meets the climb re
quirements of §§ 25.119 and 25.121(d) at
the weight specified in paragraph (c) of
this section.
(c) Compliance with the climb per
formance requirements of paragraph
(a) or (b) of this section must be shown
at a weight equal to the maximum take
off weight less the actual or computed
weight of the fuel that would be con
sumed by the engines during a 15
minute flight in which the airplane is
involved in a takeoff, go-around, and
landing at the airport of departure, with
the airplane's configuration, Speed,
power, and thrust the same as that used
in meeting the applicable takeoff, ap
proach and landing climb performance
requirements of this part.
(d) For a reciprocating engine pow
ered airplane, the fuel jettisoning system
must be able to jettison enough fuel
within 15 minutes to bring the weight
specified in paragraph (c) of this section
down to the weight at which the air
plane will meet the climb requirements
of $$ 25.65(b) and 25.67(e) assuming
that the fuel is jettisoned under the con
dition found least favorable during the
255
§ 25.1001
flight test prescribed in paragraph (f) of
this section.
(e) For a turbine engine powered air
plane, the fuel jettisoning System must
be able to jettison enough fuel within
15 minutes to bring the weight Specified
in paragraph (c) of this section down to
the weight at which the airplane will
meet the climb requirements of §§ 25.119
and 25.121(d) assuming that the fuel is
jettisoned under the condition found
least favorable during the flight test
prescribed in paragraph (f) of this sec
tion.
(f) Fuel jettisoning must be demon
strated beginning at maximum takeoff
weight with flaps and landing gear up
and in—
(1) A power-off glide at 1.4Vs,;
(2) A climb at the One-engine in
operative best rate-of-climb Speed, with
the critical engine inoperative and the
remaining engines at maximum continu
ous power; and
(3) Level flight at 1.4V, if the results
of the tests in the condition specified in
Subparagraphs (1) and (2) of this para
graph show that this condition could be
Critical.
(g) During the flight tests prescribed
in paragraph (f) of this section, it must
be shown that—
(1) The fuel jettisoning system and
its operation are free from fire hazard;
(2) The fuel discharges clear of any
part of the airplane;
(3) Fuel or fumes do not enter any
parts of the airplane;
(4) The jettisoning operation does not
adversely affect the controllability of the
airplane.
(h) For reciprocating engine powered
airplanes, means must be provided to
prevent jettisoning the fuel in the tanks
used for takeoff and landing below the
level allowing 45 minutes flight at 75
percent maximum continuous power.
However, if there is an auxiliary control
independent of the main jettisoning con
trol, the system may be designed to jet
tison the remaining fuel by means of
the auxiliary jettisoning control.
(1) For turbine engine powered air
planes, means must be provided to pre
vent jettisoning the fuel in the tanks
used for takeoff and landing below the
level allowing climb from Sea level to
10,000 feet and thereafter allowing 45
minutes cruise at a speed for maximum
range. However, if there is an auxiliary
control independent of the main jet
tisoning control, the system may be
§ 25.1011 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
designed to jettison the remaining fuel
by means of the auxiliary jettisoning
control.
(j) The fuel jettisoning valve must be
designed to allow flight personnel to close
the valve during any part of the jet
tisoning operation.
(k) Unless it is shown that using any
means (including flaps, slots, and slats)
for changing the airflow across or around
the Wings does not adversely affect fuel
jettisoning, there must be a placard, ad
jacent to the jettisoning control, to Warn
flight crewmembers against jettisoning
fuel while the means that change the air
flow are being used.
(l) The fuel jettisoning system must
be designed so that any reasonably prob
able single malfunction in the System
Will not result in a hazardous condition
due to unsymmetrical jettisoning of, or
inability to jettison, fuel.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–18, 33 F.R. 12226,
Aug. 30, 1968]
OIL SYSTEM
§ 25.1011 General.
(a) Each engine must have an inde
pendent oil system that can supply it
with an appropriate quantity of oil" at
a temperature not above that safe for
continuous Operation.
(b) The usable oil capacity may not be
less than the product of the endurance
of the airplane under critical operating
conditions and the approved maximum
allowable oil consumption of the engine
under the same conditions, plus a suit
able margin to ensure system circula
tion. Instead of a rational analysis of
airplane range for the purpose of com
puting oil requirements for reciprocating
engine powered airplanes, the following
fuel/oil ratios may be used:
(1) For airplanes without a reserve oil
or oil transfer system, a fuel/oil ratio of
30:1 by volume.
(2) For airplanes with either a re
serve oil or oil transfer system, a fuel/
oil ratio of 40:1 by volume.
(c) Fuel/oil ratios higher than those
prescribed in paragraphs (b) (1) and (2)
of this section may be used if Sub
stantiated by data on actual engine oil
consumption.
§ 25.1013 Oil tanks.
(a) Installation. Each oil tank instal
lation must meet the requirements of
§ 25.967. For a reciprocating engine
having an integral oil sump of less than
2.56
20-quart capacity, the oil Sump need not
be fireproof.
(b) Eacpansion space. Oil tank ex
pansion space must be provided as fol
lows:
(1) Each oil tank used with a recipro
cating engine must have an expansion
Space of not less than the greater of 10
percent of the tank capacity or 0.5 gallon,
and each oil tank used with a turbine
engine must have an expansion space of
not less than 10 percent of the tank
capacity.
(2) Each reserve oil tank not directly
connected to any engine may have an
expansion space of not less than two per
cent of the tank capacity.
(3) It must be impossible to fill the
expansion space inadvertently with the
airplane in the normal ground attitude.
(c) Filler connection. Each recessed
oil tank filler connection that can re
tain any appreciable quantity of oil must
have a drain that discharges clear of
each part of the airplane. In addition—
(1) Each oil tank filler cap must pro
vide an oil-tight seal: and
(2) Each oil filler must be marked
under § 25.1557 (b) (2).
(d) Vent. Oil tanks must be vented as
follows:
(1) Each oil tank must be vented from
the top part of the expansion space so
that venting is effective under any nor
mal flight condition.
(2) Oil tank vents must be arranged
so that condensed water vapor that might
freeze and obstruct the line cannot ac
cumulate at any point.
(e) Outlet. There must be means to
prevent entrance into the tank itself, or
into the tank outlet, of any object that
might obstruct the flow of oil through
the System. No oil tank outlet may be en
closed by any screen or guard that would
reduce the flow of oil below a safe value
at any operating temperature. There
must be a shutoff valve at the outlet of
each oil tank used with a turbine engine,
unless the external portion of the oil
System (including the oil tank supports)
is fireproof.
(f) Flerible oil tank liners. Each
flexible oil tank liner must be approved
or must be shown to be Suitable for the
particular application.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–19, 33 F.R. 15410,
Oct. 17, 1968: Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5677.
Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. No. 25–36, 39 FR 35460,
Oct. 1, 1974]
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 25.1015 Oil tank tests.
Each oil tank must be designed and
installed So that—
(a) It can withstand, without failure,
each vibration, inertia, and fluid load
that it may be subjected to in operation;
and
(b) It meets the provisions of § 25.965,
except—
(1) The test pressure—
(i) For pressurized tanks used with a
turbine engine, may not be less than 5
p.s. i. plus the maximum operating pres
sure of the tank instead of the pressure
specified in § 25.965(a); and
(ii) For all other tanks may not be
less than 5 p.s.i. instead of the pressure
specified in § 25.965(a); and
(2) The test fluid must be oil at 250°
F. instead of the fluid specified in
§ 25.965(c).
[Docket No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 25–36, 39 FR 35461,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 25.1017 Oil lines and fittings.
(a) Each oil line must meet the re
quirements of § 25.993 and each oil line
and fitting in any designated fire zone
must meet the requirements of § 25.1183.
(b) Breather lines must be arranged
so that—
(1) Condensed water vapor that might
freeze and obstruct the line cannot ac
cumulate at any point;
(2) The breather discharge does not
constitute a fire hazard if foaming occurs
or causes emitted oil to strike the pilot's
windshield; and
(3) The breather does not discharge
into the engine air induction system.
§ 25.1019 Oil strainer or filter.
(a) Each turbine engine installation
must incorporate an oil strainer or filter
through which all of the engine oil flows
and which meets the following require
ments:
(1) Each oil strainer or filter that has
a bypass must be constructed and in
stalled so that oil will flow at the normal
rate through the rest of the System with
the strainer or filter completely blocked.
(2) The oil strainer Or filter must have
the capacity (with respect to operating
limitations established for the engine)
and the mesh to ensure that engine oil
system functioning is not impaired when
the oil is contaminated to a degree (with
respect to particle size and density) that
257
§ 25.1025
is greater than that established for the
engine under Part 33 of this chapter.
(3) The oil strainer or filter, unless it
is installed at an oil tank outlet, must
incorporate an indicator that will indi
cate contamination of the screen before
it reaches the capacity established in ac
cordance with paragraph (a) (2) of this
section.
(4) The bypass of a strainer or filter
must be constructed and installed so that
the release of collected contaminants is
minimized by appropriate location of the
bypass to ensure that collected contami
nants are not in the bypass flow path.
(5) An oil strainer or filter that has no
bypass, except one that is installed at an
oil tank outlet, must have a means to
connect it to the warning system re
quired in § 25.1305 (c) (7).
(b) Each oil strainer or filter in a
powerplant installation using reciprocat
ing engines must be constructed and in
stalled so that oil will flow at the normal
rate through the rest of the system with
the strainer or filter element completely
blocked.
[Amdt. No. 25–36, 39 FR 35461, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 25.1021 Oil drains.
There must be at least one accessible
drain that—
(a) Allows safe drainage of the entire
oil system; and
(b) Has manual or automatic means
for positive locking in the closed position.
§ 25.1023 Oil radiators.
(a) Each oil radiator must be able to
withstand, without failure, any vibra
tion, inertia, and oil pressure load to
which it would be subjected in operation.
(b) Each oil radiator air duct must be
located so that, in case of fire, flames
coming from normal openings of the
engine nacelle cannot impinge directly
upon the radiator.
§ 25.1025 Oil valves.
(a) Each oil shutoff must meet the
requirements of § 25.1189.
(b) The closing of oil shutoff means
may not prevent propeller feathering.
(c) Each oil valve must have positive
stops or suitable index provisions in the
“on” and “off” positions and must be
supported so that no loads resulting from
its operation or from accelerated flight
conditions are transmitted to the lines
attached to the Valve.
§ 25,1027 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 25.1027 Propeller feathering system.
(a) If the propeller feathering Sys
tem depends on engine oil, there must
be means to trap an amount of oil in the
tank if the supply becomes depleted due
to failure of any part of the lubricating
System other than the tank itself.
(b) The amount of trapped oil must
be enough to accomplish the feathering
operation and must be available only to
the feathering pump.
(c) The ability of the system to ac
complish feathering with the trapped oil
must be shown. This may be done on
the ground using an auxiliary source of
oil for lubricating the engine during
Operation.
CoOLING
§ 25.1041 General.
The powerplant cooling provisions
must be able to maintain the tempera
tures of powerplant components and en
gine fluids within the temperature limits
established for these components and
fluids, under ground, water, and flight
Operating conditions, and after normal
engine shutdown.
[Amdt. 25–11, 32 F.R. 6913, May 5, 1967]
§ 25.1043 Cooling tests.
(a) General. Compliance With
§ 25.1041 must be shown by tests, under
critical ground, water, and flight operat
ing conditions. For these tests, the fol
lowing apply:
(1) If the tests are conducted under
conditions deviating from the maximum
ambient atmospheric temperature, the
recorded powerplant temperatures must
be corrected under paragraphs (c) and
(d) of this section.
(2) No corrected temperatures de
termined under Subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph may exceed established limits.
(3) For reciprocating engines, the
fuel used during the cooling tests must
be the minimum grade approved for the
engines, and the mixture settings must
be those normally used in the flight
stages for which the cooling tests are
conducted. The test procedures must be
as prescribed in § 25.1045.
(b) Marimum atmbient atmospheric
temperature. A maximum ambient at
mospheric temperature corresponding
to Sea level conditions must be estab
lished as a limitation on the operation
of the airplane. The temperature lapse
258
rate is 3.6° F. per thousand feet of alti
tude above sea level until a temperature
of —69.7° F. is reached, above which
altitude, the temperature is considered
Constant, at –69.7° F.
(c) Correction factor (eaccept cylinder
barrels). Unless a more rational cor
rection applies, temperatures of engine
fluids and powerplant components (ex
cept cylinder barrels) for which tem
perature limits are established, must be
corrected by adding to them the differ
ence between the maximum ambient at
mospheric temperature and the temper
ature of the ambient air at the time of
the first occurrence of the maximum
component or fluid temperature recorded
during the cooling test.
(d) Correction factor for cylinder
barrel temperatures. Unless a more
rational correction applies, cylinder bar
rel temperatures must be corrected by
adding to them 0.7 times the difference
between the maximum ambient atmos
pheric temperature and the temperature
of the ambient air at the time of the first
occurrence of the maximum cylinder
barrel temperature recorded during the
cooling test.
§ 25.1045 Cooling test procedures.
(a) Compliance with $25.1041 must
be shown for the takeoff, climb, en route,
and landing stages of flight that corre
Spond to the applicable performance re
quirements. The cooling tests must be
conducted with the airplane in the con
figuration, and operating under the con
ditions, that are critical relative to cool
ing during each stage of flight. For the
COOling tests, a temperature is “sta
bilized” when its rate of change is less
than two degrees F. per minute.
(b) Temperatures must be stabilized
under the conditions from which entry
is made into each stage of flight being
investigated, unless the entry condition
normally is not one during which com
ponent and the engine fluid temperatures
would stabilize (in which case, operation
through the full entry condition must be
conducted before entry into the stage of
flight being investigated in order to allow
temperatures to reach their natural
levels at the time of entry). The takeoff
cooling test must be preceded by a period
during which the powerplant component
and engine fluid temperatures are stabi
lized with the engines at ground idle.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(c) Cooling tests for each stage of
flight must be continued until—
(1) The component and engine fluid
temperatures Stabilize;
(2) The stage of flight is completed;
or
(3) An operating limitation is reached.
(d) For reciprocating engine powered
airplanes, it may be assumed, for cooling
test purposes, that the takeoff stage of
flight is complete when the airplane
reaches an altitude of 1,500 feet above
the takeoff surface or reaches a point in
the takeoff where the transition from the
takeoff to the en route configuration is
completed and a speed is reached at
which compliance with $25.67 (d) is
shown, whichever point is at a higher
altitude.
(e) For hull seaplanes and amphib
ians, cooling must be shown during taxi
ing downwind for 10 minutes, at five
knots above step speed.
INDUCTION SYSTEM
§ 25.1091 Air induction.
(a) The air induction system for each
engine must supply—
(1) The air required by that engine
under each operating condition for
which certification is requested; and
(2) The air for proper fuel metering
and mixture distribution with the in
duction System valves in any position.
(b) Each reciprocating engine must
have an alternate air source that pre
vents the entry of rain, ice, or any other
foreign matter.
(c) Air intakes may not open within
the cowling, unless—
(1) That part of the cowling is iso
lated from the engine accessory section
by means of a fireproof diaphragm; or
(2) There are means to prevent the
emergence of backfire flames.
(d) For turbine engine powered air
planes—
(1) There must be means to prevent
hazardous quantities of fuel leakage or
overflow from drains, vents, or other
components of flammable fluid systems
º
an
entering the engine intake system;
(2) The airplane must be designed to
prevent water or slush on the runway,
taxiway, or other airport operating sur
faces from being directed into the engine
air inlet ducts in hazardous quantities,
and the air inlet ducts must be located
259
§ 25.1104
or protected so as to minimize the in
gestion of foreign matter during takeoff,
landing, and taxiing.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5677,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.1093 Induction system deicing and
anti-icing provisions.
(a) Reciprocating engines. Each re
ciprocating engine air induction System:
must have means to prevent and elimi
nate icing. Unless this is done by other
means, it must be shown that, in air
free of visible moisture at a temperature
of 30° F., each airplane with altitude
engines using—
(1) Conventional venturi carburetors
has a preheater that can provide a heat
rise of 120° F. with the engine at 60 per
cent of maximum continuous power; of
(2) Carburetors tending to reduce thº
probability of ice formation has a pre:
heater that can provide a heat rise d
100° F. with the engine at 60 percer
of maximum continuous power.
(b) Turbine engines. Each turbine
engine must—
(1) Operate throughout its flight power
range (including idling) without adverse
effect on engine operation or serious loss
of power or thrust under the icing condi
tions specified in Appendix C of this part,
and in snow, both falling and blowing,
within the limitations established for the
airplane; and
(2) Idle for 30 minutes on the ground
with the air bleed available for engine
icing protection at its critical condition,
without adverse effect, in an atmosphere
that is at a temperature of 29°F and has
a liquid water content of 0.6 grams per
cubic meter in the form of drops having a
mean effective diameter of 40 microns,
followed by a momentary operation at
takeoff power or thrust.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1934,
as amended by Amdt. No. 25–36, 39 FR 35461,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 25.1101 Carburetor air preheater de
sign.
Each carburetor air preheater must be
designed and constructed to
(a) Ensure ventilation of the pre
heater when the engine is operated in
cold air;
(b) Allow inspection of the exhaust
manifold parts that it surrounds; and
(c) Allow inspection of critical parts
of the preheater itself.
$ 25.1103 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 25.1103 Induction system ducts.
(a) Each induction system duct up
stream of the first stage of the super
charger must have a drain to prevent
the hazardous accumulation of fuel and
moisture in the ground attitude. The
drains may not discharge in locations
that might cause a fire hazard.
(b) Each induction system duct must
be—
(1) Strong enough to prevent induc
tion system failures resulting from nor
mal backfire conditions; and
(2) Fire-resistant if it is in any fire
zone for which a fire-extinguishing sys
tem is required.
(c) Each duct connected to compo
nents between which relative motion
Could exist must have means for flexi
bility.
(d) For turbine engine bleed air sys
tems no hazard may result if a duct
rupture or failure occurs at any point
between the engine port and the airplane
unit served by the bleed air.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5677,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.1105 Induction system screens.
If induction system screens are used—
(a) Each screen must be upstream of
the carburetor;
(b) No screen may be in any part
of the induction system that is the only
passage through which air can reach
the engine, unless it can be deiced by
heated air;
(c) No Screen may be deiced by alcohol
alone; and
(d) It must be impossible for fuel to
strike any screen.
§ 25.1107 Inter-coolers and
coolers.
Each inter-cooler and after-cooler
must be able to withstand any vibration,
inertia, and air pressure load to which
it would be subjected in Operation.
EXHAUST SYSTEM
§ 25.1121 General.
(a) Each exhaust system must ensure
safe disposal of exhaust gases without
fire hazard or carbon monoxide contam
ination in any personnel compartment.
For test purposes, any acceptable carbon
monoxide detection method may be used
to show the absence of Carbon monoxide.
(b) Unless Suitable precautions are
taken, no exhaust system part may be
dangerously close to parts of any system
carrying flammable fluids or vapors, or
under parts of such a system that may
leak.
(c) Each component that hot exhaust
gases could strike, or that could be sub
Jected to high temperatures from exhaust
System parts, must be fireproof. All ex
haust system components must be sep
arated by fireproof shields from adjacent
parts of the airplane that are outside the
engine Compartment.
(d) No exhaust gases may discharge
So as to cause a fire hazard with respect
to any flammable fluid vent or drain.
(e) No exhaust gases may discharge
where they will cause a glare seriously
affecting pilot vision at night.
(f) Each exhaust system component
must be ventilated to prevent points of
excessively high temperature.
(g) Each exhaust shroud must be
ventilated or insulated to avoid, during
normal operation, a temperature high
enough to ignite any flammable fluids or
Vapors external to the shroud.
§ 25.11.23 Exhaust piping.
(a) Exhaust piping must be heat and
corrosion resistant, and must have pro
visions to prevent failure due to expan
sion by operating temperatures.
(b) Piping must be supported to with
stand any vibration and inertia loads
to which it would be subjected in opera
tion; and
(c) Piping connected to components
between which relative motion could
exist must have means for flexibility.
§ 25.1125 Exhaust heat exchangers.
(a) Each exhaust heat exchanger must
be constructed and installed to withstand
each vibration, inertia, and other load to
after
which it would be Subjected in opera
tion. In addition—
(1) Each exchanger must be suitable
for continued Operation at high tem
peratures and resistant to corrosion from
exhaust gases;
(2) There must be means for the in
spection of the critical parts of each ex
changer;
(3) Each exchanger must have cooling
provisions wherever it is subject to con
tact with exhaust gases; and
(4) No exhaust heat exchanger or muff
may have any stagnant areas or liquid
traps that would increase the probability
of ignition of flammable fluids or vapors
that might be present in case of the fail
ure or malfunction of components carry
ing flammable fluids.
260
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(b) If an exhaust heat exchanger is
used for heating ventilating air–
(1) There must be a secondary heat
exchanger between the primary exhaust
gas heat exchanger and the ventilating
air System; Or
(2) Other means must be used to pre
clude the harmful contamination of the
ventilating air.
§ 25.1127 Exhaust driven turbo-super
chargers.
(a) Each exhaust driven turbo-super
charger must be approved or shown to
be suitable for the particular application.
It must be installed and supported to
ensure safe operation between normal in
spections and overhauls. In addition,
there must be provisions for expansion
and flexibility between exhaust conduits
and the turbine.
(b) There must be provisions for
lubricating the turbine and for cooling
turbine parts where temperatures are
critical.
(c) If the normal turbo-supercharger
control system malfunctions, the turbine
speed may not exceed its maximum al
lowable value. Except for the waste gate
operating components, the components
provided for meeting this requirement
must be independent of the normal turbo
supercharger controls.
PowerPLANT CONTROLS AND ACCESSORIES
§ 25.1141 Powerplant controls: general.
Each powerplant control must be
located, arranged, and designed under
§§ 25.777 through 25.781 and marked
under § 25.1555. In addition, it must
meet the following requirements:
(a) Each control must be located SO
that it cannot be inadvertently operated
by persons entering, leaving, or moving
normally in, the cockpit.
(b) Each flexible control must be ap
proved or must be shown to be suitable
for the particular application.
(c) Each control must have sufficient
strength and rigidity to withstand oper
ating loads without failure and without
excessive deflection.
(d) Each control must be able to
maintain any Set position without con
stant attention by flight crewmembers
and without creep due to control loads
or vibration.
(e) No single failure or malfunction,
or probable combination thereof, in any
powerplant control system may cause the
261
§ 25.1147
failure of any powerplant function nec
essary for safety.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–11, 32 FR 6913,
May 5, 1967]
§ 25. I 143 Engine power and thrust, and
antidetonant injection system con
trols.
(a) There must be a separate power
or thrust control for each engine.
(b) Power and thrust controls must
be arranged to allow—
(1) Separate control of each engine;
and
(2) Simultaneous COntrol of all
engines.
(c) Each power and thrust control
must provide a positive and immediately
responsive means of controlling its
eng1ne.
(d) If there is an antidetonant in
jection system, the flow of A.D.I. fluid
must be automatically controlled with
relation to the amount of power oro
duced by the engine. In addition to the
automatic control, there must be a
Separate control for the A.D.I. pumps.
(e) If the power or thrust control in
corporates a fuel shutoff feature, then
each power or thrust control must have
a means to prevent inadvertent move
ment of the control into the cutoff posi
tion. The means must have a positive
lock or stop at the idle position and must
require a separate and distinct operation
by the crew to displace the control from
the idle position.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5677, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.1145 Ignition switches.
(a) Ignition switches must control
each engine ignition circuit on each
engine.
(b) There must be means to quickly
shut off all ignition by the grouping of
Switches or by a master ignition control.
(c) Each master ignition control must
have a guard to prevent its inadvertent
Operation.
§ 25.1147 Mixture controls.
(a) If there are mixture controls, each
engine must have a separate control.
The controls must be grouped and ar
ranged to allow—
(1) Separate control of each engine;
and
(2) Simultaneous control of all en
gines.
 § 25.1149 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(b) Each intermediate position of the
mixture controls that corresponds to a
Inormal Operating Setting must be identi
flable by feel and sight.
(c) The mixture controls must be ac
cessible to both pilots. However, if
there is a separate flight engineer sta
tion with a control panel, the controls
need be accessible only to the flight
englneer.
§ 25.1149 Propeller speed and pitch
controls.
(a) There must be a separate propeller
speed and pitch control for each pro
peller.
(b) The controls must be grouped and
arranged to allow—
(1) Separate control of each propeller;
*and
(2) Simultaneous control of all pro
ºpellers.
(c) The controls must allow synchro
nization of all propellers.
(d) The propeller speed and pitch con
trols must be to the right of, and at least
one inch below, the pilot's throttle
controls.
§ 25.1153 Propeller feathering controls.
(a) There must be a separate propeller
feathering control for each propeller.
The control must have means to prevent
its inadvertent operation.
(b) If feathering is accomplished by
movement of the propeller pitch or speed
control lever, there must be means to
prevent the inadvertent movement of
this lever to the feathering position dur
ing normal operation.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25—11, 32 F.R. 6913,
May 5, 1967]
§ 25.1155 Reverse thrust and propeller
pitch settings below the flight regime.
Each control for reverse thrust and for
propeller pitch settings below the flight
regime must have means to prevent its
inadvertent operation. The means must
have a positive lock or stop at the flight
idle position and must require a separate
and distinct Operation by the crew to
displace the control from the flight re
gime (forward thrust regime for turbojet
powered airplanes).
[Amdt. 25–11, 32 F.R. 6913, May 5, 1967]
262
§ 25.1157 Carburetor air temperature
controls.
There must be a separate carburetor
air temperature control for each engine.
§ 25.1159 Supercharger controls.
Each Supercharger control must be
accessible to the pilots or, if there is a
Separate flight engineer station with a
control panel, to the flight engineer.
§ 25.1161 Fuel jettisoning system con
trols.
Each fuel jettisoning system control
must have guards to prevent inadvertent
operation. No control may be near any
fire extinguisher control or other con
trol used to combat fire.
§ 25.1163 Powerplant accessories.
(a) Engine-mounted accessories must
be approved for installation on the en
gine concerned and use the provisions
on the engine for mounting.
(b) Electrical equipment subject to
arcing Or Sparking must be installed to
minimize the probability of contact with
any flammable fluids or vapors that
might be present in a free state.
(c) If continued rotation of an engine
driven cabin Supercharger or of any re
mote accessory driven by the engine is
hazardous if malfunctioning occurs,
there must be means to prevent rotation
without interfering with the continued
operation of the engine.
§ 25.1165 Engine ignition systems.
(a) Each battery ignition system
must be supplemented by a generator
that is automatically available as an al
ternate source of electrical energy to al
low continued engine operation if any
battery becomes depleted.
(b) The capacity of batteries and gen
erators must be large enough to meet
the simultaneous demands of the engine
ignition system and the greatest de
mands of any electrical System com
ponents that draw electrical energy from
the Same Source.
(c) The design of the engine ignition
system must account for—
(1) The condition of an inoperative
generator;
(2) The condition of a completely de
pleted battery with the generator run
ning at its normal operating speed; and
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(3) The condition of a completely de
pleted battery With the generator Oper
ating at idling Speed, if there is Only one
battery.
(d) Magneto ground wiring (for sep
arate ignition circuits) that lies on the
engine side of the fire wall, must be in
stalled, located, or protected, to mini
mize the probability of simultaneous fail
ure of two or more Wires as a result of
mechanical damage, electrical faults,
or other cause.
(e) No ground wire for any engine
may be routed through a fire zone of
another engine unless each part of that
wire within that zone is fireproof.
(f) Each ignition system must be in
dependent of any electrical circuit not
used for assisting, controlling, or analyz
ing the operation of that system.
(g) There must be means to warn ap
propriate flight crewmembers if the mal
functioning of any part of the electrical
System is causing the continuous dis
charge of any battery necessary for en
gine ignition.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5677,
Apr. 8, 1970]
PowerPLANT FIRE PROTECTION
§ 25.1181 - Designated fire zones; regions
included.
(a) Designated fire zones are–
(1) The engine power section;
(2) The engine accessory section:
(3) Except for reciprocating engines,
any complete powerplant compartment
in which no isolation is provided between
the engine power section and the engine
accessory Section;
(4) Any auxiliary power unit com
partment;
(5) Any fuel-burning heater and other
combustion equipment installation de
scribed in § 25.859;
(6) The compressor and accessory sec
tions of turbine engines; and
(7) Combustor, turbine, and tailpipe
sections of turbine engine installations
that contain lines or components carry
ing flammable fluids or gases.
(b) Each designated fire zone must
meet the requirements of $$ 25.1.185
through 25.1205. -
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–11, 82 P.R. 6913,
May 5, 1967; Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5677,
Apr. 8, 1970]
263
§ 25.1185
§ 25.1182 Nacelle areas behind firewalls,
and engine pod attaching structures
containing flammable fluid lines.
(a) Each nacelle area immediately be
hind the firewall, and each portion of any
engine pod attaching structure contain
ing flammable fluid lines, must meet each
requirement of §§ 25.1103(b), 25.1165
(d) and (e), 25.1183, 25.1185(c), 25.1187,
25.1189, and 25.1195 through 25.1203, in
cluding those concerning designated fire
zones. However, engine pod attaching
Structures need not contain fire detection
or extinguishing means.
(b) For each area covered by para
graph (a) of this section that contains
a retractable landing gear, compliance
With that paragraph need only be shown
with the landing gear retracted.
[Amdt. 25–11, 32 F.R. 6913, May 5, 1967]
§ 25.1183 Flammable fluid-carrying
components.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(b) of this section, each line, fitting, and
other component carrying flammable
fluid in any area subject to engine fire
conditions, and each component which
conveys or contains flammable fluid in a
designated fire zone must be fire
resistant, except that flammable fluid
tanks and supports in a designated fire
zone must be fireproof or be enclosed by
a fireproof shield unless damage by fire
to any non-fireproof part will not cause
leakage or spillage of flammable fluid.
Components must be shielded or located
to safeguard against the ignition of
leaking flammable fluid. An integral oil
Sump of less than 20 quart capacity on a
reciprocating engine need not be fire
proof nor be enclosed by a fireproof
shield.
(b) Paragraph (a) of this section does
not apply to—
(1) Lines and fittings already ap
proved as part of a type certificated
engine under Part 33 of this chapter; and
(2) Vent and drain lines, and their
fittings, whose failure will not result in,
or add to, a fire hazard.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–11, 32 F.R. 6913,
May 5, 1967; Amdt. No. 25–36, 39 FR 35461,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 25.1185 Flammable fluids.
(a) Except for the integral oil Sumps
Specified in § 25.1013 (a), no tank or res
ervoir that is a part of a System contain
 § 25.1187
Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
ing flammable fluids or gases may be in
a designated fire zone unless the fluid
contained, the design of the system, the
materials used in the tank, the shut-off
means, and all connections, lines, and
control provide a degree of safety equal
to that which would exist if the tank or
reservoir were outside such a zone.
(b) There must be at least one-half
inch of clear airspace between each tank
or reservoir and each firewall or shroud
isolcating a designated fire zone.
(c) Absorbent materials close to flam
mable fluid System components that
might leak must be covered or treated
to prevent the absorption of hazardous
quantities of fluids.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964
as amended by Amdt. 25–19, 33 F.R. 15410,
Oct. 17, 1968]
§ 25.1187 Drainage and ventilation of
fire zones.
(a) There must be complete drainage
of each part of each designated fire zone
to minimize the hazards resulting from
failure or malfunctioning of any COInpo
nent containing flammable fluids. The
drainage means must be
(1) Effective under conditions ex
pected to prevail when drainage is need
ed; and
(2) Arranged so that no discharged
fluid will cause an additional fire hazard.
(b) Each designated fire zone must be
ventilated to prevent the accumulation of
flammable vapors.
(c) No ventilation opening may be
where it would allow the entry of flam
mable fluids, vapors, or flame from other
Zones
(d) Each ventilation means must be
arranged so that no discharged vapors
will cause an additional fire hazard.
(e) Unless the extinguishing agent
capacity and rate of discharge are based
on maximum air flow through a zone,
there must be means to allow the crew
to shut off sources of forced ventilation
to any fire zone except the engine power
section of the nacelle and the combus
tion heater ventilating air ducts.
§ 25.1189 Shutoff means.
(a) Each engine and each fire zone
Specified in § 25.1181 (a) (4) and (5)
must have a means to shut off or other
wise prevent hazardous quantities of
fuel, oil, delcer, and other flammable
264
fluids, from flowing into, Within, or
through any designated fire Zone, except
ºOr—
Shutoff means are not required
(1) Lines forming an integral part of
an engine; and
(2) Oil Systems for turbine engine in
stallations in which all external COImpo
nents of the oil system, including the oil
tanks, are fireproof.
(b) The closing of any fuel shutoff
Valve for any engine may not make fuel
unavailable to the remaining engines.
(c) Operation of any shutoff IIlay not
interfere with the later emergency op
eration of other equipment, such as the
means for feathering the propeller.
(d) Each flammable fluid shutoff
means and control must be fireproof or
must be located and protected so that any
fire in a fire zone will not affect its
Operation.
(e) No hazardous quantity of flam
mable fluid may drain into any desig
nated fire zone after shutoff.
(f) There must be means to guard
against inadvertent operation of the
Shutoff means and to make it possible
for the crew to reopen the shutoff In eans
in flight after it has been closed.
(g). Each tank-to-engine shutoff valve
must be located so that the operation Of
the valve will not be affected by power
plant or engine mount structural failure.
(h) Each shutoff valve must have a
means to relieve excessive pressure ac
Cumulation unless a means for pressure
relief is otherwise provided in the System.
[Pocket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24. 1964.
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5677,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.1191 Firewalls.
(a) Each engine, auxiliary power unit,
fuel-burning heater, other Combustion
equipment intended for operation in
flight, and the combustion, turbine, and
tailpipe sections of turbine engines, must
be isolated from the rest of the airplane
by firewalls, shrouds, or equivalent
means.
(b) Each firewall and shroud Inust
be—
(1) Fireproof;
(2) Constructed so that no hazardous
quantity of air, fluid, or flame can pass
from the compartment to other parts of
the airplane;
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(3) Constructed so that each opening
is sealed with close fitting fireproof
grommets, bushings, or firewall fittings:
and
(4) Protected against Corrosion.
§ 25.1192 Engine accessory section dia
phragm.
For reciprocating engines, the engine
power section and all portions of the ex
haust system must be isolated from the
engine accessory compartment by a dia
phragm that complies with the firewall
requirements of § 25.1191.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5678, Apr. 8, 1970)
§ 25.1193 Cowling and nacelle skin.
(a) Each cowling must be constructed
and supported so that it can resist any
vibration, inertia, and air load to which
it may be subjected in Operation.
(b) Cowling must meet the drainage
and ventilation requirements of § 25.1187.
(c) On airplanes with a diaphragm
isolating the engine power Section from
the engine accessory Section, each part
of the accessory section cowling subject
to flame in case of fire in the engine
power section of the powerplant must—
(1) Be fireproof; and
(2) Meet the re q u 1 reme n ts of
§ 25.1192.
(d) Each part of the cowling subject
to high temperatures due to its nearness
to exhaust System parts or exhaust gas
impingement must be fireproof.
(e) Each airplane must—
(1) Be designed and constructed so
that no fire originating in any fire zone
can enter, either through openings or by
burning through external skin, any other
zone or region where it would create
additional hazards;
(2) Meet subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph with the landing gear retract
ed (if applicable); and
(3) Have fireproof skin in areas Sub
ject to flame if a fire starts in the en
gine power or accessory Sections.
§ 25.1195 Fire extinguishing systems.
(a) Except for combustor, turbine, and
tail pipe sections of turbine engine in
stallations that contain lines or com
ponents carrying flammable fluids or
gases for which it is shown that a fire
originating in these sections can be con
trolled, there must be a fire extinguisher
System Serving each designated fire Zone.
39–059–75—18
§ 25.1199.
(b) The fire extinguishing system, the
quantity of the extinguishing agent, the
rate of discharge, and the discharge dis
tribution must be adequate to extinguish
fires. An individual “one shot” system
may be used for auxiliary power units,
fuel burning heaters, and other combus
tion equipment. For other designated
fire zones, two discharges must be pro
vided each of which produce adequate
agent concentrations. It must be possible
to direct each of these discharges to any
main engine installation.
(c) The fire-extinguishing system for
a nacelle must be able to simultaneously
protect each zone of the nacelle for which
protection is provided.
|Docket No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5678,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.1197 Fire extinguishing agents.
(a) Extinguishing agents must be
methyl bromide, carbon dioxide, or any
other agent with equal extinguishing ac
tion.
(b) If methyl bromide, carbon dioxide,
or any other toxic extinguishing agent
is used, provisions must be made to pre
vent harmful concentrations of fluid or
fluid vapors (from leakage during nor
mal operation of the airplane or as a
result of discharging the fire extinguisher
on the ground or in flight) from enter
ing any personnel compartment, even
though a defect may exist in the ex
tinguishing system. This must be shown
by test except for built-in carbon dioxide
fuselage compartment fire extinguishing
systems for which—
(1) Five pounds or less of carbon di
oxide will be discharged under estab
lished fire control procedures, into any
fuselage compartment; or
(2) There is protective breathing
equipment for each flight crewmember
on flight deck duty.
(c) Each methyl bromide container
must be charged with a dry agent and
sealed. This must be done by the fire
extinguisher manufacturer or any per
son using appropriate recharging equip
ment.
§ 25.1199 Extinguishing agent contain
ers.
(a) Each extinguishing agent con
tainer must have a pressure relief to pre
vent bursting of the container by exces
sive internal pressures.
265
§ 25.1201 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(b) Each discharge line from a relief
connection must terminate outside the
airplane in a location convenient for in
spection on the ground.
(c) There must be a visual discharge
indicator at the discharge end of each
discharge line.
(d) The temperature of each contain
er must be maintained, under intended
operating conditions, to prevent the pres
sure in the container from—
(1) Falling below that necessary to
provide an adequate rate of discharge;
Ol'
(2) Rising high enough to cause pre
Inature discharge.
(e) If a pyrotechnic capsule is used to
discharge the extinguishing agent, each
container must be installed so that
temperature conditions will not cause
hazardous deterioration of the pyro
technic capsule.
tdocket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5678,
Apr. 8, 1970]
Fire extinguishing system ma
§ 25.120.1
terials.
(a) No material in any fire extin
guishing system may react chemically
with any extinguishing agent So as to
create a hazard.
(b) Each system component in an
engine compartment must be fireproof.
§ 25.1203 Fire-detector system.
(a) There must be approved, quick
acting fire or overheat detectors in each
designated fire zone, and in the combus
tion, turbine, and tailpipe Sections of
turbine engine installations, in numbers
and locations ensuring prompt detection
of fire in those ZOneS.
(b) Each fire detector System must be
constructed and installed So that—
(1) It will withstand the vibration,
inertia, and other loads to which it may
be subjected in operation;
(2) There is a means to Warn the Crew
in the event that the sensor or associated
wiring within a designated fire zone is
severed at one point, unless the System
continues to function as a satisfactory
detection system after the Severing; and
(3) There is a means to warn the crew
in the event of a short circuit in the
sensor or associated wiring within a
designated fire zone, unless the System
continues to function as a satisfactory
detection system after the short circuit.
(c) No fire or overheat detector may
be affected by any oil, water, other fluids,
or fumes that might be present.
266
(d) There must be means to allow the
crew to check, in flight, the functioning
of each fire or overheat detector electric
circuit.
(e) Wiring and other components of
each fire or overheat detector system in a
fire Zone must be at least fire-resistant.
(f) No fire or overheat detector system
component for any fire zone may pass
through another fire zone, unless—
(1) It is protected against the possi
bility of false warnings resulting from
fires in Zones through which its passes;
Or
(2) Each zone involved is simultane
ously protected by the same detector and
extinguishing system.
(g) Each fire detector system must be
Constructed so that when it is in the
Configuration for installation it Will not
exceed the alarm activation time
approved for the detectors using the
response time criteria specified in the
appropriate Technical Standard Order
for the detector.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5678,
Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. 25–26, 36 F.R. 5493, Mar.
24, 1971]
Subpart F-Equipment
GENERAL
§ 25.1301 Function and installation.
Each item of installed equipment
Imust—
(a) Be of a kind and design appropri
ate to its intended function;
(b) Be labeled as to its identification,
function, or operating limitations, or any
applicable combination of these factors;
(c) Be installed according to limita
tions Specified for that equipment; and
(d) Function properly when installed.
§ 25.1303 Flight and navigation instru
ments,
(a) The following flight and naviga
tion instruments must be installed so
that the instrument is visible from each
pilot station:
(1) A free air temperature indicator
or an air-temperature indicator which
provides indications that are convertible
to free-air temperature.
(2) A clock (sweep-second pointer).
(3) A direction indicator (nonstabi
lized magnetic compass).
(b) The following flight and naviga
tion instruments must be installed at
each pilot station:
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(1) An airspeed indicator. If airspeed
limitations vary with altitude, the indi
Cator must have a maximum allowable
airspeed indicator showing the variation
of Vito with altitude.
(2) An altimeter (sensitive).
(3) A rate-of-climb indicator (verti
-Cal Speed).
(4) A gyroscopic rate-of-turn indica
tor combined with an integral slip-skid
Indicator (turn-and-bank indicator) ex
Cept that only a slip-skid indicator is
required on large airplanes with a third
attitude instrument system useable
through flight attitudes of 360° of pitch
and roll and installed in accordance with
§ 121.305 (j) of this title.
(5) A bank and pitch indicator (gyro
Scopically Stabilized).
(6) A direction indicator (gyroscop
ically stabilized, magnetic or nonmag
netic).
(c) The following flight and naviga
tion instruments are required as pre
scribed in this paragraph:
(1) A speed warning device is required
for turbine engine powered airplanes
and for airplanes with VMo/M Mo greater
than 0.8 VDF/MDF or 0.8 VD/MD. The
speed warning device must give effec
tive aural warning (differing distinc
tively from aural warnings used for other
purposes) to the pilots, whenever the
speed exceeds VMo plus 6 knots or Myſo
+0.01. The upper limit of the production
tolerance for the warning device may not
exceed the prescribed warning speed.
(2) A machmeter is required at each
pilot station for airpanes with compres
sibility limitations not otherwise indi
cated to the pilot by the airspeed indi
cating System required under paragraph
(b) (1) of this Section.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5678, Apr. 8, 1970, as
amended by Amdt. 25–24, 35 F.R. 7108, May 6,
1970]
§ 25.1305 Powerplant instruments.
The following are required powerplant
instruments:
(a) For all airplanes. (1) A fuel pres
sure warning means for each engine, or
a master warning means for all engines
with provision for isolating the indi
vidual Warning means from the master
Warning means.
(2) A fuel quantity indicator for each
fuel tank.
(3) An oil quantity indicator for each
-oil tank.
267
§ 25.1305
(4) An oil pressure indicator for each
independent pressure oil System of each
engine.
(5) An oil pressure warning means for
each engine, or a master warning means
for all engines with provision for isolat
ing the individual warning means from
the master warning means.
(6) An oil temperature indicator for
each engine.
(7) Fire-warning indicators.
(8) An augmentation liquid quantity
indicator (appropriate for the manner in
which the liquid is to be used in Opera
tion) for each tank.
(b) For reciprocating engine-powered
airplanes. In addition to the powerplant
instruments required by paragraph (a) of
this section, the following powerplant
instruments are required:
(1) A carburetor air temperature in
dicator for each engine.
(2) A cylinder head temperature indi
Cator for each air-cooled engine.
(3) A manifold pressure indicator for
each engine.
(4) A fuel pressure indicator (to indi
cate the pressure at which the fuel is
Supplied) for each engine.
(5) A fuel flowmeter, or fuel mixture
indicator, for each engine without an
automatic altitude mixture control.
(6) A tachometer for each engine.
(7) A device that indicates, to the
flight crew (during flight), any change in
the power Output, for each engine with–
(i) An automatic propeller feathering
System, whose operation is initiated by
a power Output measuring system; or
(ii) A total engine piston displace
ment of 2,000 cubic inches or more.
(8) A means to indicate to the pilot
when the propeller is in reverse pitch,
for each reversing propeller.
(c) For turbine engine-powered air
planes. In addition to the powerplant in
struments required by paragraph (a) of
this Section, the following powerplant
instruments are required:
(1) A gas temperature indicator for
each engine.
(2) A fuel flowmeter indicator for
each engine.
(3) A tachometer (to indicate the
Speed of the rotors with established lim
iting Speeds) for each engine.
(4) A means to indicate, to the flight
Crew, the Operation of each engine starter
that can be operated continuously but
that is neither designed for continuous
operation nor designed to prevent hazard
if it failed.
§ 25.1307 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(5) An indicator to indicate the func
tioning of the powerplant ice protection
system for each engine.
(6) An indicator for the fuel strainer or
filter required by § 25.997 to indicate the
occurrence of contamination of the
strainer or filter before it reaches the
capacity established in accordance with
§ 25.997 (d).
(7) A warning means for the oil
strainer or filter required by § 25.1019, if
it has no bypass, to warn the pilot of the
occurrence of contamination of the
strainer or filter screen before it reaches
the capacity established in accordance
with $ 25.1019 (a)(2).
(8). An indicator to indicate the proper
functioning of any heater used to prevent
ice clogging of fuel System components.
(d) For turbojet engine powered air
planes. In addition to the powerplant
instruments required by paragraphs (a)
and (c) of this section, the following
powerplant instruments are required:
(1) An indicator to indicate a change
in thrust resulting from any deficiency
in the engine, or to indicate a gas stream
pressure that can be related to thrust,
for each engine.
(2) A position indicating means to in
dicate to the flight crew when the thrust
reversing device is in the reverse thrust
position, for each engine using a thrust
reversing device.
(3) An indicator to indicate rotor Sys
tem unbalance.
(e) For turbopropeller-powered air
planes. In addition to the powerplant
instruments required by paragraphs
(a) and (c) of this section, the fol
lowing powerplant instruments are
required:
(1) A torque indicator for each
engine.
(2) Position indicating means to indi
cate to the flight crew when the propel
ler blade angle is below the flight low
pitch positon, for each propeller.
(3) A means to indicate to the pilot
when the propeller is in reverse pitch,
for each reversing propeller.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5678, Apr. 8, 1970, as
amended by Amdt. No. 25–35, 39 FR 1831,
Jan. 15, 1974; Amdt. No. 25–36, 39 FR 35461,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 25.1307 Miscellaneous equipment.
The following is required miscellane
ous equipment:
(a) A seat and safety belt, for each
occupant.
26S
(b) Two or more independent sources
Of electrical energy.
(c) Electrical protective devices, as
prescribed in this part.
(d) Two systems for two-way radio
communications, with controls for each
accessible from each pilot station, de
signed and installed so that failure of
one system will not preclude operation
of the other system. The use of a com
mon antenna System is acceptable if ade
quate reliability is shown.
(e) Two Systems for radio navigation,
with controls for each accessible from
each pilot station, designed and installed
So that failure of one system will not
preclude operation of the other system.
The use of a common antenna system
is acceptable if adequate reliability is
shown.
(f) A windshield wiper, or equivalent,
for each pilot station.
(g) An ignition switch, for each
engine.
(h) Portable fire extinguishers as
prescribed in § 25.853 (e) and (f).
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5678, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.1309 Equipment systems and in
stallations.
(a) The equipment, systems, and in
stallations whose functioning is required
by this subchapter, must be designed to
ensure that they perform their intended
functions under any foreseeable operat
ing condition.
(b) The airplane systems and asso
clated components, considered sepa
rately and in relation to other systems,
must be designed so that—
(1) The occurrence of any failure
Condition which would prevent the con
tinued safe flight and landing of the air
plane is extremely improbable, and
(2) The occurrence of any other fail
ure Conditions which would result in in
jury to the occupants, or reduce the ca
pability of the airplane or the ability of
the crew to cope with adverse operating
conditions is improbable.
(c) Warning information must be pro
vided to alert the crew to unsafe system
Operating conditions, and to enable them
to take appropriate corrective action.
Systems, controls, and associated moni
toring and warning means must be de-"
signed so that crew errors that would
create additional hazards are improb
able.
(d) Compliance with the requirements
of paragraphs (b) and (c) of this sec
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
tion must be shown by analysis, and
Where necessary, by appropriate ground,
flight, or flight - simulator tests. The
analysis must consider—
(1) Possible modes of failure, includ
ing malfunctions and damage from ex
ternal sources.
(2) The probability of multiple fail
ures and undetected failures.
(3) The resulting effects on the air
plane and occupants, considering the
Stage of flight and operating conditions,
and
(4) The crew warning cues, corrective
action required, and the capability of
detecting faults.
(e) Each installation whose function
ing is required by this subchapter, and
that requires a power supply, is an “es
sential load” on the power supply. The
power Sources and the system must be
able to Supply the following power loads
in probable Operating combinations and
for probable durations:
(1) Loads connected to the system
With the System functioning normally.
(2) ESSential loads, after failure of
power Sources and the System must be
any one prime mover, power converter,
or energy storage device.
(3) Essential loads after failure of—
(1) Any One engine on two- or three
engine airplanes; and
(ii) Any two engines on four-or-more
engine airplanes.
(4) Essential loads for which an al
ternate source of power is required by
this chapter, after any failure or mal
function in any one power supply system,
distribution system, or other utilization
System.
(f) In determining compliance with
paragraph (e) (2) and (3) of this sec
tion, the powerloads may be assumed
to be reduced under a monitoring pro
cedure consistent with safety in the
kinds of operation authorized. Loads not
required in controlled flight need not be
considered for the two-engine-inopera
tive condition on airplanes with four or
more engines.
(g) In showing compliance with par
agraphs (a) and (b) of this section with
regard to the electrical System and
equipment design and installation, criti
cal environmental conditions must be
considered. For electrical generation, dis
tribution, and utilization equipment re
quired by or used in complying with this
chapter, except equipment covered by
Technical Standard Orders containing
269
§ 25.1323
environmental test procedures, the
ability to provide continuous, safe Serv
ice under foreseeable environmental
conditions may be shown by environ
mental tests, design analysis, or reference
to previous comparable Service experi
ence on other aircraft.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5679, Apr. 8, 1970]
INSTRUMENTS: INSTALLATION
§ 25.1321 Arrangement and visibility.
(a) Each flight, navigation, and pow
erplant instrument for use by any pilot
must be plainly visible to him from his
station with the minimum practicable
deviation from his normal position and
line of vision when he is looking forward
along the flight path.
(b) The flight instruments required by
§ 25.1303 must be grouped on the instru
ment panel and centered as nearly as
practicable about the vertical plane of
the pilot's forward vision. In addition—
(1) The instrument that most effec
tively indicates attitude must be on the
panel in the top center position;
(2) The instrument that most effec
tively indicates airspeed must be adja
cent to and directly to the left of the
instrument in the top center position;
(3) The instrument that most effec
tively indicates altitude must be adjacent
to and directly to the right of the instru
ment in the top center position; and
(4) The instrument that most effec
tively indicates direction of flight must
be adjacent to and directly below the
instrument in the top center position.
(c) Required powerplant instruments
must be closely grouped on the instru
ment panel. In addition—
(1) The location of identical power
plant instruments for the engines must
prevent confusion as to which engine
each instrument relates; and
(2) Powerplant instruments vital to
the safe operation of the airplane must
be plainly visible to the appropriate crew
members.
(d) Instrument panel vibration may
not damage or impair the accuracy of
any instrument.
[Amdt. 25–23, 85 F.R. 5679, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.1323 Airspeed indicating system.
For each airspeed indicating system,
the following apply:
(a) Each airspeed indicating instru
ment must be approved and must be
calibrated to indicate true airspeed (at
§ 25.1325 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
sea level with a standard atmosphere)
With a minimum practicable instrument
calibration error When the corresponding
pitot and Static pressures are applied.
(b) Each system must be calibrated
to determine the System error (that is,
the relation between IAS and CAS) in
flight and during the accelerated take
off ground run. The ground run cali
bration must be determined—
(1) From 0.8 of the minimum value of
V, to the maximum value of V., consid
ering the approved ranges of altitude
and weight; and
(2) With the flaps and power settings
corresponding to the values determined
in the establishment of the takeoff path
under § 25.59 or § 25.111 assuming that
the critical engine fails at the minimum
Value of V1.
(c) The airspeed error of the installa
tion, excluding the airspeed indicator in
strument calibration error, may not ex
ceed three percent or five knots, which
ever is greater, throughout the speed
range, from—
(1) Vaſo to 1.3 Vs, With flaps re
tracted; and
(2) 1.3 Vs, to Vre with flaps in the
landing position.
(d) Each system must be arranged, so
far as practicable, to prevent malfunc
tion or serious error due to the entry of
moisture, dirt, or other substances.
(e) Each system must have a heated
pitot tube or an equivalent means of pre
Venting malfunction due to icing.
(f) Where duplicate airspeed indica
tors are required, their respective pitot
tubes must be far enough apart to avoid
damage to both tubes in a collision with
a bird.
§ 25.1325 Static pressure systems.
(a) Each instrument with static air
case connections must be vented to the
outside atmosphere through an appro
priate plping system.
(b) Each static port must be designed
and located in such manner that the
static pressure system performance is
least affected by airflow variation, or by
moisture or other foreign matter, and
that the correlation between air pressure
in the static pressure system and true
ambient atmospheric static pressure is
not changed when the airplane is exposed
to the continuous and intermittent maxi
270
mum icing conditions defined in Appen
dix C of this part.
(c) The design and installation of the
static pressure System must be such
that—
(1) Positive drainage of moisture is
provided; chafing of the tubing and ex
cessive distortion or restriction at bends.
in the tubing is avoided; and the ma
terials used are durable, suitable for the
purpose intended, and protected against
corrosion; and
(2) It is airtight except for the port
into the atmosphere. A proof test must
be conducted to demonstrate the in
tegrity of the static pressure System in
the following manner:
(i) Unpressurized airplanes. Evacuate
the static pressure System to a pressure
differential of approximately 1 inch of
mercury or to a reading on the altimeter,
1,000 feet above the airplane elevation
at the time of the test. Without addi
tional pumping for a period of 1 minute,
the loss of indicated altitude must not
exceed 100 feet on the altimeter.
(ii) Pressurized airplanes. Evacuate
the static pressure system until a pres
sure differential equivalent to the maxi
mum cabin pressure differential for
which the airplane is type certificated is
achieved. Without additional pumping
for a period of 1 minute, the loss of in
dicated altitude must not exceed 2 per
cent of the equivalent altitude of the
maximum cabin differential pressure or
100 feet, whichever is greater.
(d) Each pressure altimeter must be
approved and must be calibrated to in
dicate pressure altitude in a standard
atmosphere, with a minimum practicable
calibration error when the corresponding
static pressures are applied.
(e) Each System must be designed
and installed so that the error in indi
cated pressure altitude, at sea level, with
a standard atmosphere, excluding in
strument calibration error, does not re
Sult in an error of more than +30 feet
per 100 knots speed for the appropriate
configuration in the speed range between
1.3 Vs, with flaps extended and 1.8 vs.
with flaps retracted. However, the error
need not be less than +30 feet.
(f) If an altimeter system is fitted
with a device that provides corrections
to the altimeter indication, the device
must be designed and installed in such
manner that it can be bypassed when it
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
malfunctions, unless an alternate altime
ter system is provided. Each correction
device must be fitted with a means for
indicating the occurrence of reasonably
probable malfunctions, including power
failure, to the flight crew. The indicat
ing means must be effective for any cock
pit lighting condition likely to occur.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–5, 30 F.R. 8261,
June 29, 1965; Amdt. 25–12, 32 F.R. 7587,
May 24, 1967]
§ 25.1327 Magnetic direction indicator.
.
2.
(a) Each magnetic direction indicator
must be installed so that its accuracy is
not excessively affected by the airplane's
Vibration or magnetic fields.
(b) The compensated installation may
not have a deviation, in level flight,
greater than 10 degrees on any heading.
§ 25.1329 Automatic pilot system.
(a) Each automatic pilot system must
be approved and must be designed so
that the automatic pilot can be quickly
: age is within approved limits.
and positively disengaged by the pilots to
prevent it from interfering with their
control of the airplane.
(b) Unless there is automatic syn
chronization, each system must have a
means to readily indicate to the pilot
the alignment of the actuating device
in relation to the control system it
Operates.
(c) Each manually operated control
for the System must be readily accessible
to the pilots.
(d) Quick release (emergency) con
trols must be on both control wheels, on
the side of each wheel opposite the
throttles.
(e) Attitude controls must operate in
the plane and sense of motion specified
in $$ 25.777 (b) and 25.779 (a) for cock
pit controls. The direction of motion
must be plainly indicated on, or adjacent
to, each control.
(f) The System must be designed and
adjusted so that, within the range of
adjustment available to the human pilot,
it cannot produce hazardous loads on the
airplane, or create hazardous deviations
in the flight path, under any condition of
flight appropriate to its use, either during
normal operation or in the event of a
malfunction, assuming that corrective
271
§ 25.1333
action begins within a reasonable period
of time.
(g) If the automatic pilot integrates
signals from auxiliary controls or fur
nishes signals for operation of other
equipment, there must be positive inter
locks and sequencing of engagement to
prevent improper operation. Protection
against adverse interaction of integrated
components, resulting from a malfunc
tion, is also required.
§ 25.1331 Instruments using a power
supply.
(a) For each instrument required by
§ 25.1303(b) that uses a power Supply, the
following apply:
(1) Each instrument must have a vis
ual means integral with, Or adjacent to,
the instrument, to indicate when power
adequate to sustain proper instrument
performance is not being Supplied. The
power must be measured at or near the
point where it enters the instruments.
For electric instruments, the power is.
considered to be adequate when the volt
(2) Each instrument must have two.
independent power sources and a means
for selecting either source.
(b) As used in this section, “instru
ment” includes devices that are physi
cally contained in one unit, and devices
that are composed of two or more physi
cally separate units or components con
nected together (such as a remote indi
cating gyroscopic direction indicator
that includes a magnetic sensing ele
ment, a gyroscopic unit, an amplifier,
and an indicator connected together).
[Docket No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5679,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.1333 Instrument systems.
For systems that operate the instru
ments required by § 25.1303(b) which are
located at each pilot's station—
(a) Means must be provided to con
nect the required instruments at the first
pilot's station to operating systems which
are independent of the operating systems
at other flight crew stations, or other
equipment.
(b) The equipment, Systems, and in
Stallations must be designed so that one
display of the information essential to
the safety of flight which is provided by
the instruments, including attitude, di
§ 25.1337 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
rection, airspeed, and altitude will remain
available to the pilots, without addi
tional crewmember action, after any
single failure or combination of failures
that is not shown to be extremely im
probable; and
(c) Additional instruments, Systems,
Or equipment may not be connected to
the operating systems for the required
instruments, unless provisions are made
to enSure the continued normal func
tioning of the required instruments in
the event of any malfunction of the ad
ditional instruments, systems, or equip
ment which is not shown to be extremely
improbable.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5679, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.1337 Powerplant instruments.
(a) Instrument lines. Each power
plant instrument line must meet the
requirements of $$ 25.993 and 25.1183.
Each line carrying flammable fluids or
gases under pressure must have restrict
ing orifices or equivalent safety devices,
at the Source of the pressure, to prevent
the escape of excessive fluid or gas if the
line fails.
(b) Fuel quantity indicator. There
must be means to indicate to the flight
Crewmembers, the quantity, in gallons or
equivalent units, of usable fuel in each
tank during flight. In addition—
(1) Each fuel quantity indicator must
be calibrated to read “Zero” during level
flight when the quantity of fuel remain
ing in the tank is equal to the unusable
fuel supply determined under § 25.959;
(2) Tanks with interconnected outlets
and airspaces may be treated as one tank
and need not have separate indicators;
and
(3) Each exposed sight gauge, used as
a fuel quantity indicator, must be pro
tected against damage.
(c) Fuel flowmeter system. If a fuel
flowmeter System is installed, each
metering component must have a means
for bypassing the fuel supply if malfunc
tion of that component Severely restricts
fuel flow.
(d) Oil quantity indicator. There
must be a stick gauge or equivalent means
to indicate the quantity of oil in each
tank. If an oil transfer or reserve oil
supply system is installed, there must
be a means to indicate to the flight crew,
in flight, the quantity of oil in each tank.
(e) Turbopropeller blade position in
dicator. Required turbopropeller blade
position indicators must begin indicating
before the blade moves more than eight
degrees below the flight low pitch stop.
The Source of indication must directly
Sense the blade position.
(f) Fuel pressure indicator. There
must be means to measure fuel pressure,
in each System supplying reciprocating
engines, at a point downstream of any
fuel pump except fuel injection pumps.
In addition—
(1) If necessary for the maintenance
of proper fuel delivery pressure, there
must be a Connection to transmit the
carburetor air intake static pressure to
the proper pump relief valve connection;
and
(2) If a connection is required under
subparagraph (1) of this paragraph, the
gauge balance lines must be independ
ently connected to the Carburetor inlet
pressure to avoid erroneous readings.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT
§ 25.1351 General.
(a) Electrical system capacity. The
required generating capacity, and num
ber and kinds of power sources must—
(1) Be determined by an electrical
load analysis; and
(2) Meet the requirements of § 25.-
1309.
(b) Generating System. The generat
ing system includes electrical power
sources, main power busses, transmission
cables, and associated control, regula
tion, and protective devices. It must be
designed so that—
(1) Power sources function properly
when independent and when connected
in combination;
(2) No failure or malfunction of any
power source can create a hazard or im
pair the ability of remaining sources to
Supply essential loads;
(3) The system voltage and frequency
(as applicable) at the terminals of all
essential load equipment can be main
tained within the limits for which the
equipment is designed, during any prob
able operating condition; and
(4) System transients due to switch
ing, fault clearing, or other causes do
not make essential loads inoperative, and
do not cause a Smoke or fire hazard.
2
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(5) There are means accessible, in
flight, to appropriate crewmembers for
the individual and collective disconnec
tion of the electrical power sources from
the System.
(6) There are means to indicate to ap
propriate crewmembers the generating
system quantities essential for the Safe
operation of the system, such as the
voltage and current supplied by each
generator.
§ 25.1353 Electrical equipment and in
stallations.
(a) Electrical equipment, controls, and
wiring must be installed so that opera
tion of any one unit or system of units
will not adversely affect the simultaneous
operation of any other electrical unit or
system essential to the safe operation.
(b) Cables must be grouped, routed,
and spaced so that damage to essential
circuits will be minimized if there are
faults in heavy current-carrying cables.
(c) Storage batteries must be designed
and installed as follows:
(1) Safe cell temperatures and pres
sures must be maintained during any
probablo charging or discharging con
dition. No uncontrolled increase in cell
temperature may result when the battery
is recharged (after previous complete
discharge)—
(i) At maximum regulated voltage;
(ii) During a flight of maximum dura
tion; and
(iii) Under the most adverse cooling
condition likely to occur in service.
(2) Compliance with subparagraph
(1) of this paragraph must be shown by
test unless experience with similar bat
teries and installations has shown that
maintaining safe cell temperatures and
pressures presents no problem.
(3) No explosive or toxic gases emitted
by any battery in normal operation, or as
the result of any probable malfunction
in the charging system or battery in
stallation, may accumulate in hazardous
quantities within the airplane.
(4) No corrosive fluids or gases that
may escape from the battery may dam
age surrounding airplane structures or
adjacent essential equipment.
§ 25.1355 Distribution system.
(a) The distribution System includes
the distribution busses, their associated
273
§ 25,1357
feeders, and each control and protective
device.
(b) [Reserved]
(c) If two independent sources of elec
trical power for particular equipment or
Systems are required by this chapter,
their electrical energy supply must be
ensured by means such as duplicate elec
trical equipment, throwover switching,
or multi-channel or loop circuits sepa
rately routed.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5679,
Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.1357 Circuit protective devices.
(a) Automatic protective devices must
be used to minimize distress to the elec
trical System and hazard to the airplane
in the event of wiring faults or serious
malfunction of the System or connected
equipment.
(b) The protective and control devices
in the generating System must be de
signed to de-energize and disconnect
faulty power sources and power trans
mission equipment from their associated
busses with sufficient rapidity to provide
protection from hazardous over-voltage
and other malfunctioning.
(c) Each resettable circuit protective
device must be designed so that, when an
overload or circuit fault exists, it will
Open the circuit irrespective of the posi
tion of the operating control.
(d) If the ability to reset a circuit
breaker or replace a fuse is essential to
safety in flight, that circuit breaker or
fuse must be located and identified so
that it can be readily reset or replaced in
flight.
(e) Each circuit for essential loads
must have individual circuit protection.
However, individual protection for each
circuit in an essential load system (such
as each position light circuit in a System)
is not required.
(f) If fuses are used, there must be
spare fuses for use in flight equal to at
least 50 percent of the number of fuses
of each rating required for complete cir
cuit protection.
(g) Automatic reset circuit breakers
may be used as integral protectors for
electrical equipment (Such as thermal
cut-outs) if there is circuit protection to
protect the cable to the equipment.
§ 25.1359 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 25.1359 Electrical system fire and
smoke protection.
(a) Components of the electrical Sys
tem must meet the applicable fire and
smoke protection requirements of §§ 25.-
831 (c), 25.863, and 25.1205.
(b) Electrical cables, terminals, and
equipment in designated fire zones, that
are used during emergency procedures,
must be at least fire-resistant.
(c) Main power cables (including gen
erator cables) in the fuselage must be
designed to allow a reasonable degree of
deformation and stretching without fail
ure and must—
(1) Be isolated from flammable fluid
lines; or
(2) Be shrouded by means of electri
cally insulated flexible conduit, Or
equivalent, which is in addition to the
normal cable insulation.
(d) Insulation on electrical wire and
electrical cable installed in any area of
the fuselage must be self-extinguishing
when tested at an angle of 60° in accord
ance with the applicable portions of
Appendix F of this part, or other ap
proved equivalent methods. The average
burn length may not exceed 3 inches
and the average flame time after re
moval of the flame source may not ex
ceed 30 Seconds. Drippings from the test
specimen may not continue to flame
for more than an average of 3 seconds
after falling.
(Sec. 604, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424)
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–17, 33 F.R. 9066,
June 20, 1968; Amdt. 25–32, 37 F.R. 3972,
Feb. 24, 1972]
§ 25.1363 Electrical system tests.
(a) When laboratory tests of the elec
trical system are conducted—
(1) The tests must be performed on a
mock-up using the Same generating
equipment used in the airplane;
(2) The equipment must simulate the
-electrical characteristics of the distribu
tion wiring and connected loads to the
extent necessary for valid test results;
and
(3) Laboratory generator drives must
simulate the actual prime movers on the
airplane with respect to their reaction to
generator loading, including loading due
to faults.
(b) For each flight condition that can
not be simulated adequately in the lab
oratory or by ground tests on the air
plane, flight tests must be made.
274
LIGHTS
§ 25.1381 Instrument lights.
(a) The instrument lights must—
(1) Make each instrument, Switch, and
other device for which they are provided
easily readable; and
(2) Be installed so that—
(i) Their direct rays are shielded from
the pilot's eyes; and
(ii) No objectionable reflections are
visible to the pilot.
(b) Unless undinned instrument
lights are satisfactory under each ex
pected flight condition, there must be a
means to control the intensity of illumi
nation.
§ 25.1383 Landing lights.
(a) Each landing light must be ap
proved, and must be installed so that—
(1) No objectionable glare is visible to
the pilot;
(2) The pilot is not adversely affected
by halation; and
(3) It provides enough light for night
landing.
(b) Except when one switch is used
for the lights of a multiple light installa
tion at one location, there must be a
separate switch for each light.
(c) There must be a means to indi
cate to the pilots when the landing lights
are extended.
§ 25.1385 Position light system installa
tion.
(a) General. Each part of each posi
tion light system must meet the appli
cable requirements of this section and
each System as a whole must meet the
requirements of $$ 25.1387 through
25.1397.
(b) Forward position lights. Forward
position lights must consist of a red and
a green light spaced laterally as far apart
as practicable and installed forward on
the airplane so that, with the airplane in
the normal flying position, the red light
is on the left side and the green light
is on the right side. Each light must
be approved.
(c) Rear position light. The rear po
sition light must be a white light mount
ed as far aft as practicable, and must
be approved.
(d) Light covers and color filters.
Each light cover or color filter must be
at least flame resistant and may not
change color or shape or lose any appre
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
ciable light transmission during normal
use.
(e) Passing light. If an additional
steady red light (commonly known as a
passing light) is installed, it must be—
(1) Within the left landing light unit;
(2) On the centerline of the airplane
IloSe; Or
(3) In the leading edge of the left
wing, outboard of the propeller disc.
§ 25.1387 Position light system dihedral
angles.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(e) of this section, each forward and rear
position light must, as installed, show
unbroken light within the dihedral an
gles described in this section.
(b) Dihedral angle L (left) is formed
by two intersecting vertical planes, the
first parallel to the longitudinal axis of
the airplane, and the other at 110 de
grees to the left of the first, as viewed
when looking forward along the longitu
dinal axis.
(c) Dihedral angle R (right) is formed
by two intersecting vertical planes, the
first parallel to the longitudinal axis of
the airplane, and the other at 110 de
grees to the right of the first, as viewed
when looking forward along the longi
tudinal axis.
(d) Dihedral angle A (aft) is formed
by two intersecting vertical planes mak
ing angles of 70 degrees to the right and
to the left, respectively, to a vertical
plane passing through the longitudinal
axis, as viewed when looking aft along
the longitudinal axis.
(e) If the rear position light, when
mounted as far aft as practicable in
accordance with $25.1385(c), cannot
show unbroken light within dihedral
angle A (as defined in paragraph (d) of
this section), a solid angle or angles of
obstructed visibility totaling not more
than 0.04 steradians is allowable within
that dihedral angle, if such solid angle
is within a cone whose apex is at the rear
position light and whose elements make
an angle of 30° with a vertical line pass
ing through the rear position light.
(49 U.S.C. 1655) [Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R.
18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt.
25–30, 36 FR 21278, Nov. 5, 1971]
§ 25.1389 Position light distribution and
intensities.
(a) General. The intensities pre
scribed in this section must be provided
275
§ 25.1389
by new equipment with light covers
and color filters in place. Intensities
must be determined with the light source
Operating at a steady value equal to the
average luminous output of the source at
the normal operating voltage of the air
plane. The light distribution and in
tensity of each position light must meet
the requirements of paragraph (b) of this
Section.
(b) Forward and rear position lights.
The light distribution and intensities of
forward and rear position lights must be
expressed in terms of minimum intensi
ties in the horizontal plane, minimum
intensities in any vertical plane, and
maximum intensities in overlapping
beams, within dihedral angles L, R, and
A, and must meet the following require
ments:
(1) Intensities in the horizontal plane.
Each intensity in the horizontal plane
(the plane containing the longitudinal
axis of the airplane and perpendicular
to the plane of symmetry of the air
plane) must equal or exceed the values
in § 25.1391.
(2) Intensities in any vertical plane.
Each intensity in any vertical plane
(the plane perpendicular to the hori
zontal plane) must equal or exceed the
appropriate value in § 25.1393, where I
is the minimum intensity prescribed in
§ 25.1391 for the corresponding angles in
the horizontal plane.
(3) Intensities in overlaps between
adjacent signals. No intensity in any
overlap between adjacent signals may
exceed the values given in § 25.1395, ex
cept that higher intensities in overlaps
may be used with main beam intensities
substantially greater than the minima
specified in §§ 25.1391 and 25.1393 if the
overlap intensities in relation to the main
beam intensities do not adversely affect
signal clarity. When the peak intensity
of the forward position lights is more
than 100 candles, the maximum overlap
intensities between them may exceed the
values given in § 25.1395 if the overlap
intensity in Area A is not more than 10
percent of peak position light intensity
and the overlap intensity in Area B is
not greater than 2.5 percent of peak posi
tion light intensity.
§ 25.1391 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 25.1391 Minimum intensities in the through the light source and intersect
horizontal plane of forward and rear the common boundary plane at more
position lights. than 20 degrees.
Each position light intensity must § 25.1397 Color specifications.
equal or exceed the applicable values in
the following table: Each position light color must have the
applicable International Commission on
Angle from
Illumination chromaticity coordinates as
right or left of follows:
Dihedral angle (light in longitudinal | Intensity (a) Aviation red—
cluded) axis, measured (candles)
from dead “y” is not greater than 0.335; and
ahead “2” is not greater than 0.002.
(b) Aviation green—
I, and "R" (forward red and | 0° to 10°------ 40
green). 10° to 20°------ 30 “r” is not greater than 0.440—0.320y;
20° to 110°----- 5 “r” is not greater than y—0.170; and
4 (rear white).-------------- 110° to 180°--- 20 “y” is not less than 0.390—0.1702.
(c) Aviation white—
§ 25.1393 Minimum intensities in any “r” is not less than 0.300 and not greater
vertical plane of forward and rear than 0.540;
position lights. “y” is not less than “r–0.040” or “ye
Each position light intensity must – 0.010”, whichever is the smaller; and
“y” is not greater than “z-H 0.020” nor
equal or exceed the applicable values in “0.636–0.400.c”;
the following table: Where “yo” is the “y” coordinate of the
Angle above or below the Planckian radiator for the value of “r”
horizontal plane: Intensity COnSidered.
0"-------------------------------- 1.00 I.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964.
0° to 5’--------------------------- 0.90 I.
as amended by Amdt. 25–27, 36 F.R. 12972.
5° to 10"-------------------------- 0.80 I.
July 10, 1971]
10° to 15"------------------------- 0.70 I.
16" to 20"------------------------- 0.50 I. § 25.1399 Riding light.
20° to 80"------------------------- 0.80 I.
80° to 40"------------------------- 0.10 I.
(a) Each riding (anchor) light re
40° to 90°------------------------- 0.05 I. quired for a Seaplane or amphibian must
be installed so that it can—
§ 25.1395 Maximum intensities in over (1) Show a white light for at least
lapping beams of forward and rear two nautical miles at night under clear
position lights. atmospheric conditions; and
No position light intensity may ex (2) Show the maximum unbroken
ceed the applicable values in the follow light practicable when the airplane is
ing table, except as provided in § 25.1389 moored or drifting on the water.
(b) (3). (b) Externally hung lights may be
used.
Maximum intensity § 25.1401 Anticollision light system.
Overlaps (a) General. The airplane must have
Area A Area B
(candles) (candles) an anticollision light System that—
(1) Consists of one or more approved
Green in dihedral angle L- 10
anticollision lights located so that their
Red in dihedral angle R--- light will not impair the crew's vision or
Green in dihedral angle A detract from the conspicuity of the po
Red in dihedral angle A----------- 5
Rear white in dihedral angle L---- 5 Sition lights; and
Rear white in dihedral angle R---- 5 (2) Meets the requirements of para
graphs (b) through (f) of this section.
Where— (b) Field of coverage. The system
(a) Area A includes all directions in must consist of enough lights to illumi
the adjacent dihedral angle that pass nate the vital areas around the airplane
through the light source and intersect considering the physical configuration
the common boundary plane at more and flight characteristics of the airplane
than 10 degrees but less than 20 degrees; The field of coverage must extend in each
and direction within at least 30 degrees above
(b) Area B includes all directions in and 30 degrees below the horizontal
the adjacent dihedral angle that pass plane of the airplane, except that a solid

276
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
angle or angles of obstructed visibility
totaling not more than 0.03 steradians is
allowable within a Solid angle equal to
0.15 steradians centered about the longi
tudinal axis in the rearward direction.
(c) Flashing characteristics. The ar
rangement of the System, that is, the
number of light Sources, beam width,
speed of rotation, and other characteris
tics, must give an effective flash fre
quency of not less than 40, nor more than
100, cycles per minute. The effective
flash frequency is the frequency at which
the airplane's complete anticollision
light system is observed from a distance,
and applies to each sector of light includ
ing any overlaps that exist when the Sys
tem consists of more than one light
source. In overlaps, flash frequencies
may exceed 100, but not 180, cycles per
minute.
(d) Color. Each anticollision light
must be either aviation red or aviation
white and must meet the applicable re
quirements of § 25.1397.
(e) Light intensity. The minimum
light intensities in all vertical planes,
measured with the red filter (if used)
and expressed in terms of “effective” in
tensities, must meet the requirements of
paragraph (f) of this section. The fol
lowing relation must be assumed:
ſ:ta I(t) dt
**031 (E-II);
where:
1.=effective intensity (candles).
I (t) = instantaneous intensity as a func
tion of time.
ta—th = flash time interval (seconds).
Normally, the maximum value of effec
tive intensity is obtained when tº and t,
are chosen so that the effective intensity
is equal to the instantaneous intensity at
t, and tr. -
(f) Minimum effective intensities for
anticollision lights. Each anticollision
light effective intensity must equal or
exceed the applicable values in the fol
lowing table.
Effective
Angle above or below intensity
the horizontal plane: (candles)
0° to 5’----------------------------- 400
240
-------
80
20" to 30"--------------------------- 40
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–27, 36 F.R. 12972,
July 10, 1971)
277
§ 25.1413
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
§ 25.1411 General.
(a) Accessibility. Required safety
equipment to be used by the crew in an
emergency, Such as automatic liferaft
releases, must be readily accessible.
(b) Stowage provisions. Stowage
provisions for required emergency equip
ment must be furnished and must–
(1) Be arranged so that the equip
ment is directly accessible and its loca
tion is obvious; and
(2) Protect the safety equipment from
inadvertent damage.
(c) Emergency erit descent device.
The Stowage provisions for the emer
gency exit descent device required by
§ 25.8090ſ) must be at the exits for
which they are intended.
(d) Liferafts. The stowage provi
Sions for the liferafts described in
$ 25.1415 must accommodate enough
rafts for the maximum number of occu
pants for which certification for ditching
ls requested. Liferafts must be Stowed
near exits through which the rafts can
be launched during an unplanned ditch
ing. Rafts automatically or remotely
released outside the airplane must be at
tached to the airplane by means of the
static line prescribed in § 25.1415.
(e) Long-range signaling device.
The stowage provisions for the long
range signaling device required by
$ 25.1415 must be near an exit available
during an unplanned ditching.
(f) Life preserver stowage provisions.
The stowage provisions for life preservers
described in § 25.1415 must accommo
date one life preserver for each occupant
for which certification for ditching is
requested. Each life preserver must be
within easy reach of each seated occu
pant.
(g) Life line stowage provisions. If
certification for ditching under § 25.801
is requested, there must be provisions to
store life lines. These provisions must—
(1) Allow one life line to be attached
to each side of the fuselage; and
(2) Be arranged to allow the life lines
to be used to enable the occupants to
Stay on the wing after ditching.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–32, 37 F.R. 3972,
Feb. 24, 1972]
§ 25.1413 Safety belts.
(a) If there are means to indicate to
the passengers when safety belts should
$ 25.1415 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
be fastened, they must be installed to be
operated from either pilot seat.
(b) The rated strength of safety belts
may not be less than that required to
withstand the ultimate load factors spec
ified in § 25.561, considering the dimen
sional characteristics of the belt instal
lation for the Specific seat or berth ar
rangement.
(c) Each belt must be attached so that
no part of the anchorage can fail at a
load lower than that which would result
from the application of ultimate load
factors equal to those specified in
§ 25.561, multiplied by a factor of 1.33.
This factor must be used instead of the
fitting factor prescribed in § 25.625.
The forward load factor need not be ap
plied to safety belts for berths.
§ 25.1415 Ditching equipment.
(a) Ditching equipment used in air
planes to be certificated for ditching un
der § 25.801, and operated under the
operating rules of this chapter, must
meet the requirements of this section.
(b) Each liferaft and each life pre
server must be approved. In addition—
(1) Unless excess rafts of enough ca
pacity are provided, the buoyancy and
seating capacity beyond the rated ca
pacity of the rafts must accommodate
all occupants of the airplane in the event
of a loss of one raft of the largest rated
capacity; and
(2) Each raft must have a trailing
line, and must have a static line designed
to hold the raft near the airplane but to
release it if the airplane becomes totally
submerged.
(c) Approved survival equipment must
be attached to each liferaft.
(d) There must be a survival type
emergency locator transmitter that
meets the applicable requirements of
§ 37.200 of this chapter for use in one
life raft.
(e) For airplanes not certificated for
ditching under § 25.801 and not having
approved life preservers, there must be
an approved flotation means for each
occupant. This means must be within
easy reach of each seated occupant and
must be readily removable from the air
plane.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–29, 36 F.R. 18722,
Sept. 21, 1971]
2 8
§ 25.1419 Ice protection.
(a) If certification with ice protection
provisions is desired, compliance with
this section must be shown.
(b) The airplane must be able to
Safely operate in the continuous maxi
mum and intermittent maximum icing
conditions determined under Appendix
C. An analysis must be performed to
establish, on the basis of the airplane's
operational needs, the adequacy of the
ice protection System for the various
components of the airplane.
(c) In addition to the analysis and
physical evaluation prescribed in para
graph (b) of this section, the effective
ness of the ice protection system and
its components must be shown by flight
tests of the airplane or its components
in measured natural atmospheric icing
Conditions and by one or more of the
following tests as found necessary to
determine the adequacy of the ice pro
tection system:
(1) Laboratory dry air or simulated
icing tests, or a combination of both,
of the components or models of the
COmponent.S.
(2) Flight dry air tests of the ice pro
tection System as a whole, or of its indi
vidual components.
(3) Flight tests of the airplane or its
Components in measured simulated icing
Conditions.
(d) For turbine engine powered air
planes, the ice protection provisions of
this section are considered to be appli
cable primarily to the airframe. For the
powerplant installation, certain addi
tional provisions of Subpart E of this
part may be found applicable.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5680,
Apr. 8, 1970]
MISCELLANEOUS Equip MENT
§ 25.1431 Electronic equipment.
(a) In showing compliance with $25.-
1309 (a) and (b) with respect to radio
and electronic equipment and their in
stallations, critical environmental con
ditions must be considered.
(b) Radio and electronic equipment
must be supplied with power under the
requirements of § 25.1355 (c).
(c) Radio and electronic equipment,
controls, and wiring must be installed so
that operation of any one unit or system
of units will not adversely affect the
simultaneous operation of any other
 Chapter —Federal Aviation Administration
radio or electronic unit, or system of
units, required by this chapter.
§ 25.1433. Vacuum systems.
(a) There must be means, in addition
to the normal pressure relief, to auto
matically relieve the pressure in the dis
charge lines from the Vacuum air pump
when the delivery temperature of the air
becomes unsafe.
(b) Each vacuum air system line and
fitting on the discharge side of the pump
that might contain flammable vapors or
fluids must meet the requirements of
§ 25.1183 if they are in a designated fire
zone.
(c) Other vacuum air system compo
nents in designated fire zones must be
at least fire resistant.
§ 25.1435 Hydraulic systems.
(a) Design. Each hydraulic system
must be designed as follows:
(1) Each element of the hydraulic
System must be designed to withstand
the design operating pressure loads in
combination with limit structural loads
which may be imposed without deforma
tion that would prevent it from per
forming its intended function, and to
withstand, without rupture, the design
operating pressure loads multiplied by
a factor of 1.5 in combination with ulti
mate structural loads that can reason
ably occur simultaneously. Design oper
ating pressure is maximum normal
Operating pressure, excluding transient
preSSure.
(2) There must be a means provided
at a flight crewmember station to in
dicate the pressure in each continuously
operating System.
(3) There must be a means provided
at a flight crewmember station to indi
cate the quantity of fluid in each con
tinuously operating System.
(4) There must be means to ensure
that System pressures, including tran
sient pressures and pressures from fluid
volumetric changes in components which
are likely to remain closed long enough
for such changes to occur—
(i) Will be within 90 to 110 percent
of pump average discharge pressure at
each pump outlet or at the outlet of the
pump transient pressure dampening de
vice, if provided; and
(ii) Will not exceed 125 percent of
the design operating pressure, excluding
pressures at the outlets Specified in Sub
division (i) of this subparagraph. Design
279
§ 25.1435
Operating pressure is the maximum
Steady Operating pressure.
(5) Each hydraulic element must be
installed and supported to prevent ex
cessive vibration, abrasion, corrosion,
and mechanical damage, and to with
stand inertia loads. If a hydraulic fluid
which could be harmful to occupants
when liberated in any form is used, there
must be a means to prevent harmful or
hazardous concentration of the fluid or
vapors in the crew or passenger compart
ments during flight.
(6) Means for providing flexibility
must be used to connect points in a
hydraulic fluid line between which rela
tive motion or differential vibration
exists.
(b) Tests. (1) A complete hydraulic
System must be static tested to show that
it can withstand a pressure of 1.5 times
the design operating pressure without
a deformation of any part of the Sys
tem that would prevent it from perform
ing its intended function. Clearance be
tween structural members and hydraulic
System elements must be adequate and
there must be no permanent detrimental
deformation. For the purpose of this
test, the pressure relief valve may be
made inoperable to permit application
of the required pressure.
(2) Compliance with $25.1309 for
hydraulic Systems must be shown by
functional tests, endurance tests, and
analyses. The entire system or appropri
ate subsystems must be tested in an air
plane or in a mockup installation to
determine proper performance and prop
er relation to other aircraft systems.
The functional tests must include simula
tion of hydraulic System failure condi
tions. The tests must account for flight
loads, ground loads, and hydraulic sys
tem design Operating and transient pres
Sures expected during normal operation,
but need not account for vibration loads
or for loads due to temperature effects.
Endurance tests must Simulate the re
peated complete flights that could be ex
pected to occur in Service. Elements
which fail during the tests must be modi
fied in order to have the design deficiency
corrected and, where necessary, must be
sufficiently retested. Simulation of op
erating and environmental conditions
must be completed on elements and ap
propriate portions of the hydraulic sys
tem to the extent necessary to evaluate
the environmental effects.
§ 25.1439 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(c) Fire protection. Each hydraulic
system using flammable hydraulic fluid
must meet the applicable requirements
of §§ 25.863, 25.1183, 25.1185, and 25.1189.
| Amdt. 25–13, 32 F.R. 9154, June 28, 1967 as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5680, Apr. 8,
1970)
§ 25.1439 Protective breathing equip
ment.
(a) If there is a class A, B, or E
cargo compartment, protective breathing
equipment must be installed for the
use of appropriate crewmembers.
(b) For protective breathing equip
ment required by paragraph (a) of this
Section or by any operating rule of this
chapter, the following apply:
(1) The equipment must be designed
to protect the flight crew from Smoke,
carbon dioxide, and other harmful gases
while on flight deck duty and while com
bating fires in cargo compartments.
(2) The equipment must include—
(i) Masks covering the eyes, nose, and
mouth; or
(ii) Masks covering the nose and
mouth, plus accessory equipment to COver
the eyes.
(3) The equipment, while in use, must
allow the flight crew to use the radio
equipment and to communicate with
each other, while at their assigned duty
stations.
(4) The part of the equipment pro
tecting the eyes may not cause any ap
preciable adverse effect on vision and
must allow corrective glasses to be worn.
(5) The equipment must supply pro
tective oxygen of 15 minutes duration
per crewmember at a pressure altitude
of 8,000 feet with a respiratory minute
volume of 30 liters per minute BTPD.
If a demand oxygen system is used, a
supply of 300 liters of free oxygen at
,0° F. and 760 mm. Hg. pressure is con
sidered to be of 15-minute duration at
the prescribed altitude and minute Vol
ume. If a continuous flow protective
breathing system is used (including a
mask with a standard rebreather bag)
a flow rate of 60 liters per minute at
8,000 feet (45 liters per minute at sea
level) and a supply of 600 liters of free
oxygen at 70° F. and 760 mm. Hg. pres
sure is considered to be of 15-minute
duration at the prescribed altitude and
minute volume. BTPD refers to body
temperature conditions (that is, 37° C.,
at ambient pressure, dry).
2S()
(6) The equipment must meet the re
quirements of paragraphs (b) and (c)
of § 25.1441.
§ asºn Oxygen equipment and sup
ply.
(a) If certification with Supplemental
oxygen equipment is requested, the
equipment must meet the requirements
of this section and $$ 25.1443 through
25.1453.
(b) The oxygen system must be free
from hazards in itself, in its method
of operation, and in its effect upon other
COmponentS.
(c) There must be a means to allow
the crew to readily determine, during
flight, the quantity of oxygen available
in each source of supply.
(d) The oxygen flow rate and the
oxygen equipment for airplanes for
which certification for Operation above
40,000 feet is requested must be approved.
§ 25.1443 Minimum mass flow of sup
plemental oxygen.
(a) If continuous flow equipment is
installed for use by flight crewmembers,
the minimum mass flow of supplemental
oxygen required for each crewmember
may not be less than the flow required
to maintain, during inspiration, a mean
tracheal oxygen partial pressure of 149
mm. Hg. when breathing 15 liters per
minute, BTPS, and with a maximum
tidal volume of 700 cc. with a constant
time interval between respirations.
(b) If demand equipment is installed
for use by flight crewmembers, the
minimum mass flow of supplemental
oxygen required for each crewmember
may not be less than the flow required
to Inaintain, during inspiration, a mean
tracheal oxygen partial pressure of 122
mm. Hg., up to and including a cabin
pressure altitude of 35,000 feet, and 95
percent oxygen between cabin pressure
altitudes of 35,000 and 40,000 feet, when
breathing 20 liters per minute BTPS. In
addition, there must be means to
allow the crew to use undiluted oxygen
at their discretion.
(c) For passengers and cabin attend
ants, the minimum mass flow of supple
mental oxygen required for each person
at various cabin pressure altitudes may
not be less than the flow required to
maintain, during inspiration and while
using the oxygen equipment (including
masks) provided, the following mean
tracheal oxygen partial pressures:
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(1) At cabin pressure altitudes above
10,000 feet up to and including 18,500
feet, a mean tracheal oxygen partial
pressure of 100 mm. Hg. when breathing
15 liters per minute, BTPS, and with a
tidal Volume of 700 cc. With a constant
time interval between respirations.
(2) At cabin pressure altitudes above
18,500 feet up to and including 40,000
feet, a mean tracheal oxygen partial
pressure of 83.8 mm. Hg, when breathing
30 liters per minute, BTPS, and with a
tidal volume of 1,100 cc. With a constant
time interval between respirations.
(d) If first-aid oxygen equipment is
installed, the minimum mass flow of
oxygen to each user may not be less than
four liters per minute, STPD. However,
there may be a means to decrease this
flow to not less than two liters per min
ute, STPD, at any cabin altitude. The
quantity of oxygen required is based upon
an average flow rate of three liters per
minute per person for whom first-aid
oxygen is required.
(e) If portable oxygen equipment is in
stalled for use by crewmembers, the
minimum mass flow of supplemental
oxygen is the same as Specified in para
graph (a) or (b) of this section, which
ever is applicable.
§ 25.1445 Equipment standards for the
oxygen distributing system.
(a) When oxygen is supplied to both
crew and passengers, the distribution Sys
tem must be designed for either—
(1) A source of Supply for the flight
crew on duty and a separate Source for
the passengers and other crewmembers;
or
(2) A common source of supply with
means to separately reserve the mini
mum supply required by the flight crew
on duty.
(b) Portable walk-around oxygen
units of the continuous flow, diluter
demand, and straight demand kinds may
be used to meet the Crew or passenger
breathing requirements.
§ 25.1447 Equipment standards for oxy
gen dispensing units.
If oxygen dispensing units are in
stalled, the following apply:
(a) There must be an individual dis
pensing unit for each occupant for Whom
supplemental oxygen is to be supplied.
Units must be designed to cover the nose
and mouth and must be equipped with a
Suitable means to retain the unit in posi
281
39–059–75–19
$ 25.1451
tion on the face. Flight crew masks for
Supplemental oxygen must have provi
Sions for the use of communication equip
ment.
(b) If certification for operation up to
and including 25,000 feet is requested,
an OXygen Supply terminal and unit of
OXygen dispensing equipment for the im
mediate use of oxygen by each crew
member must be within easy reach of
that crewmember. For any other occu
pants, the supply terminals and dispens
ing equipment must be located to allow
the use of oxygen as required by the
Operating rules in this chapter.
(c) If certification for operation above
25,000 feet is requested, there must be
oxygen dispensing equipment meeting the
following requirements:
(1) There must be an oxygen dispens
ing unit connected to oxygen supply ter
minals immediately available to each
Occupant, wherever Seated. If certifica
tion for operation above 30,000 feet is re
quested, the dispensing units providing
the required oxygen flow rate must be
automatically presented to the occu
pants. The total number of dispensing
units and outlets must exceed the num
ber of seats by at least 10 percent. The
extra units must be as uniformly distrib
uted throughout the cabin as practicable.
(2) Crewmembers on flight deck duty
must be provided with demand equip
ment. In addition, there must be an
oxygen dispensing unit, connected to an
Oxygen supply terminal, immediately
available to each flight crewmember
When seated at his station.
(3) There must be at least two outlets
and units of dispensing equipment of a
type Similar to that required by subpara
graph (1) of this paragraph in
(i) Each washroom; and
(ii) Each lavatory, if separate from
the Washroom.
(4) Portable oxygen equipment must
be immediately available for each cabin
attendant.
§ 25.1449 Means for determining use of
oxygen.
There must be a means to allow the
crew to determine whether oxygen is
being delivered to the dispensing equip
ment.
§ 25.1451 Fire protection for oxygen
equipment.
(a) Oxygen equipment and lines may
not be in any designated fire zone.
§ 25.1453 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(b) Oxygen equipment and lines must
be protected from heat that may be
generated in, or escape from, any desig
nated fire Zone.
(c) Oxygen equipment and lines must
be installed so that escaping oxygen can
not cause ignition of grease, fluid, or
vapor accumulations that are present in
normal operation or as a result of failure
or malfunction of any system.
§ 25.1453 Protection of oxygen equip
ment from rupture.
Oxygen pressure tanks, and lines be
tween tanks and the shutoff means, must
be—
(a) Protected from unsafe tempera
tures; and
(b) Located where the probability and
hazards of rupture in a crash landing
are minimized.
§ *ś Draining of fluids subject to
If fluids subject to freezing may be
drained overboard in flight or during
ground Operation, the drains must be
designed and located to prevent the for
mation of hazardous quantities of ice on
the airplane as a result of the drainage.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5680, Apr. 8, 1970)
§ 25.1457 Cockpit voice recorders.
(a) Each cockpit voice recorder re
quired by the operating rules of this
chapter must be approved and must be
installed So that it will record the follow
ing:
(1) W of c e communications trans
mitted from or received in the airplane
by radio.
(2) Voice communications of flight
crewmembers on the flight deck.
(3) Voice communications of flight
crewmembers on the flight deck, using
the airplane's interphone system.
(4) Voice or audio signals identifying
navigation or approach aids introduced
into a headset or speaker.
(5) Voice communications of flight
crewmembers using the passenger loud
speaker System, if there is such a system
and if the fourth channel is available in
accordance With the requirements of
paragraph (c) (4) (ii) of this section.
(b) The recording requirements of
paragraph (a) (2) of this section must be
met by installing a cockpit-mounted
area microphone, located in the best
position for recording voice communica
tions originating at the first and second
pilot stations and Voice communica
282
tions of other crewmembers on the flight
deck when directed to those stations.
The microphone raust be so located and,
If necessary, the preamplifiers and filters
of the recorder must be so adjusted or
Supplemented, that the intelligibility of
the recorded communications is as high
as practicable When recorded under
flight cockpit noise conditions and
played back. Repeated aural or visual
playback of the record may be used in
evaluating intelligibility.
(c) Each cockpit voice recorder must
be installed so that the part of the com
munication or audio signals specified in
paragraph (a) Of this section obtained
from each of the following sources is
recorded on a separate channel:
(1) For the first channel, from each
microphone, headset, or speaker used at
the first pilot station.
(2) For the second channel, from each
microphone, headset, or speaker used at
the second pilot station.
(3) For the third channel—from the
cockpit-mounted area microphone.
(4) For the fourth channel, from—
(1) Each microphone, headset, or
Speaker used at the stations for the third
and fourth crewmembers; or
(i1) If the stations specified in Sub
division (i) of this subparagraph are
not required or if the signal at such a
station is picked up by another channel,
each microphone on the flight deck that
is used with the passenger loudspeaker
System, if its signals are not picked up
by another channel.
(d) Each cockpit voice recorder must
be installed so that—
(1) It receives its electric power from
the bus that provides the maximum re
liability for operation of the cockpit voice
recorder without jeopardizing service to
essential or emergency loads;
(2) There is an automatic means to
simultaneously stop the recorder and
prevent each erasure feature from func
tioning, within 10 minutes after crash
impact; and
(3) There is an aural or visual means
for preflight checking of the recorder for
proper operation.
(e) The record container must be lo
cated and mounted to minimize the prob
ability of rupture of the container as a
result of crash impact and consequent
heat damage to the record from fire. In
meeting this requirement, the record con
tainer must be as far aft as practicable,
but may not be where aft mounted en
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
gines may crush the container during
impact. However, it need not be outside
of the pressurized compartment.
(f) If the cockpit voice recorder has
a bulk erasure device, the installation
must be designed to minimize the prob
ability of inadvertent operation and ac
tuation of the device during crash impact.
(g) Each recorder container must be
either bright orange or bright yellow.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–2, 30 F.R. 3932
Mar. 26, 1965; Amdt. 25–16, 82 F.R. 13914,
Oct. 6, 1967]
§ 25.1459 Flight recorders.
(a) Each flight recorder required by
the operating rules of this chapter must
be installed so that—
(1) It is supplied with airspeed and
altitude data obtained from sources that
meet the accuracy requirements of
$$ 25.1323, 25.1325, and 25.1327, as
appropriate;
(2) The vertical acceleration sensor is
rigidly attached, and located longitudi
nally either within the approved center
of gravity limits of the airplane, or at a
distance forward or aft of these limits
that does not exceed 25 percent of the
airplane's mean aerodynamic chord;
(3) It receives its electrical power
from the bus that provides the maximum
reliability for operation of the flight re
corder without jeopardizing service to
essential or emergency loads; and
(4) There is an aural or visual means
for preflight checking of the recorder for
:
proper recorder tape movement.
(5) Except for recorders powered
solely by the engine-driven electrical
generator system, there is an automatic
means to simultaneously stop a recorder
that has a data erasure feature and pre
vent each erasure feature from function
ing, within 10 minutes after crash im
pact.
(6) There is a means to record data
from which the time of each radio trans
mission either to or from ATC can be
determined.
(7) The underwater locating device,
when required by the operating rules
of this chapter, is on or adjacent to the
container that records time, altitude, air
speed, vertical acceleration, and head
ing, and is secured in such a manner
that they are not likely to be separated
during crash impact.
(b) Each nonejectable record Con
tainer must be located and mounted so
283
§ 25.1505
as to minimize the probability of con
tainer rupture resulting from crash im
pact and subsequent damage to the
record from fire. In meeting this re
quirement the record container must be
located as far aft as practicable, but need
not be aft of the pressurized compart
ment, and may not be where aft-mounted
engines may crush the container upon
impact.
(c) A correlation must be established
between the flight recorder readings of
airspeed, altitude, and heading and the
corresponding readings (taking into
aCCOunt Correction factors) of the first
pilot's instruments. The correlation
must Cover the airspeed range over which
the airplane is to be operated, the range
of altitude to which the airplane is lim
ited, and 360 degrees of heading. Cor
relation may be established on the
ground as appropriate.
(d) Each recorder container must be
either bright orange or bright yellow.
[Amdt. 25–8, 31 F.R. 127, Jan. 6, 1966, as
amended by Amdt. 25–25, 35 F.R. 13192,
Aug. 19, 1970; Amdt. 25–31, 36 F.R. 23549,
Dec. 10, 1971]
Subpart G—Operating Limitations
cºnd Information
§ 25.1501 General.
Each Operating limitation specified in
§§ 25.1503 through 25.1533 and other in
formation necessary for Safe Operation
must be—
(a) Included in the Airplane Flight
Manual;
(b) Expressed in markings and plac
ards; and
(c) Made available by any other
means that will convey the information
to the crewmembers.
OPERATING LIMITATIONS
§ 25.1503
Airspeed limitations: general.
When airspeed limitations are a func
tion of Weight, Weight distribution, alti
tude, or Mach number, limitations cor
responding to each critical combina
tion of these factors must be established.
§ 25.1505 Maximum operating limit
speed.
The maximum operating limit speed
(Vito/Mato airspeed or Mach Number,
whichever is critical at a particular al
titude) is a Speed that may not be de
§ 25.1507 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
liberately exceeded in any regime of
flight (climb, cruise, or descent), unless
a higher speed is authorized for flight
test or pilot training operations. Vito/
Miro must be established so that it is not
greater than the design cruising Speed
Vo and so that it is sufficiently below
Vo/Mp or Wor/Mor, to make it highly
improbable that the latter speeds will be
inadvertently exceeded in operations
The speed margin between Viro/Vuro and
Vo/Mp or Worlſ/pr may not be less than
that determined under § 25.335(b) or
found necessary during the flight tests
conducted under § 25.253.
[Amdt. 25–28, 35 F.R. 5680, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.1507 Maneuvering speed.
The maneuvering speed must be estab
lished so that it does not exceed the de
sign maneuvering speed VA determined
under § 25.335(c).
§ 25.1511 Flap extended speed.
The established flap extended speed
Vea must be established so that it does
not exceed the design flap speed WF
chosen under §§ 25.335 (e) and 25.345,
for the corresponding flap positions and
engine powers.
§ 25.1513 Minimum control speed.
The minimum control speed Vito de
termined under § 25.149 must be estab
lished as an operating limitation.
§ 25.1515 Landing gear speeds.
(a) The established landing gear op
erating speed VLo may not exceed the
speed at which it is safe to extend or re
tract the landing gear, as determined
under § 25.729 or by flight characteris
tics.
(b) The established landing gear ex
tended speed VLR may not exceed the
speed at which it is safe to fly with the
landing gear secured in the fully ex
tended position, and that determined
under § 25.729.
§ 25.1519 Weight, center of gravity, and
weight distribution.
The airplane weight, center of gray
ity, and weight distribution limitations
determined under §§ 25.23 through 25.27
must be established as operating limita
tions.
284
§ 25.1521 Powerplant limitations.
(a) General. The powerplant limita
tions prescribed in this section must be
established so that they do not exceed the
corresponding limits for which the en
gines or propellers are type certificated.
(b) Takeoff operation. The power
ºn:
y—
takeoff operation must be limited
(1) The maximum rotational speed
(r.p.m.);
(2) The maximum allowable manifold
Pressure (for reciprocating engines);
(3) The maximum allowable gas tem
perature (for turbine engines);
(4) The time limit for the use of the
power or thrust corresponding to the lim
ſtations established in subparagraphs (1)
through (3) of this paragraph; and
(5) If the time limit established in
Subparagraph (4) of this paragraph ex
ceeds two minutes, or if the maximum
cylinder head and oil temperatures differ
from the maximum limits for continuous
Operation, the maximum allowable cylin
der head (for reciprocating engines) and
oil temperatures.
(c) Continuous operation. The con
tinuous operation must be limited by—
912 The maximum rotational speed;
(2) The maximum allowable manifold
pressure (for reciprocating engines);
(3) The maximum allowable gas tem
perature (for turbine engines); and
(4) The maximum allowable cylinder
head and oil temperatures.
(d) Fuel grade or designation. The
minimum fuel grade (for reciprocating
engines), or fuel designation (for turbine
engines), must be established so that it
is not less than that required for the
operation of the engines within the lim
itations in paragraphs (b) and (c) of this
Section.
(e) Ambient temperature. Ambient
temperature limitations must be estab
lished as the maximum ambient atmos
pheric temperature at which compliance
With the cooling provisions of §§ 25.1041
through 25.1045 is shown.
§ 25.1523 Minimum flight crew.
The minimum flight crew must be
established so that it is sufficient for safe
Operation, considering—
(a) The Workload on individual crew
members;
(b) The accessibility and ease of oper
ation of necessary controls by the appro
priate crewmember; and
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
* (c) The kind of operation authorized
under § 25.1525. The criteria used in
making the determinations required by
this section are set forth in Appendix D.
i
:-
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–3, 30 F.R. 6067,
Apr. 29, 1965)
§ 25.1525 Kinds of operation.
The kinds of operation to which the
* º airplane is limited are established by the
category in which it is eligible for certifi
cation and by the installed equipment.
§ 25.1527 Maximum operating altitude.
: The maximum altitude up to which
operation is allowed, as limited by flight,
º structural, powerplant, functional, or
equipment characteristics, must be es
tablished.
$25.1529 Maintenance Manual.
A maintenance manual containing the
information that the applicant considers
essential for proper maintenance must be
made available to the owner at the time
of delivery of the airplane. The applicant
º º
must consider at least the following in
developing the essential information:
(a) Description of systems such as
: electrical, hydraulic, fuel controls, etc.
(b) Lubrication instructions setting
forth the frequency and the lubricants
i and fluids which are to be used in the
Various Systems.
(c) Pressures and electrical loads ap
plicable to the various systems.
(d) Tolerances and adjustments nec
essary for proper functioning of the
airplane.
(e) Methods of leveling, raising, and
towing.
(f) Methods of balancing control
Surfaces.
(g) Identification of primary and sec
Ondary Structures.
(h) Frequency and extent of inspec
tions necessary for proper maintenance
º Of the airplane.
(i) Special repair methods applicable
to the airplane.
(j) Special inspection techniques such
as X-ray, ultraSonic, magnetic particle
inspection, etc.
(k) List of special tools.
[Amdt. 25–21, 35 F.R. 303, Jan. 8, 1970)
§ 25.1531 Maneuvering flight load fac
tors.
Load factor limitations, not exceeding
the positive limit load factors deter
285
§ 25.1543
mined from the maneuvering diagram in
§ 25.333(b), must be established.
§ 25.1533 Additional operating limita
tions for turbine engine powered air
planes.
(a) Additional operating limitations
for turbine engine powered airplanes
must be established as follows:
(1) The maximum takeoff weights
must be established as the weights at
which compliance is shown with the ap
plicable provisions of this part (includ
ing the takeoff climb provisions of
§ 25.121 (a) through (c), for altitudes
and ambient temperatures).
(2) The maximum landing weights
must be established as the weights at
which compliance is shown with the ap
plicable provisions of this part (includ
ing the landing and takeoff climb provi
Sions of §§ 25.119 and 25.121 for altitudes
and ambient temperatures).
(3) The minimum takeoff distances
must be established as the distances at
which compliance is shown with the ap
dplicable provisions of this part (includ
ing the provisions of $$ 25.103 and 25.113,
for weights, altitudes, temperatures, wind
components, and runway gradlents).
(b) The extremes for variable factors
(such as altitude, temperature, wind, and
runway gradients) are those at which
compliance with the applicable provi
sions of this part is shown.
MARKINGS AND PLACARDS
§ 25.1541 General.
(a) The airplane must contain—
(1) The specified markings and plac
ards; and
(2) Any additional information, in
strument markings, and placards re
quired for the safe operation if there are
unusual design, operating, or handling
characteristics.
(b) Each marking and placard pre
scribed in paragraph (a) of this Sec
tion—
(1) Must be displayed in a conspicu
ous place; and
(2) May not be easily erased, disfigs
ured, or obscured.
§ 25.1543 Instrument markings: gen
eral.
For each instrument—
(a) When markings are on the cover
glass of the instrument, there must be
means to maintain the correct alignment
of the glass cover With the face of the
dial; and
§ 25.1545 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(b) Each arc and line must be wide
enough, and located, to be clearly visible
to the pilot.
§ 25.1545 Airspeed limitation informa
tion.
The airspeed limitations required by
§ 25.1583(a) must be easily read and un
derstood by the flight crew.
§ 25.1547 Magnetic direction indicator.
(a) A placard meeting the require
ments Of this Section must be installed
On, or near, the magnetic direction
indicator.
(b) The placard must show the cali
bration of the instrument in level flight
With the engines operating.
(c) The placard must state whether
the calibration was made with radio re
ceivers on or off.
(d) Each calibration reading must be
in terms of magnetic heading in not more
than 45 degree increments.
§ 25.1549 Powerplant instruments.
For each required powerplant instru
ment—
(a) Each maximum and, if applicable,
minimum safe operating limit must be
marked with a red radial line:
(b) Each n or m a l operating range
must be marked with a green arc not ex
tending beyond the maximum and min
imum safe operating limits;
(c) Each takeoff and precautionary
range must be marked with a yellow arc;
and
(d) Each engine or propeller speed
range that is restricted because of ex
Cessive Vibration stresses must be marked
With red arcs.
§ 25.1551 Oil quantity indicator.
Each oil quantity indicator must be
marked with enough increments to in
dicate readily and accurately the quan
tity of oil.
§ 25.1553. Fuel quantity indicator.
If the unusable fuel supply for any
tank exceeds one gallon, or five percent
of the tank capacity, whichever is great
er, a red arc must be marked on its in
dicator extending from the calibrated
zero reading to the lowest reading ob
tainable in level flight.
§ 25.1555 Control markings.
(a) Each cockpit control, other than
primary flight controls and controls
whose function is obvious, must be
286
plainly marked as to its function and
method of Operation.
(b) Each aerodynamic control must be
marked under the requirements of
§§ 25.677 and 25.699.
(c) For powerplant fuel controls—
(1) Each fuel tank Selector control
must be marked to indicate the position
corresponding to each tank and to each
existing cross feed position;
(2) If Safe Operation requires the use
of any tanks in a specific sequence, that
Sequence must be marked on, or adja
cent to, the selector for those tanks; and
(3) Each Valve control for each engine
must be marked to indicate the position
corresponding to each engine controlled.
(d) For accessory, auxiliary, and
emergency controls—
(1) Each emergency control (includ
ing each fuel jettisoning and fluid shut
off control) must be colored red; and
(2) Each visual indicator required by
§ 25.729 (e) must be marked so that the
pilot can determine at any time when
the wheels are locked in either extreme
position, if retractable landing gear is
used.
§ 25.1557 Miscellaneous markings and
placards.
(a) Baggage and cargo compartments
and ballast location. Each baggage and
Cargo Compartment, and each ballast lo
cation must have a placard stating any
limitations on contents, including weight,
that are necessary under the loading re
quirements. However, underseat com
partments designed for the storage of
carry-on articles weighing not more than
20 pounds need not have a loading limi
tation placard.
(b) Fuel and oil filler openings. The
following must be marked on, or near,
each appropriate filler cover:
(1) The word “fuel”, the minimum
fuel grade or designation for the engines,
and the usable fuel tank capacity.
(2) The word “oil” and the oil tank
capacity.
(c) Emergency erit placards. Each
emergency exit placard must meet the
requirements of $ 25.811.
(d) Doors. Each door that must be
used in order to reach any required
emergency exit must have a suitable
placard stating that the door is to be
latched in the Open position during take
off and landing.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–32, 37 F.R. 3972,
Feb. 24, 1972]
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 25.1561 Safety equipment.
(a) Each Safety equipment control to
be operated by the crew in emergency,
such as controls for automatic liferaft
releases, must be plainly marked as to
its method of Operation.
(b) Each location, such as a locker or
compartment, that carries any fire ex
tinguishing, signaling, or other life Sav
ing equipment must be marked accord
ingly.
(c) Stowage provisions for required
emergency equipment must be COnSpicu
ously marked to identify the contents
and facilitate removal of the equipment.
(d) Each liferaft must have obviously
marked operating instructions.
(e) Approved survival equipment must
be marked for identification and method
of operation.
§ 25.1563 Airspeed placard.
A placard showing the maximum air
speeds for flap extension for the takeoff,
approach, and landing positions must be
installed in clear view of each pilot.
AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUAL
§ 25.1581 General.
(a) An Airplane Flight Manual must
be furnished with each airplane, unless
otherwise prescribed.
(b) Each part of the manual listed in
$$ 25.1583 through 25.1587, that is ap
propriate to the airplane, must be fur
nished, verifled, and approved, and must
be segregated, identified, and clearly dis
tinguished from each unapproved part
of that manual.
(c) Any information not specified in
§§ 25.1583 through 25.1587 that is re
quired for Safe Operation because of un
usual design, operating, or handling
characteristics, must be furnished.
§ 25.1583 Operating limitations.
(a) Airspeed limitations. The follow
ing airspeed limitations and any other
ſnformation necessary to meet the re
*...* of § 25.1545 must be fur
(1) The maximum operating limit
speed Vito/Maro and a statement that
this speed limit may not be deliberately
exceeded in any regime of flight (climb,
Cruise, or descent) unless a higher speed
is authorized for flight test or pilot
training.
(2) If an airspeed limitation is based
upon compressibility effects, a statement
to this effect and information as to any
Symptoms, the probable behavior of the
287
§ 25.1583
airplane, and the recommended recovery
procedures.
(3) The maneuvering speed VA and a
statement that full application of rudder
and aileron controls, as well as maneu
vers that involve angles of attack near
the stall, should be confined to speeds
below this value.
(4) The flap extended speed Vrs and
the pertinent flap positions and engine
powers.
(5) The landing gear operating Speed
Vto and a statement that this is the
maximum speed at which it is safe to
extend or retract the landing gear.
(6) The landing gear extended speed
VLR, if greater than VLo, and a statement
that this is the maximum speed at which
the airplane can be safely flown with the
landing gear extended.
(b) Powerplant limitations. Infor
mation must be furnished to explain the
powerplant limitation and to allow
marking the instruments under §§ 25.-
1549 through 25.1553.
(c) Weight and loading distribution.
The weight and center of gravity limits
required by §§ 25.25 and 25.27 must be
furnished, together with the items in
cluded in the empty weight in § 25.29(a).
In addition—
(1) There must be loading instruc
tions, for each loading condition within
these limits, that affect weight and center
of gravity;
(2) If certification for more than one
center of gravity range is requested, the
appropriate limitations, with regard to
Weight and loading procedures, for each
Separate center of gravity range, must be
furnished; and
(3) The positive maneuvering limit
load factors for which the structure is
proven, described in terms of accelera
tions, and a statement that these ac
celerations limit the angle of bank in
turns and limit the severity of pull-up
maneuvers, must be furnished.
(d) Flight crew. The number and
functions of the minimum flight crew de
termined under § 25.1523 must be fur
nished.
(e) Kinds of operation. The kinds of
operation approved under § 25.1525 must
be furnished.
(f) Altitudes. The a lit it u de estab
lished under § 25.1527 and an explana
tion of the limiting factors must be
furnished.
(g) Usable fuel. A statement that the
fuel remaining in fuel tanks when the
§ 25.1585 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
quantity indicator reaches “Zero” is not
usable in flight must be furnished.
(h) Turbine engine powered airplanes.
For turbine engine powered airplanes,
the operation limitations established
under § 25.1533 must be furnished.
§ 25.1585 Operating procedures.
(a) Information and instructions re
garding the peculiarities of normal oper
ations (including starting and warming
the engines, taxiing, operation of wing
flaps, landing gear, and the automatic
pilot) must be furnished, together with
recommended procedures for—
(1) Engine failure (including min
imum Speeds, trim, operation of the
remaining engines, and operation of
flaps);
(2) Stopping the rotation of propellers
in flight;
(3) Restarting turb in e engines in
flight (including the effects of altitude);
(4) Fire, decompression, and similar
emergencies;
(5) Ditching (including the proce
dures based on the requirements of
§§ 25.801, 25.807(d), 25.1411, and 25.1415
(a) through (e));
(6) Use of ice protection equipment;
and
(7) Use of fuel jettisoning equipment
(including information to warn flight
crewmembers against jettisoning fuel
When any means (including flaps, slots,
and Slats) for changing the airflow across
or around the wings are being used);
and
(8) Operation in turbulence for tur
bine powered airplanes (including recom
mended turbulence penetration air
speeds, flight peculiarities, and special
COntrol instructions).
(b) Information identifying each op
erating condition in which the fuel sys
tem independence prescribed in § 25.953
is necessary for safety must be furnished,
together with instructions for placing
the fuel system in a configuration used
to show compliance with that section.
(c) The buffet onset envelopes deter
mined under § 25.251 must be furnished.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–11, 32 F.R. 6913,
May 5, 1967; Amdt. 25–23, 35 F.R. 5680, Apr. 8,
1970)
§ 25.1587 Performance information.
(a) Each airplane. For each airplane
the Airplane Flight Manual must con
tain information to permit conversion
of the indicated temperature to free-air
2SS
temperature if other than a free-air
temperature indicator is used to comply
with the requirements of § 25.1303(a)(1).
(b) Reciprocating engine powered air
planes. For each reciprocating engine
powered airplane, the Airplane Flight
Manual must contain a summary of any
pertinent performance data, including
data necessary for the application of any
Operating rule of this chapter, together
with descriptions of the conditions, such
as airspeeds, under which these data
Were determined, and must contain—
(1) The indicated airspeeds, corre
Sponding to those determined for takeoff,
and the procedures to be followed if a
critical engine fails during takeoff;
(2) Instructions for use and adjust
ment of flap controls necessary to obtain
the pertinent performance data specified
in this paragraph;
(3) An explanation of significant or
unusual flight or ground handling char
acteristics; and
(4) Operating correction factors that
are determined under § 25.61, and that
are approved.
(c) Turbine engine powered airplanes.
For each turbine engine powered air
plane, the Airplane Flight Manual must
Contain the performance information
computed under the applicable provi
Sions of this part (including $$ 25.115,
25.123, and 25.125 for the weights, alti
tudes, temperatures, wind components,
and runway gradients, as applicable)
within the operational limits of the air
plane, and must contain the following:
(1) The conditions under which the
performance information was obtained.
(2) The following performance infor
mation (determined by extrapolation and
computed for the range of weights be
tween the maximum landing and maxi
mum takeoff weights) :
(i) Climb in the landing configuration.
(ii) Climb in the approach configura
tion.
(iii) Landing distance.
(3) Procedures established under
§ 25.101 (c) that are related to the limita
tions and information required by
§ 25.1533 and by this paragraph. These
procedures must be in the form of guid
ance material, including any relevant
limitations or information.
(4) An explanation of significant or
unusual flight or ground handling char
acteristics of the airplane.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 F.R. 18291, Dec. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 85 F.R. 5680,
Apr. 8, 1970]
 Appendix A

EdA1 （1:33HM 3SON

Administration
Chapter l—Federal Aviation

289
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FIGURE
2–Level
landing.

(
WTOTAL)
(
WTOTAL)

w—
_r
=ANGULAR
INERTIA
FORCE
NECESSARY
FOR
EquilibRIUM
Vy7"
-FORWARD
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WHEEL.
T.YPE NOSE
WHEEL.
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É
3–Tall-dow
FIGURE
landing. n

(
W TOTAL)

/3
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Type
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration Appendix A

FIGURE 4–One-wheel landing.

THE AIRPLANE INERTIA LOADS REQUIRED

TO BALANCE THE EXTERNAL FORCES

W2 W2

SINGLE WHEEL LOAD

FROM 2 WHEEL LEVEL
LANDING CONDITION.

NOSE OR TAIL WHEEL. T.YPE

FIGURE 5–Lateral drift landing.

W2 ſ 2V, 4 Lo W º

0.80 VM O.60 VM

VM + V.
%-owrºtr The Maximum vertical Ground Reaction
obtained At Each Main GEAR in the Lºwti Landing conditions.

* Nose GEAR GROUND REACTion -o

NOSE OR TAIL WHEEL TYPE AIRPLANE IN LEVEL ALTITUDE

291
 6–Bra
FIGUREked
roll.

7"s
MERTA
FORCE
i
NECESSAR
TO Y
BALANCE
WHEEL.
THE
D
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THE
AIRPLANE
NERTIA
FACTORS
Aſ
GRAVITY
OF
ARE
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SA
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wheel.
TYPE
 Chapter 1–Federal Aviation Administration Appendix A

FIGURE 8–Pivoting, nose or tall wheel

type.

º
:
cºrrea of Roration

Wanokwant static Ground Reactions. for tail.

wattti. Trpe tree ARPLANE is in the triºt Point
artitude. Pivot-G is assuºto to take PLA
Agout one MAIN LANding GEAR UNIT.

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Appendix B Title 14—Aeronautics and Space

Appendix B
FIGURE 1–Pictorial definition of angles, dimensions, and directions on a seaplane.

Afterbody –

|-
Unflared Bottom Flored Bottom
294
Appendix'B
Federal Aviation Administration

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 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
Appendix C
(a) continuous marimum icing. The
maximum continuous intensity of atmos
pheric icing conditions (continuous maxi
mum icing) is defined by the variables of
the cloud liquid water content, the mean
effective diameter of the cloud droplets, the
ambient air temperature, and the inter
relationship of these three variables as shown
in figure 1 of this appendix. The limiting
lcing envelope in terms of altitude and tem
perature is given in figure 2 of this appendix.
The inter-relationship of cloud liquid water
content with drop diameter and altitude is
determined from figures 1 and 2. The cloud
liquid water content for continuous maxi
mum icing conditions of a horizontal extent,
other than 17.4 nautical miles, is determined
by the value of liquid water content of fig
ure 1, multiplied by the appropriate factor
from figure 3 of this appendix.
39–059-75—20
297
Appendix C
(b) Intermittent mazimum icing. The in
termittent maximum intensity of atmos
pheric icing conditions (intermittent maxi
mum icing) is defined by the variables of
the cloud liquid water content, the mean
effective diameter of the cloud droplets, the
ambient air temperature, and the inter
relationship of these three variables as shown
in figure 4 of this appendix. The limiting
icing envelope in terms of altitude and tem
perature is given in figure 5 of this appendix.
The inter-relationship of cloud liquid water
content with drop diameter and altitude is
determined from figures 4 and 5. The cloud
liquid water content for intermittent maxi
mum icing conditions of a horizontal extent,
other than 2.6 nautical miles, is determined
by the value of cloud liquid water content of
figure 4 multiplied by the appropriate factor
in figure 6 of this appendix.
 PIGUR-
1 i
CONTINUOUS
MAXIMUM
(STRATIFORM
CLOUDS)
ATMOSPHERIC
ICING
CONDITIONS
-
RLiquid
cwaſ
vs.onſenſ
MEAN
EFFECTIVE
DROP
DAMETER

o#r Pressure
range,
altitude
S.L.-22,000
---
ft.
-
--
Maximum
vertical
extent,
6,500
ft.
-
it
: -; Horizontal
extent,
standard
distance
of
O Nautical
17.4
Miles.
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 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration Appendix C

CONTINUOUS MAXIMUM (STRATIFORM CLOUDS)

ATMOSPHERIC ICING CONDITIONS ==Hi-Hºi
HE AMBIENT TEMPERATURE WS PRESSURE ALTITUDE HE

Hsource of DATAH

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PREssure ALTTUDE - 1000 Fr.:

FIGURE 2

299
 Protºr-
8. i
CONTINUOUS
MAXIMUM
(STRATIFORM
CLOUDS)
1.4
ATMOSPHERIC
ICING
CONDITIONS
1.34
L—iquid
Water
Content
Factor
vs
Cloud
Horizontal
Distance
1.3
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–-
 Appendix C

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Appendix C Title 14—Aeronautics and Space

: INTERMITTENT MAXIMUM (CUMULIFORM CLouDS) #-H===

- ATMOSPHERIC ICING CONDITIONS * : 1:... :

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE VS PRESSURE ALTITUDE

; SOURCE OF DATA
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i
Appendix D Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
Appendix D
Criteria for determining minimum flight
crew. The following are considered by the
Agency in determining the minimum flight
crew under § 25.1523:
a. Basic workload functions. The following
basic workload functions are considered:
(1) Flight path control.
(2) Collision avoidance.
(3) Navigation.
(4) Communications.
(5) Operation and monitoring of aircraft
engines and systems.
(6) Command decisions.
b. Workload factors. The following work
load factors are considered significant when
analyzing and demonstrating workload for
minimum flight crew determination:
(1) The accessibility, ease, and simplicity
of operation of all necessary flight, power, and
equipment controls, including emergency
fuel shutoff valves, electrical controls, elec
tronic controls, pressurization system con
trols, and engine controls.
(2) The accessibility and conspiculty of all
necessary instruments and failure warning
devices such as fire warning, electrical sys
tem malfunction, and other failure or cau
tion indicators. The extent to which such
instruments or devices direct the proper cor
rective action is also considered.
(3) The number, urgency, and complexity
of operating procedures with particular con
sideration given to the specific fuel manage
ment schedule imposed by center of gravity,
structural or other considerations of an air
worthiness nature, and to the ability of each
engine to operate at all times from a single
tank or source which is automatically re
plenished if fuel is also stored in other tanks.
(4) The degree and duration of concen
trated mental and physical effort involved in
normal operation and in diagnosing and
coping with malfunctions and emergencies.
(5) The extent of required monitoring of
the fuel, hydraulic, pressurization, electrical,
electronic, deicing, and other systems while
en route.
(6) The actions requiring a crewmember
to be unavailable at his assigned duty sta
tion, including: observation of systems,
emergency operation of any control, and
emergencies in any compartment.
(7) The degree of automation provided in
the aircraft systems to afford (after failures
or malfunctions) automatic crossover or
isolation of difficulties to minimize the need
for flight crew action to guard against loss
of hydraulic or electric power to filght con
trols or to other essential systems.
(8) The communications and navigation
Workload.
(9) The possibility of increased workload
associated with any emergency that may lead
to other emergencies.
(10) Incapacitation of a flight crewmem
ber whenever the applicable operating rule
304
requires a minimum flight crew of at least
two pilots.
(c) Kind of operation authorized. The
determination of the kind of operation au
thorized requires consideration of the oper
ating rules under which the airplane will be
operated. Unless an applicant desires ap
proval for a more limited kind of operation,
it is assumed that each airplane certificated
under this Part will operate under IFR
conditions.
[Amdt. 25–3, 30 F.R. 6067, Apr. 29, 1965)
Appendix E
1–Limited Weight Credit For Airplanes
Equipped. With Standby Power
(a) Each applicant for an increase in
the maximum certificated takeoff and land
ing weights of an airplane equipped with a
type-certificated standby power rocket engine
may obtain an increase as specified in para
graph (b) if—
(1) The installation of the rocket engine
has been approved and it has been estab
lished by flight test that the rocket engine
and its controls can be operated safely and
reliably at the increase in maximum weight;
and
(2) The Airplane Flight Manual, or the
placard, markings or manuals required in
place thereof, set forth in addition to any
other operating limitations the Administra
tor may require, the increased weight
approved under this regulation and a pro
hibition against the operation of the airplane
at the approved increased weight when—
(1) The installed standby power rocket en
gines have been stored or installed in excess
of the time limit established by the manufac
turer of the rocket engine (usually stenciled
on the engine casing); or
(ii) The rocket engine fuel has been ex
pended or discharged.
(b) The currently approved maximum
takeoff and landing weights at which an air
plane is certificated without a standby power
rocket engine installation may be increased
by an amount that does not exceed any of
the following:
(1) An amount equal in pounds to 0.014
IN, where I is the maximum usable impulse
in pounds-seconds available from each
standby power rocket engine and N is the
number of rocket engines installed.
(2) An amount equal to 5 percent of the
maximum certificated weight approved in ac
cordance with the applicable airworthiness
regulations without standby power rocket
engines installed.
(3) An amount equal to the weight of the
rocket engine installation.
(4) An amount that, together with the
currently approved maximum weight, would
equal the maximum structural weight estab
lished for the airplane without standby
rocket engines installed.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviction Administration
II—Performance Credit for Transport Cate
gory Airplanes Equipped With Standby
Ponder
The Administrator may grant performance
credit for the use of standby power on trans
: port category airplanes. However, the per
formance credit applies only to the maxi
mum certificated takeoff and landing
weights, the takeoff distance, and the take
: off paths, and may not exceed that found
by the Administrator to result in an overall
level of safety in the takeoff, approach, and
landing regimes of filght equivalent to that
prescribed in the regulations under which
the airplane was originally certificated with
out standby power. For the purposes of this
Appendix, “standby power” is power or
thrust, or both, obtained from rocket en
gines for a relatively short period and
actuated only in cases of emergency. The
following provisions apply:
(1) Takeoff; general. The takeoff data
prescribed in §§ (2) and (3) must be deter
mined at all weights and altitudes, and at
ambient temperatures if applicable, at which
performance credit is to be applied.
(2) Takeoff path.
(a) The one-engine-inoperative takeoff
path with standby power in use must be de
termined in accordance with the perform
ance requirements of the applicable air
worthiness regulations.
(b) The one-engine-inoperative takeoff
path (excluding that part where the air
plane is on or just above the takeoff surface)
determined in accordance with paragraph
(a) of this section must lie above the one
engine-inoperative takeoff path without
standby power at the maximum takeoff
worthiness requirements are met. For the
weight at which all of the applicable air
purpose of this comparison, the flight path
is considered to extend to at least a height of
400 feet above the takeoff Surface.
(c) The takeoff path with all engines op
erating, but without the use of standby
power, must reflect a conservatively greater
overall level of performance than the one
engine-inoperative takeoff path established
in accordance with paragraph (a) of this sec
tion. The margin must be established by the
Administrator to insure safe day-to-day op
erations, but in no case may it be less than
15 percent. The all-engines-operating take
off path must be determined by a procedure
consistent with that established in comply
ing with paragraph (a) of this section.
(d) For reciprocating-engine-powered air
planes, the takeoff path to be scheduled in
the Airplane Flight Manual must represent
the one-engine-inoperative takeoff path de
termined in accordance with paragraph (a)
of this section and modified to reflect the
procedure (see 3 (6) ) established by the ap
plicant for flap retraction and attainment of
the en route speed. The scheduled takeoff
305
Appendix E
path must have a positive slope at all points
of the airborne portion and at no point must
it lie above the takeoff path specified in para
graph (a) of this section.
(3) Takeoff distance. The takeoff distance
must be the horizontal distance along the
one-engine-inoperative takeoff path deter
mined in accordance with 5 (2) (a) from the
start of the takeoff to the point where the
airplane attains a height of 50 feet above
the takeoff surface for reciprocating-engine
powered airplanes and a height of 35 feet
above the takeoff surface for turbine-pow
ered airplanes.
(4) Marimum certificated takeoff weights.
The maximum certificated takeoff weights
must be determined at all altitudes, and at
ambient temperatures, if applicable, at which
performance credit is to be applied and may
not exceed the weights established in com
pliance with paragraphs (a) and (b) of this
Section.
(a) The conditions of 5 (2) (b) through
(d) must be met at the maximum certifi
cated takeoff weight.
(b) Without the use of standby power, the
airplane must meet all of the en route re
quirements of the applicable airworthiness
regulations under which the airplane was
originally certificated. In addition, turbine
powered airplanes without the use of standby
power must meet the final takeoff climb re
quirements prescribed in the applicable air
worthiness regulations.
(5) Marimum certificated landing weights.
(a) The maximum certificated landing
weights (one-engine-inoperative approach
and all-engines-operating landing climb)
must be determined at all altitudes, and at
ambient temperatures if applicable, at which
performance credit is to be applied and must
not exceed that established in compliance
with paragraph (b) of this section.
(b) The flight path, with the engines op
erating at the power or thrust, or both, ap
propriate to the airplane configuration and
with standby power in use, must lie above
the flight path without standby power in
use at the maximum weight at which all of
the applicable airworthiness requirements
are met. In addition, the flight paths must
comply with subparagraphs (1) and (ii) of
this paragraph.
(1) The flight paths must be established
without changing the appropriate airplane
configuration.
(11) The flight paths must be carried out
for a minimum height of 400 feet above the
point where standby power is actuated.
(6) Airplane configuration, speed, and
power and thrust; general. Any change in
the airplane's configuration, speed, and
power or thrust, or both, must be made in
accordance with the procedures established
by the applicant for the operation of the
airplane in service and must comply with
Appendix F Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
paragraphs (a) through (c) of this section.
In addition, procedures must be established
for the execution of balked landings and
missed approaches.
(a) The Administrator must find that the
procedure can be consistently executed in
service by crews of average skill.
(b) The procedure may not involve meth
ods or the use of devices which have not been
proven to be safe and reliable.
(c) Allowances must be made for such
time delays in the execution of the proce
dures as may be reasonably expected to occur
during service.
(7) Installation and operation; standby
power. The standby power unit and its in
stallation must comply with paragraphs (a)
and (b) of this section.
(a) The standby power unit and its in
stallation must not adversely affect the safety
of the airplane.
(b) The operation of the standby power
unit and its control must have proven to be
safe and reliable.
[Amdt. 25–6, 30 F.R. 8468, July 2, 1965]
Appendix F
An acceptable Test Procedure for showing
compliance with $$ 25.853, 25.855, and
25.1359.
(a) Conditioning. Specimens must be con
ditioned to 70° F, plus or minus 5° and at
50 percent plus or minus 5 percent relative
humidity until moisture equilibrium is
reached or for 24 hours. Only one specimen at
a time may be removed from the conditioning
environment immediately before subjecting
it to the flame.
(b) Specimen configuration. Except as pro
Vided for materials used in electrical wire
and cable insulation and in small parts, mate
rials must be tested either as a section cut
from a fabricated part as installed in the air
plane or as a specimen simulating a cut sec
tion, such as: A specimen cut frcm a flat sheet
of the material or a model of the fabricated
part. The specimen may be cut from any
location in a fabricated part; however, fab
ricated units, such as sandwich panels, may
not be separated for test. The specimen thick
ness must be no thicker than the minimum
thickness to be qualified for use in the air
plane, except that: (1) Thick foam parts,
such as seat cushions, must be tested in 14
inch thickness; (2) when showing compli
ance with $25,853(b–3) for materials used
in small parts that must be tested, the mate
rials must be tested in no more than 14-inch
thickness; (3) when showing compliance
with $25.1359 (d) for materials used in elec
trical wire and cable insulation, the wire and
cable specimens must be the same size as
used in the airplane. In the case of fabrics,
both the warp and fill direction of the weave
must be tested to determine the most critical
flammability conditions: When performing
the tests prescribed in paragraphs (d)
306
through (e) of this appendix, the specimen
must be mounted in a metal frame so that;
(1) in the vertical tests of paragraph (d),
the two long edges and the upper edge are
held securely; (2) in the horizontal test of
paragraph (e), the two long edges and the
edge away from the flame are held securely;
(3) the exposed area of the specimen is at
least 2 inches wide and 12 inches long, unless
the actual size used in the airplane is small
er; and (4) the edge to which the burner
flame is applied must not consist of the
finished or protected edge of the specimen
but must be representative of the actual
cross-section of the material or part in
stalled in the airplane. When performing the
test prescribed in paragraph (f) of this ap
pendix, the specimen must be mounted in
a metal frame so that all four edges are held
securely and the exposed area of the speci
men is at least 8 inches by 8 inches.
(c) Apparatus. Except as provided in para
graph (h) of this appendix, tests must be
conducted in a draft-free cabinet in accord
ance with Federal Test method Standard 191
Method 5903 (revised Method 5902) for the
vertical test, or Method 5906 for horizontal
test (available from the General Services Ad
ministration, Business Service Center, Re
gion 3, Seventh and D Streets SW., Washing
ton, DC 20407) or other approved equivalent
methods. Specimens which are too large for
the cabinet must be tested in similar draft
free conditions.
(d) Vertical test, in compliance with
$ 25.853 (a) and (b). A minimum of three
specimens must be tested and the results
averaged. For fabrics, the direction of weave
corresponding to the most critical flammabil
ity conditions must be parallel to the long
est dimension. Each specimen must be sup
ported vertically. The specimen must be ex
posed to a Bunsen or Tirrill burner with a
nominal 3%-inch I.D. tube adjusted to give
a flame of 1% inches in height. The minimum
flame temperature measured by a calibrated
thermocouple pyrometer in the center of the
flame must be 1,550° F. The lower edge of the
specimen must be three-fourths inch above
the top edge of the burner. The flame must be
applied to the center line of the lower edge
of the specimen. For materials covered by
$25,853(a), the flame must be applied for 60
seconds and then removed. For materials
covered by § 25.853 (b), the flame must be ap
plied for 12 seconds and then removed. Flame
time, burn length, and flaming time of drip
pings, if any, must be recorded. The burn
length determined in accordance with para
graph (g) of this appendix must be measured
to the nearest one-tenth inch.
(e) Horizontal test in compliance with
$25.853 (b–2) and (b–3). A minimum of
three specimens must be tested and the re
sults averaged. Each specimen must be sup
ported horizontally. The exposed surface
when installed in the aircraft must be face
down for the test. The specimen must be
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration Part 27

exposed to a Bunsen burner or Tirrill burner
with a nominal 3%-inch I.D. tube adjusted
to give a flame of 1% inches in height. The
minimum flame temperature measured by a
calibrated thermocouple pyrometer in the
center of the flame must be 1,550° F. The
specimen must be positioned so that the edge
being tested is three-fourths of an inch above
the top of, and on the center line of, the
burner. The flame must be applied for 15
seconds and then removed. A minimum Of 10
inches of the specimen must be used for
timing purposes, approximately 1% inches
must burn before the burning front reaches
the timing zone, and the average burn rate
must be recorded.
(f) Forty-five-degree test, in compliance
with $ 25.855 (a–1). A minimum of three
specimens must be tested and the results
averaged. The specimens must be supported
at an angle of 45° to a horizontal surface.
:*
The exposed surface when installed in the
aircraft must be face down for the test. The
specimens must be exposed to a Bunsen or
Tirrill burner with a nominal %-inch I.D.
tube adjusted to give a flame of 1% inches in
height. The minimum flame temperature
measured by a calibrated thermocouple
pyrometer in the center of the flame must be
1,550° F. Suitable precautions must be taken
to avoid drafts. One-third of the flame must
º contact the material at the center of the
:: specimen and must be applied for 30 seconds
and then removed. Flame time, glow time,
and whether the flame penetrates (passes
through) the specimen must be recorded.
(g) Sizty-degree test in compliance with
$ 25.1359 (d). A minimum of three specimens
of each wire specification (make and size)
must be tested. The specimen of wire or cable
(including insulation) must be placed at an
angle of 60° with the horizontal in the cabi
net specified in paragraph (c) of this ap
pendix with the cabinet door open during
the test or must be placed within a chamber
: approximately 2 feet high x 1 foot x 1 foot,
open at the top and at one vertical side
(front), and which allows sufficient flow of
air for complete combustion, but which is
free from drafts. The specimen must be
must have a nominal bore of three-eighths
inch, and must be adjusted to provide a
3-inch-high flame with an inner cone ap
proximately one-third of the flame height.
The minimum temperature of the hottest
portion of the flame, as measured with a
calibrated thermocouple pyrometer, may not
be less than 1,750° F. The burner must be
positioned so that the hottest portion of the
flame is applied to the test mark on the wire.
Flame time, burn length, and flaming time
of drippings, if any, must be recorded. The
burn length determined in accordance with
paragraph (g) of this appendix must be
measured to the nearest. One-tenth inch.
Breaking of the wire specimens is not con
Sidered a failure.
(h) Burn length. Burn length is the dis
tance from the original edge to the farthest
evidence of damage to the test specimen due
to flame impingement, including areas of
partial or complete consumption, charring,
or embrittlement, but not including areas
sooted, stained, warped, or discolored, nor
areas where material has shrunk or melted
away from the heat source.
[Amdt. 25–32, 37 F.R. 3972, Feb. 24, 1972;
37 F.R. 5284, Mar. 14, 1972.]
PART 27–AIRWORTHINESS STAND
ARDS: NORMAL CATEGORY
ROTORCRAFT
Subpart A–General
Sec.
27.1 Applicability.
Subpart B–Flight
GENERAL
27.21 Proof of compliance.
27.25 Weight limits.
27.27 Center of gravity limits.
27.29 Empty weight and corresponding
27.31
27.33
center of gravity.
Removable ballast.
Main rotor speed and pitch limits.
PERFORMANCE

parallel to and approximately 6 inches from 27.45 Standard atmosphere and still air.
the front of the chamber. The lower end of
27.51 Takeoff.
the specimen must be held rigidly clamped. 27.65 Climb.
The upper end of the specimen must pass
over a pulley or rod and must have an ap 27.67 Climb: one engine inoperative.
27.73 Performance at minimum operating
propriate weight attached to it so that the speed.
specimen is held tautly throughout the flam
mability test. The test specimen span be 27.75 Landing.
tween lower clamp and upper pulley or rod 27.79 Limiting helght—speed envelope.
must be 24 inches and must be marked 8 FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
inches from the lower end to indicate the
27.141 General.
central point for flame application. A flame
from a Bunsen or Tirrill burner must be ap 27.143 Controllability and maneuverability.
27.161 Trim control.
plied for 30 seconds at the test mark. The
burner must be mounted underneath the 27.171 Stability: general.
test mark on the specimen, perpendicular to 27.173 Static longitudinal stability.
the specimen and at an angle of 30° to the 27.175 Demonstration of static longitudi
vertical plane of the specimen. The burner nal stability.

307
Part 27 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
GROUND AND WATER HANDLING Subpart D–Design and Construction
CHARACTERISTICS GEN
Sec. ERAL,
Sec.
27.231 General.
27.601 Design.
27.235 Taxiing condition. 27.603 Materials.
27.239 Spray characteristics. 27.605 Fabrication methods.
27.241 Ground resonance.
27.607 Fasteners.
MISCELLANEOUS FLIGHT REQUIREMENTs 27.609 Protection of structure.
27.251 Vibration. 27.611
27.613 Inspection provisions.
Material strength properties and
Subpart C–Strength Requirements design values.
GENERAL 27.619
27.621 Special
Casting factors.
factors.
27.301 Loads. 27.623 Bearing factors.
27.303 Factor of safety. 27.625 Fitting factors.
27.305 Strength and deformation. 27.629 Flutter.
27.307 Proof of Structure.
27.309 Design limitations. ROTORS

FLIGHT LOADs 27.653 Pressure venting and drainage of

rotor blades.
27.321 General. 27.659 Mass balance.
27.337 Limit maneuvering load factor. 27.661 Rotor blade clearance.
27.339 Resultant limit maneuvering loads. 27.663 Ground resonance prevention
27.341 Gust loads. means.
27.361 Engine torque.
CONTROL SYSTEMS
CoNTROL SURFACE AND SYSTEM LOADs
27.671 General.
27.391 General.
27.675 Stops.
27.395 Control system.
27.679 Control system locks.
27.397 Limit pilot forces. 27.681 Limit load static tests.
27.399 Dual control system.
27.401
27.403 Auxiliary rotor
Auxiliary rotorassemblies.
attachment struc- : : Operation
27.683
7. §º. tests.
details. etalls

ture. - -

27.691 Autorotation control mechanism.

27.411 Ground clearance: tall rotor guard
27.695 Power boost and power-operated
27.413 Stabilizing and control surfaces.
control system.
GROUND LOADs
LANDING GEAR
27.471 General.
27,723 Shock absorption tests.
27.473 Ground loading conditions and as
sumptions. 27.725 Limit drop test.
27.475 Tires and shock absorbers. #: §. energy absorption drop test.
27.477 Landing gear arrangement. 27.733 Tires -

27.479 Level landing conditions. 27,735 Brakes

27.481 Tail-down landing conditions. 27.737 Skis -

27.483 One-wheel landing conditions. - -

27.485 Lateral drift landing conditions. FLOATS AND HULLs

27.493 Braked roll conditions.
27,497 Ground loading conditions: landing 27.751 Main float buoyancy.
27.501
gear with tail wheels.
Groun dloading conditions: landing
#: #..7
float design.
ullS.

gear with skids. PERSONNEL AND CARGO ACCOMMODATIONS

27.50 5 g condi
Ski landing conditions - 27.771 Pilot compartment.

WATER LOADs 27.773 Pilot compartment view.

27.521 Float landing conditions. 27.775 Windshjelds and Windows.
27.777 Cockpit controls.
MAIN ComPon ENT REQUIREMENTS 27,783 Doors.
27.547 Main rotor structure. 27.785 Seats and berths.
27.549 Fuselage, landing gear, and rotor 27.787 Cargo and baggage compartments.
pylon structures. 27.807 Emergency exits.
27.831 Ventilation.
EMERGENCY LANDING CONDITIONS FIRE PROTECTIon

27.561 General. 27.853 Compartment interiors.

FATIGUE EVALUATION 27.855 Cargo and baggage compartments.
27.859 Heating systems.
27,571 Fº evaluation of flight struc 27,861 Fire protection of structure, con
trols, and other parts.

308
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration Part 27

MISCELLANEOUS Sec.
Sec. 27.1147 Mixture controls.
27.871 Leveling marks. 27.1163 Powerplant accessories.
27.873 Ballast provisions. POWERPLANT FIRE PROTECTION
Subpart E–Powerplant 27.1183 Flammable fluid-carrying compo
GENERAL, Inents.
27.1185 Flammable fluids.
27.901 Installation. 27.1187 Ventilation.
27.903 Engines. 27.1189 Shutoff means.
27.907 Engine vibration. 27.1.191 Firewalls.
ROTOR DRIVE SYSTEM 27.1193 Cowling and engine compartment
covering.
27,917 Design. 27.1.194 Other surfaces.
27.921 Rotor brake.
27.1.195 Fire detector systems.
27.923 Rotor drive system and control
mechanism tests. Subpart F-Equipment
27.927 Additional tests.
GENERAL
27.931 Shafting critical speed.
27.935 Shafting joints. 27.1301 Function and installation.
27.939 Turbine engine operating charac 27.1303 Flight and navigation instruments.
teristics. 27.1305 Powerplant instruments.
FUEL SYSTEM
27.1307 Miscellaneous equipment.
27.1309 Equipment, systems, and installa
27.951 General. tions.
27.953 Fuel system independence. INSTRUMENTs: INSTALLATIon
27.955 Fuel flow.
27.959 Unusable fuel supply. 27.1321 Arrangement and visiblity.
27.961 Fuel system hot weather operation. 27.1322 Warning, caution, and advisory
27.963 Fuel tanks: general. lights.
27.965 Fuel tank internal pressure. 27.1323 Airspeed indicating system.
27.969 Fuel tank expansion space. 27.1325 Static air vent system.
27.971 Fuel tank sump. 27.1327 Magnetic direction indicator.
27.973 Fuel tank filler connection. 27.1337 Powerplant instruments.
27.975 Fuel tank vents.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMs AND EquTPMENT
27.977 Fuel tank outlet.
27.1351 General.
FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTs
27.1353 Storage battery design and installa
27.991 Fuel pumps. tion.
27.993 Fuel system lines and fittings. 27.1357 Circuit protective devices.
27.995 Fuel Valves. 27.1361 Master switch.
27.997 Fuel strainer or filter. 27.1365 Electric cables.
27.999 Fuel system drains. 27.1367 SWitches.

OIL SYSTEM LIGHTs

27.1011 General. 27.1381 Instrument lights.

27.1013 Oil tanks. 27.1383 Landing lights.
27.1015 Oil tank tests. 27.1385 Position light system installation.
27.1017 Oil lines and fittings. 27.1387 Position light system dihedral
27.1019 Oil Strainer or filter. angles.
27.1021 Oil system drains. 27.1389 Position light distribution and in
tensities.
CoOLING
27.1391 Minimum intensities in the hori
27.1041 General. zontal plane of forward and rear
27.1043 Cooling tests. position lights.
27.1045 Cooling test procedures. 27.1393 Minimum intensities in any ver
tical plane of forward and rear
INDUCTION SYSTEM
position lights.
27.1091 Air induction. 27.1395 Maximum intensities in overlapping
27.1093 Induction system icing protection. beams of forward and rear posi
tion lights.
ExHAUST SYSTEM
27.1397 Color specifications.
27.1121 General. 27.1399 Riding light.
PoweRPLANT ContROLS AND ACCESSORIES
27.1401 Anticollision light system.
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
27.1141 Powerplant controls: general.
27.1143 Throttle controls. 27.1411 General.
27.1145 Ignition switches. 27.1413 Safety belts.

309
§ 27.1 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
8ec. Subpart B–Flight
27.1415 Ditching equipment.
27.1435 Hydraulic systems. GENERAL
27.1461 Equipment containing high energy § 27.21 Proof of compliance.
rotors.
(a) Each requirement of this subpart
subpart G–Operating Limitations and must be met at each appropriate com
information
bination of weight and center of gravity
27.1501 General. within the range of loading conditions
OPERATING LIMITATIONS for which certification is requested.
This must be shown—
27.1503 Airspeed limitations: general.
27.1505 Never-exceed speed. (1) By tests upon a rotorcraft of the
27.1509 Rotor speed. type for which certification is requested,
27.1519 weight and center of gravity. or by calculations based on, and equal in
27.1521 Powerplant limitations. accuracy to, the results of testing; and
27.1523 Minimum flight crew. (2) By systematic investigation of
27.1525 Kinds of operation. each required combination of weight
27.1529 Rotorcraft Maintenance Manual.
and center of gravity if compliance can
MARKINGs AND PLACARDS not be reasonably inferred from combi
27.1541 General. nations investigated.
27.1543 Instrument markings: general. (b) The controllability, stability, and
27.1545 Airspeed indicator. trim of the rotorcraft must be shown
27.1547 Magnetic direction indicator. for each altitude up to the maximum
27.1549 Powerplant instruments. expected in Operation.
27.1551 Oil quantity indicator.
27.1553 Fuel quantity indicator. § 27.25 Weight limits.
27.1555 Control markings. (a) Marimum weight. The maxi
27.1557 Miscellaneous markings and plac mum weight (the highest Weight at
ards.
which compliance with each applicable
27.1559 Limitations placard. requirement of this part is shown) must
27.1561 Safety equipment. be established So that it is—
27.1565 Tail rotor.
(1) Not more than—
RorogcRAFT FLIGHT MANUAL AND APPROVED (i) The highest weight selected by the
MANUAL MATERIAL applicant;
27.1581 General. (ii) The design maximum weight (the
27.1583 Operating limitations. highest weight at which compliance
27.1585 Operating procedures. with each applicable Structural loading
27.1587 Performance 1nformation. condition of this part is shown); or
27.1589 Loading information. (iii) The highest weight at which
AUTHoRITY: The provisions of this Part compliance with each applicable flight
27 issued under secs. 313, 601, 603, 72 Stat. requirement of this part is shown; and
752, 775; 49 U.S.C. 1354, 1421, 1423. (2) Not less than the sum of—
Source: The provisions of this Part 27 (i) The empty Weight determined
contained in Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, under § 27.29;
Nov. 24, 1964; 29 FR 17885, Dec. 17, 1964, (ii) The weight of usable fuel appro
unless otherwise noted. priate to the intended Operation with
full payload;
Subpart A–General (iii) The weight of full oil capacity;
§ 27.1 Applicability. and

(a) This part prescribes airworthiness
standards for the issue of type certifi
cates, and changes to those certificates,
for normal category rotorcraft with
maximum weights of 6,000 pounds or
less.
(b) Each person who applies under
Part 21 for such a certificate or change
must show compliance with the appli
cable requirements of this part.
(iv) For each seat, an occupant
weight of 170 pounds or any lower weight
for which certification is requested.
(b) Minimum weight. The minimum
weight (the lowest weight at Which
compliance with each applicable require
ment of this part is shown) must be
established so that it is—
(1) Not more than the sum of—
(1) The empty weight determined
under § 27.29;

310
 chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(ii) The weight of the minimum Crew
necessary to operate the rotorcraft, as:
suming for each crewmember a weight
no more than 170 pounds, or any lower
weight selected by the applicant or in
cluded in the loading instructions; and
(iii) The weight of the oil quantity
determined under § 27.1011(b); and
(2) Not less than–
(i) The lowest weight selected by the
applicant;
(ii) The design minimum weight (the
lowest weight at which compliance with
each applicable structural loading con
dition of this part is shown); or
(iii) The lowest weight at which
compliance with each applicable flight
requirement of this part is shown.
§ 27.27 Center of gravity limits.
The extreme forward and aft centers
of gravity and, where critical, the extreme
lateral centers of gravity must be estab
lished for each weight established under
§ 27.25. Such an extreme may not lie
beyond—
(a) The extremes selected by the ap
plicant;
(b) The extremes within which the
structure is proVen; Or
(c) The extremes within which com
pliance with the applicable flight require
ments is shown.
[Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 962, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 27.29 Empty weight and correspond
ing center of gravity.
(a) The empty weight and correspond
ing center of gravity must be determined
by weighing the rotorcraft without the
crew and payload, but with—
(1) Fixed ballast;
(2) Unusable fuel;
(3) Undrainable oil;
(4) Engine coolant; and
(5) Hydraulic fluid.
(b) The condition of the rotorcraft at
the time of determining empty Weight
must be one that is well defined and can
be easily repeated, particularly with re
spect to the weights of fuel, oil, coolant,
and installed equipment.
§ 27.31 Removable ballast.
Removable ballast may be used in
showing compliance with the flight re
quirements of this subpart.
311
§ 27.45
§ 27.33 Main rotor speed and pitch
limits.
(a) Main rotor speed limits. A range
of main rotor Speeds must be established
that—
(1) With power on, provides adequate
margin to accommodate the variations in
rotor speed occurring in any appropriate
maneuver, and is consistent with the
kind of governor or synchronizer used;
and
(2) With power off, allows each ap
propriate autorotative maneuver to be
performed throughout the ranges of air
Speed and weight for which certification
is requested.
(b) Normal main rotor high pitch
limits (power on). It must be shown,
with power on and without exceeding ap
proved engine maximum limitations, that
main rotor Speeds substantially less than
the minimum approved main rotor speed
will not occur under any substained
flight condition. This must be met by—
(1) Appropriate setting of the main
rotor high pitch stop;
(2) Inherent rotorcraft characteristics
that make unsafe low main rotor speeds
unlikely; or
(3) Adequate means to warn the pilot
Of unsafe main rotor speeds.
(c) Normal main rotor low pitch limits
(power off). It must be shown, with
power off, that—
(1) The normal main rotor low pitch
limit provides sufficient rotor speed, in
any autorotative condition, under the
most critical combinations of weight and
airspeed; and
(2) It is possible to prevent overspeed
ing of the rotor without exceptional
piloting skill.
(d) Emergency high pitch. If the main
rotor high pitch stop is set to meet para
graph (b) (1) of this section, and if that
stop cannot be exceeded inadvertently,
additional pitch may be made available
for emergency use.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 962, Jan.
26, 1968]
PERFORMANCE
§ 27.45 Standard atmosphere and still
air.
Compliance with $$ 27.51 through 27.79
must be shown for still air With a stand
ard atmosphere.
§ 27.51 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 27.51 Takeoff.
(a) The takeoff, with takeoff power
and r.p.m., and with the extreme forward
center of gravity—
(1) May not require exceptional pilot
ing skill or exceptionally favorable con
ditions; and
(2) Must be made in Such a manner
that a landing can be made safely at any
point along the flight path if an engine
fails.
(b) Paragraph (a) of this section must
be met throughout the ranges of -
(1) Altitude, from standard sea level
conditions to the maximum altitude ca
pability of the rotorcraft, or 7,000 feet,
whichever is less; and
(2) Weight, from the maximum weight
(at sea level) to each lesser weight Se
lected by the applicant for each altitude
covered by subparagraph (1) of this'
paragraph.
§ 27.65 Climb.
(a) For rotorcraft other than heli
copters—
(1) The steady rate of climb, at Vy,
must be determined—
(i) With maximum continuous power
on each engine;
(ii) With the landing gear retracted;
and
(iii) For the weights, altitudes, and
temperatures for which certification is
requested; and
(2) The climb gradient, at the rate of
climb determined under subparagraph
(1) of this paragraph must be at least
1: 6 under standard sea level conditions.
(b) For helicopters, Vy must be deter
mined—
(1) Under standard sea level condl
tions;
(2) At maximum weight; and
(3) With maximum continuous power
on each engine.
§ 27.67 Climb: one engine inoperative.
For multiengine helicopters, the steady
rate of climb (or descent), at Wr (or at
the Speed for minimum rate of descent),
must be determined with—
(a) Maximum weight;
(b) One engine inoperative; and
(c) Maximum continuous power on
the other engines.
312
§ 27.73 Performance at minimum oper
ating speed.
(a) For helicopters—
(1) The hovering ceiling must be de
termined over the ranges of weight, alti
tude, and temperature for which cer
tification is requested, with—
(i) Takeoff power;
(ii) The landing gear extended; and
(iii) The helicopter in ground effect
at a height consistent with normal take
off procedures; and
(2) The hovering ceiling determined
under subparagraph (1) of this para
graph must be at least—
(1) For reciprocating engine powered
helicopters, 4,000 feet at maximum
weight with a standard atmosphere; or
(ii) For turbine engine powered heli
copters, 2,500 feet pressure altitude at
maximum weight at a temperature of
standard +40 degrees F.
(b) For rotorcraft other than heli
copters, the steady rate of climb at the
minimum operating speed must be de
termined, over the ranges of weight, alti
tude, and temperature for which cer
tification is requested, with—
(1) Takeoff power; and
(2) The landing gear extended.
§ 27.75 Landing.
(a) The rotorcraft must be able to be
landed with no excessive vertical accel
eration, no tendency to bounce, nose
over, ground loop, porpoise, or water
loop, and without exceptional piloting
skill or exceptionally favorable condi
tions, with—
(1) Approach or glide speeds appro
priate to the type of rotorcraft and
selected by the applicant;
(2) The approach and landing made
with—
(i) Power off, for single-engine rotor
craft; and
(ii) One engine inoperative, for multi
engine rotorcraft; and
(3) The approach and landing entered
from steady autorotation.
(b) Multiengine rotorcraft must be
able to be landed safely after complete
power failure under normal operating
conditions.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 27.79 Limiting height—speed enve
lope.
(a) If there is any combination of
height and forward Speed (including
hover) under which a safe landing can
not be made under the applicable power
failure condition in paragraph (b) of
this section, a limiting height-Speed en
velope must be established (including all
pertinent information) for that condi
tion, throughout the ranges of
(1) Altitude, from Standard sea level
conditions to the maximum altitude ca
pability of the rotorcraft, or 7,000 feet,
whichever is less; and
(2) Weight, from the maximum
weight (at Sea level) to the lesser Weights
selected by the applicant for each alti
tude covered by subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph.
(b) The applicable power failure Con
ditions are—
(1) For single-engine helicopters, full
autorotation;
(2) For multiengine helicopters, one
engine inoperative (where engine isola
tion features ensure continued operation
of the remaining engines); and
(3) For other rotorcraft, conditions
appropriate to the type.
FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
§ 27.141 General.
The rotorcraft must—
(a) Meet the requirements of this sec
tion and of §§ 27.143, 27.161, and 27.171
through 27.175–
(1) At the normally expected operat
ing altitudes;
(2) Under any critical loading condi
tion within the range of weights and
centers of gravity for Which certification
is requested;
(3) Under any condition of speed,
power, and rotor r.p.m. for which cer
tification is requested; and
(4) Without engine combustion flame
out and notwithstanding compressor stall
Or Surge;
(b) Be able to maintain any required
flight condition and make a smooth
transition from any flight condition to
any other flight condition without ex
ceptional piloting skill, alertness, or
strength, and without danger of exceed
ing the limit load factor under any oper
ating condition probable for the type,
including—
39–059–75–21 313
$ 27.143
(1) Sudden failure of one engine, for
multiengine rotorcraft meeting Trans
port Category A engine isolation require
ments of Part 29 of this chapter; and
(2) Sudden, complete power failure
for other rotorcraft; and
(c) Have any additional characteris
tic required for night or instrument
Operation, if certification for thos 4 kinds
of operation is requested.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 962,
Jan. 26, 1968]
$ 27.143 Controllability and maneuver
ability.
(a) The rotorcraft must be safely con
trollable and maneuverable—
(1) During steady flight; and
(2) During any maneuver appropriate
to the type, including—
(i) Takeoff;
(ii) Climb;
(iii) Level flight;
(iv) Turning flight;
(v) Glide;
(Vi) Landing (power on and power
off); and
(vii) Recovery to power-on flight from
a balked autorotative approach.
(b) The margin of cyclic control must
allow satisfactory roll and pitch con
trol at Vya, with—
(1) Critical weight.
(2) Critical center of gravity;
(3) Critical rotorr.p.m.; and
(4) Power on and power off.
(c) A wind Velocity of not less than 17
knots must be established in which the
rotorcraft can be operated without loss
of control on or near the ground in any
maneuver appropriate to the type (such
as crosswind takeoffs, sideward flight,
and rearward flight), with—
(1) Critical weight;
(2) Critical center of gravity; and
(3) Critical rotor r.p.m.
(d) The rotorcraft, after (1) failure
of one engine in the case of multiengine
rotorcraft that meet Transport Category
A engine isolation requirements, or (2)
complete engine failure in the case of
other rotorcraft, must be controllable
Over the range of Speeds and altitudes
for which certification is requested when
such power failure occurs with maximum
Continuous power and critical weight. No
corrective action time delay for any con
 § 27.161 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
dition following power failure may be
less than—
(i) For the cruise condition, One
second, or normal pilot reaction time
(whichever is greater); and
(ii) For any other condition, normal
pilot reaction time.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 968, Jan.
26, 1968]
§ 27.161 Trim control.
The trim control—
(a) Must trim and steady longitudinal
and lateral control forces to zero in level
flight at any appropriate speed; and
(b) May not introduce any undesirable
discontinuities in control force gradients.
§ 27.171 Stability: general.
The rotorcraft must be able to be
flown, without undue pilot fatigue or
strain, in any normal maneuver for a
period of time as long as that expected
in normal operation. At least three
landings and takeoffs must be made
during this demonstration.
§ 27.173 Static longitudinal stability.
(a) The longitudinal cyclic control
must be designed so that, for the ranges
of altitude and rotor r.p.m. for which
certification is requested, and with
throttle and collective pitch held con
stant during the maneuvers specified in
$ 27.175–
(1) A rearward movement of the Con
trol is necessary to obtain airspeeds less
than the trim speed; and
(2) A forward movement of the con
trol is necessary to obtain airspeeds
greater than the trim speed.
(b) The stick position versus speed
curve may have a negative slope within
the speed range specified for the ma
neuver in § 27.175(d) if the necessary
negative stick travel does not exceed 1
inch measured at the top of the pilot's
normal hand position.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 88 F.R. 968, Jan.
26, 1968]
§ 27.175 Demonstration of static longi
tudinal stability.
(a) Climb. Static longitudinal sta
bility must be shown in the climb con
dition at speeds from 0.85 Wr to 1.2 Vr,
With—
(1) Critical weight;
(2) Critical center of gravity;
314
(3) Maximum continuous power;
(4) The landing gear retracted; and
(5) The rotorcraft trimmed at Vr.
(b) Cruise. Static longitudinal sta
bility must be shown in the cruise con
dition at speeds from 0.7 Wa or 0.7 Vrs,
whichever is less, to 1.1 WH or 1.1 Vºs,
Whichever is less, with–
(1) Critical weight;
(2) Critical center of gravity;
(3) Power for level flight at 0.9 Vs or
0.9 VNR, whichever is less;
(4) The landing gear retracted; and
(5) The rotorcraft trimmed at 0.9 vs.
or 0.9 Vya, whichever is less.
(c) Autorotation. Static longitudinal
stability must be shown in autorotation
throughout the speed range for which
certification is requested, with–
(1) Critical weight;
(2) Critical center of gravity;
(3) Power off;
(4) The landing gear (i) retracted
and (ii) extended; and
(5) The rotorcraft trimmed at the
Speed for minimum rate of descent.
(d) Hovering. For helicopters in the
hovering condition—
(1) The longitudinal cyclic control
must Operate With the Sense and direction
of motion prescribed in § 27.173; and
(2) The Stick position curve must have
a stable slope, between the maximum
approved rearward speed and a forward
Speed of 17 knots with–
(i) Critical weight;
(ii) Critical center of gravity;
(iii) Power required to maintain an
approximately constant height in ground
effect;
(iv) The landing gear retracted; and
(v) The helicopter trimmed for
hovering.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 88 F.B. 963, Jan.
26, 1968]
GROUND AND WATER HANDLING
CHARACTERISTICS
§ 27.231 General.
The rotorcraft must have satisfactory
ground and water handling characteris
tics, including freedom from uncontrol
lable tendencies in any condition ex
pected in Operation.
§ 27.235 Taxiing condition.
The rotorcraft must be designed to
Withstand the loads that would occur
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
when the rotorcraft is taxied over the
roughest ground that may reasonably be
expected in normal operation.
$ 27.239 Spray characteristics.
If certification for water operation is
requested, no spray characteristics dur
ing taxiing, takeoff, or landing may ob
scure the vision of the pilot or damage
the rotors, propellers, or other parts of
the rotorcraft.
§ 27.241 Ground resonance.
The rotorcraft may have no dangerous
tendency to oscillate on the ground with
the rotor turning.
MISCELLANEOUS FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS
§ 27.251 Vibration.
Each part of the rotorcraft must be
free from excessive vibration under each
appropriate speed and power condition.
Subpart C–Strength Requirements
GENERAL.
§ 27.301 Loads.
(a) Strength requirements are speci
fled in terms of limit loads (the maxi
mum loads to be expected in Service)
and ultimate loads (limit loads multiplied
by prescribed factors of safety). Unless
otherwise provided, prescribed loads are
limit loads.
(b) Unless otherwise provided, the
specified air, ground, and water loads
must be placed in equilibrium with in
ertia forces, considering each item of
mass in the rotorcraft. These loads must
be distributed to closely approximate or
conservatively represent actual condi
tions.
(c) If deflections under load would
significantly change the distribution of
external or internal loads, this redis
tribution must be taken into account.
§ 27.303 Factor of safety.
Unless otherwise provided, a factor of
safety of 1.5 must be used. This factor
applies to external and inertia loads
unless its application to the resulting
internal stresses is more conservative.
$ 27.305 Strength and deformation.
(a) The structure must be able to sup
port limit loads without detrimental or
permanent deformation. At any load up
to limit loads, the deformation may not
interfere With safe operation.
315
§ 27.309
(b) The structure must be able to sup
port ultimate loads without failure. This
must be shown by—
(1) Applying ultimate loads to the
structure in a static test for at least
three seconds; or
(2) Dynamic tests simulating actual
load application.
§ 27.307 Proof of structure.
(a) Compliance with the strength and
deformation requirements of this sub
part must be shown for each critical
loading condition. Structural analysis
(static or fatigue) may be used only if
the structure conforms to those, for
which experience has shown this method
to be reliable. In other cases, substanti
ating load tests must be made.
(b) Proof of compliance with the
strength requirements of this subpart
must include—
(1) Dynamic and endurance tests of
rotors, rotor drives, and rotor controls;
(2) Limit load tests of the control sys
tem, including control surfaces;
(3) Operation tests of the control sys
tem;
(4) Flight stress measurement tests;
(5) Landing gear drop tests; and
(6) Any additional test required for
new Or unusual design features.
(Secs. 604, 605, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424,
1425) [Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24.
1964, as amended by Amdt. No. 27–3, 88 F.R.
14105, Sept. 18, 1968]
§ 27.309 Design limitations.
The following values and limitations
must be established to show compliance
With the structural requirements of this
Subpart:
(a) The design maximum weight.
(b) The main rotor r.p.m. ranges
power on and power off.
(c) The maximum forward speeds for
each main rotor r.p.m. within the ranges
determined under paragraph (b) of this
Section.
(d) The maximum rearward and side
Ward flight Speeds.
(e) The center of gravity limits corre
Sponding to the limitations determined
under paragraphs (b), (c), and (d) of
this Section.
(f) The rotational speed ratios be
tween each powerplant and each con
nected rotating component.
$ 27.321 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(g) The positive and negative limit
maneuvering load factors.
FLIGHT LOADS
§ 27.321 General.
(a) For rotorcraft, flight load factors
are rotor load factors. The net load
factor acting at the center of gravity
must be obtained by proper consideration
of the balancing loads in each flight con
dition specified in this part.
(b) Compliance with the flight load
requirements of this subpart must be
shown—
(1) At each weight from the design
minimum weight to the design maxi
mum weight; and
(2) With ary practical distribution of
disposable load within the operating lim
itations in the Rotorcraft Fight Manual.
§ 27.337 Limit maneuvering load factor.
The rotorcraft must be designed for—
(a) A positive limit maneuvering load
factor of 3.5 and a negative limit
maneuvering load factor of 1.0; or
(b) Any lesser positive limit maneu
vering load factor not less than 2.0, and
lesser negative limit maneuvering load
factor not less than 0.5, whose probabil
ity of being exceeded is shown by analysis
and flight test to be extremely remote.
§ 27.339 Resultant limit maneuvering
loads.
The loads resulting from the applica
tion of limit maneuvering load factors
are assumed to act at the center of each
rotor hub and to act in directions, and
with distributions of load among the
rotors and auxiliary lifting surfaces, so
as to represent each critical maneuvering
condition, including power-on and
power-off flight with the maximum
design rotor tip speed ratio. The rotor
tip speed ratio is the ratio of the rotor
craft flight velocity component in the
plane of the rotor disc to the rotational
tip speed of the rotor blades, and is
expressed as follows:
W coS a
A= TDF
where—
V=The airspeed along flight path (f.p.s.);
a=The angle between the projection, in
the plane of symmetry, of the axis of
no feathering and a line perpendicular
to the flight path (radians, positive
when axis is pointing aft);
Q=The angular velocity of rotor (radians
per second); and
R=The rotor radius (ft.).
316
§ 27.341 Gust loads.
The rotorcraft must be designed to
withstand, at each critical airspeed in
cluding hovering, the loads resulting
from a vertical gust of 30 feet per second.
§ 27.361 Engine torque.
The limit engine torque may not be
less than the mean torque multiplied by
a factor of
(a) 1.25, for turbine engines;
(b) 1.33, for engines with five or more
Cylinders; and
(c) Two, three, and four, for engines
With four, three, and two cylinders, re
spectively.
CONTROL SURFACE AND SYSTEM LOADs
§ 27.391 General.
Each auxiliary rotor, each fixed or
movable stabilizing or control surface,
and each System operating any flight
Control must meet the requirements of
$$ 27.395, 27.397, 27.401, 27.403, 27.411,
and 27.413.
§ 27.395 Control system.
(a) The part of each control system
from the pilot's controls to the control
stops must be designed to withstand pilot
forces of not less than–
(1) The forces specified in § 27.397; or
(2) If the system prevents the pilot
from applying the limit pilot forces to
the system, the maximum forces that
the System allows the pilot to apply, but
not less than 0.60 times the forces speci
fled in § 27.397.
(b) The part of each control system
from the control stops to the attach
ment to the rotor blades (or control
areas) must be designed to at least—
(1) Withstand the maximum pilot
*
an
obtainable in normal operation;
(2) If operational loads may be ex
ceeded through jamming, ground gusts,
control inertia, or friction, support,
Without yielding, 0.60 times the limit
pilot forces specified in § 27.397.
§ 27.397 Limit pilot forces.
The limit pilot forces are as follows:
(a) For foot controls, 130 pounds.
(b) For stick controls, 100 pounds fore
and aft and 67 pounds laterally.
(c) For wheel controls, 100 pounds
fore and aft and a lateral couple of 53D
inch-pounds applied at the rim of the
control wheel (where D is the Wheel di
ameter in inches).
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 27.399 Dual control system.
Each dual primary flight control sys
tem must be designed to withstand the
loads that result when pilot forces of
0.75 times those obtained under § 27.395
are applied—
(a) In opposition; and
(b) In the same direction.
§ 27.401 Auxiliary rotor assemblies.
(a) Auriliary rotor assemblies. Each
auxiliary rotor assembly must be tested
as prescribed in § 27.923.
(b) Assemblies with detachable blades.
Each auxiliary rotor assembly with de
tachable blades must be designed to
withstand the centrifugal loads resulting
from the maximum design rotor r.p.m.
(Secs. 604, 605, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424,
1425) [Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24,
1964, as amended by Amdt. No. 27–3, 33 F.R.
14105, Sept. 18, 1968]
§ 27.403 Auxiliary rotor attachment
structure.
The attachment structure for each
auxiliary rotor must be designed to With
stand a limit load equal to the maximum
loads occurring in the structure in any
flight and landing condition.
§ 27.411 Ground clearance: tail rotor
guard.
(a) It must be impossible for the tail
rotor to contact the landing surface
during a normal landing.
(b) If a tail rotor guard is required to
show compliance with paragraph (a) of
this Section—
(1) Suitable design loads must be
established for the guard; and
(2) The guard and its supporting
structure must be designed to withstand
those loads.
§ 27.413 Stabilizing and control sur
faces.
(a) Each stabilizing and control sur
face must be designed So that—
(1) Limit loads are not less than the
greater of
(i) 15 pounds per square foot; or
(ii) The load resulting where Cy
equals 0.55 at the maximum design
speed; and
(2) The Surface can Withstand the
Critical loads resulting from maneuvers
and from combined maneuvers and gusts.
(b) Compliance With paragraph (a) of
this section must be shown with load
317
§ 27.479
distributions that closely simulate actual
pressure distribution conditions.
GROUND LOADS
§ 27.471 General.
(a) Loads and equilibrium. For limit
ground loads—
(1) The limit ground loads obtained
in the landing conditions in this part
must be considered to be external loads
that would occur in the rotorcraft struc
ture if it were acting as a rigid body; and
(2) In each specified landing condl
tion, the external loads must be placed in
equilibrium with linear and angular
inertia loads in a rational or conserva
tive manner.
(b) Critical centers of gravity. The
critical centers of gravity within the
range for which certification is re
quested must be selected so that the max
imum design loads are obtained in each
landing gear element.
§ 27.473 Ground loading conditions and
assumptions.
(a) For Specified landing conditions,
a design maximum weight must be used
that is not less than the maximum
weight. A rotor lift may be assumed to
act through the center of gravity
throughout the landing impact. This lift
may not exceed two-thirds of the design
maximum weight.
(b) Unless otherwise prescribed, for
each specified landing condition, the
rotorcraft must be designed for a limit
load factor of not less than the limit
inertia load factor Substantiated under
$ 27.725.
[Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 963, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 27.475 Tires and shock absorbers.
Unless otherwise prescribed, for each
specified landing condition, the tires
must be assumed to be in their static
position and the shock absorbers to be in
their most critical position.
§ 27.477 Landing gear arrangement.
Sections 27.235, 27.479 through 27.485,
and 27.493 apply to landing gear with
two Wheels aft, and One or more Wheels
forward, of the center of gravity.
§ 27.479 Level landing conditions.
(a) Attitudes. Under each of the
loading conditions prescribed in para
graph (b) of this section, the rotorcraft
$27,481 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
is assumed to be in each of the following
level landing attitudes:
(1) An attitude in Which all wheels
Contact the ground simultaneously.
(2) An attitude in which the aft wheels
contact the ground with the forward
Wheels just clear of the ground.
(b) Loading conditions. The rotor
Craft must be designed for the following
landing loading conditions:
(1) Vertical loads applied under
$ 27.471.
(2) The loads resulting from a com
bination of the loads applied under sub
paragraph (1) of this paragraph with
drag loads at each wheel of not less than
25 percent of the Vertical load at that
Wheel.
(3) If there are two wheels forward,
a distribution of the loads applied to those
wheels under subparagraphs (1) and (2)
of this paragraph in a ratio of 40:60.
(c) Pitching moments. Pitching mo
ments are assumed to be resisted by—
(1) In the case of the attitude in para
graph (a) (1) of this section, the forward
landing gear; and
(2) In the case of the attitude in para
graph (a) (2) of this section, the angular
inertia forces.
§ 27.481 Tail-down landing conditions.
(a) The rotorcraft is assumed to be in
the maximum nose-up attitude allowing
ground clearance by each part of the
rotorcraft.
(b) In this attitude, ground loads are
assumed to act perpendicular to the
ground.
§ 27.483. One-wheel landing conditions.
For the one-wheel landing condition,
the rotorcraft is assumed to be in the
level attitude and to contact the ground
On one aft wheel. In this attitude—
(a) The vertical load must be the same
as that obtained on that side under
$ 27.479(b) (1); and
(b) The unbalanced external loads
must be reacted by rotorcraft inertia.
§ 27.485 Lateral drift landing condi
tions.
(a) The rotorcraft is assumed to be in
the level landing attitude, with—
(1) Side loads combined with one-half
of the maximum ground reactions ob
tained in the level landing conditions of
§ 27.479(b) (1); and
318
(2) The loads obtained under subpara
graph (1) of this paragraph applied—
(i) At the ground contact point; or
(ii) For full-swiveling gear, at the
Center of the axle.
(b) The rotorcraft must be designed to
Withstand, at ground contact—
(1) When only the aft wheels contact
the ground, side loads of 0.8 times the
vertical reaction acting inward on one
side, and 0.6 times the vertical reaction
acting outward on the other side, all
combined with the vertical loads speci
fled in paragraph (a); and
(2) When all wheels contact the
ground simultaneously—
(1) For the aft wheels, the side loads
Specified in Subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph; and
(ii) For the forward wheels, a side
load of 0.8 times the vertical reaction
combined with the vertical load specified
in paragraph (a) of this section.
§ 27.493 Braked roll conditions.
Under braked roll conditions with the
shock absorbers in their static positions—
(a) The limit vertical load must be
based on a load factor of at least—
(1) 1.33, for the attitude specified in
§ 27.479 (a) (1) ; and
(2) 1.0 for the attitude Specified in
§ 27.479(a)(2); and
(b) The structure must be designed
to withstand at the ground contact point
of each wheel with brakes, a drag load
at least the lesser of
(1) The vertical load multiplied by a
coefficient of friction of 0.8; and
(2) The maximum value based on
limiting brake torque.
§ 27.497 Ground loading conditions:
landing gear with tail wheels.
(a) General. Rotorcraft with land
ing gear with two wheels forward, and
one wheel aft, of the center of gravity
must be designed for loading conditions
as prescribed in this section.
(b) Level landing attitude with only
the forward wheels contacting the
ground. In this attitude—
(1) The vertical loads must be applied
under §§ 27.471 through 27.475;
(2) The vertical load at each axle must
be combined with a drag load at that
axle of not less than 25 percent of that
vertical load; and
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(3) Unbalanced pitching moments are
: assumed to be resisted by angular inertia
forces.
(c) Level landing attitude with all
wheels contacting the ground simultane
ously. In this attitude, the rotorcraft
must be designed for landing loading
conditions as prescribed in paragraph
(b) of this section.
(d) Marimum nose-up attitude with
only the rear wheel contacting the
ground. The attitude for this condition
must be the maximum nose-up attitude
expected in normal operation, including
autorotative landings. In this atti
tude—
(1) The appropriate ground loads
specified in paragraph (b) (1) and (2)
of this section must be determined and
applied, using a rational method to ac
count for the moment arm between the
rear wheel ground reaction and the
rotorcraft center of gravity; or
(2) The probability of landing with
initial contact on the rear wheel must
be shown to be extremely remote.
(e) Level landing attitude with only
one forward wheel contacting the
ground. In this attitude, the rotorcraft
must be designed for ground loads as
specified in paragraph (b) (1) and (3)
of this Section.
(f) Side loads in the level landing at
titude. In the attitudes specified in
paragraphs (b) and (c) of this section,
the following apply:
(1) The side loads must be combined
at each wheel with one-half of the maxi
mum vertical ground reactions obtained
for that wheel under paragraphs (b) and
(c) of this section. In this condition.
the side loads must be—
(i) For the forward wheels, 0.8 times
the vertical reaction (on One side) acting
inward, and 0.6 times the vertical reac
tion (on the other side) acting outward;
and
(ii) For the rear Wheel, 0.8 times the
vertical reaction.
(2) The loads specified in Subpara
graph (1) of this paragraph must be
applied—
(1) At the ground contact point with
the wheel in the trailing position (for
non-full swiveling landing gear or for
full swiveling landing gear with a lock,
steering device, or Shimmy damper to
keep the wheel in the trailing position);
Or
319
$27,501
(ii) At the center of the axle (for full
swiveling landing gear without a lock,
steering device, or shimmy damper).
(g) Braked roll conditions in the level
landing attitude. In the attitudes spec
ified in paragraphs (b) and (c) of this
Section, and with the shock absorbers in
their static positions, the rotorcraft must
be designed for braked roll loads as
follows:
(1) The limit vertical load must be
based on a limit vertical load factor of
not less than—
(i) 1.0, for the attitude specified in
paragraph (b) of this section; and
(ii) 1.33, for the attitude specified in
paragraph (c) of this section.
(2) For each wheel with brakes, a
drag load must be applied, at the ground
* point, of not less than the lesser
O -
(1) 0.8 times the vertical load; and
(ii) The maximum based on limiting
brake torque.
(h) Rear wheel turning loads in the
static ground attitude. In the static
ground attitude, and with the shock ab
sorbers and tires in their static positions,
the rotorcraft must be designed for rear
Wheel turning loads as follows:
(1) A vertical ground reaction equal
to the static load on the rear wheel must
be combined with an equal sideload.
(2) The load specified in subparagraph
(1) of this paragraph must be applied
to the rear landing gear—
(i) Through the axle, if there is a
swivel (the rear wheel being assumed to
be swiveled 90 degrees to the longitudinal
axis of the rotorcraft); Or
(ii) At the ground contact point,
if there is a lock, steering device or
shimmy damper (the rear wheel being
assumed to be in the trailing position).
(1) Taiciing condition. The rotorcraft
and its landing gear must be designed
for loads that would occur when the
rotorcraft is taxied over the roughest
ground that may reasonably be expected
in normal operation.
§ 27.501 Ground loading conditions:
landing gear with skids.
(a) General. Rotorcraft with landing
gear with skids must be designed for the
loading conditions Specified in this sec
tion. In showing compliance with this
section, the following apply:
(1) The design maximum weight,
center of gravity, and load factor must
$ 27.505. Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
be determined under §§ 27.471 through
27.475.
(2) Structural yielding of elastic
spring members under limit loads is
acceptable.
(3) Design ultimate loads for elastic
spring members need not exceed those
obtained in a drop test of the gear With—
(i) A drop height of 1.5 times that
specified in § 27.725; and
(ii) An assumed rotor lift of not more
than 1.5 times that used in the limit
drop tests prescribed in § 27.725.
(4) Compliance with paragraphs (b)
through (e) of this section must be
shown with—
(1) The gear in its most critically de
flected position for the landing condition
being considered; and
(ii) The ground reactions rationally
sºuted along the bottom of the skid
(b) Vertical reactions in the level
landing attitude. In the level attitude,
and with the rotorcraft contacting the
ground along the bottom of both skids,
the vertical reactions must be applied as
prescribed in paragraph (a) of this
Section.
(c) Drag reactions in the level land
ing attitude. In the level attitude, and
with the rotorcraft contacting the
ground along the bottom of both skids,
the following apply:
(1) The vertical reactions must be
combined with horizontal drag reactions
of 50 percent of the vertical reaction ap
plied at the ground.
(2) The resultant ground loads must
equal the vertical load specified in para
graph (b) of this section.
(d) Sideloads in the level landing at
titude. In the level attitude, and with
the rotorcraft contacting the ground
along the bottom of both skids, the fol
lowing apply:
(1) The vertical ground reaction must
(1) Equal to the vertical loads obtained
in the condition specified in paragraph
(b) of this section; and
(ii) Divided equally among the skids.
(2) The vertical ground reactions
must be combined with a horizontal
sideload of 25 percent of their value.
(3) The total sideload must be applied
along the length of one skid only.
(4) The unbalanced moments are as
sumed to be resisted by angular inertia.
320
(5) The skid gear must be investigated
for—
(i) Inward acting sideloads; and
(ii) Outward acting sideloads.
(e) One-skid landing loads in the level
attitude. In the level attitude, and with
the rotorcraft contacting the ground
along the bottom of one skid only, the
following apply:
(1) The vertical load on the ground
contact side must be the same as that
obtained on that side in the condition
specified in paragraph (b) of this section.
(2) The unbalanced moments are
assumed to be resisted by angular inertia.
(f) Special conditions. In addition to
the conditions specified in paragraphs
(b) and (c) of this section, the rotor
craft must be designed for the following
ground reactions:
(1) A ground reaction load acting up
and aft at an angle of 45 degrees to tha
longitudinal axis of the rotorcraft. This
load must be—
(i) Equal to 1.33 times the maximum
Weight:
(ii) Distributed symmetrically among
the skids;
(iii) Concentrated at the forward end
of the straight part of the skid tube;
and
(iv) Applied only to the forward end
of the skid tube and its attachment to the
rotorcraft.
(2) With the rotorcraft in the level
landing attitude, a vertical ground re
action load equal to one-half of the ver
tical load determined under paragraph
(b) of this section. This load must be—
(i) Applied only to the skid tube and
its attachment to the rotorcraft; and
(ii) Concentrated at a point midway
between the skid tube attachments.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964.
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 968, Jan.
26, 1968]
§ 27.505 Ski landing conditions.
If certification for ski operation is re
quested, the rotorcraft, with skis, must
be designed to withstand the following
loading conditions (where P is the maxi
mum static weight on each ski with the
rotorcraft at design maximum weight,
and n is the limit load factor deter
mined under § 27.473(b).
(a) Up-load conditions in which—
(1) A vertical load of Pn and a hori
zontal load of Pn/4 are simultaneously
applied at the pedestal bearings; and
 Chapter 1–Federal Aviation Administration
(2) A vertical load of 1.33 P is applied
at the pedestal bearings.
(b) A side-load condition in which a
side load of 0.35 Pm is applied at the
pedestal bearings in a horizontal plane
perpendicular to the centerline of the
rotorcraft.
(c) A torque-load condition in which
a torque load of 1.33 P (in foot pounds)
is applied to the ski about the vertical
axis through the centerline of the ped
estal bearings.
WATER LOADS
§ 27.521 Float landing conditions.
If certification for float operation is
requested, the rotorcraft, with floats,
must be designed to withstand the fol
lowing loading conditions (where the
limit load factor is determined under
§ 27.473(b) or aSSumed to be equal to
that determined for wheel landing gear):
(a) Up-load conditions in which—
(1) A load is applied so that, with the
rotorcraft in the static level attitude,
the resultant Water reaction passes ver
tically through the center of gravity; and
(2) The vertical load prescribed in
subparagraph (1) of this paragraph is
applied simultaneously with an aft
component of 0.25 times the vertical
component.
(b) A side-load condition in which—
(1) A Vertical load of 0.75 times the
total vertical load Specified in para
graph (a) (1) of this section is divided
equally among the floats; and
(2) For each float, the load share de
termined under subparagraph (1) of
this paragraph, combined with a total
side load of 0.25 times the total vertical
load specified in subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph, is applied to that float only.
MAIN COMPONENT REQUIREMENTS
§ 27.547 Main rotor structure.
(a) Each main rotor assembly (in
cluding rotor hubs and blades) must be
designed as prescribed in this section.
(b) [Reserved]
(c) The main rotor structure must be
designed to withstand the following loads
prescribed in §§ 27.337 through 27.341:
(1) Critical flight loads.
(2) Limit loads occurring under nor
mal conditions of autorotation. For
this condition, the rotor r.p.m. must be
selected to include the effects of altitude.
321
$27,549
(d) The main rotor structure must be
designed to withstand loads simulating—
(1) For the rotor blades, hubs, and
flapping hinges, the impact force of each
blade against its stop during ground op
eration; and
(2. Any other critical condition ex
pected in normal Operation.
(e) The main rotor structure must be
designed to withstand the limit torque
at any rotational speed, including zero.
In addition:
(1) The limit torque need not be
greater than the torque defined by a
torque limiting device (where provided),
and may not be less than the greater of
(1) The maximum torque likely to be
transmitted to the rotor structure in
either direction; and
(ii) The limit engine torque Specified
in $ 27.361.
(2) The limit torque must be dis
tributed to the rotor blades in a rational
manner.
(Secs. 604, 605, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.O. 1424,
1425) [Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24,
1964 as amended by Amdt. No. 27–3, 33 F.R.
14105, Sept. 18, 1968]
§ 27.549 Fuselage, landing gear, and
rotor pylon structures.
(a) Each fuselage, landing gear, and
rotor pylon structure must be designed
as prescribed in this Section. Resultant
rotor forces may be represented as a
single force applied at the rotor hub at
tachment point.
(b) Each structure must be designed
to withstand—
(1) The critical loads prescribed in
§§ 27.337 through 27.341;
(2) The applicable ground loads pre
scribed in §§ 27.235, 27.471 through
27.485, 27.493, 27.497, 27.501, 27.505, and
27.521; and
(3) The loads prescribed in § 27.547
(d) (2) and (e).
(c) Auxiliary rotor thrust, and the
balancing air and inertia loads occur
ring under accelerated flight conditions,
must be considered.
(d) Each engine mount and adjacent
fuselage structure must be designed to
withstand the loads occurring under
accelerated flight and landing condi
tions, including engine torque.
(Secs. 604, 605, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424,
1425) [Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24,
1964 as amended by Amdt. No. 27–3, 33 F.R.
14105, Sept. 18, 1968]
 § 27,561 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
EMERGENCY LANDING CONDITIONS
§ 27.561 General. -
(a) The rotorcraft, although it may be
damaged in emergency landing condi
tions on land or water, must be designed
as prescribed in this section to protect
the Occupants under those conditions.
(b) The structure must be designed to
give each occupant every reasonable
chance of escaping serious injury in a
minor crash landing when—
(1) Proper use is made of seats, belts,
and other safety design provisions;
(2) The Wheels are retracted (where
applicable); and
(3) The occupant experiences the fol
lowing ultimate inertia forces relative
to the surrounding structure:
(i) Upward—1.5 g.
(ii) Forward—4.0 g.
(iii) Sideward—2.0 g.
(iv) DOWnward—4.0 g, or any lower
force that will not be exceeded when the
rotorcraft absorbs the landing loads re
Sulting from impact with an ultimate
descent Velocity of five f.p.s. at design
Imaximum Weight.
(c) The supporting structure must be
designed to restrain, under any load up
to those Specified in paragraph (b) (3)
of this section, any item of mass that
could injure an occupant if it came
loose in a minor crash landing.
FATIGUE EVALUATION
§ 27.571 Fatigue evaluation of flight
structure,
(a) General. Each portion of the
flight structure (including rotors, con
trols, fuselage, and their related pri
mary attachments) the failure of which
could be catastrophic, must be identified
and must be evaluated under paragraph
(b), (c), (d), or (e) of this section. The
following apply to each fatigue evalua
tion:
(1) The procedure for the evaluation
must be approved.
(2) The locations of probable failure
must be determined.
(3) Inflight measurement must be in
cluded in determining the following:
(i) Loads or stresses in all critical
Conditions throughout the range of
limitations in § 27.309, except that ma
neuvering load factors need not exceed
322
the maximum values expected in
operation.
(ii) The effect of altitude upon these
loads or stresses.
(4) The loading spectra must be as
severe as those expected in operation
and must be based on loads or stresses
determined under subparagraph (3) of
this paragraph.
(b) Fatigue tolerance evaluation. It
must be shown that the fatigue tolerance
of the structure ensures that the proba
bility of catastrophic fatigue failure is
extremely remote without establishing
replacement times, inspection intervals
Or other procedures under § 27.1529 (a)
(2).
(c) Replacement time evaluation. It
must be shown that the probability of
catastrophic fatigue failure is extremely
remote within a replacement time fur
nished under § 27.1529(a)(2).
(d) Fail-safe evaluation. The follow
ing apply to fail-safe evaluations:
(1) It must be shown that all partial
failures will become readily detectable
under inspection procedures furnished
under § 27.1529(a)(2).
(2) The interval between the time
when any partial failure becomes readily
detectable under subparagraph (1) of
this paragraph, and the time when any
such failure is expected to reduce the re
maining strength of the structure to
limit or maximum attainable loads
(whichever is less), must be determined.
(3) It must be shown that the interval
determined under subparagraph (2) of
this paragraph is long enough, in rela
tion to the inspection intervals and re
lated procedures furnished under § 27.-
1529(a)(2), to provide a probability of
detection great enough to ensure that
the probability of catastrophic failure is
extremely remote.
(e) Combination of replacement time
and failsafe evaluations. A component
may be evaluated under a combination
of paragraphs (c) and (d) of this sec
tion. For such component it must be
shown that the probability of cata
strophic failure is extremely remote with
an approved combination of replacement
time, inspection intervals, and related
procedures furnished under § 27.1529
(a)(2).
(Secs. 604, 605, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424,
1425) [Amdt. 27–3, 33 F.R. 14106, Sept. 18,
1968]
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
Subpart D–Design and Construction
GENERAL
§ 27.601 Design.
(a) The rotorcraft may have no de
sign features or details that experience
has shown to be hazardous or unreliable.
(b) The suitability of each question
able design detail and part must be estab
lished by tests.
§ 27.603 Materials.
The suitability and durability of ma
terials used in the structure must—
(a) Be established on the basis of ex
perience or tests; and
(b) Meet approved specifications that
ensure their having the strength and
:
ta.
properties assumed in the design
§ 27.605 Fabrication methods.
The methods of fabrication used must
produce consistently sound structures.
If a fabrication process (such as gluing,
spot welding, or heat-treating) requires
close control to reach this objective, the
process must be performed according to
an approved process specification.
§ 27.607 Fasteners.
(a) Each removable bolt, screw, nut,
pin, or other fastener whose loss could
jeopardize the safe operation of the ro
torcraft must incorporate two separate
locking devices. The fastener and its
locking devices may not be adversely af
fected by the environmental conditions
associated With the particular
installation.
(b) No self-locking nut may be used
on any bolt Subject to rotation in opera
tion unless a nonfriction locking device
is used in addition to the self-locking
device.
[Amdt. 27–4, 33 F.R. 14533, Sept. 27, 1968]
§ 27.609 Protection of structure.
Each part of the structure must—
(a) Be suitably protected against de
terioration or loss of strength in Service
due to any cause, including—
(1) Weathering;
(2) Corrosion; and
(3) Abrasion; and
(b) Have provisions for ventilation
and drainage where necessary to prevent
the accumulation of corrosive, flamma
ble, or noxious fluids.
323
§ 27.619
§ 27.6ll Inspection provisions.
There must be means to allow the close
examination of each part that requires—
(a) Recurring inspection;
(b) Adjustment for proper alignment
and functioning; or
(C) Lubrication.
§ 27.613 Material strength properties
and design values.
(a) Material strength properties must
be based on enough tests of material
meeting specifications to establish design
values on a statistical basis.
(b) Design values must be chosen so
that the probability of any structure
being understrength because of material
Variations is extremely remote.
(c) The strength, detail design, and
fabrication of the structure must mini
mize the probability of disastrous fatigue
failure, particularly at points of stress
Concentration.
(d) Unless they are inapplicable in a
particular case, the design values must
be those contained in the following pub
lications, obtainable from the Superin
tendent of Documents, Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 20402:
(1) MIL-HDBK-5, “Metallic Materi
als and Elements for Flight Vehicle
Structure”.
(2) MIL-HDBK-17, “Plastics for
Flight Vehicles”.
(3) ANC–18, “Design of Wood Aircraft
Structures”.
(4) MIL-HDBK-23, “Composite Con
struction for Flight Vehicles”.
§ 27.619 Special factors.
(a) The Special factors prescribed in
§§ 27.621 through 27.625 apply to each
part of the structure whose strength is—
(1) Uncertain;
(2) Likely to deteriorate in service be
fore normal replacement; or
(3) Subject to appreciable variability
due to
(1) Uncertainties in manufacturing
processes; or
(ii) Uncertainties in in spection
methods.
(b) For each part to which $$ 27.621
through 27.625 apply, the factor of safety
prescribed in § 27.303 must be multiplied
by a special factor equal to
(1) The applicable special factors
prescribed in §§ 27.621 through 27.625;
or
§ 27.621 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(2) Any other factor great enough to
ensure that the probability of the part
being understrength because of the un
certainties specified in paragraph (a) of
this section is extremely remote.
§ 27.621 Casting factors.
(a) General. The factors, tests, and
inspections specified in paragraphs (b)
and (c) of this section must be applied
in addition to those necessary to estab
lish foundry quality control. The in
Spections must meet approved specifica
tions. Paragraphs (c) and (d) of this
section apply to structural castings
except castings that are pressure tested
as parts of hydraulic or other fluid Sys
tems and do not support structural
loads.
(b) Bearing stresses and surfaces.
The casting factors Specified in para
graphs (c) and (d) of this section—
(1) Need not exceed 1.25 with respect
to bearing stresses regardless of the
method of inspection used; and
(2) Need not be used with respect to
the bearing surfaces of a part whose
bearing factor is larger than the ap
plicable casting factor.
(c) Critical castings. For each cast
ing whose failure would preclude con
tinued 8afe flight and landing of the
rotorcraft or result in serious injury to
any occupant, the following apply:
(1) Each critical casting must—
(1) Have a casting factor of not less
than 1.25; and
(ii) Receive 100 percent inspection by
visual, radiographic, and magnetic par
ticle (for ferromagnetic materials) or
penetrate (for nonferromagnetic materi
als) inspection methods or approved
equivalent inspection methods.
(2) For each critical casting with a
casting factor less than 1.50, three sam
ple castings must be static tested and
shown to meet—
(1) The strength requirements of
§ 27.305 at an ultimate load correspond
ing to a casting factor of 1.25; and
(ii) The deformation requirements of
§ 27.305 at a load of 1.15 times the limit
load.
(d) Noncritical castings. For each
casting other than those specifled in
paragraph (c) of this section, the follow
ing apply:
(1) Except as provided in subpara
graphs (2) and (3) of this paragraph,
324
the casting factors and corresponding
inspections must meet the following
table:
Casting factor Inspection
2.0 or greater-- 100 percent visual.
Less than 2.0, 100 percent visual, and
greater than magnetic particle (ferro
1.5. magnetic materials),
penetrant (nonferromag
netic materials), or ap
proved equivalent inspec
tion methods.
1.25 through 100 percent visual, and mag
1.50. netic particle (ferromag
netic materials), pene
trant (nonferromagnetic
materials), and radio
graphic or approved
equivalent inspection
methods.
(2) The percentage of castings in
Spected by nonvisual methods may be re
duced below that specified in subpara
graph (1) of this paragraph When an
approved quality control procedure is
established.
(3) For castings procured to a specifl
cation that guarantees the mechanical
properties of the material in the casting
and provides for demonstration of these
properties by test of coupons cut from the
Castings on a sampling basis—
(1) A casting factor of 1.0 may be used;
and
(ii) The castings must be inspected as
provided in subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph for casting factors of “1.25
through 1.50” and tested under para
graph (c) (2) of this section.
§ 27.623 Bearing factors.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(b) of this section, each part that has
clearance (free fit), and that is subject
to pounding or vibration, must have a
bearing factor large enough to provide
for the effects of normal relative motion.
(b) No bearing factor need be used on
a part for which any larger special fac
tor is prescribed.
§ 27.625 Fitting factors.
For each fitting (part or terminal used
to join one structural member to an
other) the following apply:
(a) For each fitting Whose strength
is not proven by limit and ultimate load
tests in which actual stress conditions
 Chapter 1–Federal Aviation Administration
are simulated in the fitting and Sur
rounding structures, a fitting factor of at
least 1.15 must be applied to each part
of—
(1) The fitting;
(2) The means of attachment; and
(3) The bearing on the joined mem
bers.
(b) No fitting factor need be used—
(1) For joints made under approved
practices and based on comprehensive
test data (such as continuous joints in
metal plating, welded joints, and scarf
joints in wood); and
(2) With respect to any bearing Sur
face for which a larger special factor is
used.
(c) For each integral fitting, the part
must be treated as a fitting up to the
point at which the section properties
come typical of the member.
§ 27.629 Flutter.
Each part of the rotorcraft must be
free from flutter under each appropriate
speed and power condition.
ROTORS
§ 27.653 Pressure venting and drainage
of rotor blades.
(a) For each rotor blade—
(1) There must be means for venting
the internal pressure of the blade:
(2) Drainage holes naust be provided
for the blade; and
(3) The blade must be designed to
prevent water from becoming trapped
in it.
(b) Paragraph (a) (1) and (2) of this
section does not apply to sealed rotor
blades capable of withstanding the maxi
mum pressure differentials expected in
service.
[Amdt. 27–2, 88 FR. 968, Jan. 26, 1968)
§ 27.659 Mass balance.
(a) The rotors and blades must be
mass balanced as necessary to—
(1) Prevent excessive vibration; and
(2) Prevent flutter at any Speed up
to the maximum forward Speed.
(b) The structural integrity of the
mass balance installation must be sub
stantiated.
[Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 963, Jan. 26, 1968)
§ 27.661 Rotor blade clearance.
There must be enough clearance be
tween the rotor blades and other parts
of the structure to prevent the blades
§ 27.679
from striking any part of the structure
during any operating condition.
[Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 963, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 27.663 Ground resonance prevention
means.
(a) The reliability of the means for
preventing ground resonance must be
shown either by analysis and tests, or re
liable service experience, or by showing
that malfunction of a single means will
not cause ground resonance.
(b) The probable range of variations,
during service, of the damping action
of the ground resonance prevention
means must be established and must be
investigated during the test required by
§ 27.241.
[Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 963, Jan. 26, 1968]
be
CoNTROL SYSTEMS
§ 27.671 General.
(a) Each control and control system
must operate with the ease, smoothness,
and positiveness appropriate to its
function.
(b) Each element of each flight con
trol system must be designed, or distinc
tively and permanently marked, to mini
mize the probability of any incorrect
assembly that could result in the mal
function of the System.
§ 27.675 Stops.
(a) Each control System must have
stops that positively limit the range of
motion of the pilot's controls.
(b) Each stop must be located in the
system so that the range of travel of
. control is not appreciably affected
y—
(1) Wear;
(2) Slackness; Or
(3) Takeup adjustments.
(c) Each stop must be able to with
stand the loads corresponding to the
design conditions for the System.
(d) For each main rotor blade—
(1) The blade must have stops, appro
priate to the design, to limit its travel
about its hinges; and
(2) There must be means to keep the
blade from hitting the droop stops dur
ing any operation other than starting
and stopping the rotor.
§ 27.679 Control system locks.
If there is a device to lock the control
system with the rotorcraft on the ground
or water, there must be means to—
325
§ 27.681 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(a) Give unmistakable warning to the
pilot when the lock is engaged; and
(b) Prevent the lock from engaging
in flight.
§ 27.681 Limit load static tests.
(a) Compliance with the limit load re
quirements of this part must be shown
by tests in which—
(1) The direction of the test loads
produces the most severe loading in the
control system; and
(2) Each fitting, pulley, and bracket
used in attaching the system to the main
structure is included.
(b) Compliance must be shown (by
analyses or individual load tests) with
the special factor requirements for Con
trol system joints subject to angular
motion.
§ 27.683 Operation tests.
It must be shown by operation tests
that, when the controls are operated
from the pilot compartment with the
control system loaded to correspond with
loads specified for the System, the system
is free from—
(a) Jamming;
(b) Excessive friction; and
(c) Excessive deflection.
§ 27.685 Control system details.
(a) Each detail of each control sys
tem must be designed to prevent jam
ming, chafing, and interference from
cargo, passengers, or loose objects.
(b) There must be means in the cock
pit to prevent the entry of foreign objects
into places where they Would jam the
System.
(c) There must be means to prevent
the slapping of cables or tubes against
other parts.
§ 27.687 Spring devices.
(a) Each control System spring device
whose failure could cause flutter or other
unsafe characteristics must be reliable.
(b) Compliance With paragraph (a)
of this section must be shown by tests
simulating service conditions.
§ 27.691 Autorotation control mecha
nism.
Each main rotor blade pitch control
mechanism must allow rapid entry into
autorotation after power failure.
826
§ 27.695 Power boost and power-oper.
ated control system.
(a) If a power boost or power-operated
Control System is used, an alternate Sys
tem must be immediately available that
allows continued Safe flight and landing
in the event of
(1) Any single failure in the power
portion of the system; or
(2) The failure of all engines.
(b) Each alternate system may be a
duplicate power portion or a manually
Operated mechanical system. The power
portion includes the power source (such
as hydraulic pumps), and such items as
Valves, lines, and actuators.
(c) The failure of mechanical parts
(such as piston rods and links), and the
jamming of power cylinders, must be
considered unless they are extremely
improbable.
LANDING GEAR
§ 27.723 Shock absorption tests.
The landing inertia load factor and
the reserve energy absorption capacity
of the landing gear must be substantiated
by the tests prescribed in §§ 27.725 and
27.727, respectively. These tests must
be conducted on the complete rotorcraft
Or on units consisting of wheel, tire, and
shock absorber in their proper relation.
§ 27.725 Limit drop test.
The limit drop test must be conducted
as follows:
(a) The drop height must be—
(1) 13 inches from the lowest point
of the landing gear to the ground; or
(2) Any lesser height, not less than
eight inches, resulting in a drop contact
velocity equal to the greatest probable
sinking speed likely to occur at ground
contact in normal power-off landings.
(b) If considered, the rotor lift speci
fled in § 27.473(a) must be introduced
into the drop test by appropriate energy
absorbing devices or by the use of an ef
fective mass.
(c) Each landing gear unit must be
tested in the attitude simulating the
landing condition that is most critical
from the standpoint of the energy to be
absorbed by it.
(d) When an effective mass is used in
showing compliance with paragraph (b)
 Chapter 1–Federal Aviation Administration
of this section, the following formula
may be used instead of more rational
computations:
w.—wſº| n=nº}+1.
h-H (1–L) d
and
where:
wº-the effective weight to be used in the
drop test (lbs.);
W=WM for main gear units (lbs.), equal
to the static reaction on the par
ticular unit with the rotorcraft in
the most critical attitude. A ra
tional method may be used in com
puting a main gear static reaction,
taking into consideration the mo
Inent arm between the main wheel
reaction and the rotorcraft center
of gravity.
W=WN for nose gear units (lbs.), equal
to the vertical component of the
static reaction that would exist at
the nose wheel, assuming that the
Inass of the rotorcraft acts at the
center of gravity and exerts a force
of 1.0g downward and 0.25g forward.
W= Wr for tailwheel units (lbs.), equal
to whichever of the following is
critical:
(1) The static weight on the tailwheel with
the rotorcraft resting on all wheels; or
(2) The vertical component of the ground
reaction that would occur at the tallwheel,
assuming that the mass of the rotorcraft acts
at the center of gravity and exerts a force of
1g downward with the rotorcraft in the maxi
mum nose-up attitude considered in the
nose-up landing conditions.
h–specified free drop height (inches).
L-ratio of assumed rotor lift to the rotor
craft weight.
d=deflection under impact of the tire (at
the proper inflation pressure)
plus the vertical component of the
axle travels (inches) relative to the
drop mass.
*=limit inertia load factor.
my–the load factor developed. during im
pact, on the mass used in the drop
test (i.e., the acceleration du/dt in
g’s recorded in the drop test plus
1.0).
$ 27.727 Reserve energy absorption
drop test.
The reserve energy absorption drop
test must be conducted as follows:
(a) The drop height must be 1.5 times
that specified in § 27.725(a).
(b) Rotor lift, where considered in a
manner similar to that prescribed in
$ 27.725(b), may not exceed 1.5 times the
lift allowed under that paragraph.
(c) The landing gear must withstand
this test without collapsing.
327
§ 27.751
§ 27.731 Wheels.
(a) Each landing gear wheel must be
approved.
(b) The maximum static load rating
of each Wheel may not be less than the
corresponding static ground reaction
With—
(1) Maximum welght; and
(2) Critical center of gravity.
(c) The maximum limit load rating of
each wheel must equal or exceed the
maximum radial limit load determined
under the applicable ground load re
quirements of this part.
§ 27.733 Tires.
(a) Each landing gear wheel must
have a tire–
(1) That is a proper fit on the rim of
the wheel; and
(2) Of the proper rating.
(b) The maximum static load rating
of each tire must equal or exceed the
static ground reaction obtained at its
Wheel, assuming—
(1) The design maximum weight; and
(2) The most unfavorable center of
gravity.
§ 27.735 Brakes.
aurºnsane. must be installed that
(a) Controllable by the pilot;
(b) Usable during power-off landings;
and
(c) Adequate to
(1) Counteract any normal unbal
anced torque when starting or stopping
the rotor; and
(2) Hold the rotorcraft parked on a
10-degree slope on a dry, smooth pave
Inent.
§ 27.737 Skis.
The maximum limit load rating of
each ski must equal or exceed the maxi
mum limit load determined under the
applicable ground load requirements of
this part.
FLOATS AND HULLs
§ 27.751 Main float buoyancy.
(a) For main floats, the buoyancy
Inecessary to Support the maximum
weight of the rotorcraft in fresh water
must be exceeded by—
(1) 50 percent, for single floats; and
(2) 60 percent, for multiple floats.
(b) Each main float must have enough
Water-tight compartments so that, with
any single main float compartment flood
$ 27.753 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
ed, the main floats will provide a margin
of positive stability great enough to
minimize the probability of capsizing.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 88 F.R. 963, Jan.
26, 1968]
§ 27.753 Main float design.
(a) Bag floats. Each bag float must
be designed to withstand—
(1) The maximum pressure differen
tial that might be developed at the max
imum altitude for which certification
With that float is requested; and
(2) The vertical loads prescribed in
$ 27.521(a), distributed along the length
of the bag over three-quarters of its
projected area.
(b) Rigid floats. Each rigid float
must be able to withstand the vertical,
horizontal, and side loads prescribed in
$ 27.521. These loads may be distributed
along the length of the float.
§ 27.755 Hulls.
For each rotorcraft, with a hull and
auxiliary floats, that is to be approved
for both taking off from and landing on
water, the hull and auxiliary floats must
have enough Watertight Compartments so
that, With any single compartment
flooded, the buoyancy of the hull and
auxiliary floats (and Wheel tires if used)
provides a margin of positive stability
great enough to minimize the probability
of capsizing.
PERSONNEL AND CARGO ACCOMMODATIONS
§ 27.771 Pilot compartment.
For each pilot compartment—
(a) The compartment and its equip
ment must allow each pilot to perform
his duties without unreasonable concen
tration or fatigue;
(b) If there is provision for a second
pilot, the rotorcraft must be controllable
with equal safety from either pilot seat;
and
(c) The vibration and noise character
hstics of cockpit appurtenances may not
interfere with Safe operation.
§ 27.773 Pilot compartment view.
(a) Each pilot compartment must be
free from glare and reflections that could
interfere with the pilot's view, and de
signed so that—
(1) Each pilot's view is sufficiently ex
tensive, clear, and undistorted for safe
operation; and
(2) Each pilot is protected from the
elements so that moderate rain condi
328
tions do not unduly impair his view of
the flight path in normal flight and while
landing.
(b) If certification for night operation
is requested, compliance with paragraph
(a) of this section must be shown in
night flight tests.
§ 27.775 Windshields and windows.
NonSplintering Safety glass must be
used in glass windshields and windows.
§ 27.777 Cockpit controls.
Cockpit controls must be—
(a) Located to provide convenient
Operation and to prevent confusion and
inadvertent operation; and
(b) Located and arranged with respect
to the pilots' seats so that there is
full and unrestricted movement of each
Control Without interference from the
cockpit structure or the pilot's clothing
when pilots from 5’2” to 6'0" in height
are seated.
§ 27.783 Doors.
(a) Each closed cabin must have at
least one adequate and easily accessible
external door.
(b) No passenger door may be located
With respect to any rotor disc so as to
endanger persons using that door.
§ 27.785 Seats and berths.
(a) The seats and berths, and their
supporting structures, must be designed
for loads resulting from the specified
flight and landing conditions, including
the emergency landing conditions of
$ 27.561.
(b) The reactions from safety belts
and harnesses must be considered.
(c) Each pilot seat must be designed
for the reactions resulting from the ap
Fº of the pilot forces prescribed in
§ 27.397.
(d) The structural analysis and test
ing of the structures specified in para
* (a) through (c) may be simpli
(1) By assuming that the critical load
in each direction, as determined from the
prescribed flight, ground, and emergency
landing conditions, acts separately; or
(2) By using Selected combinations of
loads, if the required strength in the
specified directions is proven.
§ 27.787 Cargo and baggage compart
ments.
(a) Each cargo and baggage compart
ment must be designed for its placarded
maximum weight of contents and for the
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
critical load distributions at the appro
priate maximum load factors corre
sponding to the specified flight and
ground load conditions, except the emer
gency landing conditions of $ 27.561.
(b) There must be means to prevent
the contents of any compartment from
becoming a hazard by shifting under the
loads specified in paragraph (a) of this
section.
(c) There must be means to protect
each occupant from injury by the con
tents of any compartment when the
ultimate forward inertia force is 49.
§ 27.807 Emergency exits.
(a) Number and location. Rotorcraft
with closed cabins must have at least
one emergency exit on the opposite side
of the cabin from the main door. Addi
tional exists must be provided where the
total seating capacity is more than 15.
(b) Type and operation. Each emer
gency exit prescribed in paragraph (a)
of this section must–
(1) Consist of a movable window or
panel, or additional external door, pro
viding an unobstructed opening that will
admit a 19- by 26-inch ellipse;
(2) Be readily accessible, require no
exceptional agility of a person using it,
and be located so as to allow ready use,
without crowding, in any probable atti
tudes that may result from a crash;
(3) Have a simple and obvious method
of opening and be arranged and marked
so as to be readily located and operated,
even in darkness; and
(4) Be reasonably protected from
jamming by fuselage deformation.
(c) Tests. The proper functioning of
each emergency exit must be shown by
test.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 963, Jan. 26,
1968]
S 27.831 Ventilation.
(a) The ventilating system for the
pilot and passenger compartments must
be designed to prevent the presence of
excessive quantities of fuel fumes and
carbon monoxide.
(b) The concentration of carbon mon
oxide may not exceed one part in 20,000
parts of air during forward flight or
hovering in still air. If the concentra
tion exceeds this value under other con
ditions, there must be suitable operating
restrictions.
39–059–75–22
329
§ 27,859
FIRE PROTECTION
§ 27.853 Compartment interiozs.
For each compartment to be used by
the crew or passengers—
(a) The materials must be at least
flash-resistant;
(b) The wall and ceiling linings, and
the covering of upholstery, floors, and
furnishings must be at least flame re
sistant; and
(c) Each compartment where smok
ing is to be allowed must have self-con
tained, removable ash trays, and other
Compartments must be placarded against
Smoking. -
§ 27.855 Cargo and baggage compart
ments.
(a) Each cargo and baggage compart
ment must be constructed of, or lined
With, materials that are at least—
(1) Flame resistant, in the case of
Compartments that are readily acces
sible to a crewmember in flight; and
(2) Fire resistant, in the case of other
COmpartments.
(b) No compartment may contain any
controls, wiring, lines, equipment, or ac
cessories whose damage or failure would
affect safe operation, unless those items
are protected so that—
(1) They cannot be damaged by the
fºrement of cargo in the compartment;
8wn
(2) Their breakage or failure will not
Create a fire hazard.
§ 27.859 Heating systems.
(a) General. For each heating system
that involves the passage of cabin air
over, or close to, the exhaust manifold,
there must be means to prevent carbon
monoxide from entering any cabin or
pilot compartment.
(b) Heat eacchangers. Each heat ex
changer must be—
(1) Of suitable materials;
(2) Adequately cooled under all con
ditions; and
(3) Easily disassembled for inspection.
(c) Combustion heaters. Each gaso
line-operated combustion heater must be
approved and installed to meet the
applicable powerplant installation re
quirements covering fire hazards and
precautions. In addition—
(1) Each applicable requirement con
cerning fuel tanks, lines, and exhaust
Systems must be met; and
(2) Means independent of the Com
ponents provided for the normal con
$27,861 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
tinuous control of air temperature, air
flow, and fuel flow must be provided, for
each heater, to automatically shut off
and hold off the ignition and fuel supply
of that heater at a point remote from
that heater when any of the following
occurs:
(i) The heat exchanger temperature
exceeds safe limits.
(ii) The ventilating air temperature
exceeds safe limits.
(iii) The combustion airflow becomes
inadequate for safe operation.
(iv) The ventilating airflow becomes
inadequate for safe operation.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964.
as amended by Amdt. 27–1, 82 F.R. 6914,
May 5, 1967]
§ 27.86.1 Fire protection of structure,
controls, and other parts.
Each part of the structure, controls,
and the rotor mechanism, and other
parts essential to a controlled landing
that would be affected by powerplant
fires must be protected so that they can
perform their essential functions for at
least five minutes under any foreseeable
powerplant fire condition.
MISCELLANEOUS
§ 27.871 Leveling marks.
There must be reference marks for
leveling the rotorcraft on the ground.
§ 27.873 Ballast provisions.
Ballast provisions must be designed
and constructed to prevent inadvertent
shifting of ballast in flight.
Subpart E–Powerplant
GENERAL
§ 27.901 Installation.
(a) For the purpose of this part, the
powerplant installation includes each
part of the rotorcraft (other than the
main and auxiliary rotor structures)
that—
(1) Is necessary for propulsion;
(2) Affects the control of the major
propulsive units; or
(3) Affects the safety of the major pro
pulsive units between normal inspections
or overhauls.
(b) For each powerplant installa
tion—
(1) Each component of the installa
tion must be constructed, arranged, and
installed to ensure its continued safe
operation between normal inspections or
overhauls;
330
(2) Accessibility must be provided to
allow any inspection and maintenance
necessary for continued airworthiness;
and
(3) Electrical interconnections must
be provided to prevent differences of po
tential between major components of the
installation and the rest of the rotor
Craft.
(4) Axial and radial expansion of tur
bine engines may not affect the safety
of the installation.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 963, Jan.
26, 1968]
§ 27.903 Engines.
(a) Engine type certification. Each
engine must be type certificated under
Part, 33.
(b) Engine cooling fan blade protec
tion. If an engine cooling fan is in
stalled, there must be means to protect
the rotorcraft and allow a safe landing
if a fan blade fails. This must be shown
by showing that—
(1) The fan blades are contained in
case of failure;
(2) Each fan is located so that a fail
ure will not jeopardize safety; or
(3) Each fan blade can withstand an
ultimate load of 1.5 times the centrifugal
force resulting from engine r.p.m.
limited by either—
(i) The terminal engine r.p.m. under
uncontrolled conditions; or
(ii) An overspeed limiting device.
§ 27.907 Engine vibration.
(a) Each engine must be installed to
prevent the harmful vibration of any
part of the engine or rotorcraft.
(b) The addition of the rotor and the
rotor drive system to the engine may not
Subject the principal rotating parts of
the engine to excessive vibration stresses.
This must be shown by a vibration
investigation.
(c) No part of the rotor drive system
may be subjected to excessive Vibration
StreSSes.
ROTOR DRIVE SYSTEM
§ 27.917 Design.
(a) Each rotor drive System must in
corporate a unit for each engine to
automatically disengage that engine
from the main and auxiliary rotors if
that engine fails.
(b) Each rotor drive System must be
arranged so that each rotor necessary for
control in autorotation will continue to
 Chapter 1–Federal Aviation Administration
be driven by the main rotors after dis
engagement of the engine from the main
and auxiliary rotorS.
(c) If a torque limiting device is used
in the rotor drive system, it must be
located so as to allow continued control
of the rotorcraft when the device is Op
erating.
§ 27.921 Rotor brake.
If there is a means to control the
rotation of the rotor drive system inde
pendently of the engine, any limitations
on the use of that means must be speci
fled, and the control for that means must
be guarded to prevent inadvertent Opera
tion.
§ 27.923 Rotor drive system and control
mechanism tests.
(a) Each part tested as prescribed in
this section must be in a serviceable Con
dition at the end of the tests.
(b) Each rotor drive system and con
trol mechanism must be tested for not
less than 100 hours. The test must be
conducted on the rotorcraft, and the
power must be absorbed by the rotors
to be installed, except that other ground
or flight test facilities with other appro
priate methods of power absorption may
be used if the conditions of Support and
vibration closely simulate the conditions
that would exist during a test on the
rotorcraft.
(c) A 60-hour part of the test pre
scribed in paragraph (b) of this section
must be run at not less than the max
imum continuous engine power and
r.p.m. In this test, the main rotor must
be set in the position that will give max
imum longitudinal cyclic pitch change
to simulate forward flight. The aux
iliary rotor controls must be in the posi
tion for normal operation under the
conditions of the test.
(d) A 30-hour part of the test pre
scribed in paragraph (b) of this section
must be run at not less than 90 percent
of maximum continuous engine r.p.m.
and 75 percent of maximum continuous
engine power. The main and auxiliary
rotor controls must be in the position
for normal operation under the Condi
tions of the test.
(e) A 10-hour part of the test pre
scribed in paragraph (b) of this section
must be run at not less than takeoff
engine power and r.p.m. The main and
auxiliary rotor controls must be in the
normal position for vertical ascent.
331
§ 27,927
(f) The parts of the test prescribed
in paragraphs (c) and (d) of this sec
tion must be conducted in intervals of
not less than 30 minutes and may be ac
complished either on the ground or in
flight. The part of the test prescribed
in paragraph (e) of this Section must be
conducted in intervals of not less than
five minutes.
(g) At intervals of not more than five
hours during the tests prescribed in
paragraphs (c), (d), and (e) of this Sec
tion, the engine must be stopped rapidly
enough to allow the engine and rotor
drive to be automatically disengaged
from the rotors.
(h) Under the operating conditions
Specified in paragraph (c) of this sec
tion, 500 complete cycles of lateral con
trol, 500 complete cycles of longitudinal
Control of the main rotors, and 500 com
plete cycles of control of each auxiliary
rotor must be accomplished. A “com
plete cycle” involves movement of the
controls from the neutral position,
through both extreme positions, and
back to the neutral position, except that
Control movements need not produce
loads or flapping motions exceeding the
maximum loads or motions encountered
in flight. The cycling may be accom
plished during the testing prescribed in
paragraph (c) of this section.
(i) At least 200 start-up clutch en
gagements must be accomplished—
(1) So that the shaft on the driven
Side of the clutch is accelerated; and
(2) Using a Speed and method Selected
by the applicant.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 963, Jan.
26, 1968]
§ 27.927 Additional tests.
(a) Any additional dynamic, endur
ance, and Operational tests, and vibra
tory investigations necessary to de
termine that the rotor drive mechanism
is Safe, must be performed.
(b) If turbine engine power output
to the transmission can exceed the high
est engine or transmission power rating,
and that Output is not directly controlled
by the pilot under normal operating con
ditions (such as where the primary en
gine power control is accomplished
through the flight control), the follow
ing test must be made:
(1) Under conditions associated With
all engines operating, make 200 applica
tions, for 10 seconds each, of torque that
is at least equal to the lesser of
§ 27.931 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(i) The maximum torque used in
meeting $ 27.923 plus 10 percent; or
(ii) The maximum attainable torque
output of the engines, assuming that
torque limiting devices, if any, func
tion properly.
(2) For multiengine rotorcraft under
Conditions associated With each engine,
in turn, becoming inoperative, apply to
the remaining transmission power inputs
the maximum torque attainable under
probable operating conditions, assuming
that torque limiting devices, if any, func
tion properly. Each transmission input
must be tested at this maximum torque
for at least One hour.
(3) The tests prescribed in this para
graph must be conducted on the rotor
craft and the power must be absorbed
by the rotors to be installed, except that
other ground or flight test facilities with
other appropriate methods of power ab
sorption may be used if the conditions of
Support and vibration closely simulate
the conditions that Would exist during
a test on the rotorcraft.
[Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 963, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 27.931 Shafting critical speed.
(a) The critical Speeds of any shafting
must be determined by demonstration,
except that analytical methods may be
used if reliable methods of analysis are
available for the particular design.
(b) If any critical speed lies within, or
close to, the operating ranges for idling,
power on, and autorotative conditions,
the stresses occurring at that speed must
be within safe limits. This must be
shown by tests.
(c) If analytical methods are used and
show that no critical Speed lies within
the permissible Operating ranges, the
margins between the calculated critical
speeds and the limits of the allowable
operating ranges must be adequate to
allow for possible variations between the
computed and actual values.
§ 27.935 Shafting joints.
Each universal joint, slip joint, and
other shafting joints whose lubrication
is necessary for operation must have pro
vision for lubrication.
§ 27.939 Turbine engine operating char
acteristics.
(a) Turbine engine Operating charac
teristics must be investigated in flight to
determine that no adverse characteris
tics (such as stall, Surge, or flameout)
are present, to a hazardous degree, dur
332
ing normal and emergency operation
within the range of operating limitations
of the rotorcraft and of the engine.
(b) The turbine engine air inlet Sys
tem may not, as a result of airflow dis
tortion during normal operation, cause
Vibration harmful to the engine.
[Amdt. 27–1, 32 F.R. 6914, May 5, 1967]
FUEL SYSTEM
§ 27.951 General.
(a) Each fuel system must be con
Structed and arranged to ensure a flow
of fuel at a rate and pressure established
for proper engine functioning under any
likely operating condition, including the
maneuvers for which certification is re
quested.
(b) Each fuel System must be ar
ranged so that—
(1) No fuel pump can draw fuel from
more than one tank at a time; or
(2) There are means to prevent in
troducing air into the system.
(c) Each fuel system for a turbine en
gine must be capable of sustained opera
tion throughout its flow and pressure
range with fuel initially saturated with
water at 80° F. and having 0.75cc of free
Water per gallon added and cooled to the
most critical condition for icing likely to
be encountered in operation.
[Docket No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 27–9, 39 FR 35461,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 27.953 Fuel system independence.
(a) Each fuel system for multiengine
rotorcraft must allow fuel to be supplied
to each engine through a system inde
pendent of those parts of each system
Supplying fuel to other engines. How
ever, Separate fuel tanks need not be
provided for each engine.
(b) If a single fuel tank is used on a
multiengine rotorcraft, the following
must be provided:
(1) Independent tank outlets for each
engine, each incorporating a shutoff
Valve at the tank. This shutoff valve
may also serve as the firewall shutoff
valve required by § 27.995 if the line be
tween the valve and the engine compart
ment does not contain a hazardous
amount of fuel that can drain into the
engine Compartment.
(2) At least two vents arranged to
minimize the probability of both vents
becoming obstructed simultaneously.
(3) Filler caps designed to minimize
the probability of incorrect installation
Or inflight loss.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(4) A fuel System in which those parts
of the system from each tank outlet to
any engine are independent of each part
of each system supplying fuel to other
engines.
§ 27.955 Fuel flow.
(a) Each fuel System must provide at
least 100 percent of the fuel flow required
under the intended operating conditions
and maneuvers. This must be shown as
follows:
(1) Fuel must be delivered to each
engine at a pressure within the limits
Specified in the engine type certificate.
(2) The quantity of fuel in the tank
may not exceed that established as the
unusable fuel supply for that tank under
$ 27.959 plus that necessary to show com
pliance with this section.
(3) Each main pump must be used that
is necessary for each operating condi
tion and attitude for which compliance
with this section is shown, and the ap
propriate emergency pump must be sub
stituted for each main pump so used.
(b) If an engine can be supplied with
fuel from more than one tank, the fuel
system must feed promptly when fuel
becomes low in one tank and another
tank is selected.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–1, 82 FIR. 6914,
May 5, 1967]
§ 27.959 Unusable fuel supply.
The unusable fuel supply for each tank
must be established as not less than the
quantity at which the first evidence of
malfunction occurs under the most ad
verse fuel feed condition occurring under
any intended operations and flight ma
neuvers involving that tank.
§ 27.961 Fuel system hot weather opera
tion.
Each Suction lift fuel system and
other fuel Systems conducive to vapor
formation must be free from vapor lock
when using fuel at a temperature of 110
degrees F. under critical operating con
ditions. This must be shown by test.
§ 27.963 Fuel tanks: general.
(a) Each fuel tank must be able to
withstand, without failure, the vibration,
inertia, fluid, and structural loads to
which it may be subjected in operation.
(b) Each fuel tank of 10 gallons or
greater capacity must have internal
333
§ 27.977
baffles, or must have external support
to resist Surging.
(c) Each fuel tank must be separated
from the engine compartment by a fire
wall. At least one-half inch of clear
airSpace must be provided between the
tank and the firewall.
(d) Spaces adjacent to the surfaces of
fuel tanks must be ventilated so that
fumes cannot accumulate in the tank
compartment in case of leakage. If two
or more tanks have interconnected out
lets, they must be considered as one tank,
and the airspaces in those tanks must be
interconnected to prevent the ſlow of
fuel from one tank to another as a result
of a difference in pressure between those
airSpaces.
§ 27.965 Fuel tank internal pressure.
Each fuel tank must be able to with
Stand, without leakage, an internal pres
Sure equal to the pressure developed
during the maximum limit acceleration
with that tank full, but not less than—
(a) 3.5 p.s.l., for conventional tanks;
or
(b) 2.0 p.s.l., for bladder tanks.
§ 27.969 Fuel tank expansion space.
Each fuel tank must have an expan
sion space of not less than two percent
of the tank capacity. It must be impos
sible to fill the fuel tank expansion space
inadvertently with the rotorcraft in the
normal ground attitude.
§ 27.971 Fuel tank sump.
Each fuel tank must have a sump and
drain at the point in the tank that is low
est with the rotorcraft in the normal
ground attitude. The main fuel supply
may not be drawn from the bottom of the
Sump.
§ 27.973 Fuel tank filler connection.
Each fuel tank filler connection must
prevent the entrance of fuel into any
part of the rotorcraft other than the
tank.
§ 27.975 Fuel tank vents.
Each fuel tank must be Vented from
the top part of the expansion space so
that venting is effective under all normal
flight conditions. Each vent must mini
mize the probability of stoppage by dirt
or ice.
§ 27.977 Fuel tank outlet.
There must be a large-mesh finger
strainer for the fuel tank outlet.
§ 27.991 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
FUEL SYSTEM COMPOMENTS
§ 27.991 Fuel pumps.
(a) Main pumps. Each fuel pump re
quired for proper engine operation, or
required to meet the fuel system require
ments of this subpart (other than those
in paragraph (b) of this section), is a
main pump. For each main pump, there
must be means to allow the bypass of
each positive displacement fuel pump
other than a fuel injection pump (a pump
that Supplies the proper flow and pres
sure for fuel injection when the injection
is not accomplished in a carburetor) ap
proved as part of an engine.
(b) Emergency pumps. There must be
emergency pumps, or another main
pump, to feed the engines immediately
after the failure of any main pump
(Other than fuel injection pump ap
proved as part of the engine). Each
pump used for this purpose must be ac
tivated automatically or Operated con
tinuously so that enough fuel pressure
will be maintained to prevent engine
stoppage.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 964, Jan.
26, 1968]
§ 27.993 Fuel system lines and fittings.
(a) Each fuel line must be installed
and supported to prevent excessive wi
bration and to withstand loads due to
fuel pressure and accelerated flight
conditions.
(b) Each fuel line connected to com
ponents of the rotorcraft between which
relative motion could exist must have
provisions for flexibility.
(c) Flexible hose must be approved.
(d) Each flexible connection in fuel
lines that may be under pressure or sub
jected to axial loading must use flexible
hose assemblies.
(e) No flexible hose that might be ad
versely affected by high temperatures
may be used where excessive tempera
tures will exist during operation or after
engine shutdown.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 964, Jan.
26, 1968]
§ 27.995 Fuel valves.
(a) There must be a positive, quick
acting valve to shut off fuel to each en
gine individually.
(b) The control for this Valve must be
Within easy reach of appropriate crew
Inembers.
334
(c) Where there is more than one
source of fuel supply there must be means
for independent feeding from each
Source.
(d) No shutoff valve may be on the
engine side of any firewall.
§ 27.997 Fuel strainer or filter.
There must be a fuel Strainer or filter
between the fuel tank outlet and the
inlet of either the fuel metering device
or an engine driven positive displace
ment pump, whichever is nearer the fuel
tank outlet. This fuel strainer or filter
must—
(a) Be accessible for draining and
cleaning and must incorporate a Screen
or element which is easily removable;
(b) Have a sediment trap and drain
except that it need not have a drain if
the strainer or filter is easily removable
for drain purposes;
(c) Be mounted so that its weight is
not supported by the connecting lines or
by the inlet or outlet connections of the
Strainer or filter itself; and
(d) Have the capacity (With respect to
operating limitations established for the
engine) and the mesh to ensure that en
gine fuel system functioning is not im
paired, with the fuel contaminated to a
degree (with respect to particle size and
density) that is greater than that estab
lished for the engine in Part 33 of this
Chapter.
[Amdt. No. 27–9, 39 FR 35461, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 27.999 Fuel system drains.
(a) There must be at least one acces
sible drain at the lowest point in each
fuel system to completely drain the sys
tem with the rotorcraft in its normal
attitude on level ground.
(b) Each drain required by paragraph
(a) of this Section must—
(1) Discharge clear of the entire ro
torcraft; and
(2) Have a safety lock to prevent ac
Cidental Opening.
OIL SYSTEM
§ 27.1011 General.
(a) Each engine must have an inde
pendent oil system that can supply it
With an appropriate quantity of oil at
a temperature not above that safe for
continuous operation.
(b) The usable oil capacity of each sys
tem may not be less than the product of
the endurance of the rotorcraft under
critical operating conditions and the
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
maximum oil consumption of the engine
under the same conditions, plus a suit
able margin to ensure adequate Circula
tion and cooling. Instead of a rational
analysis of endurance and consumption,
a usable oil capacity of one gallon for
each 40 gallons of usable fuel may be
used.
(c) The oil cooling provisions for each
engine must be able to maintain the oil
inlet temperature to that engine at Or
below the maximum established Value.
This must be shown by flight tests.
§ 27.1013 Oil tanks.
Each oil tank must be designed and
installed so that—
(a) It can withstand, without failure,
each vibration, inertia, fluid, and struc
tural load expected in Operation;
(b) [Reserved]
(c) Where used With a reciprocating
engine, it has an expansion Space of not
less than the greater of 10 percent of
the tank capacity or 0.5 gallon, and
Where used with a turbine engine, it has
an expansion space of not less than 10
percent of the tank capacity.
(d) It is impossible to fill the tank
expansion Space inadvertently With the
rotorcraft in the normal ground attitude;
(e) Adequate venting is provided; and
(f) There are means in the filler open
ing to prevent oil overflow from entering
the oil tank compartment.
[Docket No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 27–9, 39 FR 35461,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 27.1015 Oil tank tests.
Each oil tank must be designed and in
stalled so that it can withstand, without
leakage, an internal pressure of 5 p.s.l.,
except that each pressurized oil tank
used with a turbine engine must be de
signed and installed so that it can with
stand, without leakage, an internal
pressure of 5 p.s.l., plus the maximum
operating pressure of the tank.
[Amdt. No. 27–9, 39 FR 35462, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 27.1017 Oil lines and fittings.
(a) Each oil line must be supported
to prevent excessive vibration.
(b) Each oil line connected to Com
ponents of the rotorcraft between which
relative motion could exist must have
provisions for flexibility.
(c) Flexible hose must be approved.
(d) Each oil line must have an inside
diameter of not less than the inside di
ameter of the engine inlet or outlet. No
335
§ 27.1021
line may have splices between connec
tions.
§ 27.1019 Oil strainer or filter.
(a) Each turbine engine installation
must incorporate an oil strainer or filter
through which all of the engine oil flows
and which meets the following require
ments:
(1) Each oil strainer or filter that has
a bypass must be constructed and instal
led so that oil will flow at the normal
rate through the rest of the system with
the strainer or filter completely blocked.
(2) The oil strainer or filter must have
the capacity (with respect to operating
limitations established for the engine)
and the mesh to ensure that engine oil
system functioning is not impaired when
the oil is contaminated to a degree (with
respect to particle size and density) that
is greater than that established for the
engine under Part 33 of this chapter.
(3) The oil strainer or filter, unless it
is installed at an oil tank outlet, must
incorporate an indicator that will indi
cate contamination of the screen before
it reaches the capacity established in ac
cordance with paragraph (a)(2) of this
section.
(4) The bypass of a strainer or filter
must be constructed and installed SO
that the release of collected contami
nants is minimized by appropriate loca
tion of the bypass to ensure that Col
lected contaminants are not in the by
pass flow path.
(5) An oil strainer or filter that has
no bypass, except one that is installed at
an oil tank outlet, must have a means
to connect it to the warning System re
quired in § 27.1305 (r).
(b) Each oil strainer or filter in a
powerplant installation using reciprocat
ing engines must be constructed and in
stalled so that oil will flow at the normal
rate through the rest of the System with
the strainer or filter element completely
blocked.
[Amdt. No. 27–9, 39 FR 35462, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 27.1021 Oil system drains.
(a) There must be at least one acces
sible drain at the lowest point in the oil
System to drain the System completely
with the rotorcraft in its normal position
On level ground.
(b) Each drain must discharge clear
of the entire rotorcraft and have safety
locks to prevent accidental opening.
§ 27.1041 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
CoOLING
§ 27.1041 General.
(a) Each powerplant cooling system
must be able to maintain the tempera
tures of powerplant components and en
gine fluids within the limits established
for those components and fluids under
any critical surface (ground or water)
and flight operating conditions, and after
normal engine shutdown.
(b) Compliance with paragraph (a)
of this section must be shown in tests
conducted under the Conditions pre
scribed in that paragraph.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 964, Jan.
26, 1968]
§ 27.1043 Cooling tests.
(a) General. For the tests prescribed
in § 27.104(b), the following apply:
(1) If the tests are conducted under
conditions deviating from the maximum
anticipated air temperature specified in
paragraph (b) of this section, the re
corded powerplant temperatures must be
corrected under paragraphs (c) and (d)
of this section unless a more rational
correction method is applicable.
(2) No corrected temperature deter
mined under Subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph may exceed established limits.
(3) For reciprocating engines, the fuel
used during the cooling tests must be of
the minimum grade approved for the
engines, and the mixture settings must
be those normally used in the flight
stages for which the cooling tests are
conducted.
(4) The test procedures must be as
prescribed in § 27.1045.
(b) Marimum anticipated air tem
perature. For cooling tests, the maxi
mum anticipated temperature (hot-day
condition) is 100 degrees F. at Sea level,
decreasing from this value at the rate of
3.6 degrees F. per thousand feet of alti
tude above sea level up to the altitude
at which a temperature of —69.7 degrees
F. is reached, above which altitude the
temperature is constant at –69.7 degrees
F
(c) Correction factor (ercept cylinder
barrels). The temperatures of engine
fluids and powerplant components (ex
cept cylinder barrels) for which temper
ature limits are established must be
corrected by adding to them the differ
ence between the maximum anticipated
air temperature and the temperature of
336
the ambient air at the time of the first
occurrence of the maximum component
or fluid temperatures recorded during
the cooling test.
(d) Correction factor for cylinder bar
rel temperatures. Cylinder barrel tem
peratures must be corrected by adding to
them 0.7 times the difference between
the maximum anticipated air tempera
ture and the temperature of the ambient
air at the time of the first occurrence of
the maximum cylinder barrel tempera
ture recorded during the cooling test.
§ 27.1045 Cooling test procedures.
(a) General. For each stage of flight,
the cooling tests must be conducted with
the rotorcraft—
(1) In the configuration most critical
for cooling; and
(2) Under the conditions most criti
cal for cooling.
(b) Temperature stabilization. For
the purpose of the cooling tests, a tem
perature is “stabilized” when its rate of
change is less than two degrees F. per
minute. The following component and
engine fluid temperature stabilization
rules apply:
(1) For each rotorcraft, and for each
stage of flight—
(i) The temperatures must be stabl
lized under the conditions from which
entry is made into the stage of flight
being investigated; Or
(ii) If the entry condition normally
does not allow temperatures to stabilize,
operation through the full entry condi
tion must be conducted before entry into
the stage of flight being investigated in
order to allow the temperatures to attain
their natural levels at the time of entry.
(2) For each helicopter during the
takeoff stage of flight, the climb at take
off power must be preceded by a period
of hover during which the temperatures
are stabilized.
(c) Duration of test. For each stage
of flight the tests must be continued
until—
(1) The temperatures stabilize;
(2) That stage of flight is completed;
or
(3) An operating limitation is reached.
INDUCTION SYSTEM
§ 27.1091 Air induction.
(a) The air induction system for each
engine must supply the air required
by that engine under the operating con
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
ditions and maneuvers for Which cer
tification is requested.
: (b) Each cold air induction System
opening must be outside the cowling if
backfire flames can emerge.
(c) If fuel can accumulate in any air
induction system, that System must have
drains that discharge fuel—
(1) Clear of the rotorcraft; and
(2) Out of the path of exhaust flames.
(d) Operation of turbine engines from
idle power and r.p.m. to the power and
r.p.m. necessary for lift-off may not re
sult in pebble ingestion into the induc
tion air inlet with the rotorcraft on a
pebble bed at least 1% inches deep, con
sisting of pebbles that—
(1) Can pass through one-half inch
mesh screening but not through one
eighth inch mesh screening; and
(2) Are spread over an area that ex
tends horizontally five feet beyond the
tips of the main rotors.
(e) For turbine engine powered rotor
Craft—
(1) There must be means to prevent
hazardous quantities of fuel leakage or
Overflow from drains, vents, or other
components of flammable fluid systems
:* entering the engine intake system;
an
(2) The air inlet ducts must be located
or protected so as to minimize the inges
tion of foreign matter during takeoff,
landing, and taxiing.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 964, Jan.
26, 1968]
§ 27.1093
tion.
Induction system icing protec
(a) Reciprocating engines. Each re
ciprocating engine air induction system
must have means to prevent and elimi
nate icing. Unless this is done by other
means, it must be shown that, in air free
of visible moisture at a temperature of
30 degrees F., and with the engines at
75 percent of maximum continuous
power—
(1) Each rotorcraft with sea level en
gines using conventional venturi carbu
retors has a preheater that can provide
a heat rise of 90 degrees F.;
(2) Each rotorcraft with sea level en
gines using carburetors tending to pre
vent icing has a sheltered alternate
source of air, and that the preheat Sup
plied to the alternate air intake is not
less than that provided by the engine
337
§ 27.1121
cooling air downstream of the cylinders;
(3) Each rotorcraft with altitude en
gines using conventional venturi carbu
retors has a preheater capable of provid
ing a heat rise of 120 degrees F.; and
(4) Each rotorcraft with altitude en
gines using carburetors tending to pre
vent icing has a preheater that can
provide a heat rise of—
(1) 100 degrees F.; or
(ii) If a fluid deicing system is used,
at least 40 degrees F.
(b) Turbine engines. Each turbine
engine must—
(1) Operate throughout its flight
power range (including idling) without
adverse effect on engine operation or
serious loss of power or thrust, under
the icing conditions specified in Ap
pendix C of Part 25 of this chapter, and
in snow, both falling and blowing, with
in the limitations established for the
rotorcraft; and
(2) Idle for 30 minutes on the ground
with the air bleed available for engine
icing protection at its critical condition,
Without adverse effect, in an atmosphere
that is at a temperature of 29°F and has
a liquid water content of 0.6 grams per
cubic meter in the form of drops having
a mean effective diameter of 40 microns,
followed by a momentary operation at
takeoff power or thrust.
[Docket No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 27–9, 39 FR 35462,
Oct. 1, 1974]
ExHAUST SYSTEM
§ 27.1121 General.
For each exhaust system—
(a) There must be means for thermal
expansion of manifolds and pipes;
(b) There must be means to prevent
local hot Spots;
(c) Exhaust gases must discharge
clear of the engine air intake, fuel Sys
tem components, and drains;
(d) No exhaust pipe may be adjacent
to, or under, any carburetor or fuel sys
tem part that is not protected against
leakage;
(e) Exhaust gases may not impair
pilot vision at night due to glare; and
(f) If significant traps exist, each tur
bine engine exhaust system must have
drains discharging clear of the rotor
craft, in any normal ground and flight
attitudes, to prevent fuel accumulation
after the failure of an attempted engine
start.
§ 27.1141 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
POWERPLANT CONTROLS AND ACCESSORIES
§ 27.1141 Powerplant controls: general.
(a) Powerplant controls must be lo
cated and arranged under § 27.777 and
marked under § 27.1555.
(b) Each flexible powerplant control
must be approved.
§ 27.1143. Throttle controls.
(a) There must be a separate throttle
control for each engine.
(b) Throttle controls must be grouped
and arranged to allow—
(1) Separate control of each engine;
and
(2) Simultaneous control of all en
gines.
(c) Each throttle control must pro
vide a positive and immediately respon
sive means of controlling its engine.
§ 27.1145 Ignition switches.
(a) There must be means to quickly
shut off all ignition by the grouping of
Switches or by a master ignition control.
(b) Each master ignition control must
have a guard to prevent its inadvertent
operation.
§ 27.1147 Mixture controls.
If there are mixture controls, each en
gine must have a separate control and
the controls must be arranged to allow—
(a) Separate control of each engine;
and
(b) Simultaneous control of all
engines.
§ 27.1163 Powerplant accessories.
(a) Each engine-mounted accessory
must—
(1) Be approved for mounting on the
engine involved; and
(2) Use the provisions on the engine
for mounting.
(b) Torque limiting means must be
provided on all accessory drives that are
located on the transmission, including
drives on gearboxes that are part of the
transmission, in order to prevent the
torque limits established for those drives
from being exceeded.
[Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 964, Jan. 26, 1968]
PoWERPLANT FIRE PROTECTION
§ 27.1183 Flammable fluid-carrying
components.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(b) of this section, each line, fitting, and
other component carrying flammable
fluid in any area subject to engine fire
338
conditions must be fire resistant, except
that flammable fluid tanks and Supports
which are part of and attached to the
engine must be fireproof or be enclosed
by a fireproof shield unless damage by
fire to any non-fireproof part will not
cause leakage or Spillage of flammable
fluid. Components must be shielded or
located so as to safeguard against the
ignition of leaking flammable fluid. An
integral oil sump of less than 20 quart
Capacity on a reciprocating engine need
not be fireproof nor be enclosed by a
fireproof shield.
(b) Paragraph (a) does not apply to—
(1) Lines and fittings already ap
proved as part of a type certificated
engine under Part 33 of this chapter; and
(2) Went and drain lines, and their
fittings, whose failure will not result in,
Or add to, a fire hazard.
(c) Each flammable fluid drain and
vent must discharge clear of the induc
tion system air inlet.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–1, 32 F.R. 6914,
May 5, 1967; Amdt. No. 27–9, 39 FR 35462,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 27.1185 Flammable fluids.
(a) For rotorcraft with turbine en
gines, or with reciprocating engines of
900 cubic inches displacement or less,
each fuel tank must be isolated from the
engines by a firewall or shroud.
(b) For rotorcraft with reciprocating
engines of more than 900 cubic inches
displacement—
(1) Each flammable fluid tank must be
isolated under paragraph (a) of this
Section; or
(2) The fluid in the tank, the design of
the system, the materials used in the
tank, the shutoff means, and all connec
tions, lines, and controls must provide a
degree of safety equal to that resulting
from isolation under paragraph (a) of
this section.
(c) There must be at least one-half
inch of clear airspace between each tank
and each firewall or shroud isolating that
tank, unless equivalent means are used
to prevent heat transfer from each en
gine compartment to the flammable
fluid.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 FIR. 964, Jan.
26, 1968]
§ 27.1187 Ventilation.
Each compartment containing any
part of the powerplant installation must
have provision for ventilation.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 27.1189 Shutoff means.
(a) There must be means to shut off
each line carrying flammable fluids into
the engine compartment, except—
(1) Lines forming an integral part of
an engine; and
(2) For reciprocating engine installa
tions only, engine oil system lines in
installation using engines of less than
500 cu. in. displacement.
(b) There must be means to guard
against inadvertent operation of each
shutoff, and to make it possible for the
crew to reopen it in flight after it has
been closed.
(c) Each shutoff valve and its controls
must be on the remote side of the firewall
from the engine if they cannot function
under any fire condition likely to result
from an engine fire.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 964, Jan.
26, 1968]
§ 27.1191 Firewalls.
(a) Each engine, including the com
bustor, turbine, and tailpipe sections of
turbine engines must be isolated by a
firewall, shroud, or equivalent means,
from personnel compartments, struc
tures, controls, rotor mechanisms, and
other parts that are—
(1) Essential to a controlled landing:
and
(2) Not protected under § 27.861.
(b) Each auxiliary power unit and
combustion heater, and any other
combustion equipment to be used in
flight, must be isolated from the rest of
the rotorcraft by firewalls, shrouds, or
equivalent means.
(c) In meeting paragraphs (a) and
(b) of this section, account must be taken
of the probable path of a fire as affected
by the airflow in normal flight and in
autorotation.
(d) Each firewall and shroud must be
constructed So that no hazardous quan
tity of air, fluids, or flame can pass
from any engine compartment to other
parts of the rotorcraft.
(e) Each opening in the firewall or
shroud must be sealed with close-fitting,
fireproof grommets, bushings, or fire
Wall fittings.
(f) Each firewall and shroud must be
fireproof and protected against corrosion.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FIR. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as annended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 964, Jan.
26, 1968]
339
§ 27.1303
§ 27.1193 Cowling and engine compart
ment covering.
(a) Each cowling and engine compart
ment covering must be constructed and
supported so that it can resist the vibra
tion, inertia, and air loads to which it
may be subjected in operation.
(b) There must be means for rapid
and complete drainage of each part of
the cowling or engine compartment in
the normal ground and flight attitudes.
(c) No drain may discharge where it
might cause a fire hazard.
(d) Each cowling and engine compart
ment covering must be at least fire
resistant.
(e) Each part of the cowling or engine
compartment covering Subject to high
temperatures due to its nearness to ex
haust system parts or exhaust gas im
pingement must be fireproof.
§ 27.1194 Other surfaces.
All Surfaces aft of, and near, power
plant compartments, other than tail
surfaces not subject to heat, flames, or
sparks emanating from a powerplant
compartment, must be at least fire
resistant.
[Amdt. 27–2, 33 FIR. 964, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 27.1195 Fire detector systems.
Each turbine engine powered rotor
craft must have approved quick-acting
fire detectors in numbers and locations
insuring prompt detection of fire in the
engine compartment which cannot be
readily observed in flight by the pilot in
the cockpit.
[Amdt. 27–5, 36 F.R. 5493, Mar. 24, 1971]
Subpart F-Equipment
GENERAL
§ 27.1301 Function and installation.
Each item of installed equipment
must—
(a) Be of a kind and design appropri
ate to its intended function;
(b) Be labeled as to its identification,
function, or operating limitations, or any
applicable combination of these factors;
(c) Be installed according to limita
tions specified for that equipment; and
(d) Function properly when installed.
§ 27.1303 Flight and navigation instru
ments.
The following are the required flight
and navigation instruments:
(a) An airspeed indicator.
§ 27.1305 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(b) An altimeter.
(c) A magnetic direction indicator.
§ 27.1305 Powerplant instruments.
The following are the required power
plant instruments:
(a) A carburetor air temperature indi
cator, for each engine having a preheater
that can provide a heat rise in excess of
60° F.
(b) A cylinder head temperature indi
Cator, for each—
(1) Air cooled engine;
(2) Rotorcraft with cooling shutters;
and
(3) Rotorcraft for which compliance
with $ 27.1043 is shown in any condition
other than the most critical flight condi
tion With respect to cooling.
(c) A fuel pressure indicator, for each
pump-fed engine.
(d) A fuel quantity indicator, for each
fuel tank.
(e) A manifold pressure indicator, for
each altitude engine.
(f) An oil temperature warning device
to indicate when the temperature exceeds
a safe value in each main rotor drive
gearbox (including any gearboxes essen
tial to rotor phasing) having an oil sys
tem independent of the engine oil sys
tem.
(g) An oil pressure Warning device to
indicate when the pressure falls below a
safe value in each pressure-lubricated
main rotor drive gearbox (including any
gearboxes essential to rotor phasing)
having an oil system independent of the
engine oil System.
(h) An oil pressure indicator for each
engine.
(i) An oil quantity indicator for each
Oil tank.
(j) An oil temperature indicator for
each engine.
(k) At least one tachometer to indi
cate the r.p.m. of each engine and, as
applicable—
(1) Ther.p.m. of the single main rotor;
(2) The common r.p.m. of any main
rotors whose Speeds cannot vary ap
preciably with respect to each other; or
(3) The r.p.m. of each main rotor
whose speed can vary appreciably with
respect to that of another main rotor.
(1) If an engine can be supplied with
fuel from more than one tank, a warning
device to indicate, for each tank, when a
five-minute usable fuel Supply remains
when the rotorcraft is in the most ad
verse fuel feed condition for that tank,
340
regardless of whether that condition can
be sustained for the five minutes.
(m) Means to indicate to the pilot
when each emergency pump is in opera
tion.
(n) A gas temperature indicator for
each turbine engine.
(o) Means to enable the pilot to de
termine the torque of each turboshaft
engine, if a torque limitation is estab
lished for that engine under § 27.1521(e).
(p) For each turbine engine, an indi
cator to indicate the functioning of the
powerplant ice protection system.
(q) For each turbine engine an indi
cator for the fuel strainer or filter re
quired by § 27.997 to indicate the occur
rence of contamination of the strainer
of filter before it reaches the capacity
established in accordance With $ 27.997
(d).
(r) For each turbine engine, a Warn
ing means for the oil strainer or filter
required by § 27.1019, if it has no bypass,
to warn the pilot of the occurrence of
contamination of the Strainer or filter
before it reaches the capacity established
in accordance With $ 27.1019 (a)(2).
(s) An indicator to indicate the proper
functioning of any heater used to prevent
ice clogging of fuel system components.
[Docket No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 27–9, 39 FR 35462,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 27.1307 Miscellaneous equipment.
The following is the required miscel
laneous equipment:
(a) An approved seat for each oc
cupant.
(b) An approved safety belt for each
Occupant.
(c) A master Switch arrangement.
(d) An adequate source of electrical
energy, where electrical energy is neces
sary for operation of the rotorcraft.
(e) Electrical protective devices.
§ 27.1309 Equipment, systems, and in
stallations.
(a) Functioning and reliability. The
equipment, systems, and installations
whose functioning is required by this
subchapter must be designed and in
stalled to ensure that they perform their
intended functions under any foresee
able operating condition.
(b) Hazards. All equipment, sys
tems, and installations must be designed
to prevent hazards to the rotorcraft if
they malfunction or fail.
 Chapter 1–Federal Aviation Administration
INSTRUMENTS: INSTALLATION
§ 27.1321 Arrangement and visibility.
| plant instrument line must meet the re
(a) Each flight, navigation, and
powerplant instrument for use by any
pilot must be easily visible to him.
(b) For each multiengine rotorcraft,
identical powerplant instruments must
be located so as to prevent confusion as
to which engine each instrument relates.
(c) Instrument panel vibration may
not damage, or impair the readability or
accuracy of, any instrument.
§ 27.1322. Warning, caution, and advi
sory lights.
If warning, caution, or advisory lights
are used, they must be—
(a) Red, for warning lights (lights
indicating a hazard requiring immediate
corrective action);
(b) Amber, for caution lights (lights
indicating the possible need for future
corrective action); and
(c) Green, for advisory lights (lights
used solely for information not indicat
ing the need for corrective action).
[Amdt. 27–2, 88 FIR. 964, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 27.1323 Airspeed indicating system.
(a) The airspeed indicating System
must be calibrated in flight at forward
speeds of 10 knots and over.
(b) At each forward speed above 80
percent of the climbout speed, the air
speed indicator must indicate true air
speed, at sea level with a standard
atmosphere, to within an allowable in
stallation error of not more than the
greater of
(1) +3 percent of the calibrated air
; or
(2) Five knots.
(Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 88 F.R. 964, Jan.
26, 1968]
§ 27.1325 Static air vent system.
Each instrument with static air case
connections must be vented so that the
influence of rotorcraft speed, the opening
and closing of windows, airflow variation,
and moisture or other foreign matter
does not seriously affect its accuracy.
g 27.1327 Magnetic direction indicator.
(a) Each magnetic direction indicator
must be installed so that its accuracy is
not excessively affected by the rotor
craft's vibration or magnetic fields.
(b) The compensated installation may
not have a deviation, in level flight,
greater than 10° on any heading.
341
§ 27.1351
§ 27.1337 Powerplant instruments.
(a) Instrument lines. Each power
quirements of §§ 27.961 and 27.993.
Each line carrying flammable fluids or
gases under pressure must have restrict
ing orifices or equivalent safety devices at
the source of pressure to prevent the es
cape of excessive fluid or gas if the line
fails.
(b) Fuel quantity indicator. Each
fuel quantity indicator must be installed
to clearly indicate to the flight crew the
quantity of fuel in each tank in flight.
In addition—
(1) Each fuel quantity indicator must
be calibrated to read “Zero” during level
flight when the quantity of fuel re
maining in the tank is equal to the un
usable fuel Supply determined under
$ 27.959;
(2) When two or more tanks are
closely interconnected by a gravity feed
System and vented, and when it is im
possible to feed from each tank sepa
rately, at least one fuel quantity indi
cator must be installed; and
(3) Each exposed sight gauge used as
a fuel quantity indicator must be pro
tected against damage.
(c) Fuel flourmeter system. If a fuel
flowmeter system is installed, each
metering component must have a means
for bypassing the fuel supply if malfunc
tion of that component severely restricts
fuel flow.
(d) Oil quantity indicator. There
must be means to indicate the quantity
of oil in each tank—
(1) On the ground (including during
the filling of each tank); and
(2) In flight, if there is an oil transfer
system or reserve oil supply system.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EquTPMENT
§ 27.1351 General.
(a) Electrical system capacity. Elec
trical equipment must be adequate for
its intended use. In addition—
(1) Electric power sources, their trans
mission cables, and their associated con
trol and protective devices must be
able to furnish the required power at
the proper voltage to each load circuit
essential for safe Operation; and
(2) Compliance with Subparagraph
(1) of this paragraph must be shown by
an electrical load analysis, or by electri
cal measurements that take into account
 § 27.1353 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
the electrical loads applied to the electri
cal system, in probable combinations
and for probable durations.
(b) Function. For each electrical
system, the following apply:
(1) Each system, when installed, must
be—
(f) Free from hazards in itself, in its
method of operation, and in its effects
on other parts of the rotorcraft; and
(ii) Protected from fuel, oil, water,
other detrimental substances, and me
chanical damage.
(2) Electric power sources must func
tion properly when connected in combi
nation or independently.
(3) No failure or malfunction of any
source may impair the ability of any
remaining source to supply load circuits
essential for safe operation.
(4) Each electric power source Con
trol must allow the independent opera
tion of each source.
(c) Generating system. There must
be at least one generator if the System
supplies power to load circuits essential
for safe operation. In addition—
(1) Each generator must be able to
deliver its continuous rated power;
(2) Generator voltage control equip
ment must be able to dependably regu
late each generator output within rated
limits; and
(S) Each generator must have a re
verse current cutout designed to discon
nect the generator from the battery and
from the other generators when enough
reverse current exists to damage that
generator.
(d) Instruments. There must be
means to indicate to appropriate crew
members the electric power System quan
titles essential for safe Operation of the
system. In addition
(1) For direct current Systems, an am
meter that can be switched into each
generator feeder may be used; and
(2) If there is only one generator, the
ammeter may be in the battery feeder.
§ 27.1353 Storage battery design and in
stallation.
(a) Each storage battery must be de
signed and installed as prescribed in this
Section.
(b) Safe cell temperatures and pres
sures must be maintained during any
probable charging and discharging Con
dition. No uncontrolled increase in cell
342
temperature may result when the battery
is recharged (after previous complete
discharge)—
(1) At maximum regulated voltage;
(2) During a flight of maximum dura
tion; and
(3) Under the most adverse cooling
condition likely to occur in service.
(c) Compliance with paragraph (b)
of this section must be shown by test
unless experience with similar batteries
and installations has shown that main
taining Safe cell temperatures and pres
Sures presents no problem.
(d) No explosive or toxic gases
emitted by any battery in normal op
eration, or as the result of any probable
malfunction in the charging system or
battery installation, may accumulate in
hazardous quantities within the rotor
Craft.
(e) No corrosive fluids or gases that
may escape from the battery may damage
surrounding structures or adjacent es
sential equipment.
§ 27.1357 Circuit protective devices.
(a) Protective devices, such as fuses or
circuit breakers, must be installed in
each electrical circuit other than–
(1) The main circuits of starter
motors; and
(2) Circuits in which no hazard is pre
Sented by their omission.
(b) No protective device may protect
more than one circuit essential to flight
Safety.
(c) Each resettable circuit protective
device (“trip free” device in Which the
tripping mechanism cannot be overridden
by the operating control) must be de
signed so that—
(1) A manual Operation is required to
restore service after tripping; and
(2) If an Overload or circuit fault
exists, the device Will open the circuit
regardless of the position of the operat
ing control.
(d) If the ability to reset a circuit
breaker or replace a fuse is essential to
safety in flight, that circuit breaker or
fuse must be located and identified
so that it can be readily reset or replaced
in flight.
(e) If fuses are used, there must be
one spare of each rating, or 50 percent
spare fuses of each rating, whichever is
greater.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 27.1361 Master switch.
(a) There must be a master Switch ar
rangement to allow ready disconnection
of each electric power Source from the
main bus. The point of disconnection
must be adjacent to the Sources con
trolled by the switch.
(b) Load circuits may be connected So
that they remain energized after the
switch is opened, if they are protected by
circuit protective devices, rated at five
amperes or less, adjacent to the electric
power Source.
(c) The master switch or its controls
must be installed so that the Switch is
easily discernible and accessible to a
crewmember in flight.
§ 27.1365 Electric cables.
(a) Each electric Connecting cable
must be of adequate capacity.
(b) Each cable that would overheat in
the event of circuit overload or fault
must be at least flame resistant and may
not emit dangerous quantitles of toxic
fumes.
§ 27.1367 Switches.
Each SWitch must be—
(a) Able to carry its rated current;
(b) Accessible to the crew; and
(c) Labeled as to operation and the
circuit controlled.
LIGHTS
§ 27.1381 Instrument lights.
The instrument lights must–
(a) Make each instrument, switch,
and other devices for which they are
provided easily readable; and
(b) Be installed so that—
(1) Their direct rays are shielded from
the pilot's eyes; and
(2) No objectionable reflections are
visible to the pilot.
§ 27.1383 Landing lights.
(a) Each required landing or hovering
light must be approved.
(b) Each landing light must be in
stalled so that—
(1) No objectionable glare is visible
to the pilot;
(2) The pilot is not adversely affected
by halation; and
(3) It provides enough light for night
operation, including howering and land
ing.
(c) At least one separate switch must
be provided, as applicable—
(1) For each separately installed land
ing light; and
343
$ 27.1387
(2) For each group of landing lights
installed at a common location.
§ 27.1385 Position light system installa
tion.
(a) General. Each part of each posi
tion light System must meet the appli
cable requirements of this section, and
each System as a whole must meet the
requirements of $$ 27.1387 through
27.1397.
(b) Forward position lights. Forward
position lights must consist of a red and
a green light Spaced laterally as far apart
as practicable and installed forward on
the rotorcraft so that, with the rotor
craft in the normal flying position, the
red light is on the left side and the green
light is on the right side. Each light
must be approved.
(c) Rear position light. The rear posi
tion light must be a white light mounted
as far aft as practicable, and must be
approved.
(d) Circuit. The two forward position
lights and the rear position light must
make a single circuit.
(e) Light covers and color filters. Each
light cover or color filter must be at least
flame resistant and may not change color
or shape or lose any appreciable light
transmission during normal use.
§ 27.1387 Position light system dihedral
angles.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(e) of this section, each forward and
rear position light must, as installed,
show unbroken light Within the dihedral
angles described in this section.
(b) Dihedral angle L (left) is formed
by two intersecting vertical planes, the
first parallel to the longitudinal axis of
the rotorcraft, and the other at 110 de
grees to the left of the first, as viewed
When looking forward along the longitu
dinal axis.
(c) Dihedral angle R (right) is formed
by two intersecting vertical planes, the
first parallel to the longitudinal axis of
the rotorcraft, and the other at 110 de
grees to the right of the first, as viewed
when looking forward along the longi
tudinal axis.
(d) Dihedral angle A (aft) is formed
by two intersecting vertical planes mak
ing angles of 70 degrees to the right and
to the left, respectively, to a vertical
plane passing through the longitudinal
axis, as viewed when looking aft along
the longitudinal axis.
(e) If the rear position light, when
mounted as far aft as practicable in
§ 27.1389 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
accordance with $25.1385(c), cannot
show unbroken light within dihedral
angle A (as defined in paragraph (d) of
this section), a solid angle or angles of
obstructed visibility totaling not more
than 0.04 steradians is allowable within
that dihedral angle, if such solid angle
is within a cone whose apex is at the rear
position light and whose elements make
an angle of 30° with a vertical line pass
ing through the rear position light.
(49 U.S.C. 1655(c)) [Docket No. 5074, 29 F.R.
15695, Nov. 24, 1964; 29 F.R. 17885, Dec. 17,
1964, as amended by Amdt. 27–7, 36 F.R.
21278, Nov. 5, 1971]
§ 27.1389 Position light distribution and
intensities.
(a) General. The intensities pre
scribed in this section must be provided
by new equipment with light covers and
color filters in place. Intensities must
be determined with the light Source
operating at a steady value equal to the
average luminous output of the Source
at the normal operating voltage of the
rotorcraft. The light distribution and
intensity of each position light must
meet the requirements of paragraph (b)
of this section.
(b) Forward and rear position lights.
The light distribution and intensities of
forward and rear position lights must be
expressed in terms of minimum intensi
ties in the horizontal plane, minimum
intensities in any vertical plane, and
maximum intensities in overlapping
beams, within dihedral angles L, R, and
A, and must meet the following require
ments:
(1) Intensities in the horizontal plane.
Each intensity in the horizontal plane
(the plane containing the longitudinal
axis of the rotorcraft and perpendicular
to the plane of symmetry of the rotor
craft) must equal or exceed the Values
in § 27.1391.
(2) Intensities in any vertical plane.
Each intensity in any vertical plane (the
plane perpendicular to the horizontal
plane) must equal or exceed the appro
priate value in § 27.1393, where I is the
minimum intensity prescribed in § 27.-
1391 for the corresponding angles in the
horizontal plane.
(3) Intensities in overlaps between
adjacent signals. No intensity in any
overlap between adjacent signals may
exceed the values in § 27.1395, except
that higher intensities in overlaps may
be used with main beam intensities Sub
stantially greater than the minima speci
fied in §§ 27.1391 and 27.1393, if the over
344
lap intensities in relation to the main
beam intensities do not adversely affect
signal clarity. When the peak intensity
of the forward position lights is greater
than 100 candles, the maximum overlap
intensities between them may exceed the
values in § 27.1395 if the overlap inten
sity in Area A is not more than 10 per
cent of peak position light intensity and
the overlap intensity in Area B is not
more than 2.5 percent of peak position
light intensity.
§ 27.1391 Minimum intensities in the
horizontal plane of forward and rear
position lights.
Each position light intensity must
equal or exceed the applicable values in
the following table:
Angle from right or
Dihedral angle left of longitudinal || Intensity
(light included) axis, measured from I (candles)
dead ahead
L and R (forward red 0° to 10°---- 40
and green). 10° to 20°--- - 30
20° to 110°-- -- 5
A (rear white).-------- 110° to 180°---------- 20
§ 27.1393 Minimum intensities in any
vertical plane of forward and rear
position lights.
Each position light intensity must
equal or exceed the applicable values in
the following table:
Angle above or below the
horizontal plane: Intensity
0" ------------------------------- 1.00 I.
0" to 5’-------------------------- 0.90 I.
5° to 10"------------------------- 0.80 I
10" to 15"------------------------ 0.70 I
15° to 20"----------------------- 0.50 I
20" to 80"------------------------ 0.30 I
80" to 40"------------------------ 0.10 I
40° to 90"------------------------ 0.05 I
§ 27.1395 Maximum intensities in over
lapping beams of forward and rear
position lights.
No position light intensity may ex
ceed the applicable values in the follow
ing table, except as provided in § 27.1389
(b) (3).
Maximum intensity
Overlaps
Area. A | Area B
(candles) (candles)
Green in dihedral angle L.---
Red in dihedral angle R---
Green in dihedral angle A
Red in dihedral angle A-----------
Rear white in dihedral angle L.----
Rear white in dihedral angle R----
5
5
5 l
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation
- Where—
(a) Area A includes all directions in
the adjacent dihedral angle that pass
. through the light source and intersect
the common boundary plane at more
than 10 degrees but less than 20 degrees;
and
T(b) Area B includes all directions in
the adjacent dihedral angle that pass
through the light source and intersect
the common boundary plane at more
than 20 degrees.
§ 27.1397 Color specifications.
Each position light color must have the
applicable International Commission on
Illumination chromaticity coordinates
as follows:
(a) Aviation red—
“y” is not greater than 0.335; and
“z” is not greater than 0.002.
: (b) Aviation green—
“r” is not greater than 0.440–0.320 y;
“r” is not greater than y—0.170; and
“y” is not less than 0.390—0.1702.
(c) Aviation white—
“r” is not less than 0.300 and not greater
than 0.540;
“y” is not less than “r–0.040” or “yo
–0.010”, whichever is the smaller; and
“y” is not greater than “r-H0.020”
“0.636–0.4001:”;
Where “yo” is the “y” coordinate of the
Planckian radiator for the value of
Considered.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–6, 36 F.R. 12972,
July 10, 1971)
§ 27. 1399 Riding light.
(a) Each riding light required for
water operation must be installed so
that it can—
(1) Show a White light for at least two
nautical miles at night under clear at
mospheric conditions; and
(2) Show a maximum practicable un
broken light with the rotorcraft on the
Water.
(b) Externally hung lights may be
used.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 964, Jan.
26, 1968]
§ 27.1401 Anticollision light system.
(a) General. If certification
night operation is requested, the rotor
craft must have an anticollision light
system that—
(1) Consists of one or more approved
anticollision lights located so that their
emitted light will not impair the crew's
39–059–75–28
Administration § 27.1401
vision or detract from the conspicuity
of the position lights; and
(2) Meets the requirements of para
graphs (b) through (f) of this section.
(b) Field of coverage. The system
must consist of enough lights to illumi
nate the vital areas around the rotor
craft, considering the physical config
uration and flight characteristics of
the rotorcraft. The field of coverage
must extend in each direction within at
least 30 degrees above and 30 degrees
below the horizontal plane of the rotor
Craft, except that there may be solid an
gles of obstructed visibility totaling nog
more than 0.5 steradians.
(c) Flashing characteristics. The ar
rangement of the system, that is, the
number of light sources, beam width,
Speed of rotation, and other characteris
tics, must give an effective flash fre
quency of not less than 40, nor more than
100, cycles per minute. The effective
flash frequency is the frequency at which
the rotorcraft's complete anticollision
light system is observed from a distance,
and applies to each sector of light includ
ing any overlaps that exist when the sys
tem consists of more than one light
source. In overlaps, flash frequencies
nor may exceed 100, but not 180, cycles per
minute.
(d) Color. Each anticollision light
“r” must be either aviation red or aviation
white and must meet the applicable re
quirements of § 27.1397.
(e) Light intensity. The minimum
light intensities in any vertical plane,
measured with the red filter (if used)
and expressed in terms of “effective” in
tensities, must meet the requirements of
paragraph (f) of this Section. The fol
lowing relation must be assumed:
t2
s
ſituat
**śāi (, );
Where:
Ie= effective intensity (candles).
I (t) = instantaneous intensity as a func
tion of time.
ta—ti-flash time interval (seconds).
Normally, the maximum value of effec
tive intensity is obtained when tz and ti
are chosen so that the effective intensity
for is equal to the instantaneous intensity at
t2 and ti.
(f) Minimum effective intensities for
anticollision light. Each anticollision
light effective intensity must equal or
exceed the applicable values in the fol
lowing table:
345
§ 27.1411 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
Effective
Angle above or below intensity
the horizontal plane: (candles)
0° to 5’----------------------------- 400
5° to 10"---------------------------- 240
10° to 20"--------------------------- 80
20" to 80"--------------------------- 40
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–6, 36 F.R. 12972,
July 10, 1971]
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
§ 27.1411 General.
Required safety equipment to be used
by the crew in an emergency, Such as
flares and automatic liferaft releases,
must be readily accessible.
§ 27.1413 Safety belts.
(a) The rated strength of safety belts
may not be less than that corresponding
With the ultimate load factors Specified
in § 27.561 (b), considering the dimen
sional characteristics of the belt installa
tion for the specific seat or berth ar
rangement.
(b) Each belt must be attached so that
no part of its anchorage can fall at a
load lower than that corresponding with
the ultimate load factors Specified in
$ 27.561(b).
§ 27.1415 Ditching equipment.
(a) Emergency flotation and signal
ing equipment required by any operating
rule in this chapter must meet the re
quirements of this Section.
(b) Each raft and each life preserver
must be approved and must be installed
so that it is readily available to the crew
and passengers.
(c) Each raft released automatically
or by the pilot must be attached to the
rotorcraft by a line to keep it alongside
the rotorcraft. This line must be weak
enough to break before submerging the
empty raft to which it is attached.
(d) Each signaling device must be
free from hazard in its operation and
must be installed in an accessible loca
tion.
§ 27.1435 Hydraulic systems.
(a) Design. Each hydraulic System
and its elements must withstand, with
out yielding, any structural loads ex
pected in addition to hydraulic loads.
(b) Tests. Each System must be sub
stantiated by proof pressure tests.
When proof tested, no part of any sys
tem may fail, malfunction, or experience
a permanent set. The proof load of
each System must be at least 1.5 times
346
the maximum operating pressure of that
System.
(c) Accumulators. No hydraulic ac
cumulator or pressurized reservoir may
be installed on the engine side of any
firewall unless it is an integral part of
an engine.
§ 27.1461 Equipment containing high
energy rotors.
(a) Equipment containing high energy
rotors must meet paragraph (b), (c), or
(d) of this section.
(b) High energy rotors contained in
equipment must be able to withstand
damage caused by malfunctions, vibra
tion, abnormal speeds, and abnormal
temperatures. In addition—
(1) Auxiliary rotor cases must be able
to contain damage caused by the failure
of high energy rotor blades; and
(2) Equipment control devices, sys
tems, and instrumentation must rea
Sonably ensure that no operating limita
tions affecting the integrity of high
energy rotors will be exceeded in service.
(c) It must be shown by test that
equipment containing high energy rotors
can contain any failure of a high energy
rotor that occurs at the highest speed
obtainable with the normal speed con
trol devices inoperative.
(d) Equipment containing high energy
rotors must be located where rotor fail
ure will neither endanger the OCCupants
nor adversely affect continued safe flight.
[Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 964, Jan. 26, 1968]
Subpart G-Operating Limitations and
Information
§ 27.1501 General.
Each operating limitation specified in
$$ 27.1503 through 27.1525 and other in
formation necessary for safe operation
must—
(a) For each rotorcraft, other than
a helicopter, be included in a rotorcraft
flight manual and expressed in placards
and markings;
(b) For each helicopter, be included
in a Rotorcraft Flight Manual or in ap
proved manual material, unless the op
erating rules of this chapter require a
Rotorcraft Flight Manual, and expressed
in placards and markings; and
(c) Be made available by any other
means that will convey the information
to the crewmembers.
[Doc. No. 9826, Amdt. 27–8, 87 F.R. 20023,
Sept. 23, 1972, as amended at 37 F.R. 21820,
Oct. 7, 1972.]
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
OPERATING LIMITATIONS
§ 27.1503 Airspeed limitations: general.
(a) An operating speed range must be
established.
(b) When airspeed limitations are a
function of weight, weight distribution,
altitude, rotor speed, power, or other
factors, airspeed limitations correspond
ing with the critical combinations of
these factors must be established.
§ 27.1505 Never-exceed speed.
(a) The never-exceed speed Vya must
be established so that it is—
(1) Not less than Wr with the engines
at maximum continuous power; and
(2) Not more than the lesser Of
(i) 0.9W established under § 27.309;
and -
(ii) 0.9 times the maximum speed
shown under §§ 27.251 and 27.629.
(b) Vys may vary with altitude, r.p.m.,
temperature, and weight, if—
(1) No more than two of these varia
bles (or no more than two instruments
integrating more than one of these
Variables) are used at One time; and
(2) The ranges of these variables (or
of the indications on instruments inte
grating more than one of these varia
bles) are large enough to allow an op
erationally practical an dSafe variation
of Vrr.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 964, Jan.
26, 1968]
§ 27.1509 Rotor speed.
(a) Marimum power off (autorota
tion). The maximum power-off rotor
speed must be established so that it does
not exceed 95 percent of the lesser of—
(1) The maximum design r.p.m. de
termined under § 27.309 (b); and
(2) The maximum r.p.m. shown dur
ing the type tests.
(b) Minimum power off. The mini
mum power-off rotor speed must be es
tablished so that it is not less than 105
percent of the greater of—
(1) The minimum shown during the
type tests; and
(2) The minimum determined by de
sign substantiation.
(c) Minimum power on. The mini
mum power-on rotor Speed must be es
tablished so that it is—
(1) Not less than the greater of—
(i) The minimum shown during the
type tests; and
(ii) The minimum determined by de
sign substantiation; and
347
§ 27.1521
(2) Not more than a value determined
under § 27.33(a)(1) and (b)(1).
§ 27.1519 Weight and center of gravity.
(a) The weight and center of gravity
limitations determined under §§ 27.25
and 27.27, respectively, must be estab
lished as operating limitations.
(b) Each weight that is less than the
highest weight allowing hovering in
ground effect at any given altitude un
der § 27.73, and that is used to establish
the limiting height-speed envelope under
§ 27.79, must be established as a weight
limitation for operation at that altitude.
[Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 965, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 27.1521 Powerplant limitations.
(a) General. The powerplant limita
tions prescribed in this section must be
established so that they do not exceed
the corresponding limits for which the
engines are type certificated.
(b) Takeoff operation. The power
plant takeoff operation must be limited
by—
(1) The maximum rotational speed,
which may not be greater than—
(i) The maximum Value determined
by the rotor design; or
(ii) The maximum value shown dur
ing the type tests;
(2) The maximum allowable manifold
pressure (for reciprocating engines) ;
(3) The time limit for the use of the
power corresponding to the limitations
established in subparagraphs (1) and
(2) of this paragraph;
(4) If the time limit in subparagraph
(3) of this paragraph exceeds two min
utes, the maximum allowable cylinder
head, coolant outlet, or oil temperatures;
(5) The gas temperature limits for
turbine engines over the range of oper
ating and atmospheric conditions for
which certification is requested.
(c) Continuous operation. The coln
tinuous operation must be limited by—
(1) The maximum rotational speed
which may not be greater than—
(i) The maximum value determined
by the rotor design; or
(ii) The maximum value shown dur
ing the type tests;
(2) The minimum rotational speed
shown under the rotor speed require
ments in § 27.1509(c); and
(3) The gas temperature limits for
turbine engines over the range of Oper
ating and atmospheric conditions for
which certification is requested.
(d) Fuel grade or designation. The
minimum fuel grade (for reciprocating
§ 27.1223 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
engines), or fuel designation (for tur
bine engines), must be established so
that it is not less than that required for
the operation of the engines within the
limitations in paragraphs (b) and (c)
of this Section.
(e) Turboshaft engine torque. For
rotorcraft with main rotors driven by
turboshaft engines, and that do not
have a torque limiting device in the
transmission system, the following apply:
(1) A limit engine torque must be es
tablished if the maximum torque that
the engine can exert is greater than—
(i) The torque that the rotor drive
System is designed to transmit; or
(ii) The torque that the main rotor
assembly is designed to withstand in
showing compliance with $ 27.547 (e).
(2) The limit engine torque estab
lished under subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph may not exceed either torque
specified in Subdivision (1) (i) or (ii) of
this paragraph.
§ 27. 1523 Minimum ſlight crew.
The minimum flight crew must be es
tablished so that it is sufficient for safe
operation, considering—
(a) The workload on individual crew
members;
(b) The accessibility and ease of oper
ation of necessary controls by the appro
priate crewmember; and
(c) The kinds of operation authorized
under § 27.1525.
§ 27.1525 Kinds of operation.
The kinds of operation to which the
rotorcraft is limited are established by
the flight characteristics and installed
equipment.
§ 27.1529 Rotorcraft Maintenance Man
ual.
(a) Each rotorcraft must be furnished
with a Rotorcraft Maintenance Manual
containing the following:
(1) All information that the applicant
considers essential for proper mainte
nance, including replacement times for
major components, if replacement is an
ticipated. Part numbers (or equivalent)
must be furnished for major compo
nents for which a replacement time is
furnished.
(2) The replacement times, inspection
intervals, and related procedures ap
proved under § 27.571, and the part
number (or equivalent) of each com
ponent to which they apply. This sec
tion of the manual must be identified by
the title “Airworthiness Limitations.”
348
The information and procedures in this
Section of the manual—
(i) Must be consistent with the infor
mation in the rest of the manual;
(ii) Must be practicable; and
(iii) Must indicate where “equivalent”
procedures are to be permitted.
(b) The information in the “Air
Worthiness Limitations” section of the
manual must be segregated and clearly
distinguished from the rest of the
manual.
(Secs. 604, 605, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424,
1425 (Amdt. 27–3, 33 F.R. 14106, Sept. 18,
1968]
MARKINGS AND PLACARDs
§ 27.1541 General.
(a) The rotorcraft must contain—
(1) The markings and placards speci
fied in §§ 27.1545 through 27.1565, and
(2) Any additional information, in
strument markings, and placards re
quired for the safe operation of rotor
craft with unusual design, operating or
handling characteristics.
(b) Each marking and placard pre
Scribed in paragraph (a) of this sec
tion—
(1) Must be displayed in a conspicu
ous place; and
(2) May not be easily erased, disfig
ured, or obscured.
§ 27.1543 Instrument markings: " gen
eral.
For each instrument—
(a) When markings are on the cover
glass of the instrument, there must be
means to maintain the correct align
ment of the glass cover with the face of
the dial; and
(b) Each arc and line must be wide
enough, and located, to be clearly visible
to the pilot.
§ 27.1545 Airspeed indicator.
(a) Each airspeed indicator must be
marked to show indicated airspeed.
(b) The following markings must be
made:
(1) For the limit beyond which opera
tion is dangerous, a red radial line.
(2) For the caution range, a yellow
arc.
(3) For the safe operating range, a
green arc.
§ 27.1547 Magnetic direction indicator.
(a) A placard meeting the require
ments of this section must be installed on
or near the magnetic direction indicator.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(b) The placard must show the call
bration of the instrument in level flight
with the engines Operating.
(c) The placard must state whether
the calibration Was made With radio re
ceivers on or off.
(d) Each calibration reading must be
in terms of magnetic heading in not
more than 45 degree increments.
§ 27.1549 Powerplant instruments.
For each required powerplant instru
men U
(a) Each maximum and, if applicable,
minimum safe operating limit must be
marked with a red radial line;
(b) Each normal operating range quirements.
must be marked with a green arc not ex (b) Seats. If the maximum allowable
tending beyond the maximum and mini- . weight to be carried in a seat is less than
mum safe operating limits; and
(c) Each takeoff and precautionary
range must be marked with a yellow arc.
§ 27.1551 Oil quantity indicator.
Each oil quantity indicator must be
marked with enough increments to in
dicate readily and accurately the quan
tity of oil.
§ 27.1553. Fuel quantity indicator.
If the unusable fuel supply for any
tank exceeds one gallon, or five percent
of the tank capacity, whichever is great
er, a red arc must be marked on its indi
cator extending from the calibrated Zero
reading to the lowest reading obtainable
in level flight.
§ 27.1555 Control markings.
(a) Each cockpit control must be
plainly marked as to its function and
method of operation.
(b) For powerplant fuel controls—
(1) Each fuel tank selector control
must be marked to indicate the position
corresponding to each tank and to each
existing cross feed position;
(2) If safe operation requires the use
of any tanks in a specific sequence, that
sequence must be marked on, or adjacent
to. the selector for those tanks; and
(3) Each valve control for any engine
of a multiengine rotorcraft must be
marked to indicate the position corre
sponding to each engine controlled.
(c) The capacity of each tank must
be marked on, or near each selector con
trolling that tank.
(d) For accessory, auxiliary, and
emergency controls—
(1) Each essential visual position in
dicator, such as those showing rotor
349
§ 27.1559
pitch or landing gear position, must be
marked so that each crewmember can
determine at any time the position of the
unit to which it relates; and
(2) Each emergency control must be
red and must be marked as to method of
operation.
§ 27.1557 Miscellaneous markings and
piacards.
(a) Baggage and cargo compartments,
and ballast location. Each baggage and
Cargo Compartment, and each ballast lo
cation must have a placard stating any
limitations on contents, including weight,
that are necessary under the loading re
170 pounds, a placard stating the lesser
weight must be permanently attached to
the Seat structure.
(c) Fuel and oil filler openings. The
following must be marked on, or near,
each appropriate filler cover:
(1) The word “fuel”, the minimum
fuel grade or designation for the en
gines, and the usable fuel tank capacity.
(2) The word “oil” and the oil tank
capacity.
(d) Emergency erit placards. Each
placard and operating control for each
emergency exit must be red. A placard
must be near each emergency exit
control and must clearly indicate the lo
cation of that exit and its method of
Operation.
§ 27.1559 Limitations placard.
There must be a placard in clear view
of the pilot stating:
The markings and placards installed on this
-------------- (Insert helicopter, gyrodyne,
etc.) contain operating limitations which
must be complied with when operating this
rotorcraft. Other operating limitations which
must be complied with when operating this
rotorcraft are contained in the ------------.
(Insert “Rotorcraft Flight Manual” for rotor
craft other than helicopters. Insert either
“Rotorcraft Flight Manual” or “approved
manual material,” whichever is applicable,
for helicopters. If “approved manual mate
rial” is inserted, the placard must also con
tain a statement setting forth the form and
location of the material.) If the Rotorcraft
Maintenance Manual Contains “Airworthi
ness Limitations” issued under § 27.1529 (a)
(2), the placard must contain the following
additional Statement: “The “AirWorthiness
Limitations' Section of the Rotorcraft Main
tenance Manual must be complied with.”
[Doc. No. 9827, Amdt. 27–8, 37 F.R. 21320,
Oct. 7, 1972.]
§ 27.1561 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 27.1561 Safety equipment.
(a) Each safety equipment control to
be operated by the crew in emergency,
such as controls for automatic liferaſt
releases, must be plainly marked as to its
method of operation.
(b) Each location, such as a locker
or compartment, that carries any fire
extinguishing, signaling, or other life
saving equipment, must be so marked.
§ 27.1565 Tail rotor.
Each tail rotor must be marked so that
its disc is conspicuous under normal day
light ground conditions.
[Amdt. 27–2, 33 F.R. 965, Jan. 26, 1968]
ROTORCRAFT FLIGHT MANUAL AND APPROVED
MANUAL MATERIAL *
§ 27.1581 General.
(a) Furnishing information. The ap
plicable information in §§ 27.1583
through 27.1589 must be furnished—
(1) For each rotorcraft other than a
helicopter, in a Rotorcraft Flight Man
ual; and
(2) For each helicopter, in a rotor
craft flight manual, or in any combina
tion of approved manual material, mark
ings, and placards, unless the operating
rules Of this chapter require a rotorcraft
flight manual.
(b) Approval and segregation of in
formation. Each part of the rotorcraft
flight manual containing information
prescribed in §§ 27.1583 through 27.1589
must be approved, segregated, identified,
and clearly distinguished from each un
approved part of the rotorcraft flight
manual. All approved manual material
must be clearly identified, and not easily
erased, disfigured, or misplaced, and it
must be in the form of individual sheets
capable of being inserted in a manual
provided by the applicant, or in a folder,
or in any other permanent form. Infor
mation not required to be furnished by
this section may not be included in the
approved manual material.
(c) Additional information. Any in
formation not specified in §§ 27,1583
through 27.1589 that is required for safe
operation because of unusual design,
operating, or handling characteristics,
must be furnished.
[29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964; 29 F.R. 17885,
Dec. 17, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 27–8,
37 F.R. 20024, Sept. 23, 1972]
* 37 F.R. 20023, Sept. 23, 1973.
350
§ 27.1583 Operating limitations.
(a) Airspeed and rotor limitations.
Information necessary for the marking
of airspeed and rotor limitations on, or
near, their respective indicators must be
furnished. The significance of each
limitation and of the color coding must
be explained.
(b) Powerplant limitations. Infor
mation must be furnished to explain the
powerplant limitations, and to allow
marking the instruments under §§ 27.-
1549 through 27.1553.
(c) Weight and loading distribution.
The weight and center of gravity limits
required by §§ 27.25 and 27.27, respec
tively, must be furnished. If the variety
of possible loading conditions warrants,
instructions must be included to allow
ready observance of the limitations.
(d) Flight crew. When a flight crew
of more than one is required, the number
and functions of the minimum flight
crew determined under § 27.1523 must
be furnished.
(e) Kinds of operation. Each kind of
operation for which the rotorcraft and
its equipment installations are approved
must be listed.
(f) Unusable fuel. If the unusable
fuel in any tank exceeds one gallon, or
five percent of tank capacity, whichever
is greater, there must be means to warn
the flight personnel that the fuel remain
ing in that tank when the quantity indi
cator reads “Zero” cannot be used safely
in flight.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 F.R. 15695, Nov. 24, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 27–2, 83 F.R. 965, Jan.
26, 1968]
§ 27.1585 Operating procedures.
(a) Parts of the manual containing
operating procedures must have infor
mation concerning any normal and
emergency procedures, and other infor
mation necessary for safe operation, in
cluding takeoff and landing procedures
and associated airspeeds.
(b) For multiengine rotorcraft, infor
mation identifying each operating condi
tion in which the fuel system independ
ence prescribed in § 27.953 is necessary
for safety must be furnished, together
with instructions for placing the fuel
System in a configuration used to show
Compliance with that Section.
[Amdt. 27–1, 32 F.R. 6914, May 5, 1967]
§ 27.1587 Performance information.
(a) The rotorcraft must be furnished
with—
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration Part 29

(1) Enough information to determine Sec.

the limiting height-speed envelope; and 29.67 Climb: one engine inoperative.
(2) Information relative to 29.71 Helicopter angle of glide: cate
gory B.
(i) The hovering ceilings and the 29.73 Performance at minimum operating
steady rates of climb and descent, as aſ speed.
fected by any pertinent factors such as 29.75 Landing.
airspeed, temperature, and altitude; 29.77 Balked landing: category A.
and 29.79 Limiting height-speed envelope.
(ii) The maximum safe wind for oper FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICs
ation near the ground.
29.141 General.
(b) The Rotorcraft Flight Manual (if 29.143 Controlability and roaneuver
provided) must contain— ability.
(1) In its performance information 29,161 Trim control.
Section any pertinent information con 29.171 Stability: general.
cerning the takeoff weights and altitudes 29.173 Static longitudinal stability.
used in compliance with $ 27.51; and 29.175 Demonstration of static longitudi
(2) In its operating procedures sec nal stability.
tion— GROUND AND WATER HANDLING
(i) Any pertinent information con CHARACTERISTICS
cerning the takeoff procedure, including 29.231 General.
the kind of takeoff Surface used in the 29.235 Taxiing condition.
tests and each appropriate climbout 29.239 Spray characteristics.
speed; and 29.241 Ground resonance.
(ii) Any pertinent landing procedures, MISCELLANEous FLIGHT REQUIREMENTs
including the kind of landing Surface
29.251 Vibration.
used in the tests and appropriate ap
proach and glide airspeeds. Subpart C–Strength Requirements
§ 27.1589 Loading information. GENERAL
There must be loading instructions 29.301 Loads.
for each possible loading condition be 29.303 Factor of safety.
tween the maximum and minimum 29.305 Strength and deformation.
weights determined under § 27.25 that 29.307 Proof of structure.
can result in a center of gravity beyond 29.309 Design limitations.
any extreme prescribed in § 27.27, as FLIGHT LOADs
suming any probable occupant Welghts. 29.321 General.
29.337 Limit maneuvering load factor.
PART 29–AIRWORTHINESS STAND 29.339 Resultant limit maneuvering loads.
29.341 Gust loads.
ARDS: TRANSPORT CATEGORY RO 29.351 Yawing conditions.
TORCRAFT 29.361 Engine torque.
Subpart A–General CONTROL SURFACE AND SYSTEMI Loads
Sec. 29.391 General.
29.1 Applicability. 29.395 Control system.
Subpart B–Flight 29.397 Limit pilot forces.
29.399 Dual control system.
GENERAL
29.401 Auxiliary rotor assemblies.
29.21 Proof of compliance. 29.403 Auxiliary rotor attachment struc
29.25 Weight limits. ture.
29.27 Center of gravity limits. 29.411 Ground clearance; tail rotor guard.
29.29 Empty weight and corresponding 29.413 Stabilizing and control surfaces.
center of gravity. GROUND LOADs
29.31 Removable ballast.
29.471 General.
29.33 Main roto speed and pitch limits.
29,473 Ground loading conditions and as
PERFORMANCE
sumptions.
29.45 General. 29.475 Tires and shock absorbers.
29.51 Takeoff data: general. 29.477 Landing gear arrangement.
29.53 Takeoff: category A. 29.479 Level landing conditions.
29.59 Takeoff path: category A. 29.481 Tail-down landing conditions.
29.68 Takeoff: category B. 29.483. One-wheel landing conditions.
29.65 Category B climb: all engines oper 29.485 Lateral drift landing conditions.
ating. 29.493 Braked roll conditions.

351
 Part 29 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
Sec. Sec.
29.497 Ground loading conditions: landing 29.729 Retracting mechanism.
gear with tail wheels. 29.731 Wheels.
29.501 Ground loading conditions: landing 29.733 Tires.
gear with skids. 29.735 Brakes.
29.505 Ski landing conditions. 29.737 Skls.
29.511 Ground load: unsymmetrical loads
FLOATS AND HULLs
on multiple-wheel units.
WATER Loads 29.751 Main float buoyancy.
29.753 Main float design.
29.519 Hull type rotorcraft: Water based, 29.755 Hull buoyancy.
amphibian, and limited amphib 29.757 Hull and auxiliary float strength.
lan.
29.521 Float landing conditions. PERSONNEL AND CARGO Accommodartorrs

MAIN ComponenT REQUIREMENTs 29.771 Pilot compartment.

29,773 Pilot compartment view.
29.547 Main rotor structure. Windshield and windows.
29.775
29.549 Fuselage and rotor pylon structures. 29.777 Cockpit controls.
29.551 Auxiliary lifting surfaces. 29.783 Doors.
EMERGENCY LANDING ConDITIONS 29.785 Seats, safety belts, and harnesses.
29.561 General.
29.787 Cargo and baggage compartments.
29.803 Emergency evacuation.
FATIGUE Evaluation 29.805 Flight crew emergency exits.
29.807 Passenger emergency exits.
29,571 Fatigure evaluation of flight struc 29.809 Emergency exit arrangement.
ture.
29,811 Emergency exit marking.
Subpart D–Design and Construction 29.813 Emergency exit access.
29.815 Main aisle Width.
GENERAL 29.831 Ventilation.
29.833 Heaters.
29.601 Design.
29.603 Materials. FIRE PROTECTION
29.605 Fabrication methods.
29.607 Fasteners. 29.851 Fire extinguishers.
29.609 Protection of structure. 29.853 Compartment interiors.
29.611 Inspection provisions. 29.855 Cargo and baggage compartments.
29.613 Material strength properties and 29.859 Combustion heater fire protection.
design values. 29.861 Fire protection of structure, con
29.619 Special factors. trols, and other parts.
29.621 Casting factors. 29.863 Flammable fluid fire protection.
29.623 Bearing factors. MISCELLANEous
29.625 Fitting factors.
29.629 Flutter, 29.871 Leveling marks.
RotoRs 29.878 Ballast provisions.
29.877 Ice protection.
29.653 Pressure venting and drainage of Subpart E–Powerplant
rotor blades.
29.659 Mass balance. GENERAL
29.661 Rotor blade clearance. 29,901 Installation.
29.663 Ground resonance prevention 29.903 Engines.
Ineans. 29.907 Engine vibration.
CoNTROL SYSTEMs ROTOR DRIVE SYSTEM
29.671 General, 29.917 Design.
29.675 Stops. 29.921 Rotor brake.
29.679 Control system locks. 29.923 Rotor drive system and control
29.681 Limit load Static tests. mechanism tests.
29.683 Operation tests. 29.927. Additional tests.
29.685 Control system details. 29.931 Shafting critical speed.
29.687 Spring devices. 29.935 Shafting joints.
29.691 Autorotation control mechanism. 29.939 Turbine engine operating charac
teristics.
29,695 Power boost and power-operated
control system. FUEL SYSTEM
LANDING GEAR 29.951 General.
29.953 Fuel system independence.
29.723 Shock absorption tests. 29.955 Fuel flow.
29.725 Limit drop test. 29.957 Flow between interconnected tank
29.727 Reserve energy absorption drop test.
29.959 Unusable fuel supply.

35 o
-
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration Part 29

Sec.
29.961 Fuel system hot weather operation. 29.1183 Flammable and fluid-carrying com
29.963 Fuel tanks: general. ponents.
29.965 Fuel tank tests. 29.1.185 Flammable fluids.
29.967 Fuel tank installation. 29.1187 Drainage and ventilation of fire
29.969 Fuel tank expansion space. 2Ones.

29.971 Fuel tank sump. 29.1189 Shutoff means.

29.973 Fuel tank filler connection. 29.1.191 Firewalls.
29.975 Fuel tank vents and carburetor 29.1.193 Cowling and engine compartment
vapor vents. covering.
29.977 Fuel tank outlet. 29.1.194 Other surfaces.
29.979 Pressure refueling and fueling pro 29.1.195 Fire extinguishing systems.
visions below fuel level. 29.1197 Fire extinguishing agents.
FUEL SYSTEM Compone:NTS
29.11.99 Extinguishing agent containers.
29.120.1 Fire extinguishing system materials.
29.991 Fuel pumps. 29.1203 Fire detector systems.
29.993 Fuel system lines and fittings.
29.995 Fuel Valves. Subpart F-Equipment
29.997 Fuel strainer or filter. GENERAL
29.999 Fuel system drains. 29.1301 Function and installation.
Orr, SYSTEM 29.1303 Flight and navigation instruments.
29.1011 General. 29.1305 Powerplant instruments.
29.1013 Oil tanks. 29.1307 Miscellaneous equipment.
29.1015 Oil tank tests. 29.1309 Equipment, systems, and installa
29.1017 Oil lines and fittings. tions.
29.1019 Oil Strainer or filter. INSTRUMENTS: INSTALLATIon
29 1021 Oll system drains.
29.1023 Oil radiators.
29.1321 Arrangement and visibility.
29.1322 Warning, caution, and advisory
29.1025 Oil valves.
lights.
Cooling 29.1323 Airspeed indicating system.
29.1041 General.
29.1325 Static air vent and pressure altim
eter systems.
29.1043 Cooling tests. 29.1327 Magnetic direction indicator.
29.1045 Climb cooling test procedures. 29.1329 Automatic pilot system.
29.1047 Takeoff cooling test procedures. 29.1331 Instruments using a power supply.
29.1049 Hovering cooling test procedures. 29.1333 Duplicate instrument systems.
INDUCTIon SYSTEM 29.1337 Powerplant instruments.
29.1091 Air induction. ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND Equipm ENT
29.1093 Induction system icing protection. 29.1351 General.
29.11.01 Carburetor air preheater design. 29.1853 Electrical equipment and installa
29.1103 Induction system ducts. tions.
29.1105 Induction system screens. 29.1355 Distribution system.
29.1107 Inter-coolers and after-coolers. 29.1357 Circuit protective devices.
29.11.09 Carburetor air cooling. 29.1359 Electrical system fire and smoke
ExHAUST SYSTEM protection.
29.1363 Electrical system tests.
29.1121 General.
LIGHTB
29.11.23 Exhaust piping.
29.1125 Exhaust heat exchangers. 29.1381 Instrument lights.
POWERPLANT CONTROLS AND ACCESSORDEs 29.1383 Landing lights.
29.1885 Position light system installation.
29.1141 Powerplant controls: general. 29.1387 Position light system dihedral
29.1143 Throttle and antidetonant injection angles.
system controls. 29.1389 Position light distribution and in
29.1145 Ignition switches. tensities.
29.1147 Mixture controls.
29.1391 Minimum intensities in the hori
29.1151 Rotor brake controls.
zontal plane of forward and rear
29.1157 Carburetor air temperature controls.
position lights.
29.1159 Supercharger controls. 29.1393 Minimum intensities in any verti
29-1163 Powerplant accessories.
cal plane of forward and rear po
29-1165 Engine ignition systems.
sition lights.
PowerPLANT FIRE PROTECTION 29.1395 Maximum intensities in overlapping
29.1181 Designated fire zones: regions in beams of forward and rear posi
cluded. tion lights.

353
§ 29.1 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
Sec.
29.1397 Color specifications.
Subpart A–General
29.1399 Riding light. § 29.1 Applicability.
29.1401 Anticollision light system.
(a) This part prescribes airworthiness
SAFETY Equipm ENT
standards for the issue of type certifi
29.1411 General. cates, and changes to those certificates,
29.1413 Safety belts: passenger warning for—
device. (1) Multiengine rotorcraft that meet
20.1415 Ditching equipment. the requirements for transport category
MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT A;
29.1431 Electronic equipment. (2) Rotorcraft with maximum weights
29.1433 Vacuum systems. of 20,000 pounds or less that meet the
29.1435 Hydraulic systems. requirements for transport category B;
29.1439 and
Protective breathing equipment.
29.1457 Cockpit voice recorders. (3) Multiengine rotorcraft that meet
29.1461 Equipment containing high energy the requirements for transport category
rotors. A Or B.
(b) Each person who applies under
Subpart G–Operating Limitations and
Information
Part 21 for a certificate or change
described in paragraph (a) of this sec
29.1501 General. tion must show compliance with the ap
OPERATING LIMITATIONS plicable requirements of this part.
29.1503 Airspeed limitations: general. Subpart B–Flight
29.1505 Never-exceed speed.
29.1509 GENERAL
Rotor speed.
29.1517 Limiting height-speed envelope. § 29.21 Proof of compliance.
29.1519 Weight and center of gravity.
29.1521 Powerplant limitations.
(a) Each requirement of this subpart
29.1523 Minimum flight crew. must be met at each appropriate com
29.1525 Kinds of operation. bination of weight and center of gravity
29.1529 Rotorcraft Maintenance Manual. within the range of loading conditions
MARKINGS AND PLACARDs
for which certification is requested. This
must be shown—
29.1541 General.
(1) By tests upon a rotorcraft of the
29.1543 Instrument markings: general.
29.1545
type for which certification is requested,
Airspeed indicator.
29.1547 Magnetic direction indicator.
or by calculations based on, and equal
29.1549 Powerplant instruments. in accuracy to, the results of testing;
29.1551 and
Oil quantity indicator.
29.1553 Fuel quantity indicator. (2) By Systematic investigation of
29.1555 Control markings. each required combination of weight and
29.1557 Miscellaneous markings and plac center of gravity, if compliance cannot
ards.
be reasonably inferred from combina
29.1559 Limitations placard. tions investigated.
29.1561 Safety equipment.
29.1565 Tail rotor. (b) The controllability, stability, and
trim of the rotorcraft must be shown for
ROTORCRAFT FLIGHT MANUAL
each altitude up to the maximum ex
29.1581 General. pected in Operation.
29.1583 Operating limitations.
29.1585 Operating procedures. § 29.25 Weight limits.
29.1587 Performance information. (a) Marimum weight. The maximum
29.1589 Loading information. weight (the highest weight at which
AUTHoRrrr: The provisions of this Part 29 compliance With each applicable require
issued under secs. 313, 601, 603, 72 Stat. 752, ment of this part is shown) or, at the
775; 49 U.S.C. 1354, 1421, 1423. option of the applicant, the highest
SouacE: The provisions of this Part 29 Weight for each altitude and for each
contained in Docket No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, practicably separable operating condi
Dec. 3, 1964, unless otherwise noted. tion, such as takeoff, en route operation,

354
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
and landing, must be established so that
it is not more than—
(1) The highest weight selected by the
applicant;
(2) The design maximum weight (the
highest weight at which compliance
With each applicable structural loading
Condition of this part is shown); or
(3) The highest weight at which com
pliance with each applicable flight re
quirement of this part is shown.
(b) Minimum weight. The minimum
Weight (the lowest weight at which
Compliance with each applicable require
ment of this part is shown) must be
established so that it is not less than—
(1) The lowest weight selected by the
applicant;
(2) The design minimum weight (the
lowest weight at which compliance with
each structural loading condition of this
part is shown); or
(3) The lowest weight at which com
pliance with each applicable flight re
quirement of this part is shown.
§ 29.27 Center of gravity limits.
The extreme forward and aft centers
of gravity and, where critical, the ex
treme lateral centers of gravity must be
established for each weight established
under § 29.25. Such an extreme may not
lie beyond—
(a) The extremes selected by the
applicant;
(b) The extremes Within Which the
structure is proven; or
(c) The extremes Within Which com
pliance with the applicable flight re
quirements is shown.
[Amdt. 29–3, 83 F.R. 965, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 29.29 Empty weight and correspond
ing center of gravity.
(a) The empty weight and corre
sponding center of gravity must be de
termined by Weighing the rotorcraft
without the crew and payload, but
With—
(1) Fixed ballast;
(2) Unusable fuel;
(3) Undrainable oil;
(4) Engine coolant; and
(5) Hydraulic fluid.
(b) The condition of the rotorcraft at
the time of determining empty weight
must be one that is well defined and can
be easily repeated, particularly with re
355
§ 29.33
spect to the weights of fuel, oil, coolant,
and installed equipment.
§ 29.31 Removable ballast.
Removable ballast may be used in
showing compliance with the flight re
quirements of this subpart.
§ 29.33 Main rotor speed and pitch
limits.
(a) Main rotor speed limits. A range
of main rotor speeds must be estab
lished that—
(1) With power on, provides adequate
margin to accommodate the variations in
rotor Speed occurring in any appropriate
maneuver, and is consistent with the
kind of governor or synchronizer used;
and
(2) With power off, allows each appro
priate autorotative maneuver to be per
formed throughout the ranges of airspeed
and weight for which certification is re
quested.
(b) Normal main rotor high pitch
limit (power on). It must be shown,
with power on and without exceeding
approved engine maximum limitations,
that main rotor speeds substantially less
than the minimum approved main rotor
Speed will not occur under any sustained
flight condition. This must be met by—
(1) Appropriate setting of the main
rotor high pitch stop;
(2) Inherent rotorcraft characteris
tics that make unsafe low main rotor
speeds unlikely; or
(3) Adequate means to warn the pilot
Of unsafe main rotor Speeds.
(c) Normal main rotor low pitch limit
(power off). It must be shown, with
power off, that—
(1) The normal main rotor low pitch
limit provides sufficient rotor speed, in
any autorotative condition, under the
most critical combinations of weight and
airspeed; and
(2) It is possible to prevent over
Speeding of the rotor without excep
tional piloting skill.
(d) Emergency high pitch. If the main
rotor high pitch stop is set to meet para
graph (b) (1) of this section, and if that
stop cannot be exceeded inadvertently,
additional pitch may be made available
for emergency use.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 965, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.45 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
PERFORMANCE
§ 29.45 General.
(a) The performance prescribed in
this subpart must be determined—
(1) With normal piloting skill;
(2) Without exceptionally favorable
conditions; and
(3) With each powerplant accessory
absorbing the amount of power that is
normal for the flight condition being
investigated.
(b) Compliance with the performance
requirements of this subpart must be
shown—
(1) For still air at sea level. With a
Standard atmosphere;
(2) For the range of atmospheric
Variables selected by the applicant; and
(3) Where engine power affects per
formance, with air at 80 percent relative
humidity, or 0.7’’ Hg. vapor pressure.
whichever is less.
§ 29.51 Takeoff data: general.
(a) The takeoff data required by
$$ 29.53(b), 29.59, 29.63, and 29.67 (a) (1)
and (2) must be determined—
(1) At each weight, altitude, and tem
perature selected by the applicant; and
(2) With the operating engines within
approved operating limitations.
(b) Takeoff data must—
(1) Be determined on a smooth, dry,
hard Surface; and
(2) Be corrected to assume a level
takeoff surface.
(c) No takeoff made to determine the
data required by this section may re
quire exceptional piloting skill or alert
ness, or exceptionally favorable condi
tions.
§ 29.53 Takeoff: category A.
(a) General. The takeoff perform
ance must be determined and scheduled
so that, if one engine fails at any time
after the start of takeoff, the rotorcraft
can—
(1) Return to, and stop safely on, the
takeoff area; or
(2) Continue the takeoff and climb
out, and attain a configuration and air
speed allowing compliance with $ 29.67
(a)(2).
(b) Critical decision point. The criti
cal decision point must be a combination
of height and speed selected by the ap
356
plicant in establishing the flight paths
under § 29.59. The critical decision
point must be obtained so as to avoid
the critical areas of the limiting height
speed envelope established under § 29.79.
§ 29.59 Takeoff path: category A.
(a) The takeoff climbout path, and
the rejected takeoff path must be estab
lished so that the takeoff, climbout, and
rejected takeoff are accomplished with a
safe, smooth transition between each
stage of the maneuver. The takeoff may
be begun in any manner if—
(1) The takeoff surface, is defined;
and
(2) Adequate safeguards are main
tained to ensure proper center of gravity
and control positions.
(b) The rejected takeoff path must be
established with takeoff power on each
engine from the start of takeoff to the
critical decision point, at which point it
is assumed that the critical engine be
comes inoperative, and that the rotor
craft is brought to a safe stop with the
remaining engines operating within ap
proved Operating limitations.
(c) The takeoff climbout path must be
established with takeoff power on each
engine from the Start of takeoff to the
critical decision point, at which point it
is assumed that the critical engine be
comes inoperative. With the remaining
engines operating within approved oper
ating limitations, the rotorcraft must be
accelerated to the takeoff safety speed by
the end of the rejected takeoff distance,
and the climbout must be made—
(1) At not less than the takeoff safety
speed used in meeting the rate of climb
requirements of § 29.67(a) (1); and
(2) So that the airspeed and con
figuration used in meeting the climb re
quirement of § 29.67 (a) (2) are attained.
§ 29.63 Takeoff : category B.
The takeoff and climbout must be es
tablished with the most unfavorable cen
ter of gravity. The takeoff may be be
gun in any manner if–
(a) The takeoff Surface is defined;
(b) Adequate Safeguards are main
tained to ensure proper center of gravity
and control positions; and
(c) A landing can be made safely at
any point along the flight path if an
engine fails.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 29.65 Category B climb: all engines
operating.
(a) The steady rate of climb at Wr
must be determined for each category B
rotorcraft—
(1) With maximum continuous power
On each engine;
(2) With the landing gear retracted;
and
(3) For the weights, altitudes, and
temperatures for which certification is
requested.
(b) For each category B rotorcraft
except helicopters, the rate of climb de
termined under paragraph (a) of this
Section must provide a steady climb
gradient of at least 1:6 under standard
sea level conditions.
§ 29.67 Climb: one engine inoperative.
(a) For category. A rotorcraft, the fol
lowing apply:
(1) The steady rate of climb without
ground effect must be at least 100 feet
per minute for each weight, altitude, and
temperature for which takeoff data are
to be scheduled, with—
(i) The critical engine inoperative and
the remaining engines within approved
operating limitations;
(ii) The most unfavorable center of
gravity for takeoff;
(iii) The landing gear extended;
(iv) The speed selected by the appli
cant; and
(v) Cowl flaps or other means of con
trolling the engine-cooling air supply in
the position that provides adequate cool
ing at the temperatures and altitudes for
which certification is requested.
(2) The steady rate of climb without
ground effect must be at least 150 feet
per minute, 1,000 feet above the takeoff
surface, for each weight, altitude, and
temperature for which takeoff data are
to be scheduled, With—
(i) The critical engine inoperative and
the remaining engines at maximum con
tinuous power, or (for helicopters for
which certification for the use of 30
minute power is requested), at 30-minute
power;
(ii) The most unfavorable center of
gravity for takeoff;
(iii) The landing gear retracted;
(iv) The speed selected by the appli
Cant; and
357
§ 29.73
(V) Cowl flaps, or other means of con
trolling the engine-cooling air supply,
in the position that provides adequate
cooling at the temperatures and altitudes
for which certification is requested.
(3) The steady rate of climb, in feet
per minute, at any altitude at which the
rotorcraft is expected to operate, and at
any weight within the range of weights
for which certification is requested, must
be determined with—
(1) The critical engine inoperative,
and the remaining engines at maximum
continuous power and (for helicopters
for which certification for the use of 30
minute power is requested), at 30-min
ute power;
(ii) The most unfavorable center of
gravity;
(iii) The landing gear retracted;
(iv) The speed selected by the appli
cant; and
(V) Cowl flaps or other means of con
trolling the engine-cooling air supply in
the position that provides adequate cool
ing at the temperatures and altitudes for
which certification is requested.
(b) For multiengine category B heli
copters meeting the requirements for
category A in § 29.79, the steady rate
of climb (or descent) must be determined
at the speed for best rate of climb (or
minimum rate of descent) with one en
gine inoperative and the remaining en
gines at maximum continuous power and
(for helicopters for which certification
for the use of 30-minute power is re
quested), at 30-minute power.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 8, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–1, 30 F.R. 8778, July 13,
1965; Amdt. 29–3, 88 F.R. 965, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 29.71 Helicopter angle of glide: cate
gory B.
For each category B helicopter, the
steady angle of glide must be determined
in autorotation—
(a) At the maximum and minimum
rates of descent;
(b) At maximum weight; and
(c) With the optimum forward speed.
§ 29.73 Performance at minimum oper
ating speed.
(a) For each category A rotorcraft,
the hovering performance must be de
termined over the ranges of weight,
 §29.75 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
altitude, and temperature for which
takeoff data are scheduled—
(1) With not more than takeoff power
on each engine;
(2) With the landing gear extended;
and
(3) At a height consistent with the
procedure used in establishing the take
off climbout and rejected takeoff paths.
(b) For each category B helicopter—
(1) The hovering performance must
be determined over the ranges of weight,
altitude, and temperature for which cer
tification is requested, with—
(i) Takeoff power on each engine;
(ii) The landing gear extended; and
(iii) The helicopter in ground ef
fect at a height consistent with normal
takeoff procedures; and
(2) The hovering ceiling determined
under subparagraph (1) of this para
graph—
(i) For reciprocating engine powered
helicopters, must be at least 4,000 feet
in standard atmosphere at maximum
Weight;
(ii) For single engine, turbine engine
powered helicopters, must be at least
2,500 feet, in standard atmosphere plus
40° F., at maximum weight; and
(iii) For multiengine, turbine engine
power helicopters, must be available
at each altitude, temperature, and weight
for which takeoff data are to be sched
uled.
(c) For rotorcraft other than heli
copters, the steady rate of climb at the
minimum operating speed must be deter
mined, Over the ranges of Weight, alti
tude, and temperature for which certi
fication is requested, with—
(1) Takeoff power; and
(2) The landing gear extended.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 965, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.75 Landing.
(a) General. For each rotorcraft—
(1) The corrected landing data must—
(1) Be determined on a smooth, dry,
hard surface; and
(ii) Assume a level landing surface;
(2) The approach and landing may
not require exceptional piloting skill or
exceptionally favorable conditions;
(3) The landing must be made with
Out excessive vertical acceleration or
358
tendency to bounce, nose over, ground
loop, porpoise, or water loop; and
(4) The landing data required by par
agraphs (b) and (c) of this section and
by § 29.77 must be determined—
(i) At each weight, altitude, and tern
perature selected by the applicant; and
(ii) With each operating engine with
in approved operating limitations.
(b) Category A. For category. A rotor
craft—
(1) The landing performance must be
determined and scheduled so that, if one
engine fails at any point in the approach
path, the rotorcraft can either land and
stop safely or climb out from a point
in the approach path and attain a rotor
craft configuration and speed allowing
compliance with the climb requirement
of § 29.67 (a)(2) ;
(2) The approach, balked landing,
and landing paths must be established,
With one engine inoperative, so that the
transition between each stage can be
made Smoothly and safely;
(3) The approach and landing speeds
must be selected by the applicant and
must be appropriate to the type of rotor
craft;
(4) The approach and landing path
must be established to avoid the critical
areas of a limiting height-speed envelope
established—
(i) Under § 29.79; or
(ii) For the landing condition with
One engine inoperative;
(5) It must be possible to make a safe
landing on a prepared landing surface
aſter complete power failure occurring
during normal cruise.
(c) Category B. For category B
rotorcraft—
(1) The horizontal distance required to
land and come to a complete stop (or to
a Speed of approximately three knots for
water landings), from a point 50 feet
above the landing surface, must be deter
mined with—
(i) Glide Speeds appropriate to the
type of rotorcraft and chosen by the
applicant; and
(ii) The approach and landing made
with power off and entered from steady
autorotation; and
(2) Each multiengine category B ro
torcraft that meets the powerplant in
stallation requirements for category A
must meet the requirements of—
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(i) Subparagraph (1) of this para
graph; or
(ii) Paragraphs (b) (2) through (5) of
this section.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 965, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.77 Balked landing: category A.
For category. A rotorcraft, the balked
landing path must be established so
that—
(a) With one engine inoperative, the
transition from each stage of the maneu
ver to the next stage can be made
smoothly and safely; and
(b) From a combination of height and
speed in the approach path selected by
the applicant, a safe climbout can be
made at speeds allowing compliance with
the climb requirements of § 29.67 (a) (1)
and (2).
§ 29.79 Limiting height-speed envelope.
(a) If there is any combination of
height and forward Speed (including
hover) under which a safe landing can
not be made under the applicable power
failure condition in paragraph (b) of this
section, a limiting height-speed envelope
must be established for that condition.
(b) The applicable power failure con
ditions are—
(1) For category. A rotorcraft, sudden
failure of the critical engine with the re
maining engines at the greatest power
for which certification is requested;
(2) For category B rotorcraft, com
plete power failure; and
(3) For multiengine, category B rotor
craft for which certification under the
powerplant installation requirements of
category A is requested, the condition
specified in either subparagraph (1) or
(2) of this paragraph. -
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–1, 30 F.R. 8778, July
13, 1965)
FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
§ 29.141 General.
The rotorcraft must—
(a) Meet the requirements of this sec
tion and of $$ 29.143, 29.161, and 29.171
through 29.175–
(1) At the normally expected operat
ing altitudes;
(2) Under any critical loading condi
tion within the range of weights and
359
§ 29.143
centers of gravity for which certification
is requested; and
(3) Under any condition of speed,
power, and rotor r.p.m. for which cer
tification is requested;
(b) Be able to maintain any required
flight condition and make a smooth
transition from any flight condition to
any other flight condition without ex
ceptional piloting skill, alertness, or
strength, and without danger of exceed
ing the limit load factor under any op
erating condition probable for the type,
including—
(1) Sudden failure of one engine, for
multiengine rotorcraft meeting Trans
port Category A engine isolation require
ments; and
(2) Sudden, complete power failure,
for other rotorcraft; and
(c) Have any additional character
istics required for night or instrument
Operation, if certification for those kinds
of Operation is requested.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 905, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.143 Controllability and maneuver
ability.
(a) The rotorcraft must be safely con
trollable and maneuverable—
(1) During steady flight; and
(2) During any maneuver appropriate
to the type, including—
(i) Takeoff;
(ii) Climb;
(iii) Level flight;
(iv) Turning flight;
(v) Glide; and
*
Off).
Landing (power on and power
(b) The margin of cyclic control must
allow Satisfactory roll and pitch con
trol at Vya, with—
(1) Critical weight.
(2) Critical center of gravity;
(3) Critical rotor r.p.m.; and
(4) Power on and power off.
(c) A wind velocity of not less than 17
knots must be established in which the
rotorcraft can be operated without loss
of control on or near the ground in any
maneuver appropriate to the type (such
as crosswind takeoffs, sideward flight,
and rearward flight), with—
(1) Critical center of gravity; and
(2) Critical rotor r.p.m.
$ 29.161 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(d) The rotorcraft, after (1) failure
of one engine, in the case of multiengine
rotorcraft that meet Transport Category
A engine isolation requirements, or (2)
complete power failure in the case of
other rotorcraft, must be controllable
over the range of speeds and altitudes
for which certification is requested when
such power failure occurs with maximum
continuous power and critical weight. No
corrective action time delay for any con
dition following power failure may be
less than—
(i) For the cruise condition, one sec
ond, or normal pilot reaction time
(whichever is greater); and
(ii) For any other condition, normal
pilot reaction time.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 965, Jan. 26,
1968)
§ 29.161 Trim control.
The trim control—
(a) Must trim any steady longitudinal
and lateral control forces to zero in level
flight at any appropriate Speed; and
(b) May not introduce any undesirable
discontinuities in control force gradients.
§ 29.171 Stability: general.
The rotorcraft must be able to be flown,
Without ulidue pilot fatigue or strain, in
any normal maneuver for a period of
time as long as that expected in normal
Operation. At least three landings and
takeoffs must be made during this
demonstration.
§ 29.173 Static longitudinal stability.
(a) The longitudinal cyclic control
must be designed so that, for the ranges
of altitude and rotor r.p.m. for which
certification is requested, and with
throttle and collective pitch held con
stant during the maneuvers Specified in
§ 29.175–
(1) A rearward movement of the con
trol is necessary to obtain airspeeds less
than the trim Speed; and
(2) A forward movement of the con
trol is necessary to obtain airspeeds
greater than the trim speed.
(b) The stick position versus speed
curve may have a negative slope within
the speed range specified for the maneu
wer in § 29.175(d) if the necessary nega
tive stick travel does not exceed 1 inch
360
measured at the top of the pilot's normal
hand position.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 965, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.175 Demonstration of static longi
tudinal stability.
(a) Climb. Static longitudinal sta
bility must be shown in the climb condi
tion at speeds from 0.85 Vy to 1.2 Vr,
With—
(1) Critical weight:
(2) Critical center of gravity;
(3) Maximum continuous power;
(4) The landing gear retracted; and
(5) The rotorcraft trimmed at Vr.
(b) Cruise. Static longitudinal sta
bility must be shown in the cruise condi
tion at speeds from 0.7 Wa or 0.7 Vys,
whichever is less, to 1.1 Va or 1.1 Vys,
whichever is less, with—
(1) Critical weight;
(2) Critical center of gravity;
(3) Power for level flight at 0.9 ya or
0.9 Vyr, whichever is less;
(4) The landing gear retracted; and
(5) The rotorcraft trimmed at 0.9 ya
or 0.9 Vyr, whichever is less.
(c) Autorotation. Static longitudinal
stability must be shown in autorotation
throughout the speed range for which
certification is requested, with—
(1) Critical weight;
(2) Critical center of gravity;
(3) Power off;
(4) The landing gear (i) retracted and
(ii) extended; and
(5) The rotorcraft trimmed at the
Speed for minimum rate of descent.
(d) Hovering. For helicopters in the
hovering condition—
(1) The longitudinal cyclic control
must Operate With the Sense and direc
tion of motion prescribed in § 29.173;
and
(2) The stick position curve must have
a stable slope, between the maximum
approved rearward speed and a forward
Speed of 17 knots, with—
(i) The determined hovering weight
(for Category A helicopters), or critical
weight (for other helicopters);
(ii) The critical center of gravity;
(iii) Power required to maintain an
approximately constant height in ground
effect;
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(iv) The landing gear retracted; and
(v) The helicopter trimmed for
hovering.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 FR 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 FR 966, Jan. 26,
1968]
GROUND AND WATER HANDLING
CHARACTERISTICS
§ 29.231 General.
The rotorcraft must have satisfactory
ground and water handling character
istics, including freedom from uncon
trollable tendencies in any condition ex
pected in operation.
§ 29.235 Taxiing condition.
The rotorcraft must be designed to
withstand the loads that would occur
When the rotorcraft is taxied over the
roughest ground that may reasonably be
expected in normal Operation.
§ 29.239 Spray characteristics.
If certification for water operation is
requested, no spray claracteristics dur
ing taxiing, takeoff, or landing may
obscure the vision of the pilot or damage
the rotors, propellers, or other parts of
the rotorcraft.
§ 29.241 Ground resonance.
The rotorcraft may have no dangerous
tendency to oscillate on the ground with
the rotor turning.
MISCELLANEOUS FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS
§ 29.251 Vibration.
Each part of the rotorcraft must be
free from excessive vibration under each
appropriate speed and power condition.
Subpart C–Strength Requirements
GENERAL
§ 29.301 Loads.
(a) Strength requirements are speci
fied in terms of limit loads (the maxi
mum loads to be expected in Service)
and ultimate loads (limit loads multi
plied by prescribed factors of safety).
Unless otherwise provided, prescribed
loads are limit loads.
(b) Unless otherwise provided, the
specified air, ground, and water loads
must be placed in equilibrium with
inertia forces, considering each item of
mass in the rotorcraft. These loads must
39–059–75—24
361
§ 29.307
be distributed to closely approximate or
conservatively represent actual condi
tions.
(c) If deflections under load would
significantly change the distribution of
external or internal loads, this redistri
bution must be taken into account.
§ 29.303 Factor of safety.
Unless otherwise provided, a factor
of safety of 1.5 must be used. This factor
applies to external and inertia loads un
less its application to the resulting in
ternal stresses is more conservative.
§ 29.305 Strength and deformation.
(a) The structure must be able to sup
port limit loads without detrimental or
permanent deformation. At any load up
to limit loads, the deformation may not
interfere with safe Operation.
(b) The structure must be able to sup
port ultimate loads without failure. This
must be shown by—
(1) Applying ultimate loads to the
structure in a static test for at least three
Seconds; or
(2) Dynamic tests simulating actual
load application.
§ 29.307 Proof of structure.
(a) Compliance with the strength and
deformation requirements of this subpart
must be shown for each critical loading
Condition. Structural analysis (static or
fatigue) may be used only if the structure
conforms to those for which experience
has shown this method to be reliable. In
other cases, substantiating load tests
must be made.
(b) Proof of compliance with the
strength requirements of this subpart
must include—
(1) Dynamic and endurance tests of
rotors, rotor drives, and rotor controls;
(2) Limit load tests of the control sys
tem, including control surfaces;
(3) Operation tests of the control
System;
(4) Flight stress measurement tests;
(5) Landing gear drop tests; and
(6) Any additional tests required for
new or unusual design features.
(Secs. 604, 605, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424,
1425) [Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3,
1964, as amended by Amdt. No. 29–4, 33 F.R.
14106, Sept. 18, 1968]
§ 29.309 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 29.309 Design limitations.
The following values and limitations
must be established to show compliance
with the structural requirements of this
Subpart:
(a) The design maximum and design
minimum WeightS.
(b) The main rotor r.p.m. rangeS,
power on and power off.
(c) The maximum forward speeds for
each main rotor r.p.m. within the ranges
determined under paragraph (b) of this
Section.
(d) The maximum rearward and side
ward flight Speeds.
(e) The center of gravity limits corre
sponding to the limitations determined
under paragraphs (b), (c), and (d) of
this Section.
(f) The rotational speed ratios be
tween each powerplant and each con
nected rotating component.
(g) The positive and negative limit
maneuvering load factors.
FLIGHT LOADS
§ 29.321 General.
(a) The flight load factor must be as
sumed to act normal to the longitudinal
axis of the rotorcraft, and to be equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to
the rotorcraft inertia load factor at the
center of gravity.
(b) Compliance with the flight load re
quirements of this subpart must be
shown—-
(1) At each weight from the design
minimum weight to the design maximum
weight; and
(2) With any practical distribution of
disposable load within the operating lim
itations in the Rotorcraft Flight Manual.
§ 29.337 Limit maneuvering load factor.
The rotorcraft must be designed for—
(a) A positive limit maneuvering load
factor of 3.5 and a negative limit ma
neuvering load factor of 1.0; or
(b) Any lesser positive limit maneu
vering load factor not less than 2.0, and
lesser negative limit maneuvering load
factor not less than 0.5, for which—
(1) The probability of being exceeded
is shown by analysis and flight test8 to
be extremely remote; and
(2) The selected values are appro
priate to each weight condition between
362
the design maximum and design mini
mum weights.
§ 29.339 Resultant limit maneuvering
loads.
The loads resulting from the applica
tion of limit maneuvering load factors
are assumed to act at the center of
each rotor hub and at each auxiliary
lifting Surface, and to act in directions
and with distributions of load among the
rotors and auxiliary lifting surfaces, so
as to represent each critical maneuvering
Condition, including power-on and
power-off flight with the maximum de
sign rotor tip speed ratio. The rotor tip
Speed ratio is the ratio of the rotorcraft
flight velocity component in the plane of
the rotor disc to the rotational tip speed
of the rotor blades, and is expressed as
follows:
_V cos a
-TūR
Where–
W=The airspeed along the flight path
(f.p.s.);
a= The angle between the projection, in
the plane of symmetry, of the axis of
no feathering and a line perpendic
ular to the flight path (radians, pos
itive when axis is pointing aft);
Q=The angular velocity of rotor (radians
per second); and
R= The rotor radius (ft.).
§ 29.341 Gust loads.
Each rotorcraft must be designed to
Withstand, at each critical airspeed in
cluding hovering, the loads resulting
from vertical and horizontal gusts of 30
feet per second.
§ 29.351 Yawing conditions.
(a) Each rotorcraft must be designed
for the loads resulting from the ma
neuver Specified in paragraph (b) of this
Section, with—
(1) Unbalanced aerodynamic mo
ments about the center of gravity reacted
in a rational or conservative manner
considering the principal masses fur
nishing the reacting inertia forces;
(2) Maximum main rotor speed; and
(3) Forward speeds up to Vys or Va.
Whichever is less.
(b) In unaccelerated flight with zero
yaw, it is assumed that—
(1) The cockpit directional control is
Suddenly displaced to the maximum de
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
flection limited by the control stops or
by maximum pilot effort;
(2) The rotorcraft then yaws to a re
sulting sideslip angle; and
(3) The directional control is then
suddenly returned to neutral.
§ 29.361 Engine torque.
The limit engine torque may not be less
than—
(a) For turbine engines, the mean
torque for maximum continuous power
multiplied by a factor of 1.25: and
(b) For reciprocating engines, the
mean torque multiplied by—
(1) 1.33, for engines with five or more
cylinders; and
(2) Two, three, and four, for engines
with four, three, and two cylinders,
respectively.
CoNTROL SURFACE AND SYSTEM LOADS
§ 29.391 General.
Each auxiliary rotor, each fixed or
Inovable stabilizing or control surface,
and each System operating any flight
control must meet the requirements of
$$ 29.395 through 29.403, 29.411, and
29.413.
§ 29.395 Control system.
(a) The reaction to the loads pre
scribed in § 29.397 must be provided by—
(1) The control stops only;
(2) The control locks only;
(3) The irreversible mechanism only
(with the mechanism locked and With the
control Surface in the critical positions
for the effective parts of the system
within its limit of motion);
(4) The attachment of the control
system to the rotor blade pitch control
horn only (with the control in the critical
positions for the affected parts of the
system within the limits of its motion);
and
(5) The attachment of the control
system to the control surface horn (with
he control in the critical positions for
the affected parts of the System within
the limits of its motion).
(b) Each primary control system, in
cluding its Supporting structure, must
be designed to withstand the loads result
ing from the limit pilot forces prescribed
in § 29.397, or the maximum loads that
can be obtained in normal operation, in
cluding any single power boost System
363
§ 29.403
failure, whichever are greater. Where
the System design or the normal operat
ing loads are such that a part of the sys
tem cannot react the pilot-applied forces
prescribed in § 29.397, that part of the
System must be designed to withstand the
maximum loads that can be obtained in
normal operation. The minimum design
loads must, in any case, provide a rugged
System for service use, including con
sideration of fatigue, jamming, ground
gusts, control inertia, and friction loads.
In the absence of a rational analysis, the
design loads resulting from 0.60 of the
Specified pilot-applied forces are ac
ceptable minimum design loads.
§ 29.397 Limit pilot forces.
The limit pilot forces are as follows:
(a) For foot controls, 130 pounds.
(b) For stick controls, 100 pounds fore
and aft, and 67 pounds laterally.
(c) For wheel controls, 100 pounds
fore and aft, and a lateral couple of 53D
inch-pounds applied at the rim of the
Control wheel (where D is the Wheel
diameter in inches).
§ 29.399 Dual eontrol system.
Each dual primary flight control sys
tem must be able to withstand the loads
that result when pilot forces not less
than 0.75 times those obtained under
§ 29.395 are applied—
(a) In opposition; and
(b) In the same direction.
§ 29.401 Auxiliary rotor assemblies.
(a) Autiliary rotor assemblies. Each
auxiliary rotor assembly must be tested
as prescribed in § 29.923.
(b) Assemblies with detachable blades.
Each auxiliary rotor assembly with de
tachable blades must be designed to
withstand the centrifugal loads resulting
from the maximum design rotor r.p.m.
(Secs. 604, 605, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424,
1425) [Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3,
1964, as amended by Amdt. No. 29–4, 33 F.R.
14106, Sept. 18, 1968]
§ 29.403 Auxiliary rotor attachment
structure.
The attachment structure for each
auxiliary rotor must be designed to with
stand a limit load equal to the maximum
loads occurring in the structure in any
flight and landing condition.
§ 29.411 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 29.411 Ground clearance: tail rotor
guard.
(a) It must be impossible for the tail
rotor to contact the landing surface
during a normal landing.
(b) If a tail rotor guard is required to
show compliance with paragraph (a) of
this Section—
(1) Suitable design loads must be
established for the guard; and
(2) The guard and its Supporting
structure must be designed to withstand
those loads.
§ 29.413 Stabilizing and control sur
faces.
(a) Each stabilizing and control Sur
face must be designed so that—
(1) Limit loads are not less than the
greater of
(i) 15 pounds per square foot; or
(ii) The load resulting where Cy
equals 0.55 at the maximum design
speed; and
(2) The Surface can Withstand the
critical loads resulting from maneuvers
and from combined maneuvers and
gusts.
(b) Compliance with paragraph (a) of
this section must be shown with load
distributions that closely simulate actual
pressure distribution conditions.
GROUND LOADS
§ 29.471 General.
(a) Loads and equilibrium. For limit
ground loads—
(1) The limit ground loads obtained in
the landing conditions in this part must
be considered to be external loads that
Would occur in the rotorcraft structure
if it were acting as a rigid body; and
(2) In each specified landing condi
tion, the external loads must be placed
in equilibrium with linear and angu
lar inertia loads in a rational or conser
Vative manner.
(b) Critical centers of gravity. The
critical centers of gravity within the
range for which certification is
quested must be selected so that the
maximum design loads are obtained in
each landing gear element.
§ 29.473 Ground loading conditions and
assumptions.
(a) For specified landing conditions, a
design maximum weight must be used
that is not less than the maximum
weight. A rotor lift may be assumed to
act through the center of gravity
throughout the landing impact. This lift
may not exceed two-thirds of the design
maximum weight.
(b) Unless otherwise prescribed, for
each specified landing condition, the
rotorcraft must be designed for a limit
load factor of not less than the limit
inertia load factor substantiated under
§ 29.725.
(c) Triggering or actuating devices for
additional or supplementary energy ab
Sorption may not fail under loads estab
lished in the tests prescribed in §§ 29.725
and 29.727, but the factor of safety pre
Scribed in § 29.303 need not be used.
[Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 966, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 29.475 Tires and shock absorbers.
Unless otherwise prescribed, for each
Specified landing condition, the tires
must be assumed to be in their static
position and the shock absorbers to be
in their most critical position.
§ 29.477 Landing gear arrangement.
Sections 29.235, 29.479 through
29.485, and 29.493 apply to landing gear
With two wheels aft, and one or more
wheels forward, of the center of gravity.
§ 29.479 Level landing conditions.
(a) Attitudes. Under each of the
loading conditions prescribed in para
graph (b) of this section, the rotor
craft is assumed to be in each of
the following level landing attitudes:
(1) An attitude in which each wheel
contacts the ground simultaneously.
(2) An attitude in which the aft
Wheels contact the ground with the for
ward wheels just clear of the ground.
(b) Loading conditions. The rotor
craft must be designed for the following
landing loading conditions:
(1) Vertical loads applied under
$29,471.
re (2) The loads resulting from a com
bination of the loads applied under sub
paragraph (1) of this paragraph with
drag loads at each wheel of not less
than 25 percent of the vertical load at
that wheel.
(3) The Vertical load at the instant
of peak drag load combined with a drag
component simulating the forces re
o
d 64
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
quired to accelerate the wheel rolling
assembly up to the specified ground
speed, with—
(i) The ground speed for determina
tion of the spin-up loads being at least
75 percent of the optimum forward flight
speed for minimum rate of descent in
autorotation; and
(ii) The loading conditions of this
subparagraph applied to the landing gear
and its attaching structure only.
(4) If there are two wheels forward, a
distribution of the loads applied to those
wheels under subparagraphs (1) and (2)
of this paragraph in a ratio of 40:60.
(c) Pitching moments. Pitching mo
ments are assumed to be resisted by—
(1) In the case of the attitude in para
graph (a)(1) of this section, the forward
landing gear; and
(2) In the case of the attitude in para
graph (a)(2) of this section, the angular
inertia forces.
§ 29.481 Tail-down landing conditions.
(a) The rotorcraft is assumed to
be in the maximum nose-up attitude al
lowing ground clearance by each part of
the rotorcraft.
(b) In this attitude, ground loads
are assumed to act perpendicular to the
ground.
One-wheel landing conditions.
§ 29.483.
For the one-wheel landing condition,
the rotorcraft is assumed to be in the
level attitude and to contact the ground
on one aft wheel. In this attitude—
(a) The vertical load must be the
same as that obtained on that Side under
§ 29.479(b) (1); and
(b) The unbalanced external loads
must be reacted by rotorcraft inertia.
§ 29.485 Lateral drift landing conditions.
(a) The rotorcraft is assumed to
be in the level landing attitude, with–
(1) Side loads combined with one-half
of the maximum ground reactions ob
tained in the level landing conditions of
§ 29.479 (b) (1); and
(2) The loads obtained under Subpara
graph (1) of this paragraph applied—
(i) At the ground contact point; or
(ii) For full-swiveling gear, at the cen
ter of the axle.
(b) The rotorcraft must be designed
to withstand, at ground contact—
(1) When only the aft wheels con
tact the ground, side loads of 0.8 times
365
§ 29.497
the vertical reaction acting inward on
One side and 0.6 times the vertical re
action acting outward on the other side,
all combined with the vertical loads
Specified in paragraph (a) of this sec
tion; and
(2) When the wheels contact the
ground simultaneously—
(i) For the aft wheels, the side loads
Specified in subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph; and
(ii) For the forward wheels, a side
load of 0.8 times the vertical reaction
combined with the vertical load specified
in paragraph (a) of this section.
Braked roll conditions.
§ 29.493
Under braked roll conditions with the
shock absorbers in their static positions—
(a) The limit vertical load must be
based on a load factor of at least—
(1) 1.33, for the attitude Specified in
§ 29.479 (a) (1) ; and
(2) 1.0, for the attitude specified in
§ 29.479 (a) (2) ; and
(b) The structure must be designed to
withstand, at the ground contact point
of each wheel with brakes, a drag load of
at least the lesser of—
(1) The vertical.load multiplied by a
coefficient of friction of 0.8; and
value based On
(2) The maximum
limiting brake torque.
§ 29.497 Ground loading conditions:
landing gear with tail wheels.
(a) General. Rotorcraft with landing
gear with two wheels forward and one
wheel aft of the center of gravity must
be designed for loading conditions as
prescribed in this section.
(b) Level landing attitude with only
the forward wheels contacting the
ground. In this attitude—
(1) The vertical loads must be applied
under §§ 29.471 through 29.475;
(2) The vertical load at each axle must
be combined with a drag load at that
axle of not less than 25 percent of that
vertical load; and
(3) Unbalanced pitching moments
are assumed to be resisted by angu
lar inertia forces.
(c) Level landing attitude with all
wheels contacting the ground simultane
ously. In this attitude, the rotorcraft
must be designed for landing loading
§ 29.501 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
conditions as prescribed in paragraph
(b) of this section.
(d) Marimum nose-up attitude with
only the rear wheel contacting the
ground. The attitude for this condition
must be the maximum nose-up attitude
expected in normal operation, including
autorotative landings. In this attitude—
(1) The appropriate ground loads
Specified in paragraph (b) (1) and (2)
of this section must be determined and
applied, using a rational method to ac
count for the moment arm between the
rear wheel ground reaction and the
rotorcraft center of gravity; or
(2) The probability of landing with
initial contact on the rear wheel must
be shown to be extremely remote.
(e) Level landing attitude with only
one forward wheel contacting the ground.
In this attitude, the rotorcraft must be
designed for ground loads as specified
in paragraph (b) (1) and (3) of this
Section.
(f) Side loads in the level landing at
titude. In the attitudes specified
paragraphs (b) and (c) of this section,
the following apply:
(1) The side loads must be combined
at each. Wheel with one-half of the max
imum vertical ground reactions obtained
for that wheel under paragraphs (b)
and (c) of this section. In this condi
tion, the side loads must be—
(i) For the forward wheels, 0.8 times
the vertical reaction (on One side) acting
inward, and 0.6 times the vertical re
action (On the other Side) acting out
Ward; and
(ii) For the rear wheel, 0.8 times the
Vertical reaction.
(2) The loads specified in subpara
graph (1) of this paragraph must be
applied—
(i) At the ground contact point with
the wheel in the trailing position (for
non-full swiveling landing gear or for full
Swiveling landing gear with a lock, steer
ing device, or shimmy damper to keep
the wheel in the trailing position); or
(ii) At the center of the axle (for full
Swiveling landing gear without a lock,
Steering device, or shimmy damper).
(g) Braked roll conditions in the level
landing attitude. In the attitudes speci
fied in paragraphs (b) and (c) of this
section, and with the shock absorbers
in their static positions, the rotor
craft must be designed for braked roll
loads as follows:
(1) The limit vertical load must be
based on a limit vertical load factor of
not less than—
(i) 1.0, for the attitude specified in
paragraph (b) of this section; and
(ii) 1.33, for the attitude specified in
paragraph (c) of this section.
(2) For each wheel with brakes, a drag
load must be applied, at the ground con
tact point, of not less than the lesser of—
(i) 0.8 times the vertical load; and
(ii) The maximum based on limiting
brake torque.
(h) Rear wheel turning loads in the
static ground attitude. In the static
ground attitude, and with the shock ab
sorbers and tires in their static positions,
the rotorcraft must be designed for rear
wheel turning loads as follows:
(1) A vertical ground reaction equal
to the static load on the rear wheel must
be combined with an equal side load.
(2) The load specified in subparagraph
(1) of this paragraph must be applied
in to the rear landing gear—
(i) Through the axle, if there is a
Swivel (the rear wheel being assumed to
be swiveled 90 degrees to the longitudinal
axis of the rotorcraft); or
(ii) At the ground contact point if
there is a lock, steering device or shimmy
damper (the rear wheel being assumed
to be in the trailing position).
(i) Tariing condition. The rotorcraft
and its landing gear must be designed
for the loads that would occur when the
rotorcraft is taxied over the roughest
ground that may reasonably be expected
in normal Operation.
§ 29.501 Ground loading conditions:
landing gear with skids.
(a) General. Rotorcraft with landing
gear with skids must be designed for the
loading conditions specified in this sec
tion. In showing compliance with this
section, the following apply:
(1) The design maximum weight, cen
ter of gravity, and load factor must be
determined under §§ 29.471 through
29.475.
(2) Structural yielding of elastic
Spring members under limit loads is
acceptable.
(3) Design ultimate loads for elastic
Spring members need not exceed those
obtained in a drop test of the gear with—
(1) A drop height of 1.5 times that
specified in § 29.725; and
366
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(ii) An assumed rotor lift of not more
than 1.5 times that used in the limit drop
tests prescribed in § 29.725.
(4) Compliance with paragraph (b)
through (e) of this section must be
shown with—
(i) The gear in its most critically
deflected position for the landing Condi
tion being considered; and
(ii) The ground reactions rationally
sºluted along the bottom of the skid
tube.
(b) Vertical reactions in the level
landing attitude. In the level attitude,
and with the rotorcraft contacting the
ground along the bottom of both skids,
the vertical reactions must be applied as
prescribed in paragraph (a) of this sec
tion.
(c) Drag reactions in the level land
ing attitude. In the level attitude, and
with the rotorcraft contacting the
ground along the bottom of both skids,
the following apply:
(1) The vertical reactions must be .
combined with horizontal drag reactions
of 50 percent of the vertical reaction ap
plied at the ground.
(2) The resultant ground loads must
equal the vertical load Specified in para
graph (b) of this section.
(d) Sideloads in the level landing at
titude. In the level attitude, and With
the rotorcraft contacting the ground
along the bottom of both skids, the fol
lowing apply:
(1) The vertical ground reaction must
be—
(i) Equal to the vertical loads ob
tained in the condition specifled in para
graph (b) of this Section; and
(ii) Divided equally among the skids.
(2) The vertical ground reactions
must be combined with a horizontal
sideload of 25 percent of their value.
(3) The total sideload must be ap
plied along the length of one skid only.
(4) The unbalanced moments are as
sumed to be resisted by angular inertia.
(5) The skid gear must be investigated
for
(1) Inward acting sideloads; and
(ii) Outward acting sideloads.
(e) One-skid landing loads in the level
attitude. In the level attitude, and with
the rotorcraft contacting the ground
along the bottom of one skid only, the
following apply:
367
§ 29.505
(1) The vertical load on the ground
contact side must be the same as that ob
tained on that side in the condition speci
fled in paragraph (b) of this section.
(2) The unbalanced moments are as
Sumed to be resisted by angular inertia.
(f) Special conditions. In addition to
the conditions specified in paragraphs
(b) and (c) of this section, the rotorcraft
must be designed for the following
ground reactions:
(1) A ground reaction load acting up
and aft at an angle of 45 degrees to the
longitudinal axis of the rotorcraft. This
load must be—
(1) Equal to 1.33 times the maximum
Weight;
(ii) Distributed symmetrically among
the skids;
(iii) Concentrated at the forward end
of the straight part of the skid tube; and
(iv) Applied only to the forward end
of the skid tube and its attachment to
the rotorcraft.
(2) With the rotorcraft in the level
landing attitude, a vertical ground re
action load equal to one-half of the
Vertical load determined under para
graph (b) of this section. This load must
be—
(1) Applied only to the skid tube and
its attachment to the rotorcraft; and
(ii) Concentrated at a point midway
between the skid tube attachments.
[Amdt. 29–3, 88 F.R. 966, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 29.505 Ski landing conditions.
If certification for ski operation is re
quested, the rotorcraft, with skis, must
be designed to withstand the following
loading conditions (where P is the maxi
Imum static weight on each ski with the
rotorcraft at design maximum weight,
and n is the limit load factor determined
under § 29.473(b)) :
(a) Up-load conditions in which—
(1) A vertical load of Pn and a hori
ZOntal load of Pn/4 are simultaneously
applied at the pedestal bearings; and
(2) A vertical load of 1.33 P is applied
at the pedestal bearings.
(b) A side load condition in which a
side load of 0.35 Pn is applied at the
pedestal bearings in a horizontal plane
perpendicular to the centerline of the
rotorcraft.
(c) A torque-load condition in which
a torque load of 1.33 P (in foot-pounds)
is applied to the ski about the vertical
§ 29.511 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
axis through the centerline of the pedes
tal bearings.
§ 29.511 Ground load: unsymmetrical
loads on multiple-wheel units.
(a) In dual-wheel gear units, 60 per
cent of the total ground reaction for the
gear unit must be applied to one wheel
and 40 percent to the other.
(b) To provide for the case of one de
flated tire, 60 percent of the specified
load for the gear unit must be applied to
either wheel except that the Vertical
ground reaction may not be less than the
full static value.
(c) In determining the total load on a
gear unit, the transverse shift in the load
centroid, due to unsymmetrical load dis
tribution on the wheels, may be ne
glected.
[Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 966, Jan. 26, 1968]
WATER LOADS
§ 29.519 Hull type rotorcraft: Water
based, amphibian, and limited am
phibian.
(a) General. For hull type rotorcraft,
the structure must be designed to with
Stand the water loadings set forth in
paragraphs (b), (c), and (d) of this sec
tion considering the most severe wave
heights for which approval is desired.
The loads for the landing conditions of
paragraphs (b) and (c) of this section
must be developed and distributed along
and among the hull and auxiliary floats,
if used, in a rational and conservative
manner, assuming a rotor lift equal to
two-thirds of the rotorcraft weight to act
throughout the landing impact. For lim
ited amphibian rotorcraft, a factor of
safety of 1.15 may be applied to the loads
specified in this section.
(b) Vertical landing conditions. The
rotorcraft must initially contact the
water surface at zero forward Speed in
likely pitch and roll attitudes which re
Sult in critical design loadings.
vertical descent velocity may not be less
than 6.5 f.p.s.
(c) Forward Speed landing
tions. The rotorcraft must contact the
water at forward velocities from 0 up to
30 knots in likely pitched, rolled, and
yawed attitudes and with a vertical de
cent velocity of not less than 6.5 f.p.s.
A maximum forward velocity of less
than 30 knots may be used in design if
it can be demonstrated that the forward
velocity selected would not be exceeded
in a normal one-engine out landing.
(d) Auriliary float immersion condi
tion. In addition to the loads from the
landing conditions, the auxiliary float,
and its support and attaching structure
in the hull, must be designed for the
load developed by a fully immersed float
unless it can be shown that full immer
sion of the float is unlikely, in which
case the highest likely float buoyancy
load must be applied that considers load
ing of the float immersed to create re
storing moments compensating for up
setting moments caused by side wind,
asymmetrical rotorcraft loading, Water
Wave action, and rotorcraft inertia.
[Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 966, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 29.521 Float landing conditions.
If certification for float operation
(including float amphibian operation) is
requested, the rotorcraft, with floats,
must be designed to withstand the fol
lowing loading conditions (where the
limit load factor is determined under
§ 29.473(b) or assumed to be equal to
that determined for wheel landing
gear):
(a) Up-load conditions in which—
(1) A load is applied so that, with
the rotorcraft in the static level atti
tude, the resultant water reaction passes
vertically through the center of gravity;
and
(2) The vertical load prescribed in
subparagraph (1) of this paragraph is
applied simultaneously with an aft com
ponent of 0.25 times the vertical com
ponent
(b) A side load condition in which—
(1) A vertical load of 0.75 times the
total vertical load specified in paragraph
(a) (1) of this section is divided equally
annong the floats; and
(2) For each float, the load share de
termined under subparagraph (1) of
this paragraph, combined with a total
side load of 0.25 times the total vertical
load specified in subparagraph (1) of
The
this paragraph, is applied to that float
only.
[Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 967, Jan 26, 1968]
condi
MAIN COMPONENT REQUIREMENTS
§ 29.547 Main rotor structure.
(a) Each main rotor assembly (includ
ing rotor hubs and blades) must be de
signed as prescribed in this section.
(b) [Reserved]
(c) The main rotor structure must be
designed to withstand the following loads
prescribed in §§ 29.337 through 29.341,
and 29.351:
368
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(1) Critical flight loads.
(2) Limit loads occurring under nor
mal conditions of autorotation.
(d) The main rotor structure must be
designed to withstand loads simulating—
. (1) For the rotor blades, hubs, and
flapping hinges, the impact force of each
blade against its stop during ground
operation; and
(2) Any other critical condition ex
pected in normal Operation.
(e) The main rotor structure must be
designed to withstand the limit torque
at any rotational Speed, including Zero.
In addition:
(1) The limit torque need not be
greater than the torque defined by a
torque limiting device (where provided),
and may not be less than the greater
of—
(i) The maximum torque likely to be
transmitted to the rotor Structure, in
either direction, by the rotor drive or by
sudden application of the rotor brake;
and
(ii) The limit engine torque specified
in § 29.361.
(2) The limit torque must be equally
and rationally distributed to the rotor
blades.
(secs. 604, 605, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424,
1425) [Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 8,
1964, as amended by Amdt. No. 29–4, 33 F.R.
14106, Sept. 18, 1968]
§ 29.549 Fuselage and rotor pylon struc
tures.
(a) Each fuselage and rotor pylon
structure must be designed to with
stand—
(1) The critical loads prescribed in
$$ 29.337 through 29.341, and 29.351;
(2) The applicable ground loads pre
scribed in §§ 29.235, 29.471 through
29.485, 29.493, 29.497, 29.505, and 29.521;
and
(3) The loads prescribed in § 29.547
(d) (1) and (e) (1) (1).
(b) Auxiliary rotor thrust, the torque
reaction of each rotor drive System, and
the balancing air and inertia loads occur
ring under accelerated flight conditions,
must be considered.
(c) Each engine mount and adjacent
fuselage structure must be designed to
withstand the loads occurring under ac
celerated flight and landing conditions,
including engine torque.
(d) [Reserved]
(e) If approval for the use of a 2%-
Ininute power is requested, each engine
mount and adjacent structure must be
369
§ 29.561
designed to withstand the loads result
ing from a limit torque equal to 1.25
times the mean torque for 2%-minute
power combined with 19. flight loads.
(Secs. 604, 605, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424,
1425) [Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3,
1964, as amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 967,
Jan. 26, 1968; Amdt. No. 29–4, 33 F.R. 14106,
Sept. 18, 1968]
§ 29.551 Auxiliary lifting surfaces.
Each auxiliary lifting surface must be
designed to withstand—
(a) The critical flight loads in §§ 29.337
through 29.341, and 29.351;
(b) the applicable ground loads in
§§ 29.235, 29.471 through 29.485, 29.493,
29.505, and 29.521; and
(c) Any other critical condition ex
pected in normal operation.
EMERGENCY LANDING CONDITIONS
§ 29.561 General.
(a) The rotorcraft, although it may
be damaged in emergency landing con
ditions on land or water, must be de
signed as prescribed in this section to
protect the Occupants under those con
ditions.
(b) The structure must be designed
to give each occupant every reasonable
chance of escaping serious injury in a
minor crash landing when—
(1) Proper use is made of seats, belts,
and other safety design provisions;
(2) The wheels are retracted (where
applicable); and
(3) The occupant experiences the fol
lowing ultimate inertia forces relative
to the Surrounding structure:
(i) Upward—1.5 g.
(ii) Forward—4.0 g.
(iii) Sideward—2.0 g.
(iv) Downward—4.0 g, or any lower
force that will not be exceeded when the
rotorcraft absorbs the landing loads re
Sulting from impact with an ultimate
descent velocity or five f.p.s. at design
maximum weight.
(c) The supporting structure must be
designed to restrain, under any load up
to those specified in paragraph (b) (3) of
this section, any item of mass that could
injure an occupant if it came loose in
a minor crash landing.
(d) Any fuselage structure in the area
of internal fuel tanks below the passen
ger floor level must be designed to resist
the crash impact loads specified in this
section, and to protect the fuel tanks
from rupture, if rupture is likely when
those loads are applied to that area.
§ 29.571 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
FATIGUE EVALUATION
§ 29.571 Fatigue evaluation of flight
structure.
(a) General. Each portion of the flight
structure (the flight structure includes
rotors, controls, fuselage, and their re
lated primary attachments) the failure
of which could be catastrophic, must be
identified and must be evaluated under
paragraph (b), (c), (d), or (e) of this
section. The following apply to each fa
tigue evaluation: * *
(1) The procedure for the evaluation
must be approved.
(2) The locations of probable failure
must be determined.
(3) Inflight measurement must be in
cluded in determining the following:
(i) Loads or stresses in all critical
Conditions throughout the range of limi
tations in § 29.309, except that maneu
vering load factors need not exceed the
maximum values expected in operation.
(ii) The effect of altitude upon these
loads or stresses.
(4) The loading spectra must be as
severe as those expected in operation
and must be based on loads or stresses
determined under subparagraph (3) of
this paragraph.
(b) Fatigue tolerance evaluation. It
must be shown that the fatigue toler
ance of the structure ensures that the
probability of catastrophic fatigue fail
ure is extremely remote without estab
lishing replacement times, inspection
intervals, or other procedures under
§ 29.1529 (a) (2).
(C) Replacement time evaluation. It
must be shown that the probability of
catastrophic fatigue failure is extremely
remote within a replacement time fur
nished under § 29.1529 (a)(2).
(d) Failsafe evaluation. The follow
ing apply to failsafe evaluations:
(1) It must be shown that all partial
failures will become readily detectable
under inspection procedures furnished
under § 29.1529 (a)(2).
(2) The interval between the time
when any partial failure becomes readily
detectable under subparagraph (1) of
this paragraph, and the time when any
such failure is expected to reduce the
remaining strength of the structure to
limit or maximum attainable loads
(whichever is less), must be determined.
(3) It must be shown that the inter
wal determined under subparagraph (2)
of this paragraph is long enough, in
*r
3ſ0
relation to the inspection .intervals and
related procedures furnished under
§ 29.1529 (a)(2), to provide a probabil
ity of detection great enough to ensure
that the probability of catastrophic fail
ure is extremely remote.
(e) Combination of replacement time
and failsafe evaluations. A component
may be evaluated under a combination
of paragraphs (c) and (d) of this sec
tion. For such component it must be
ShoWTh that the probability of cata
strophic failure is extremely remote with
an approved combination of replacement
time, inspection intervals, and related
procedures furnished under § 29.1529
(a)(2).
(Secs. 604, 605, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424,
1425) [Amdt. 29–4, 33 F.R. 14106, Sept. 18,
1968]
Subpart D–Design and Construction
GENERAL
§ 29.601 Design.
(a) The rotorcraft may have no de
sign features or details that experience
has shown to be hazardous or unreliable.
(b) The suitability of each question
able design detail and part must be estab
lished by tests.
§ 29.603 Materials.
The suitability and durability of
materials used in the structure must–
(a) Be established on the basis of ex
perience or tests; and
(b) Meet approved specifications that
ensure their having the strength and
other properties assumed in the design
data.
§ 29.605 Fabrication methods.
The methods of fabrication used must
produce consistently Sound structures.
If a fabrication process (such as gluing,
spot welding, or heat-treating) requires
close control to reach this objective, the
process must be performed according to
an approved process specification.
§ 29.607 Fasteners.
(a) Each removable bolt, screw, nut,
pin, or other fastener whose loss could
jeopardize the Safe Operation of the
rotorcraft must incorporate two sep
arate locking devices. The fastener and
its locking devices may not be adversely
affected by the environmental condi
tions associated with the particular
installation.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(b) No self-locking nut may be used
on any bolt subject to rotation in opera
tion unless a nonfriction locking device
is used in addition to the self-locking
device.
[Amdt. 29–5, 33 F.R. 14533, Sept. 27, 1968]
§ 29.609 Protection of structure.
Each part of the structure must—
(a) Be Suitably protected against de
terioration or loss of strength in service
due to any cause, including—
(1) Weathering;
(2) Corrosion; and
(3) Abrasion; and
(b) Have provisions for ventilation
and drainage where necessary to pre
went the accumulation of corrosive,
flammable, or noxious fluids.
§ 29.611 Inspection provisions.
There must be means to allow close
examination of each part that requires—
(a) Recurring inspection;
(b) Adjustment for proper alignment
and functioning; or
(c) Lubrication.
§ 29.613 Material strength properties
and design values.
(a) Material strength properties must
be based on enough tests of material
meeting specifications to establish design
values on a statistical basis.
(b) Design values must be chosen SO
that the probability of any structure
being understrength because of material
variations is extremely remote.
(c) The strength, detail design, and
fabrication of the structure must mini
mize the probability of disastrous fatigue
failure, particularly at points of stress
concentration.
(d) Unless they are inapplicable in a
particular case, the design values must
be those contained in the following pub
lications, obtainable from the Superin
tendent of Documents, Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20401:
(1) MIL–HDBK-5, “Metallic Materials
and Elements for Flight Vehicle Structure”.
(2) MIL–HDBK-17, “Plastics for Flight
Wehicles”.
(3) ANC–18, “Design of Wood Aircraft
Structures”.
(4) MIL–HDBK-23, “Composite Construc
tion for Flight Vehicles”.
§ 29.619 Special factors.
(a) The Special factors prescribed in
§§ 29.621 through 29.625 apply to each
part of the structure Whose strength is—
371
§ 29.621
(1) Uncertain;
(2) Likely to deteriorate in service be
fore normal replacement; Or
(3) Subject to appreciable variability
due to
(i) Uncertainties in manufacturing
processes; Or
(ii) Uncertainties in in spect 1 on
methods.
(b) For each part of the rotorcraft
to which $$ 29.621 through 29.625 apply,
the factor of safety prescribed in § 29.303
must be multiplied by a special fac
tor equal to—
(1) The applicable special factors pre
scribed in §§ 29.621 through 29.625; or
(2) Any other factor great enough to
ensure that the probability of the part
being understrength because of the un
certainties specified in paragraph (a)
of this section is extremely remote.
§ 29.621 Casting factors.
(a) General. The factors, tests, and
inspections specified in paragraphs (b)
and (c) of this section must be applied in
addition to those necessary to establish
foundry quality Control. The inspec
tions must meet approved specifications.
Paragraphs (c) and (d) of this section
apply to structural castings except
castings that are pressure tested as parts
of hydraulic or other fluid systems and
do not support structural loads.
(b) Bearing stresses and surfaces.
The casting factors specified in para
graphs (c) and (d) of this section—
(1) Need not exceed 1.25 with respect
to bearing stresses regardless of the
method of inspection used; and
(2) Need not be used with respect to
the bearing surfaces of a part whose
bearing factor is larger than the appli
cable casting factor.
(c) Critical castings. For each cast
ing whose failure would preclude Con
tinued safe flight and landing of the
rotorcraft or result in Serious injury to
any occupant, the following apply:
(1) Each critical casting must—
(i) Have a casting factor of not less
than 1.25; and
(ii) Receive 100 percent inspection by
visual, radiographic, and magnetic par
ticle (for ferromagnetic materials) or
penetrate (for nonferromagnetic materi
als) inspection methods or approved
equivalent inspection methods.
(2) For each critical casting with a
casting factor less than 1.50, three Sam
ple castings must be static tested and
shown to meet—
§ 29.623 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(1) The strength requirements of
§ 29.305 at an ultimate load correspond
ing to a casting factor of 1.25; and
(ii) The deformation requirements of
§ 29.305 at a load of 1.15 times the limit
load.
(d) Noncritical castings. For each
casting other than those specified in
paragraph (c) of this section, the follow
ing apply:
(1) Except as provided in subpara
graphs (2) and (3) of this paragraph,
the casting factors and corresponding
inspections must meet the following
table:
Casting factor Inspection
2.0 or greater------ 100 percent visual.
Less th a n 2.0, 100 percent visual, and
greater than 1.5. magnetic particle (fer
romagnetic materials),
penetrant (nonferro
magnetic materials),
or approved equivalent
inspection methods.
1.25 through 1.50-- 100 percent visual, and
magnetic particle (fer
romagnetic materials),
penetrant (nonferro
magnetic materials),
and radiographic or
approved equivalent
inspection methods.
(2) The percentage of castings in
spected by nonvisual methods may be
reduced below that specified in subpara
graph (1) of this paragraph when an
approved quality control procedure is
established.
(3) For castings procured to a specifl
cation that guarantees the mechanical
properties of the material in the casting
and provides for demonstration of these
properties by test of coupons cut from
the Castings on a sampling basis—
(1) A casting factor of 1.0 may be
used; and
(ii) The castings must be inspected
as provided in subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph for casting factors of “1.25
through 1.50” and tested under para
graph (c) (2) of this section.
§ 29.623 Bearing factors.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(b) of this section, each part that has
clearance (free fit), and that is subject
to pounding or vibration, must have a
bearing factor large enough to provide
for the effects of normal relative motion.
(b) No bearing factor need be used
On a part for which any larger special
factor is prescribed.
372
§ 29.625 Fitting factors.
For each fitting (part or terminal used
to join one structural member to an
other) the following apply:
(a) For each fitting whose strength is
not proven by limit and ultimate load
tests in which actual stress conditions
are simulated in the fitting and Sur
rounding structures, a fitting factor of
at least 1.15 must be applied to each part
of—
(1) The fitting;
(2) The means of attachment; and
(3) The bearing on the joined mem
bers.
(b) No fitting factor need be used—
(1) For joints made under approved
practices and based on comprehensive
test data (such as continuous joints in
metal plating, welded joints, and Scarf
joints in wood); and
(2) With respect to any bearing Sur
face for which a larger special factor is
used.
(c) For each integral fitting, the part
must be treated as a fitting up to the
point at which the section properties
become typical of the member.
§ 29.629 Flutter.
Each part of the rotorcraft must be
free from flutter under each appropriate
Speed and power condition.
ROTORS
§ 29.653 Pressure venting and drainage
of rotor blades.
(a) For each rotor blade—
(1) There must be means for venting
the internal pressure of the blade:
(2) Drainage holes must be provided
for the blade; and
(3) The blade must be designed to
prevent water from becoming trapped
in it.
(b) Paragraph (a) (1) and (2) of this
Section does not apply to sealed rotor
blades capable of withstanding the
maximum pressure differentials expect
ed in Service.
[Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 967, Jan 26, 1968]
§ 29.659 Mass balance.
(a) The rotor and blades must be
mass balanced as necessary to—
(1) Prevent excessive vibration; and
(2) Prevent flutter at any speed up to
the maximum forward speed.
(b) The structural integrity of the
mass balance installation must be sub
stantiated
[Amdt. 29–3, 88 F.R. 967, Jan 26, 1968]
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 29.661 Rotor blade clearance.
There must be enough clearance be
tween the rotor blades and other parts
of the structure to prevent the blades
from Striking any part of the structure
during any operating condition.
[Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 967, Jan 26, 1968]
§ 29.663 Ground resonance prevention
In eans,
(a) The reliability of the means for
preventing ground resonance must be
shown either by analysis and tests, or
reliable service experience, or by showing
that malfunction of a single means will
not cause ground resonance.
(b) The probable range of variations,
during Service, of the damping action of
the ground resonance prevention means
must be investigated during the test re
quired by § 29.241.
[Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 967, Jan. 26, 1968]
CONTROL SYSTEMS
§ 29.671 General.
(a) Each control and control system
must Operate With the ease, Smoothness,
and positiveness appropriate to its
function.
(b) Each element of each flight con
trol System must be designed, or distinc
tively and permanently marked, to
minimize the probability of any incorrect
assembly that could result in the mal
function of the System.
§ 29.675 Stops.
(a) Each control System must have
stops that positively limit the range of
motion of the pilot's controls.
(b) Each stop must be located in the
system so that the range of travel of its
control is not appreciably affected by—
(1) Wear;
(2) Slackness; or
(3) Takeup adjustments.
(c) Each stop must be able to With
stand the loads corresponding to the
design conditions for the system.
(d) For each main rotor blade—
(1) The blade must have stops, appro
priate to the design, to limit its travel
about its hinges; and
(2) There must be means to keep the
blade from hitting the droop stops dur
ing any operation other than starting
and stopping the rotor.
§ 29.679 Control system locks.
If there is a device to lock the Con
trol System with the rotorcraft on the
373
§ 29.685
ground or water, there must be means
to—
(a) Automatically disengage the lock
when the pilot operates the controls in a
normal manner, or limit the operation
of the rotorcraft so as to give unmis
takable warning to the pilot before take
Off; and
(b) Prevent the lock from engaging in
flight.
§ 29.681 Limit load static tests.
(a) Compliance with the limit load re
quirements of this part must be shown
by tests in which—
(1) The direction of the test loads
produces the most severe loading in the
control system; and
(2) Each fitting, pulley, and bracket
used in attaching the system to the main
structure is included;
(b) Compliance must be shown (by
analyses or individual load tests) with
the special factor requirements for con
trol system joints subject to angular
motion.
§ 29.683 Operation tests.
It must be shown by operation tests
that, when the controls are operated
from the pilot compartment With the
control system loaded to correspond With
loads specified for the system, the System
is free from—
(a) Jamming;
(b) Excessive friction; and
(c) Excessive deflection.
§ 29.685 Control system details.
(a) Each detail of each control System
must be designed to prevent jamming,
chafing, and interference from cargo,
passengers, or loose objects.
(b) There must be means in the cock
pit to prevent the entry of foreign objects
into places where they would jam the
System.
(c) There must be means to prevent
the slapping of cables or tubes against
other parts.
(d) Cable Systems must be designed
as follows:
(1) Cables, cable fittings, turnbuckles,
Splices, and pulleys must be of an ac
ceptable kind.
(2) The design of cable systems must
prevent any hazardous change in cable
tension throughout the range of travel
under any operating conditions and tem
perature Variations.
(3) No cable smaller than % inch
diameter may be used in any primary
Control System.
§ 29.687 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(4) Pulley kinds and sizes must cor
respond to the cables with which they
are used. The pulley-cable combina
tions and strength values specified in
MIL-HDBK-5 must be used unless they
are inapplicable.
(5) Pulleys must have close fitting
guards to prevent the cables from being
displaced or fouled.
(6) Pulleys must lie close enough to
the plane passing through the cable to
prevent the cable from rubbing against
the pulley flange.
(7) No fairlead may cause a change
in cable direction of more than three
degrees.
(8) No clevis pin subject to load or
motion and retained only by cotter pins
may be used in the control System.
(9) Turnbuckles attached to parts
having angular motion must be installed
to prevent binding throughout the range
of travel.
(10) There must be means for visual
inspection at each fairlead, pulley,
terminal, and turnbuckle.
(e) Control system joints subject to
angular motion must incorporate the
following special factors with respect to
the ultimate bearing strength of the soft
est material used as a bearing:
(1) 3.33 for push-pull systems other
than ball and roller bearing Systems.
(2) 2.0 for cable Systems.
(f) For control system joints, the man
ufacturer's static, non-Brinell rating of
ball and roller bearings may not be ex
ceeded.
§ 29.687 Spring devices.
(a) Each control system spring de
Vice whose failure could cause flutter Or
other unsafe characteristics must be
reliable.
(b) Compliance with paragraph (a)
of this section must be shown by tests
simulating service conditions.
§ 29.691 Autorotation control mecha
nism.
Each main rotor blade pitch control
mechanism must allow rapid entry into
autorotation after power failure.
§ 29.695 Power boost and power-oper
ated control system.
(a) If a power boost or power-oper
ated control system is used, an alternate
system must be immediately available
that allows continued safe flight and
landing in the event of—
374
(1) Any single failure in the power
portion of the System; Or
(2) The failure of all engines.
(b) Each alternate system may be a
duplicate power portion or a manually
Operated mechanical System. The power
portion includes the power Source (such
as hydraulic pumps), and Such items as
Valves, lines, and actuators.
(c) The failure of mechanical parts
(such as piston rods and links), and the
jamming of power cylinders, must be
considered unless they are extremely
improbable.
LANDING GEAR
§ 29.723 Shock absorption tests.
The landing inertia load factor and
the reserve energy absorption capacity
of the landing gear must be substanti
ated by the tests prescribed in §§ 29.725
and 29.727, respectively. These tests
must be conducted on the complete rotor
craft or on units consisting of Wheel, tire,
and shock absorber in their proper
relation.
§ 29.725 Limit drop test.
The limit drop test must be conducted
as follows:
(a) The drop height must be at least
8 inches.
(b) If considered, the rotor lift speci
fled in § 29.473(a) must be introduced
into the drop test by appropriate energy
absorbing devices or by the use of an
effective mass.
(c) Each landing gear unit must be
tested in the attitude simulating the
landing condition that is most critical
from the standpoint of the energy to be
absorbed by it.
(d) When an effective mass is used in
showing compliance with paragraph (b)
of this Section, the following formulae
may be used instead of more rational
computations.
h + (1–L) d
w.—wſ h +d
| and n=nº; +L,
Where:
We=the effective weight to be used in the
drop test (lbs.).
W= WM for main gear units (lbs.), equal
to the static reaction on the par
ticular unit with the rotorcraft in
the Indst critical attitude. A ra
tional method may be used in com
puting a main gear static reaction,
taking into consideration the mo
ment arm between the main
Wheel reaction and the rotorcraft
center of gravity.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
W= WN for nose gear units (lbs.), equal
to the vertical component of the
static reaction that would exist at
the nose wheel, assuming that the
mass of the rotorcraft acts at the
center of gravity and exerts a force
of 1.0g downward and 0.25g for
Ward.
W= Wr for tailwheel units (lbs.) equal
to whichever of the following is
critical—
(1) The static weight on the tailwheel
with the rotorcraft resting on all wheels; or
(2) The vertical component of the ground
reaction that would occur at the tallwheel
assuming that the mass of the rotorcraft acts
at the center of gravity and exerts a force
of 19 downward with the rotorcraft in the
maximum nose-up attitude considered in
the nose-up landing conditions.
hi-specified free drop height (1nches).
L-ratio of assumed rotor lift to the rotor
craft weight.
d=deflection under impact of the tire (at
the proper inflation pressure) plus
the vertical component of the axle
travel (inches) relative to the drop
Inass.
n = limit inertia load factor.
n;=the load factor devoloped, during im
pact, on the mass used in the drop
test (i.e., the acceleration dv/dt in
g's recorded in the drop test plus
1.0).
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 8, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 967, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.727. Reserve energy absorption drop
test.
The reserve energy absorption drop
test must be conducted as follows:
(a) The drop height must be 1.5 times
that specified in § 29.725(a).
(b) Rotor lift, where considered in a
manner Similar to that prescribed in
§ 29.725(b), may not exceed 1.5 times
the lift allowed under that paragraph.
(c) The landing gear must Withstand
this test without collapsing.
§ 29.729 Retracting mechanism.
(a) General. The landing gear, re
tracting mechanism, wheel well doors,
and supporting structure must be de
signed for—
(1) The loads occurring in any ma
neuvering condition with the gear re
tracted;
(2) The combined friction, inertia,
and air loads occurring during retraction
and extension at any airspeed up to the
design maximum landing gear operating
speed; and
375
§ 29.733
(3) The flight loads, including those
in yawed flight, occurring with the gear
extended at any airspeed up to the design
maximum landing gear extended speed.
(b) Landing gear lock. A positive
means must be provided to keep the gear
extended.
(c) Emergency oper a ti o n. When
other than manual power is used to oper
ate the gear, emergency means must be
provided for extending the gear in the
eVent of—
(1) Any reasonably probable failure
in the normal retraction system; or
(2) The failure of any single source
of hydraulic, electric, or equivalent
energy.
(d) Operation tests. The proper func
tioning of the retracting mechanism
must be shown by operation tests.
(e) Position indicator. There must
be means to indicate to the pilot when
the gear is secured in the extreme
positions.
(f) Control. The location and opera
tion of the retraction control must meet
the requirements of $ 29.777.
§ 29.731 Wheels.
(a) Each landing gear wheel must be
approved.
(b) The maximum static load rating
of each wheel may not be less than the
ºpondins
W1UIn—
Static ground reaction
(1) Maximum weight; and
(2) Critical center of gravity.
(c) The maximum limit load rating of
each wheel must equal or exceed the
maximum radial limit load determined
under the applicable ground load re
quirements of this part.
§ 29.733 Tires.
Each landing gear wheel must have
a tire—
(a) That is a proper fit on the rim of
the wheel; and
(b) Of a rating that is not exceeded
under—
(1) The design maximum weight;
(2) A load on each main wheel tire
equal to the static ground reaction cor
responding to the critical center of gray
ity; and
(3) A load on nose wheel tires (to be
compared with the dynamic rating estab
lished for those tires) equal to the re
action obtained at the nose wheel, as
Suming that the mass of the rotorcraft
acts at the most Critical center of gravity
and exerts a force of 1.0 g downward
§ 29.735 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
and 0.25 g forward, the reactions being
distributed to the nose and main wheels
according to the principles of statics with
the drag reaction at the ground applied
Only at wheels With brakes.
§ 29.735 Brakes.
A braking device must be installed
that is—
(a) Controllable by the pilot;
(b) Usable during power-off land
ings; and
(c) Adequate to
(1) Counteract any normal unbal
anced torque when starting or stopping
the rotor; and
(2) Hold the rotorcraft parked on a
10-degree slope on a dry, Smooth pave
ment.
§ 29.737 Skis.
(a) The maximum limit load rating of
each Ski must equal or exceed the max
imum limit load determined under the
applicable ground load requirements of
this part.
(b) There must be a stabilizing means
to maintain the ski in an appropriate
position during flight. This means must
have enough strength to withstand the
maximum aerodynamic and inertia loads
On the ski.
FLOATS AND HULLS
§ 29.751 Main float buoyancy.
(a) For main floats, the buoyancy
necessary to support the maximum
Weight of the rotorcraft in fresh water
must be exceeded by—
(1) 50 percent, for single floats; and
(2) 60 percent, for multiple floats.
(b) Each main float must have enough
water-tight compartments so that, with
any single main float compartment
flooded, the mainfloats will provide a
margin of positive stability great enough
to minimize the probability of capsizing.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 967, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.753 Main float design.
(a) Bag floats. Each bag float must
be designed to withstand—
(1) The maximum pressure differen
tial that might be developed at the max
imum altitude for which certification
with that float is requested; and
(2) The vertical loads prescribed in
§ 29.521 (a), distributed along the length
of the bag over three-quarters of its pro
jected area.
376
(b) Rigid floats. Each rigid float
must be able to withstand the vertical,
horizontal, and side loads prescribed in
$ 29.521. An appropriate load distribu
tion under critical conditions must be
uSed.
§ 29.755 Hull buoyancy.
(a) Water-based and amphibian ro
torcraft. The hull and auxiliary floats,
if used, must have enough watertight
compartments so that, with any single
compartment of the hull or auxiliary
floats flooded, the buoyancy of the hull
and auxiliary floats, and wheel tires if
used, provides a margin of positive water
Stability great enough to minimize the
probability of capsizing the rotorcraft
for the worst combination of wave
heights and surface winds for which
approval is desired.
(b), Limited amphibian rotorcraft.
For limited amphibian rotorcraft, the
following apply:
(1) The hull and auxiliary floats, if
used, must be divided into compartments
So that, with any single compartment
located in the likely area of water impact
during landing flooded, the buoyancy of
the hull and auxiliary floats, and wheel
tires if used, will provide a sufficient mar
gin of positive water stability to minimize
the probability of capsizing the rotor
craft.
(2) The rotorcraft must remain
afloat, after a landing on water, for at
least one-half hour.
(3) The requirements of subpara
graphs (1) and (2) of this paragraph
apply considering the most severe com
bination of wave heights and wind con
ditions for which approval is desired.
[Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 967, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 29.757 Hull and auxiliary floatstrength.
The hull, and auxiliary floats if used,
must withstand the water loads pre
Scribed by § 29.519 with a rational and
conservative distribution of local and
distributed water pressures over the hull
and float bottom.
[Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 967, Jan. 26, 1968]
PERSONNEL AND CARGO AccomMoDATIONs
§ 29.771 Pilot compartment.
For each pilot compartment—
(a) The compartment and its equip
ment must allow each pilot to perform
his duties without unreasonable concen
tration or fatigue;
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(b) If there is provision for a second
pilot, the rotorcraft must be controllable
With equal safety from either pilot seat;
(c) The vibration and noise charac
teristics of cockpit appurtenances may
not interfere with safe operation;
(d) Inflight leakage of rain or Snow
that could distract the crew or harm the
structure must be prevented;
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 FIR. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 967, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.773 Pilot compartment view.
(a) Nonprecipitation conditions. For
nonprecipitation conditions, the follow
ing apply:
(1) Each pilot compartment must be
arranged to give the pilots a sufficiently
extensive, clear, and undistorted View
for safe operation.
(2) Each pilot compartment must be
free of glare and reflection that could
interfere with the pilot's view. If certi
fication for night operation is requested,
this must be shown by night flight tests.
(b) Precipitation conditions. For
precipitation conditions, the following
apply:
(1) Each pilot must have a sufficiently
extensive view for safe Operation—
(i) In heavy rain at forward speeds up
to VH, and
(ii) In the most severe icing condition
for which certification is requested.
(2) The first pilot must have a Window
that—
(i) Is openable under the conditions
prescribed in Subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph; and
(ii) Provides the view prescribed in
that subparagraph.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 967, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.775 Windshield and windows.
Nonsplintering safety glass must be
used in glass windshields and Windows.
§ 29.777 Cockpit controls.
Cockpit controls must be—
(a) Located to provide convenient
operation and to prevent confusion and
inadvertent operation; and
(b) Located and arranged with respect
to the pilot's seats so that there is full
and unrestricted movement of each con
trol without interference from the cock
pit structure or the pilot's clothing when
pilots from 5'2" to 6'0" in height are
seated.
39–059–-75–25
877
§ 29.785
§ 29.783 Doors.
(a) Each closed cabin must have at
least one adequate and easily accessible
external door.
(b) No passenger door may be located
With respect to any rotor disc so as to
endanger persons following appropriate
instructions for the use of that door.
(c) There must be means for locking
Crew and external passenger doors and
for preventing their opening in flight in
advertently or as a result of mechanical
failure. It must be possible to open ex
ternal doors from inside and outside the
cabin with the rotorcraft on the ground.
The means of opening must be simple,
Obvious, and so arranged and marked
that it can be readily located and oper
ated.
(d) There must be reasonable provi
Slons to prevent the jamming of any ex
ternal door, in a minor crash, as a result
of fuselage deformation.
(e) There must be means for di
rect visual inspection of the locking
mechanism by crewmembers to deter
mine whether the external doors (includ
ing passenger, crew, service, and cargo
doors) are fully locked. There must be
visual means to signal to appropriate
crewmembers when normally used exter
nal doors are closed and fully locked.
(f) For outward opening external
doors usable for entrance or egress, there
must be an auxiliary safety latching de
vice to prevent the door from opening
when the primary latching mechanism
fails. If the door does not meet the re
quirements of paragraph (c) of this sec
tion with this device in place, suitable
operating procedures must be established
to prevent the use of the device during
takeoff and landing.
§ 29.785 Seats, safety belts, and har
nesses,
(a) The seats, safety belts, shoulder
harnesses, and adjacent parts of the ro
torcraft, at each station designated for
occupancy during takeoff and landing,
must be designed so that a person making
proper use of these facilities will not suf
fer Serious injury in an emergency land
ing as a result of the inertia forces speci
fied in § 29.561.
(b) Each seat must be approved.
(c) Each occupant must be protected
from head injury by—
(1) A Safety belt and harness that will
prevent the head from contacting any in
jurious object;
§ 29.787 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(2) A safety belt plus the elimination
of any injurious objects within striking
radius of the head; or
(3) A safety belt plus a cushioned rest
that will support the arms, shoulders,
head, and Spine.
(d) If seat backs do not have a firm
handhold, there must be hand grips or
rails along each aisle to let the occupants
steady themselves while using the aisle
in moderately rough air.
(e) Each projecting object that would
injure persons seated or moving about in
the rotoreraft in normal flight must be
padded.
(f) Each seat and its supporting struc
ture must be designed for an occupant
weight of 170 pounds, considering the
maximum load factors, inertia forces,
and reactions between the occupant, seat,
and safety belt or harness corresponding
with the applicable flight and ground
load conditions, including the emergency
landing conditions of $ 29.561. In addi
tion—
(1) Each pilot seat must be designed
for the reactions resulting from the ap
plication of the pilot forces prescribed in
§ 29.397; and
(2) The inertia forces prescribed in
§ 29.561 must be multiplied by a factor
of 1.33 in determining the strength of the
attachment of—
(i) Each seat to the structure; and
(ii) Each safety belt or harness to the
seat, or structure.
§ 29.787 Cargo and baggage compart
ments.
(a) Each cargo and baggage compart
ment must be designed for its placarded
maximum weight of contents and for the
critical load distributions at the appro
priate maximum load factors corre
sponding to the specified flight and
ground load conditions, except the emer
gency landing conditions of § 29.561.
(b) There must be means to prevent
the contents of any compartment from
becoming a hazard by shifting under the
loads specified in paragraph (a) of this
Section.
(c) There must be means to protect
each occupant from injury by the con
tents of any compartment when the
ultimate forward inertia force is 4 g.
§ 29.803 Emergency evacuation.
(a) Each crew and passenger area
must have means for rapid evacuation in
a crash landing, with the landing gear
378,
(1) extended and (2) retracted, con
sidering the possibility of fire.
(b) Passenger entrance, crew, and
service doors may be considered as emer
gency exits if they meet the requirements
of this section and of §§ 29.805 through
29.815.
(c) Limited amphibian rotorcraft
must meet paragraphs (a) and (b) of
this section. In addition, the following
apply:
(1) Each external door, window, and
exit must withstand the probable maxi
mum local water pressures, unless it can
be shown that its failure will not be
hazardous to the passengers and crew
or have an adverse effect on the rotor
craft's water stability that would pre
clude Safe evacuation of the occupants.
(2) At least two exits, one per side,
meeting the minimum dimensions of the
exit specified in § 29.807(a)(4) and lo
cated above the water level must be pro
vided for passenger seating capacities
up to 39, inclusive. For passenger seating
capacities from 40 to 59, inclusive, two
exits, one per side, above the water level
must be provided meeting the minimum
dimensions of the exit specified in § 29.-
807 (a) (3). In all cases, there must be at
least one emergency exit located above
the water level for each 35 passengers.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
*
19
by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 967. Jan. 26,
§ 29.805 Flight crew emergency exits.
(a) For rotorcraft with passenger
emergency exits that are not convenient
to the flight crew, there must be flight
crew emergency exits, on both sides of
the rotorcraft or as a top hatch, in the
flight crew area.
(b) Each flight crew emergency exit
must be of Sufficient size and must be lo
cated so as to allow rapid evacuation of
the flight crew. This must be shown by
test.
[Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 968, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 29.807 Passenger emergency exits.
(a) Type. For the purpose of this part.
the types of passenger emergency exit
are as follows:
(1) Type I. This type must have a rec
tangular opening of not less than 24
inches wide by 48 inches high, with
corner radii not greater than one-third
the width of the exit, in the passenger
area in the side of the fuselage at floor
level and as far away as practicable from
 Chapter 1–Federal Aviction Administration
areas that might become potential fire
hazards in a crash.
(2) Type II. This type is the same as
Type I, except that the opening must be
at least 20 inches wide by 44 inches high.
(3) Type III. This type is the same as
Type I, except that—
(i) The opening must be at least 20
inches wide by 36 inches high; and
(ii) The exits need not be at floor level.
(4) Type IV. This type must have a
rectangular opening of not less than 19
inches wide by 26 inches high, with cor
ner radii not greater than one-third the
width of the exit, in the side of the fuse
lage with a step-up inside the rotorcraft
of not more than 29 inches.
Openings with dimensions larger than
those specified in this section may be
used, regardless of shape, if the base of
the opening has a flat surface of not less
than the specified width.
(b) Passenger emergency erits; side
of-fuselage. Emergency exits must be
accessible to the passengers and, except
as provided in paragraph (d) of this sec
tion, must be provided in accordance
with the following table:
Emergency exits for each side
of the fuselage
Passenger seating
capacity
Type
III
1 through 10---------
11 through 19.---
1 (1) Able, with its attachment, to with
20 through 39
40 through 59--------
60 through 79--------
1
1
- - - - - - -
(c) Passenger emergency erits; other
than side-of-fuselage. In addition to the
requirements of paragraph (b) of this
Section
(1) There must be enough openings
in the top, bottom, or ends of the fuse
lage to allow evacuation with the rotor
craft on its side; Or
(2) The probability of the rotorcraft
coming to rest on its side in a crash
landing must be extremely remote.
(d) Ramp eſcits. One Type I exit only,
or one Type II exit only, that is required
in the side of the fuselage under para
graph (b) of this section, may be in
stalled instead in the ramp of floor ramp
rotorcraft if—
(1) Its installation in the side of the
fuselage is impractical; and
§ 29,811
(2) Its installation in the ramp meets
§ 29.813.
(e) Tests. The proper functioning of
each emergency exit must be shown by
test.
[Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 968, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 29.809 Emergency exit arrangement.
(a) Each emergency exit must con
sist of a movable door or hatch in the
external Walls of the fuselage and must
provide an unobstructed opening to the
Outside.
(b) Each emergency exit must be
Openable from the inside and from the
Outside.
(c) The means of opening each
emergency exit must be simple and obvi
Ous and may not require exceptional
effort.
(d) There must be means for locking
each emergency exit and for preventing
Opening in flight inadvertently or as a
result of mechanical failure.
(e) There must be means to minimize
the probability of the jamming of any
emergency exit in a minor crash landing
as a result of fuselage deformation.
(f) Each land-based rotorcraft emer
gency exit (other than exits located over
the wing) more than 6 feet from the
ground with the rotorcraft on the ground
and the landing gear extended, must
Type have an approved slide, or its equivalent,
IV
for each floor level exit, and an ap
proved rope, or its equivalent, for other
exits. If a rope is used, it must be—
i stand a 400-pound static load; and
(2) Attached to the fuselage structure
at or above the top of the emergency
exit opening, or (for the pilot's emer
gency exit window where the stowed rope
would reduce the pilot's view in flight),
at another approved location.
[Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 968, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 29.811 Emergency exit marking.
(a) Each passenger emergency exit,
its means of access, and its means of
opening must be conspicuously marked.
(b) The identity and location of each
passenger emergency exit must be rec
ognizable from a distance equal to the
Width of the cabin.
(c) The location of each passenger
emergency exit must be indicated by a
sign visible to occupants approaching
along the main passenger aisle. There
must be a locating sign—
379
§ 29.813 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(1) Next to or above the aisle near
each floor emergency exit, except that
one sign may serve two exits if both
exists can be seen readily from that sign;
and
(2) On each bulkhead or divider that
prevents fore and aft vision along the
passenger cabin, to indicate emergency
exits beyond and obscured by it, except
that if this is not possible the sign may
be placed at another appropriate
location.
(d) Each passenger emergency exit
marking and each locating sign must
have white letters 1 inch high on a red
background 2 inches high, be self or elec
trically illuminated, and have a mini
mum luminescence (brightness) of at
least 160 microlamberts. The colors may
be reversed if this Will increase the emer
gency illumination of the passenger Com
partment.
(e) The location of each passenger
emergency exit operating handle and in
structions for opening must be shown—
(1) For each emergency exit, by a
marking on or near the exit that is read
able from a distance of 30 inches; and
(2) For each Type I or Type II emer
gency exit With a locking mechanism
released by rotary motion of the handle,
by—
(i) A red arrow, with a shaft at least
three-fourths inch Wide and a head twice
the width of the shaft, extending along
at least 70 degrees of arc at a radius ap
proximately equal to three-fourths of
the handle length; and
(ii) The word “open” in red letters 1
inch high, placed horizontally near the
head of the arrow.
(f) A source of light, independent of
the main lighting system, must be in
stalled to
(1) Illuminate each passenger emer
gency exit marking and locating sign;
and
(2) Provide enough general lighting
in the passenger cabin So that the average
illumination, when measured at 40-inch
intervals at Seat armrest height on the
center line of the main passenger aisle,
is at least 0.05 foot-candles.
(g) Each light required by paragraph
(f) of this section must be designed to be
operable manually, and to operate auto
matically when armed (if necessary),
from the independent lighting system re
quired by paragraph (f) of this section
in a crash landing and Whenever the
rotorcraft's normal electrical power to
the light is interrupted.
380
(h) Each emergency exit, and its
means of Opening, must be marked on
the outside of the rotorcraft. In addition,
the following apply:
(1) There must be a 2-inch colored
band outlining each passenger emer
gency exit.
(2) Each outside marking, including
the band, must have color contrast to be
readily distinguishable from the sur
rounding fuselage surface. The contrast
must be such that, if the reflectance of
the darker color is 15 percent or less, the
reflectance of the lighter color must be at
least 45 percent. “Reflectance” is the
ratio of the luminous flux reflected by a
body to the luminous flux it receives.
When the reflectance of the darker color
is greater than 15 percent, at least a 30
percent difference between its reflectance
and the reflectance of the lighter color
must be provided.
(i) Exits marked as such, though in
excess of the required number of exits,
must meet the requirements for emer
gency exits of the particular type. Emer
gency exits need only be marked with
the Word “Exit.”
[Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 968, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 29.813 Emergency exit access.
(a) Each passageway between pas
Senger compartments, and each passage
way leading to Type I and Type II
emergency exits, must be—
(1) Unobstructed; and
(2) At least 20 inches wide.
(b) For each emergency exit covered
by § 29.809Gſ), there must be enough
Space adjacent to that exit to allow a
Crewmember to assist in the evacuation
of passengers without reducing the un
obstructed width of the passageway
below that required for that exit.
§ 29.815 Main aisle width.
The main passenger aisle width be
tween seats must equal or exceed the
values in the following table:
Minimum main
passenger aisle width
Passenger seating capacity
Less than 25 inches
25 inches and more
from floor from floor
Inches Inches
10 or less---------------------- 12
11 through 19.------ 12 20
20 or more--------------------- 15 20
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 29.831 Wentilation.
(a) Each passenger and crew Cum
partment must be ventilated, and each
crew compartment must have enough
fresh air (but not less than 10 cu. ft. per
minute per crewmember) to let crew
members perform their duties without
undue discomfort or fatigue.
(b) Crew and passenger compartment
air must be free from harmful or
hazardous concentrations of gases or
Vapors.
(c) The concentration of carbon mon
oxide may not exceed one part in 20,000
parts of air during forward flight. If
the concentration exceeds this value
under other conditions, there must be
suitable operating restrictions.
(d) There must be means to ensure
compliance with paragraphs (b) and (c)
of this section under any reasonably
probable failure of any ventilating, heat
ing, or other system or equipment.
§ 29.833 Heaters.
Each combustion heater must be ap
proved.
FIRE PROTECTION
§ 29.851 Fire extinguishers.
(a) Hand fire eactinguishers. For hand
fire extinguishers the following apply:
(1) Each hand fire extingusher must
be approved.
(2) The kinds and quantitles of each
extinguishing agent used must be appro
priate to the kinds of fires likely to occur
where that agent is used.
(3) Each extinguisher for use in a
personnel compartment must be de
signed to minimize the hazard of toxic
gas concentrations.
(b) Built-in fire eactinguishers. If a
built-in fire extinguishing System is re
quired— -
(1) The capacity of each system, in
relation to the volume of the compart
ment where used and the Ventilation
rate, must be adequate for any fire likely
to occur in that compartment.
(2) Each system must be installed so
that—
(i) No extinguishing agent likely to
enter personnel compartments will be
present in a quantity that is hazardous
to the occupants; and
(ii) No discharge of the extinguisher
can cause structural damage.
881
§ 29,855
§ 29.853 Compartment interiors.
For each compartment to be used by
the crew or passengers—
(a) The materials must be at least
flash-resistant;
(b) The wall and ceiling linings, and
the covering of upholstery, floors, and
furnishings must be at least flame re
Sistant;
(c) Each compartment where smok
ing is to be allowed must have self-con
tained, removable ash trays, and other
Compartments must be placarded against
Smoking;
(d) Each receptacle for towels, paper,
Or Waste must be at least fire-resistant
and must have means for containing
possible fires;
(e) There must be a hand fire extin
guisher for the flight crewmembers; and
(f) At least the following number of
hand fire extinguishers must be con
Veniently located in passenger compart
ments:
Fire
Passenger capacity: ertinguishers
7 through 30-------------------- 1
31 through 60------------------- 2
61 or more---------------------- 8
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 969, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.855 Cargo and baggage compart
ments.
(a) Each cargo and baggage compart
ment must be constructed of, or lined
With, materials that are at least fire
resistant.
(b) No compartment may contain any
controls, wiring, lines, equipment, or ac
cessories whose damage or failure would
affect safe operation, unless those items
are protected so that—
(1) They cannot be damaged by the
ºement of cargo in the compartment;
an
(2) Their breakage or failure will not
create a fire hazard.
(c) The design and sealing of inacces
Sible compartments must be adequate to
contain compartment fires until a land
ing and safe evacuation can be made.
(d) Each cargo and baggage compart
ment that is not sealed so as to contain
cargo compartment fires completely
without endangering the Safety of a
rotorcraft or its occupants must be de
signed, or must have a device, to ensure
detection of fires by a crewmember
while at his station and to prevent the
§ 29.359 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
accumulation of harmful quantities of
smoke, flame, extinguishing agents, and
other noxious gases in any crew or pas
senger compartment. This must be shown
in flight.
(e) For rotorcraft used for the car
riage of cargo only, the cabin area may be
considered a cargo compartment and, in
addition to paragraphs (a) through (d)
of this section, the following apply:
(1) There must be means to shut off
the ventilating airflow to or within the
compartment. Controls for this purpose
must be accessible to the flight crew in
the Crew compartment.
(2) Required crew emergency exits
must be accessible under all cargo load
ing conditions.
(3) Sources of heat Within each com
partment must be shielded and insulated
to prevent igniting the cargo.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 969, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.859 Combustion heater fire protec
tion.
(a) Combustion heater fire zones.
The following combustion heater flre
zones must be protected against fire
under the applicable provisions of
§§ 29.1181 through 29.1191, and 29.1195
through 29.1203:
(1) The region Surrounding any
heater, if that region contains any flam
mable fluid system components (includ
ing the heater fuel system), that could—
(i) Be damaged by heater malfunc
tioning; or
(ii) Allow flammable fluids or vapors
to reach the heater in case of leakage.
(2) Each part of any ventilating air
passage that—
(i) Surrounds the combustion chann
ber; and
(ii) Would not contain (Without dam
age to other rotorcraft components) any
fire that may occur within the passage.
(b) Ventilating air ducts. Each ven
tilating air duct passing through any fire
Zone must be fireproof. In addition—
(1) Unless isolation is provided by
fireproof valves or by equally effective
means, the ventilating air duct down
stream of each heater must be fireproof
for a distance great enough to ensure
that any fire originating in the heater
can be contained in the duct; and
(2) Each part of any ventilating duct
passing through any region having a
flammable fluid System must be so con
structed or isolated from that System
382
that the malfunctioning of any compo
nent of that System cannot introduce
flammable fluids or vapors into the
Ventilating airstream.
(c) Combustion air ducts. Each com
bustion air duct must be fireproof for a
distance great enough to prevent damage
from backfiring or reverse flame propa
gation. In addition—
(1) No combustion air duct may com
municate with the ventilating airstream
unless flames from backfires or reverse
burning cannot enter the ventilating air
Stream under any operating condition,
including reverse flow or malfunction
of the heater or its associated compo
nents; and
(2) No combustion air duct may re
Strict the prompt relief of any backfire
that, if so restricted, could cause heater
failure.
(d) Heater controls; general. There
must be means to prevent the hazardous
accumulation of water or ice on or in
any heater control component, control
System tubing, or safety control.
(e) Heater safety controls. For each
combustion heater, safety control means
must be provided as follows:
(1) Means independent of the com
ponents provided for the normal contin
uous control of air temperature, airflow,
and fuel flow must be provided, for each
heater, to automatically shut off the ig
nition and fuel supply of that heater at
a point remote from that heater when
any of the following occurs:
(i) The heat exchanger temperature
exceeds safe limits.
(ii) The ventilating air temperature
exceeds safe limits.
(iii) The combustion airflow becomes
inadequate for safe operation.
(iv) The ventilating airflow becomes
inadequate for safe operation.
(2) The means of complying with sub
paragraph (1) of this paragraph for any
individual heater must—
(1) Be independent of components
Serving any other heater whose heat out
put is essential for safe operation; and
(ii) Keep the heater off until restarted
by the crew.
(3) There must be means to Warn the
crew when any heater whose heat output
is essential for safe operation has been
shut off by the automatic means pre
scribed in subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph.
(f) Air intakes. Each combustion and
ventilating air intake must be where no
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
flammable fluids or vapors can enter the
heater System under any operating
condition—
(1) During normal operation; or
(2) As a result of the malfunction
of any other component.
(g) Heater ethaust. Each heater ex
haust system must meet the requirements
of §§ 29.1121 and 29.1123. In addition—
(1) Each exhaust shroud must be
sealed so that no flammable fluids or
hazardous quantities of vapors can reach
the exhaust systems through joints; and
(2) No exhaust System may restrict
the prompt relief of any backfire that, if
so restricted, could cause heater failure.
(h) Heater fuel systems. Each heater
fuel System must meet the powerplant
fuel System requirements affecting safe
heater operation. Each heater fuel Sys
tem component in the ventilating air
stream must be protected by shrouds So
that no leakage from those components
can enter the ventilating airstream.
(i) Drains. There must be means for
safe drainage of any fuel that might ac
cumulate in the combustion chamber or
the heat exchanger. In addition—
(1) Each part of any drain that oper
ates at high temperatures must be pro
tected in the same manner as heater
exhausts; and
(2) Each drain must be protected
against hazardous ice accumulation un
der any operating condition.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 8, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–2, 32 F.R. 6914, May 5,
1967]
§ 29.861 Fire protection of structure,
controls, and other parts.
Each part of the structure, controls,
and the rotor mechanism, and other
parts essential to controlled landing and
(for category A) flight that would be af
fected by powerplant fires must be so
lated under § 29.1191, or must be—
(a) For category. A rotorcraft, fire
proof; and
(b) For category B rotorcraft, pro
tected so that they can perform their
essential functions for at least five min
utes under any foreseeable powerplant
fire Condition.
§ 29.863 Flammable fluid fire protec
tion.
If flammable fluids or vapors might es
cape by the leakage of fluid systems,
there must be means to—
383
§ 29,901
(a) Prevent the ignition of those fluids
or vapors by any other equipment; or
(b) Control any fire resulting from
that ignition.
MISCELLANEOUS
§ 29.871 Leveling marks.
There must be reference marks for
leveling the rotorcraft on the ground.
§ 29.873 Ballast provisions.
Ballast provisions must be designed
and constructed to prevent inadvertent
shifting of ballast in flight.
§ 29.877 Ice protection.
The rotorcraft must be able to op
erate safely throughout the range of
icing conditions for which certification
is requested.
Subpart E–Powerplant
GENERAL
§ 29.901 Installation.
(a) For the purpose of this part, the
powerplant installation includes each
part of the rotorcraft (other than the
main and auxiliary rotor structures)
that—
(1) Is necessary for propulsion;
(2) Affects the control of the major
propulsive units; or
(3) Affects the safety of the major
propulsive units between normal inspec
tions or overhauls.
(b) For each powerplant installation—
(1) The installation must meet the
applicable provisions of this subpart and,
for turbine powerplant installations, any
other requirements necessary for safety:
(2) Each component of the installation
must be constructed, arranged, and in
stalled to ensure its continued safe op
eration between normal inspections or
overhauls;
(3) Accessibility must be provided to
allow any inspection and maintenance
necessary for continued airworthiness;
and
(4) Electrical Interconnections must
be provided to prevent differences of po
tential between major components of the
installation and the rest of the rotorcraft.
(5) Axial and radial expansion of
turbine engines may not affect the safety
of the installation.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 8, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 88 F.R. 969, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.903 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 29.903 Engines.
(a) Engine type certification. Each
engine must be type certificated under
Part 33 of this chapter.
(b) Category A; engine isolation. For
each category. A rotorcraft, the power
plants must be arranged and isolated
from each other to allow operation, in at
least one configuration, so that the fail
ure or malfunction of any engine, or the
failure of any system that can affect any
engine, Will not.—
(1) Prevent the continued safe Opera
tion of the remaining engines; Or
(2) Require immiediate action by any
crew member for continued safe Opera
tion.
(c) Category A; control of engine rota
tion. For each Category. A rotorcraft,
there must be means for stopping and
restarting any engine individually in
flight, except that, for turbine engine
installations, the means for stopping the
engine need be provided only where nec
essary for safety. In addition—
(1) Each component for controlling
engine rotation in flight that is on the
engine side of any firewall and that
might be exposed to fire must be at least
fire-resistant; or
(2) Duplicate means must be available
for this purpose and their controls must
be where all are not likely to be damaged
at the same time in case of fire.
(d) Category A; engine cooling fan
blade protection. If an engine cooling
fan is installed in a category. A rotor
craft, there must be means to ensure
that a fan blade failure will not affect
the operation of the remaining engines
or prevent continued safe operation.
(e) Category B; engine cooling fan
blade protection. If an engine cooling
fan is installed, there must be means
to protect the rotorcraft and allow a
safe landing if a fan blade fails. This
must be shown by showing that—
(1) The fan blades are contained in
case of failure;
(2) Each fan is located so that a fail
ure will not jeopardize Safety; Or
(3) Each fan blade can withstand an
ultimate load of 1.5 times the centrifugal
force resulting from engine r.p.m. limited
by either—
(i) The terminal engine r.p.m. under
uncontrolled conditions; Or
(ii) An overspeed limiting device.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 969, Jan. 26,
1968]
884
§ 29.907 Engine vibration.
(a) Each engine must be installed to
prevent the harmful vibration of any
part of the engine or rotorcraft.
(b) The addition of the rotor and the
rotor drive System to the engine may not
subject the principal rotating parts of
the engine to excessive vibration stresses.
This must be shown by a Vibration
investigation.
ROTOR DRIVE SYSTEM
§ 29.917 Design.
(a) General. The rotor drive system
includes any part necessary to transmit
power from the engines to the rotor hubs.
This includes &ear boxes, shafting uni
versal joints, couplings, rotor brake as
semblies, clutches, supporting bearings
for shafting, any attendant accessory
pads or drives, and any cooling fans not
included in the type Certification of the
engine.
(b) Arrangement. Rotor drive sys
tems must be arranged as follows:
(1) Each rotor drive System of multi
engine rotorcraft must be arranged so
that each rotor necessary for Operation
and control Will continue to be driven by
the remaining engines if any engine fails.
(2) For single-engine rotorcraft, each
rotor drive system must be so arranged
that each rotor necessary for control in
autorotation will continue to be driven
by the main rotors after disengagement
of the engine from the main and aux
iliary rotors.
(3) Each rotor drive System must in
corporate a unit for each engine to auto
matically disengage that engine from
the main and auxiliary rotors if that
engine fails.
(4) If a torque limiting device is used
in the rotor drive system, ft must be lo
cated so as to allow continued control
Of the rotorcraft. When the device is
operating.
(5) If the rotors must be phased for
intermeshing, each System must provide
constant and positive phase relationship
under any operating condition.
(6) If a rotor dephasing device is in
corporated, there must be means to keep
the rotors locked in proper phase before
operation.
§ 29.921 Rotor brake.
If there is a means to control the rota
tion of the rotor drive system independ
ently of the engine, any limitations on
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
the use of that means must be specified,
and the control for that means must be
guarded to prevent inadvertent opera
tion.
§ 29.923 Rotor drive system and control
mechanism tests.
(a) Endurance lests; general. Each
rotor drive System and rotor control
mechanism must be tested, as prescribed
In paragraphs (b) through (k) of this
Section, for at least 200 hours plus the
time required to meet paragraphs (b) (2)
and (k) of this section. These tests
must be conducted as follows:
(1) Ten-hour test cycles must be used.
(2) The tests must be conducted on
the rotorcraft.
(3) The test power must be—
(i) Determined by the powerplant
limitations; and
(ii) Absorbed by the actual rotors to
be installed.
(b) Endurance tests; takeoff power
run. The takeoff power run endurance
test must be conducted as follows:
(1) Except as prescribed in subpar
agraph (2) of this paragraph, the take
Off power run must consist of 1 hour of
alternate runs of 5 minutes at takeoff
power and Speed, and 5 minutes at as
low an engine idle speed as practicable.
The engine must be declutched from the
rotor drive system, and the rotor brake,
if furnished and so intended, must be
applied during the first minute of the
idle run. During the remaining 4 min
utes of the idle run, the clutch must be
engaged so that the engine drives the
rotors at the minimum practical r.p.m.
Acceleration of the engine and the rotor
drive System must be done at the maxi
mum rate. When declutching the en
gine, it must be decelerated rapidly
enough to allow the operation of the
overrunning clutch.
(2) For helicopters for which the use
of 2%-minute power is requested, the
takeoff power run must be conducted as
prescribed in subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph, except for the third and sixth
run for which takeoff power and speed
are prescribed in that subparagraph.
For these two takeoff power runs, the
following apply:
(i) Each run must consist of at least
one period of 2% minutes with takeoff
power On all engines.
(ii) Each run must consist of at least
one period, for each engine in sequence,
during which that engine simulates a
385
§ 29.923
power failure and the remaining engines
are run at 2%-minute power for 2%
minutes.
(c) Endurance tests; marimum con
tinuous run. Three hours of continuous
operation at maximum continuous power
and speed must be conducted as follows:
(1) The main rotor controls must be
Operated at a minimum of 15 times each
hour through the main rotor pitch posi
tions of maximum vertical thrust, maxi
mum forward thrust component, maxi
mum aft thrust component, maximum
left thrust component, and maximum
right thrust component, except that the
control movements need not produce
loads or blade flapping motion exceeding
the maximum loads or motions en
countered in flight.
(2) The directional controls must be
Operated at a minimum of 15 times each
hour through the control extremes of
maximum right turning torque, neutral
torque as required by the power applied
to the main rotor, and maximum left
turning torque.
(3) Each maximum control position
must be held for at least 10 seconds, and
the rate of change of control position
must be at least as rapid as that for nor
mal Operation.
(d) Endurance tests; 90 percent of
7mda’imum continuous run. One hour
of continuous operation at 90 percent
of maximum continuous power must
be conducted at maximum continuous
speed.
(e) Endurance tests; 80 percent of
matrimtzm continuous run. One hour of
continuous operation must be conducted
at 80 percent of maximum continuous
power and Speed.
(f) Endurance tests; 60 percent of
marimum continuous run. Two hours,
or, for helicopters for which the use of
30-minute power is requested, 1 hour of
continuous operation at 60 percent of
maximum continuous power must be
conducted at minimum desired cruising
Speed or at 90 percent of maximum Con
tinuous speed, whichever is less.
(g) Endurance tests; engine malfunc
tioning run. It must be determined
Whether malfunctioning of components
such as the engine fuel or ignition SyS
tems, or whether unequal engine power
can cause dynamic conditions detri
mental to the drive System. If So,
a Suitable number of hours of Operation
must be accomplished under those con
ditions, one hour of which must be in
cluded in each cycle, and the remaining
§ 29,923 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
hours of which must be accomplished at
the end of the 20 cycles. If no detri
mental condition results, an additional
hour of Operation in compliance with
paragraph (b) of this section must be
conducted.
(h) Endurance tests; overspeed run.
One hour of continuous Operation at 110
percent of maximum continuous Speed
must be conducted at maximum continu
ous power. If the engines are limited by
the manufacturer to an overspeed of less
than 110 percent of maximum continu
ous speed for the periods required, the
Speed used must be the highest Speed
allowable for those engines.
(i) Endurance tests; rotor control
positions. When the rotor controls are
not being cycled during the tie-down
tests, the rotor must be operated, using
the procedures prescribed in paragraph
(c) of this section, to produce each of the
maximum thrust positions for the fol
lowing percentages of test time (except
that the control positions need not pro
duce loads or blade flapping motion ex
ceeding the maximum loads or motions
encountered in ſlight):
(1) For full vertical thrust, 20 percent.
(2) For the forward thrust component,
50 percent.
(3) For the right thrust component,
10 percent.
(4) For the left thrust component,
10 percent.
(5) For the aft thrust component,
10 percent.
(j) Endurance tests; clutch and brake
engagements. A total of at least 400
clutch and brake engagements, including
the engagements of paragraph (b) of
this section, must be made during the
takeoff power runs and, if necessary, at
each change of power and speed
throughout the test. In each clutch en
gagement, the shaft on the driven side of
the clutch must be accelerated from
rest. The clutch engagements must be
accomplished at the speed and by the
method prescribed by the applicant.
During deceleration after each clutch
engagement, the engines must be stopped
rapidly enough to allow the engines to
be automatically disengaged from the
rotors and rotor drives. If a rotor brake
is installed for stopping the rotor, the
clutch, during brake engagements, must
be disengaged above 40 percent of maxi
mum continuous rotor speed and the
rotors allowed to decelerate to 40 percent
of maximum continuous rotor speed, at
386
which time the rotor brake must be ap
plied. If the clutch design does not
allow stopping the rotors with the engine
running, or if no clutch is provided, the
engine must be stopped before each
application of the rotor brake, and then
immediately be started after the rotors
Stop.
(k) Endurance tests; 30-minute power
run. For helicopters for which the use
of 30-minute power is requested, a run
at 30-minute power must be conducted
as follows:
(1) For each engine, in sequence, that
engine must be inoperative and the re
maining engines must be run for a 30
minute period.
(2) The number of periods prescribed
in subparagraph (1) of this paragraph
may not be less than the number of
engines, nor may it be less than two.
(1) Overspeed test. After completion
of the 200-hour tie-down test, and with
out intervening major disassembly, the
rotor drive system must be subjected to
50 overspeed runs, each 30+3 seconds in
duration at 120 percent of maximum
Continuous Speed. These runs must be
conducted as follows:
(1) Overspeed runs must be alternated
with stabilizing runs of from one to five
minutes duration each at 60 to 80 per
cent of maximum continuous speed.
(2) Acceleration a nd deceleration
must be accomplished in a period not
longer than 10 seconds, and the time for
changing speeds may not be deducted
from the specified time for the overspeed
runs.
(3) Overspeed runs must be made
with the rotors in the flattest pitch for
Smooth Operation.
(4) If the engines are limited by the
engine manufacturer to an overspeed of
less than 120 percent of maximum con
tinuous speed for the periods required,
the Speed used must be the highest speed
allowable for the engines involved.
(m) Any components that are affected
by maneuvering and gust loads must
be investigated for the same flight con
ditions as are the main rotors, and their
service lives must be determined by
fatigue tests or by other acceptable
methods. In addition, a level of safety
equal to that of the main rotors must be
provided for—
(1) Each component in the rotor drive
System whose failure would cause an
uncontrolled landing:
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(2) Each component essential to the
phasing of rotors on multirotor rotor
craft, or that furnishes a driving link
for the essential control of rotors in
autorotation; and
(3) Each component common to two
or more engines on multiengine rotor
Craft.
(n) Special tests. Each rotor drive
System designed to operate at two or
more gear ratios must be subjected to
Special testing for durations necessary
to substantiate the safety of the rotor
drive system.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 29–1, 30 F.R. 8778, July
13, 1965]
§ 29.927. Additional tests.
(a) Any additional dynamic, en
durance, and operational tests, and
vibratory investigations necessary to de
termine that the rotor drive mechanism
is safe, must be performed.
(b) If turbine engine power output to
the transmission can exceed the highest
engine or transmission power rating, and
that output is not directly controlled by
the pilot under normal operating condi
tions (such as where the primary engine
power control is accomplished through
the flight control), the following test
must be made:
(1) Under conditions associated With
all engines operating, make 200 applica
tions, for 10 seconds each, of torque that
is at least equal to the lesser of
(1) The maximum torque used in
meeting $ 29.923 plus 10 percent; or
(ii) The maximum torque attainable
under probable operating conditions, as
suming that torque limiting devices, if
any, function properly.
(2) For multiengine rotorcraft under
Conditions associated With each engine,
in turn, becoming inoperative, apply to
the remaining transmission power in
puts the maximum torque attainable
under probable operating conditions, as
Suming that torque limiting devices, if
any, function properly. Each transmis
Sion input must be tested at this maxi
mum torque for at least one hour.
(3) The tests prescribed in this para
graph must be conducted on the rotor
craft and the power must be absorbed by
the rotors to be installed, except that
other ground or flight test facilities with
other appropriate methods of power ab
Sorption may be used if the conditions of
Support and Vibration closely simulate
387
§ 29.951
the conditions that would exist during a
test on the rotorcraft.
[Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 969, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 29.931 Shafting critical speed.
(a) It must be determined whether
the critical speeds of any shafting lie
Outside the range of allowable engine
Speeds under idling, power on, and auto
rotative conditions.
(b) Any critical vibration existing
from (and including) clutch engagement
to maximum overspeed, during accelera
tion or deceleration, must be shown to
be within Safe limits.
(c) If the demonstration required by
paragraph (b) of this section is made
during the endurance testing, the test
Schedule may substitute the critical
Vibratory conditions for equivalent time
in appropriate parts of the endurance
test procedure.
§ 29.935 Shafting joints.
Each universal joint, slip joint, and
other shafting joints whose lubrication
is necessary for operation must have
provision for lubrication.
§ 29.939 Turbine engine operating char
acteristics.
(a) Turbine engine operating charac
teristics must be investigated in flight to
determine that no adverse characteristics
(Such as stall, Surge, or flameout) are
present, to a hazardous degree, during
normal and emergency operation within
the range of operating limitations of the
rotorcraft and of the engine.
(b) The turbine engine air inlet sys
tem may not, as a result of airflow dis
tortion during normal operation, cause
Vibration harmful to the engine.
[Amdt. 29–2, 32 F.R. 6914, May 5, 1967]
FUEL SYSTEM
§ 29.951 General.
(a) Each fuel system must be con
structed and arranged to ensure a flow
of fuel at a rate and pressure established
for proper engine functioning under any
likely operating conditions, including the
maneuvers for Which certification is
requested.
(b) Each fuel System must be ar
ranged so that—
(1) No engine or fuel pump can draw
fuel from more than one tank at a time;
or
(2) There are means to prevent in
troducing air into the system.
§ 29.953 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(c) Each fuel System for a turbine
engine must be capable of sustained op
eration throughout its flow and pressure
range with fuel initially Saturated with
Water at 80° F and having 0.75cc of free
water per gallon added and cooled to the
most critical condition for icing likely
to be encountered in Operation.
[Docket No. 5084, 29 FR 16150, Dec. 3, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 29–10, 39 lºr. 35462,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 29.953 Fuel system independence.
(a) For category. A rotorcraft—
(1) The fuel system must meet the
requirements of $ 29.903(b); and
(2) Unless other provisions are made
to meet Subparagraph (1) of this para
graph, the fuel system must allow fuel
to be Supplied to each engine through a
System independent of those parts of
each System supplying fuel to other
engines.
(b) Each fuel System for a multi
engine category B rotorcraft must meet
the requirements of paragraph (a) (2) of
this section. However, separate fuel
. need not be provided for each
engine.
§ 29.955 Fuel flow.
(a) Each fuel system must provide at
least 100 percent of the fuel flow required
under the intended operating conditions
and maneuvers. This must be shown as
follows:
(1) Fuel must be delivered to each en
gine at a pressure within the limits spec
ified in the engine type certificate.
(2) The quantity of fuel in the tank
may not exceed the sum of the amount
established as the unusable fuel supply
for that tank under $29.959 plus that
necessary to show compliance with this
Section.
(3) Each main pump must be used
that is necessary for each operating con
dition and attitude for which compliance
With this section is shown, and the ap
propriate emergency pump must be sub
stituted for each main pump so used.
(4) If there is a fuel flowmeter, it must
be blocked and the fuel must flow
through the meter or its bypass.
(b) If an engine can be supplied with
fuel from more than one tank, the fuel
system must feed promptly when fuel
becomes low in one tank and another
tank is selected.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 29–2, 82 F.R. 6914,
May 5, 1967]
388
§ 29.957 Flow between interconnected
tanks.
(a) Where tank outlets are interCon
nected and allow fuel to flow between
them due to gravity or flight accelera
tions, it must be impossible for fuel to
flow between tanks in quantities great
enough to cause overflow from the tank
vent in any sustained flight condition.
(b) If fuel can be pumped from one
tank to another in flight—
(1) The design of the vents and the
fuel transfer system must prevent struc
tural damage to tanks from Overfilling;
and
(2) There must be means to warn the
crew before overflow through the vents
occurs.
§ 29.959 Unusable fuel supply.
The unusable fuel supply for each
tank must be established as not less than
the quantity at which the first evidence
of malfunction occurs under the most
adverse fuel feed condition occurring
under any intended operations and flight
maneuvers involving that tank.
§ 29.961 Fuel system hot weather oper
ation.
(a) For each rotorcraft—
(1) The fuel system must be arranged
to minimize the probability of vapor for
mation in the system under normal
operating conditions; and
(2) Each suction lift fuel system and
other fuel systems conducive to vapor
formation must be free from vapor lock
when using fuel at a temperature of at
least 110 degrees F. under critical op
erating conditions.
(b) For each category. A rotorcraft,
satisfactory hot weather operation must
be shown by showing that there is no
evidence of vapor lock or other mal
function when the rotorcraft is climbed
from the elevation of the airport Se
lected by the applicant to an altitude
of 5,000 feet above the airport elevation,
or to the maximum altitude expected in
operation, whichever is greater.
(c) Compliance with paragraph (b)
of this section must be shown in flight, or
on the ground under conditions closely
simulating flight conditions, and with—
(1) The engines at takeoff power at
the beginning of the test and for the
maximum time approved for takeoff
power, and at maximum continuous
power thereafter:
(2) The weight including full fuel
tanks, minimum crew, and only that bal
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
last necessary to maintain the center of
gravity within allowable limits;
(3) The speed for best rate of climb
under the test conditions; and
(4) Fuel at a temperature of at least
110 degrees F. at the beginning of the
demonstration.
(d) If compliance with paragraph (b)
of this section is shown in weather cold
enough to interfere with the proper con
duct of the test, each fuel tank surface,
fuel line, and other fuel System parts Sub
ject to cold air must be insulated to Sim
ulate, insofar as practicable, flight in hot
Weather.
§ 29.963 Fuel tanks: general.
(a) Each fuel tank must be able to
withstand, without failure, the vibration,
inertia, fluid, and structural loads to
which it may be subjected in operation.
(b) Each fuel tank and its installation
must be designed or protected to retain
fuel Without leakage under the emer
gency landing conditions in § 29.561.
(c) Each flexible fuel tank liner must
be approved or shown to be suitable for
the particular application.
(d) Each integral fuel tank must have
facilities for inspection and repair of its
interior.
§ 29.965 Fuel tank tests.
(a) Each fuel tank must be able to
withstand the applicable pressure tests
in this Section without, failure or leak
age. If practicable, test pressures may
be applied in a manner simulating the
pressure distribution in service.
(b) Each conventional metal tank,
each nonmetallic tank with walls that
are not supported by the rotorcraft
structure, and each integral tank must
be subjected to a pressure of 3.5 p.s.l.
unless the pressure developed during
maximum limit acceleration or emer
gency deceleration with a full tank ex
ceeds this value, in which case a hydro
static head, or equivalent test, must be
applied to duplicate the acceleration
loads as far as possible. However, the
pressure need not exceed 3.5 p.s.l. on Sur
faces not exposed to the acceleration
loading.
(c) Each nonmetallic tank With Walls
supported by the rotorcraft structure
must be subjected to the following tests:
(1) A pressure test of at least 2.0 p.s.l.
This test may be conducted on the tank
alone in conjunction with the test speci
fled in subparagraph (2) of this para
graph.
889
§ 29.965
(2) A pressure test, with the tank
mounted in the rotorcraft structure,
equal to the load developed by the reac
tion of the contents, with the tank full,
during maximum limit acceleration or
emergency deceleration. However, the
pressure need not exceed 2.0 p.s.l. on Sur
faces not exposed to the acceleration
loading.
(d) Each tank with large unsup
ported or unstiflemed flat areas, or with
other features whose failure or deforma
tion could cause leakage, must be sub
º
ent:
to the following test or its equiva
(1) Each complete tank assembly and
tts Supports must be vioration tested
while mounted to simulate the actual
installation.
(2) The tank asse: oly must be v1
brated for 25 hours while two-thirds full
of any suitable fluid. The amplitude of
Vibration may not be less than one
thirty-second of an inch, unless other
wise substantiated.
(3) The test frequency of vibration
must be as follows:
(1) If no frequency of vibration re
Sulting from any r.p.m. within the nor
mal operating range of engine or rotor
System Speeds is critical, the test fre
queilcy of Vibration, in number of cycles
per minute, must be the number obtained
by multiplying the maximum continuous
engine Speed (r.p.m.) by 0.9.
(ii) If only one frequency of vibration
resulting from any r.p.m. within the nor
mal Operating range of engine or rotor
System Speeds is critical, that frequency
of Vibration must be the test frequency.
(iii) If more than one frequency of
Vibration resulting from any r.p.m.
Within the normal operating range of
engine or rotor system speeds is critical,
the most critical of these frequencies
must be the test frequency.
(4) Under subparagraph (3) (ii) and
(iii), the time of test must be adjusted
to accomplish the same number of vi
bration cycles as would be accom
plished in 25 hours at the frequency
Specified in subparagraph (3) (i).
(5) During the test, the tank assem
bly must be rocked at the rate of 16 to
20 complete cycles per minute through
an angle of 15 degrees on both sides of
the horizontal (30 degrees total), about
the most critical axis, for 25 hours. If
motion about more than one axis is likely
to be critical, the tank must be rocked
about each critical axis for 12% hours.
§ 29.967 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 29.967 Fuel tank installation.
(a) Each fuel tank must be supported
so that tank loads are not concentrated
on unsupported tank Surfaces. In addi
tion—
(1) There must be pads, if neces
sary, to prevent chafing between each
tank and its Supports;
(2) The padding must be nonabsorb
ent or treated to prevent the absorption
of fuel:
(3) If flexible tank liners are used,
they must be supported so that they are
not required to withstand fluid loads;
and
(4) Each interior surface of tank com
partments must be smooth and free of
projections that could cause Wear of
the liner, unless—
(i) There are means for protection of
the liner at those points; Or
(ii) The construction of the liner it
self provides such protection.
(b) Any spaces adjacent to tank Sur
faces must be adequately ventilated to
avoid accumulation of fuel or fumes in
those spaces due to minor leakage. If
the tank is in a sealed compartment,
ventilation may be limited to drain holes
that prevent clogging and that prevent
excessive pressure resulting from altitude
changes. If flexible tank liners are in
stalled, the venting arrangement for the
spaces between the liner and its con
tainer must maintain the proper rela
tionship to tank vent pressures for any
expected flight condition.
(c) The location of each tank must
meet the requirements of § 29.1185 (b)
and (C).
(d) No rotorcraft skin immediately
adjacent to a major air outlet from the
engine compartment may act as the wall
of an integral tank.
(e) Each fuel tank must be isolated
from personnel compartments by a fume
proof and fuelproof enclosure.
(f) Each fuel tank close to personnel
compartments, engines, or combustion
heaters must be designed, or protected
and installed, to retain its contents un
der the loads specified in § 29.561.
§ 29.969 Fuel tank expansion space.
Each fuel tank must have an expansion
gpace of not less than two percent of the
tank capacity. It must be impossible to
fill the expansion space inadvertently
with the rotorcraft in the normal ground
attitude.
390
§ 29.971 Fuel tank sump.
(a) Each fuel tank must have a sump
with a capacity of not less than the
greater of—
(1) 0.10 per cent of the tank capacity;
Or
(2) 1/16 gallon.
(b) The capacity prescribed in para
graph (a) of this section must be effec
tive with the rotorcraft in any normal
attitude, and must be located so that
the Sump contents cannot escape through
the tank outlet opening.
(c) Each fuel tank must allow drain
age of hazardous quantities of water
from each part of the tank to its sump
with the rotorcraft in the ground
attitude.
(d) Each fuel tank Sump must have
an accessible and easily operable drain
that—
(1) Allows complete drainage of the
Sump on the ground;
(2) Discharges clear of the entire ro
torcraft; and
(3) Has manual or automatic means
for positive locking in the closed position.
§ 29.973 Fuel tank filler connection.
(a) Each fuel tank filler connection
Inust prevent the entrance of fuel into
any part of the rotorcraft other than
the tank itself. In addition—
(1) Each filler must be marked as pre
scribed in § 29.1557 (c) (1);
(2) Each recessed filler connection
that can retain any appreciable quantity
of fuel must have a drain that discharges
clear of the entire rotorcraft; and
(3) Each filler cap must provide a
fuel-tight seal under the pressure ex
pected in normal operation.
(b) For category. A rotorcraft, each
filler cap or filler cap cover must warn
When the cap is not fully locked or seated
on the filler connection.
§ 29.975 Fuel tank vents and carburetor
vapor vents.
(a) Fuel tank vents. Each fuel tank
must be vented from the top part of the
expansion Space so that venting is effec
tive under normal flight conditions. In
addition—
(1) The vents must be arranged to
avoid stoppage by dirt or ice formation:
(2) The vent arrangement must pre
vent siphoning of fuel during normal
operation;
(3) The venting capacity and vent
pressure levels must maintain acceptable
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
differences of pressure between the in
terior and exterior of the tank, during
(i) Normal flight Operation;
(ii) Maximum rate of ascent and de
scent; and
(iii) Refueling and defueling (where
applicable);
(4) Airspaces of tanks with inter
connected outlets must be intercon
nected;
(5) There may be no point in any went
line where moisture can accumulate with
the rotorcraft in the ground attitude or
the level flight attitude, unless drainage
is provided; and
(6) No vent or drainage provision may
end at any point—
(i) Where the discharge of fuel from
the vent outlet Would constitute a fire
hazard; or
(ii) From which fumes could enter
personnel compartments.
(b) Carburetor vapor pents. Each
carburetor with vapor elimination con
nections must have a vent line to lead
vapors back to one of the fuel tanks. In
addition—
(1) Each vent system must have
means to avoid stoppage by ice; and
(2) If there is more than one fuel
tank, and it is necessary to use the tanks
in a definite sequence, each vapor went
return line must lead back to the fuel
tank used for takeoff and landing.
§ 29.977 Fuel tank outlet.
There must be a fuel strainer with 8
to 16 meshes per inch for the fuel tank
outlet or for the booster pump. In
addition—
(a) The clear area of each fuel tank
outlet strainer must be at least five times
the area of the outlet line;
(b) The diameter of each strainer
must be at least equal to that of the fuel
tank outlet; and
T (c) Each finger strainer must be ac
cessible for inspection and cleaning.
§ 29.979 Pressure refueling and fuel
ing provisions below fuel level.
(a) Each fueling connection below the
fuel level in each tank must have means
to prevent the escape of hazardous quan
tities of fuel from that tank in case of
malfunction of the fuel entry valve.
(b) For Systems intended for pressure
refueling, a means in addition to the nor
mal means for limiting the tank content
must be installed to prevent damage to
391
§ 29.993
the tank in case of failure of the normal
In168 IlS.
FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
§ 29.991 Fuel pumps.
(a) Main pumps. Each fuel pump re
quired for proper engine operation, or re
quired to meet the fuel system require
ments of this subpart (other than those
in paragraph (b) of this section), is a
main pump. For each main pump, pro
vision must be made to allow the bypass
of positive displacement fuel pumps
other than a fuel injection pump (a
pump that supplies the proper flow and
pressure for fuel injection when that in
jection is not accomplished in a carbure
tor) approved as part of an engine.
(b) Emergency pumps. There must be
emergency pumps or another main pump
to feed the engines immediately after
the failure of any main pump (other
than a fuel injection pump approved as
part of the engine).
(c) Installation. The following fuel
pump installation requirements apply:
(1) When necessary for the mainte
nance of the proper fuel pressure—
(1) A connection must be provided to
transmit the carburetor air intake static
pressure to the proper fuel pump relief
valve connection; and
(ii) The gauge balance lines must be
independently connected to the carbu
retor inlet pressure to avoid incorrect
fuel pressure readings;
(2) The installation of fuel pumps
having Seals Or diaphragms that may
leak must have means for draining leak
ing fuel; and
(3) Each drain line must discharge
where it will not create a fire hazard.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 969, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.993 Fuel system lines and fittings.
(a) Each fuel line must be installed
and supported to prevent excessive vibra
tion and to withstand loads due to fuel
pressure, valve actuation, and acceler
ated flight conditions.
(b) Each fuel line connected to com
ponents of the rotorcraft between which
relative motion could exist must have
provisions for flexibility.
(c) Each flexible connection in fuel
lines that may be under pressure or sub
jected to axial loading must use flexible
hose assemblies.
l (d) Flexible hose must be approved.
* ** * -- * * * * … "...”
§ 29.995 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(e) No flexible hose that might be ad
versely affected by high temperatures
may be used where excessive tempera
tures will exist during operation or after
engine shutdown.
§ 29.995 Fuel valves.
In addition to meeting the require
ments of § 29.1189, each fuel Valve
must—
(a) Have positive stops or suitable
index provisions in the “on” and “off”
positions; and
(b) Be supported so that no loads
resulting from their operation or from
accelerated flight conditions are trans
mitted to the lines attached to the valve.
§ 29.997 Fuel strainer or filter.
There must be a fuel strainer or filter
between the fuel tank outlet and the
inlet of either the fuel metering device
or an engine driven positive displacement
pump, whichever is nearer the fuel tank
outlet. This fuel strainer or filter must—
(a) Be accessible for draining
cleaning and must incorporate a Screen
or element which is easily removable;
(b) Have a sediment trap and drain,
except that it nced not have a drain if
the strainer or filter is easily removable
for drain purposes;
(c) Be mounted so that its weight is
not supported by the connecting lines or
by the inlet or outlet connections of the
strainer or filter itself; and
(d) Have the capacity (with respect
to operating limitations established for
the engine) and the mesh to ensure
that engine fuel system functioning is
not impaired, with the fuel contami
nated to a degree (with respect to particle
size and density) that is greater than
that established for the engine in Part
33 of this Chapter.
|Amdt. No. 29–10, 39 FR 35462, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 29.999 Fuel system drains.
(a) Drainage of the fuel System must
be accomplished by fuel Strainer drains
and by the drains prescribed in § 29.971.
(b) Each drain must discharge clear
of the entire rotorcraft and must have
manual or automatic means for positive
locking in the closed position.
OIL SYSTEM
§ 29.1011 General.
(a) Each engine must have an inde
pendent oil system that can supply it
with an appropriate quantity of oil at a
temperature not above that Safe for con
tinuous operation.
(b) The oil system for components of
the rotor drive system that require con
tinuous lubrication must be sufficiently
independent of the lubrication systems
of the engines to ensure—
(1) Operation with any engine inop
erative; and
(2) Safe autorotation.
(c) The usable oil capacity of each
System may not be less than the product
of the endurance of the rotorcraft under
critical operating conditions and the
maximum allowable oil consumption of
the engine under the same conditions,
plus a Suitable margin to ensure ade
quate circulation and cooling. Instead
of a rational analysis of endurance and
consumption, a usable oil capacity of one
gallon for each 40 gallons of usable fuel
may be used for reciprocating engine
installations.
(d) Oil-fuel ratlos lower than those
preScribed in paragraph (c) of this sec
and tion may be used if they are substan
tiated by data on the oil consumption of
the engine.
(e) The ability of the engine and rotor
drive System oil cooling provisions to
maintain the oil temperature at or below
the maximum established value must be
shown under the applicable requirements
of §§ 29.1041 through 29.1049.
§ 29.1013 Oil tanks.
(a) Installation. Each oil tank in
stallation must meet the requirements of
§ 29.967.
(b) Eacpansion space. Oil tank ex
pansion Space must be provided so that—
(1) Each oil tank used with a recipro
Cating engine has an expansion space of
not less than the greater of 10 percent
of the tank capacity or 0.5 gallon, and
each oil tank used with a turbine engine
has an expansion space of not less than
10 percent of the tank capacity;
(2) Each reserve oil tank not directly
connected to any engine has an expan
Sion Space Space of not less than two
percent of the tank capacity; and
(3) It is impossible to fill the expan
slon Space inadvertently with the rotor
craft in the normal ground attitude.
(c) Filler connection. Each recessed
oil tank filler connection that can retain
any appreciable quantity of oil must
have a drain that discharges clear of
the entire rotorcraft. In addition—
(1) Each oil tank filler cap must pro
vide an oil-tight seal under the pressure
expected in operation;
892
 Chapter l—Federal Aviction Administration
(2) For category. A rotorcraft, each oll
tank filler cap or filler cap cover must
incorporate features that provide a
warning when caps are not fully locked
or seated on the filler connection; and
(3) Each oil filler must be marked
under § 29.1557 (c) (2).
(d) Vent. Oil tanks must be vented
as follows:
(1) Each oil tank must be vented from
the top part of the expansion space so
that venting is effective under all normal
flight conditions.
(2) Oil tank vents must be arranged
so that condensed water vapor that
might freeze and obstruct the line cannot
accumulate at any point.
(e) Outlet. There must be means to
prevent entrance into the tank itself, or
into the tank outlet, of any object that
might obstruct the flow of oil through
the system. No oil tank outlet may be
enclosed by a screen or guard that would
reduce the flow of oil below a Safe value
at any operating temperature. There
must be a shutoff valve at the outlet of
each oil tank used with a turbine engine
unless the external portion of the oil
System (including oil tank supports) is
fireproof.
(f) Flerible liners. Each flexible oil
tank liner must be approved or shown to
be suitable for the particular installation.
[Docket No. 5084, 29 FR 16150, Dec. 3, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 29–10, 39 FR 35462,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 29.1015 Oil tank tests.
Each oil tank must be designed and
installed so that—
(a) It can withstand, without failure,
any vibration, inertia, and fluid loads to
which it may be subjected in operation;
and
(b) It meets the requirements of § 29.-
965, except that instead of the pressure
specified in § 29.965(b)—
(1) For pressurized tanks used with a
turbine engine, the test pressure may not
be less than 5 p.s.l.. plus the maximum
operating pressure of the tank; and
(2) For all other tanks, the test pres
sure may not be less than 5 p.s.i.
[Docket No. 5084, 29 FR 16150, Dec. 3, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 29–10, 39 FR 35462,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 29.1017 Oil lines and fittings.
(a) Each oil line must meet the re
quirements of $ 29.993.
(b) Breather lines must be arranged
so that—
393
89–059–75–26
§ 29.1021
(1) Condensed water vapor that might
freeze and obstruct the line cannot ac
cumulate at any point;
(2) The breather discharge Will not
constitute a fire hazard if foaming occurs,
or cause emitted oil to strike the pilot's
windshield; and
(3) The breather does not discharge
into the engine air induction system.
§ 29.1019 Oil strainer or filter.
(a) Each turbine engine installation
must incorporate an oil strainer or filter
through which all of the engine oil flows
and which meets the following require
ments:
(1) Each oil strainer or filter that has
a bypass must be constructed and in
stalled so that oil will flow at the normal
rate through the rest of the system with
the strainer or filter completely blocked.
(2) The oil strainer or filter must have
the capacity (with respect to operating
limitations established for the engine)
and the mesh to ensure that engine oil
System functioning is not impaired when
the oil is contaminated to a degree (with
respect to particle size and density) that
is greater than that established for the
engine under Part 33 of this chapter.
(3) The oil strainer or filter, unless it
is installed at an oil tank outlet, must
incorporate an indicator that will indi
cate contamination of the screen before
it reaches the capacity established in
accordance with paragraph (a) (2) of
this section.
(4) The bypass of a strainer or filter
must be constructed and installed so
that the release of collected contami
nants is minimized by appropriate loca
tion of the bypass to ensure that col
lected contaminants are not in the by
pass flow path.
(5) An oil strainer or filter that has
no bypass, except one that is installed at
an oil tank outlet, must have a means
to connect it to the warning system re
quired in § 29.1305(a) (18).
(b) Each oil strainer or filter in a
powerplant installation using reciprocat
ing engines must be constructed and in
stalled so that oil will flow at the normal
rate through the rest of the system with
the strainer or filter element completely
blocked.
[Amdt. No. 29–10, 39 FR 35463, Oct. 1, 1974)
§ 29.1021 Oil system drains.
There must be at least one accessible
drain that—
§ 29.1023 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(a) Allows safe drainage of the en
tire oil system; and
(b) Has manual or automatic means
for positive locking in the closed posi
tion.
§ 29.1023 Oil radiators.
(a) Each oil radiator must be able to
withstand any vibration, inertia, and oil
pressure loads to which it would be sub
jected in operation.
(b) Each oil radiator air duct must be
located, or equipped, so that, in case of
fire, and with the airflow as it would
be with and without the engine Operat
ing, flames cannot directly strike the
radiator.
§ 29.1025 Oil valves.
(a) Each oil shutoff must meet the
requirements of $ 29.1189.
(b) The closing of oil shutoffs may
not prevent autorotation.
(c) Each oil valve must have positive
stops or suitable index provisions in the
“on” and “off” positions and must be
supported so that no loads resulting from
its operation or from accelerated flight
conditions are transmitted to the lines
attached to the Valve.
CoOLING
§ 29.1041 General.
(a) The powerplant cooling provisions
must be able to maintain the tempera
tures of powerplant components, engine
fluids, and the carburetor intake air
within safe values under any critical
surface (ground or water) and flight Op
erating conditions, and after normal
engine shutdown.
(b) There must be cooling provisions
to maintain the fluid temperatures in
any power transmission within safe val
ues under any critical Surface (ground
or water) and flight operating condi
tions.
(c) Compliance with paragraphs (a)
and (b) of this section must be shown
by flight tests in which the temperatures
of selected powerplant component, en
gine, and transmission fluids are ob
tained under the conditions prescribed
in those paragraphs.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 8, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 969, Jan.
26, 1968]
§ 29.1043 Cooling tests.
(a) General. For the tests prescribed
in § 29.1041(c), the following apply:
394
(1) If the tests are conducted under
conditions deviating from the maximum
anticipated air temperature Specified in
paragraph (b) of this section, the re
COrded powerplant temperatures must
be corrected under paragraphs (c) and
(d) of this section, unless a more ra
tional correction method is applicable.
(2) No corrected temperature deter
mined under subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph may exceed established limits.
(3) The fuel used during the cooling
tests must be of the minimum grade ap
proved for the engines, and the mixture
settings must be those used in normal
operation.
(4) The test procedures must be as
prescribed in §§ 29.1045 through 29.1049.
(b) Marimum anticipated air temper
ature. For Cooling tests, the maximum
anticipated temperature (hot-day con
dition) is 100 degrees F. at sea level, de
creasing from this value at the rate of
3.6 degrees F. per thousand feet of alti
tude above sea level up to the altitude at
which a temperature of —69.7 degrees F.
is reached, above which altitude the
temperature is constant at –69.7 degrees
F.
(c) Correction factor for cylinder
head, oil inlet, carburetor air, and engine
and transmission coolant outlet tempera
tures. The cylinder head, oil inlet, car
buretor air, and engine coolant outlet
temperatures must be corrected by add
ing to them the difference between the
maximum anticipated air temperature
and the temperature of the ambient air
at the time of the first Occurrence of the
maximum head, oil, air, or coolant tem
peratures recorded during the cooling
test.
(d) Correction factor for cylinder
barrel temperatures. Cylinder barrel
temperatures must be corrected by add
ing to them 0.7 times the difference be
tween the maximum anticipated air
temperatures and the temperature of the
ambient air at the time of the first
occurrence of the maximum cylinder
barrel temperature recorded during the
cooling test.
§ 29.1045 Climb cooling test procedures.
(a) Climb cooling tests must be con
ducted under this section for—
(1) Category A rotorcraft; and
(2) Multiengine category B rotor
craft for which certification is requested
under the category. A powerplant in
stallation requirements, and under the
*** * : *, *t →
 Chapter l–Federal Aviation Administration
requirements of $ 29.861(a) at the steady
rate of climb or descent established
under § 29.67 (b).
(b) The climb or descent cooling tests
must be conducted with the engine in
operative that produces the most adverse
cooling conditions for the remaining
engines and powerplant components.
(c) Each Operating engine must–
(1) For helicopters for which the use
of 30-minute power is requested, be at
30-minute power for 30 minutes, and
then at maximum continuous power (or
at full throttle, when above the critical
altitude); and
(2) For other rotorcraft, be at maxi
mum continuous power or thrust (or at
full throttle, when above the critical
altitude).
(d) After temperatures have stabilized
in flight, the climb must be—
(1) Begun from an altitude not
greater than the lower of
(i) 1,000 feet below the engine critical
altitude; and
(ii) 1,000 feet below the maximum
altitude at which the rate of climb is
150 f.p.m.; and
(2) Continued for at least five min
utes after the occurrence of the highest
temperature recorded, or until the rotor
craft reaches the maximum altitude for
Which certification is requested.
(e) For category B rotorcraft without
a positive rate of climb, the descent must
begin at the all-engine-critical altitude
and end at the higher of
(1) The maximum altitude at which
level flight can be maintained With one
engine operative; and
(2) Sea level.
(f) The climb or descent must be con
ducted at an airspeed representing a
normal operational practice for the con
figuration being tested. However, if the
cooling provisions are sensitive to rotor
craft speed, the most critical airspeed
must be used, but need not exceed the
speeds established under § 29.67 (a)(2)
or $ 29.67 (b). The climb cooling test
may be conducted in conjunction with
the takeoff cooling test of $ 29.1047.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 8, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–1, 30 F.R. 8778, July
13, 1965)
§ 29.1047 Takeoff cooling test pro
cedures.
(a) Category A. For each category A
rotorcraft, cooling must be shown during
takeoff and subsequent climb as follows:
395
§ 29.1047
(1) Each temperature must be stabi
lized while hovering in ground effect
With—
(1) The power necessary for hovering;
(ii) The appropriate cowl flap and
shutter settings; and
(iii) The maximum weight.
(2) After the temperatures have stabi
lized, a climb must be started at the low
est practicable altitude and must be con
ducted with one engine inoperative.
(3) The operating engines must be at
the greatest power for which approval is
sought (or at full throttle when above
the critical altitude) for the same period
as this power is used in determining the
takeoff climbout path under § 29.59.
(4) At the end of the time interval
prescribed in subparagraph (3) of this
paragraph, the power must be changed
to that used in meeting $ 29.67(a)(2)
and the climb must be continued for at
least—
(1) Thirty minutes, if 30-minute
power is used; or
(ii) Five minutes after the occurrence
of the highest temperature recorded, if
maximum continuous power is used.
(5) The speeds must be those used in
determining the takeoff flight path
under § 29.59.
(b) Category B. For each category
B rotorcraft, cooling must be shown dur
ing takeoff and subsequent climb as
follows:
(1) Each temperature must be stabi
lized while hovering in ground effect
With—.
(1) The power necessary for hovering;
(ii) The appropriate cowl flap and
Shutter Settings; and
(iii) The maximum weight.
(2) After the temperatures have stabi
lized, a climb must be started at the
lowest practicable altitude with takeoff
power.
(3) Takeoff power must be used for the
same time interval as takeoff power is
used in determining the takeoff flight
path under § 29.63.
(4) At the end of the time interval pre
scribed in subparagraph (3) of this para
graph, the power must be reduced to
maximum continuous power and the
climb must be continued for at least five
minutes after the occurrence of the high
est temperature recorded.
(5) The cooling test must be conducted
at an airspeed corresponding to normal
§ 29.1049 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
operating practice for the configuration
being tested. However, if the cooling
provisions are sensitive to rotorcraft
speed, the most critical airspeed must be
used, but need not exceed the speed for
best rate of climb with maximum con
tinuous power.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–1, 30 F.R. 8778, July 18,
1965)
§ 29.1049 Hovering cooling test proce
dures.
The hovering cooling provisions must
be shown—
(a) At maximum Weight or at the
greatest weight at which the rotorcraft
can hover (if less), at sea level, with the
power required to hover but not more
than maximum continuous power, in the
ground effect in still air, until at least
five minutes after the occurrence of the
highest temperature recorded; and
(b) With maximum Continuous power,
maximum weight, and at the altitude
resulting in zero rate of climb for this
configuration, until at least five minutes
after the occurrence of the highest tem
perature recorded.
INDUCTION SYSTEM
§ 29.1091 Air induction.
(a) The air induction system for each
engine must supply the air required by
that engine under the operating condi
tions for which certification is requested.
(b) Each engine air induction System
must provide air for proper fuel meter
ing and mixture distribution with the
induction system valves in any position.
(c) No air intake may open within the
engine accessory section or Within other
areas of any powerplant compartment
where emergence of backfire flame would
constitute a fire hazard.
(d) Each reciprocating engine must
have an alternate air Source.
(e) Each alternate air intake must be
located to prevent the entrance of rain,
ice, or other foreign matter.
(f) For turbine engine powered
rotorcraft—
(1) There must be means to prevent
hazardous quantities of fuel leakage or
overflow from drains, vents, or other
components of flammable fluid systems
from entering the engine intake System;
and
(2) The air inlet ducts must be located
or protected so as to minimize the inges
896
tion of foreign matter during takeoff,
landing, and taxiing.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 8, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 969, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.1093 Induction system icing pro
tection.
(a) Reciprocating engines. Each re
ciprocating engine air induction system
must have means to prevent and elimi
nate 1cing. Unless this is done by other
means, it must be shown that, in air
free of visible moisture at a temperature
of 30° F., and with the engines at 60 per
cent of maximum continuous power—
(1) Each rotorcraft with sea level en
gines using conventional venturi car
buretors has a preheater that can provide
a heat rise of 90°F.;
(2) Each rotorcraft with sea level en
gines using carburetors tending to pre
vent icing has a preheater that can pro
vide a heat rise of 70°F.;
(3) Each rotorcraft with altitude en
gines using conventional venturi carbure
tors has a preheater that can provide a
heat rise of 120° F.; and
(4) Each rotorcraft with altitude
engines using carburetors tending to
prevent icing has a preheater that can
Orovide a heat rise of 100° F.
(b) Turbine engines. Each turbine en
gine must—
(1) Operate throughout its flight
power range (including idling), without
adverse effect on engine operation or
Serious loss of power or thrust, under the
icing conditions specified in Appendix C
of Part 25 of this chapter, and in snow,
both falling and blowing, within the limi
ºns established for the rotorcraft;
an
(2) Idle for 30 minutes on the ground,
With the air bleed available for engine
icing protection at its critical condition,
without adverse effect in an atmosphere
that is at a temperature of 29°F and has
a liquid water content of 0.6 grams per
cubic meter in the form of drops having
a mean effective diameter of 40 microns,
followed by a momentary operation at
takeoff power or thrust.
[Amdt. No. 29–3, 33 FR 969, Jan. 26, 1968, as
amended by Amdt. No. 29–10, 39 FR 35463,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 29.1101 Carburetor air preheater de
sign. -
Each carburetor air preheater must be
designed and constructed to
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(a) Ensure ventilation of the pre
heater When the engine is operated in
cold air;
(b) Allow inspection of the exhaust
manifold parts that it surrounds; and
(c) Allow inspection of critical parts
of the preheater itself.
§ 29.1103 Induction system ducts.
(a) Each induction system duct up
stream of the first stage of the Super
charger must have a drain to prevent
the hazardous accumulation of fuel and
moisture in the ground attitude. No
drain may discharge where it might
cause a fire hazard.
(b) Each duct must be strong enough
to prevent induction System failure from
normal backfire conditions.
(c) Each duct connected to compo
nents between which relative motion
could exist must have means for flexi
bility.
(d) Each duct within any fire zone for
which a fire-extinguishing system is re
quired must be at least—
(1) Fireproof, if it passes through any
firewall; or
(2) Fire resistant, for other ducts.
§ 29.1105 Induction system screens.
If induction system screens are used—
(a) Each screen must be upstream of
the carburetor;
(b) No screen may be in any part of
the induction system that is the only
passage through which air can reach the
ºne. unless it can be deiced by heated
alr;
(c) No screen may be deiced by alco
hol alone; and
(d) It must be impossible for fuel to
Strike any screen.
§ 29.1107 Inter-coolers and after-coolers.
Each inter-cooler and after-cooler
must be able to withstand the vibration,
inertia, and air pressure loads to which
it would be subjected in operation.
§ 29.1109 Carburetor air cooling.
It must be shown under § 29.1043 that
each installation using two-stage Super
chargers has means to maintain the air
temperature, at the carburetor inlet, at
or below the maximum established value.
EXHAUST SYSTEM
§ 29.1121 General.
(a) Each exhaust system must ensure
safe disposal of exhaust gases Without
897
$ 29.1125
fire hazard or carbon monoxide contam
ination in any personnel compartment.
(b) Unless suitable precautions are
taken, no exhaust System part may be
dangerously close to any system carrying
flammable fluids or vapors, or under any
such system that may leak.
(c) Each component upon which hot
exhaust gases could impinge, or that
could be subjected to high temperatures
from exhaust system parts, must be.
fireproof. Each exhaust system compo
nent must be separated by a fireproof
shield from adjacent parts of the rotor
craft that are outside the engine com
partment.
(d) No exhaust gases may discharge
so as to cause a fire hazard with respect
to any flammable fluid vent or drain.
(e) No exhaust gases may discharge
where they will cause a glare seriously
affecting pilot vision at night.
(f) Each exhaust system component
must be ventilated to prevent points of
excessively high temperature.
(g) Fach exhaust shroud must be ven
tilated or insulated to avoid, during nor
mal operation, a temperature high
enough to ignite any flammable fluids or
vapors outside the shroud.
(h) If significant traps exist, each tur
bine engine exhaust system must have
drains discharging clear of the rotor
craft, in any normal ground and flight
attitudes, to prevent fuel accumulation
after the failure of an attempted engine
Start.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 970, Jan. 26,
1963]
§ 29.11.23 Exhaust piping.
(a) Exhaust piping must be heat and
corrosion resistant, and must have pro
visions to prevent failure due to expan
Sion by Operating temperatures.
(b) Exhaust piping must be supported
to withstand any vibration and inertia
loads to which it would be subjected in
operation.
(c) Exhaust piping connected to com
ponents between which relative motion
could exist must have provisions for
flexibility.
§ 29.11.25 Exhaust heat exchangers.
(a) Each exhaust heat exchanger
must be constructed and installed to
withstand the vibration, inertia, and
§ 29,1141 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
other loads to which it would be sub
jected in operation. In addition—
(1) Each exchanger must be Suitable
for continued operation at high tem
peratures and resistant to corrosion from
exhaust gases;
(2) There must be means for inspect
ing the critical parts of each ex
changer;
(3) Each exchanger must have cool
ing provisions wherever it is subject to
contact with exhaust gases; and
(4) No exhaust heat exchanger or
muff may have stagnant areas or liquid
traps that would increase the probability
of ignition of flammable fluids or vapors
that might be present in case of the fail
ure or malfunction of components carry
ing flammable fluids.
(b) If an exhaust heat exchanger is
used for heating ventilating air used by
personnel—
(1) There must be a secondary heat
exchanger between the primary exhaust
gas heat exchanger and the ventilating
air system; or
(2) Other means must be used to pre
vent, harmful contamination of the ven
tilating air.
PowerPLANT ContRolls AND ACCEssoRIES
§ 29.1141 Powerplant controls: general.
(a) Powerplant controls must be lo
cated and arranged under § 29.777 and
marked under § 29.1555.
(b) Each control must be located so
that it cannot be inadvertently operated
by persons entering, leaving, or moving
normally in, the cockpit.
(c) Each flexible powerplant control
must be approved.
(d) Each control must be able to main
tain any set position without—
(1) Constant attention; or
(2) Tendency to creep due to control
loads or vibration.
(e) Each control must be able to with
stand operating loads without excessive
deflection.
§ 29.1143 Throttle and antidetonant in
jection system controls.
(a) There must be a separate throttle
control for each engine.
(b) Throttle controls must be ar
ranged to allow ready synchronization
of all engines by—
(1) Separate control of each engine;
and
(2) Simultaneous control of all en
gineS.
398
(c) Each throttle control must provide
a positive and immediately responsive
means of controlling its engine.
(d) Each antidetonant injection sys
tem control must be in the throttle con
trols. However, the antidetonant in
jection pump may have a separate
control.
§ 29.1145 Ignition switches.
(a) Ignition switches must control
each ignition circuit on each engine.
(b) There must be means to quickly
shut off all ignition by the grouping of
switches or by a master ignition control.
(c) Each master ignition control must
have a guard to prevent its inadvertent
operation.
§ 29.1147 Mixture controls.
(a) If there are mixture controls,
each engine must have a separate Con
trol, and the controls must be arranged
to allow—
(1) Separate control of each engine;
and
(2) Simultaneous control of all
engines.
(b) Each intermediate position of the
mixture controls that corresponds to a
normal operating setting must be identi
flable by feel and sight.
§ 29.1151 Rotor brake controls.
(a) It must be impossible to apply the
rotor brake inadvertently in flight.
(b) There must be means to warn the
crew if the rotor brake has not been com
pletely released before takeoff.
§ 29.1157 Carburetor air temperature
controls.
There must be a separate carburetor
air temperature control for each engine.
§ 29.1159 Supercharger controls.
Each supercharger control must be ac
cessible to
(a) The pilots; or
(b) (If there is a separate flight engi
neer station with a control panel) the
flight engineer.
§ 29.1163 Powerplant accessories.
(a) Each engine-mounted accessory
must—
(1) Be approved for mounting on the
engine involved; and
(2) Use the provisions on the engine
for mounting.
(b) Electrical equipment subject to
arcing or sparking must be installed to
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
minimize the probability of igniting
flammable fluids or vapors.
(c) If continued rotation of an en
gine-driven cabin Supercharger or any
remote accessory driven by the engine
will be a hazard if they malfunction,
there must be means to prevent their
hazardous rotation without interfering
With the continued operation of the
engine.
(d) Torque limiting means must be
provided on all accessory drives that are
located on the transmission, including
drives on gearboxes that are part of
the transmission, in Order to prevent
the torque limits established for those
drives from being exceeded.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 970, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.1165 Engine ignition systems.
(a) Each battery ignition system must
be supplemented with a generator that is
automatically available as an alternate
Source of electrical energy to allow con
tinued engine operation if any battery
becomes depleted.
(b) The capacity of batteries and
generators must be large enough to meet
the simultaneous demands of the engine
ignition system and the greatest demands
of any electrical System components that
draw from the same source.
(c) The design of the engine ignition
System must account for—
(1) The condition of an inoperative
generator;
(2) The condition of a completely de
pleted battery with the generator run
ning at its normal operating speed; and
(3) The condition of a completely de
pleted battery with the generator oper
ating at idling speed, if there is only one
battery.
(d) Magneto ground wiring (for sep
arate ignition circuits) that lies on the
engine side of any firewall must be in
stalled, located, or protected, to mini
mize the probability of the simultaneous
failure of two or more wires as a result
of mechanical damage, electrical fault, or
Other cause.
(e) No ground wire for any engine may
be routed through a fire zone of another
engine unless each part of that wire
Within that Zone is fireproof.
(f) Each ignition system must be in
dependent of any electrical circuit not
used for analyzing the operation of that
System.
399
§ 29,1183
(g) There must be means to Warn
appropriate crewmembers if the mal
functioning of any part of the electrical
System is causing the continuous dis
charge of any battery necessary for
engine Ignition.
POWERPLANT FIRE PROTECTION
§ 29.1181. Designated fire zones: regions
included.
(a) Designated fire zones are–
(1) The engine power section of recip
rocating engines;
(2) The engine accessory section of
reciprocating engines;
(3) Any complete powerplant compart
ment in Which there is no isolation be
tween the engine power section and the
engine accessory Section, for reciprocat
ing engines;
(4) Any auxiliary power unit compart
ment;
(5) Any fuel-burning heater and other
combustion equipment installation de
scribed in § 29.859;
(6) The compressor and accessory sec
tions of turbine engines; and
(7) The Combustor, turbine, and tail
pipe sections of turbine engine installa
tions except sections that do not con
tain lines and components carrying flann
mable fluids or gases and are isolated
from the designated fire zone prescribed
in subparagraph (6) of this paragraph
by a firewall that meets $ 29.1191.
[Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 970, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 29.1183 Flammable fluid-carrying
components.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(b) of this section, each line, fitting, and
Other component carrying flammable
fluid in any area subject to engine fire
conditions and each component which
conveys or contains flammable fluid in
a designated fire Zone must be fire resist
ant, except that flammable fluid tanks
and Supports in a designated fire zone
must be fireproof or be enclosed by a
fireproof shield unless damage by fire
to any non-fireproof part will not cause
leakage or spillage of flammable fluid.
Components must be shielded or located
So as to safeguard against the ignition of
leaking flammable fluid. An integral oil
Sump of less than 20 quart capacity on
a reciprocating engine need not be fire
proof nor be enclosed by a fireproof
Shield.
(b) Paragraph (a) of this Section does
not apply to—
§ 29.1.185 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(1) Lines and fittings already ap
proved as part of a type certificated en
gine under Part 33 of this chapter; and
(2) Went and drain lines, and their
fittings, whose failure will not result in
or add to, a fire hazard.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–2, 32 F.R. 6914, May 5,
1967; Amdt. No. 29–10, 39 F.R. 35463, Oct. 1,
1974]
§ 29.1135 Flammable ſluids.
(a) No tank or reservoir that is part
of a system containing flammable fluids
or gases may be in a designated fire zone
unless the fluid contained, the design
of the system, the materials used in the
tank and its supports, the shutoff means,
and the connections, lines, and controls
provide a degree of safety equal to that
which would exist if the tank or reservoir
were outside Such a Zone.
(b) Each fuel tank must be isolated
from the engines by a firewall or shroud.
(c) There must be at least one-half
inch of clear airspace between each tank
or reservoir and each firewall or shroud
isolating a designated fire zone, unless
equivalent means are used to prevent
heat, transfer from the fire zone to the
flammable fluid.
(d) Absorbent material close to flann
mable fluid System components that
might leak must be covered or treated
to prevent the absorption of hazardous
quantities of fluids.
§ 29.1187 Drainage and ventilation of
fire zones.
(a) There must be complete drainage
of each part of each designated fire zone
to minimize the hazards resulting from
failure or malfunction of any component
containing flammable fluids. The drain
age means must be—
(1) Effective under conditions ex
pected to prevail when drainage is
needed; and
(2) Arranged so that no discharged
fluid will cause an additional fire hazard.
(b) Each designated fire zone must be
ventilated to prevent the accumulation
of flammable vapors.
(c) No ventilation opening may be
where it would allow the entry of flam
mable fluids, vapors, or flame from other
ZOnes.
(d) Ventilation means must be ar
ranged so that no discharged vapors will
cause an additional fire hazard.
(e) For category. A rotorcraft, there
must be means to allow the crew to shut
off the sources of forced ventilation in
400
any fire zone (other than the engine
power section of the powerplant com
partment) unless the amount of extin
guishing agent and the rate of discharge
are based on the maximum airflow
through that Zone.
§ 29.1189 Shutoſſ means.
(a) There must be means to shut off
or otherwise prevent hazardous quan
tities of fuel, oil, deicing fluid, and other
flammable fluids from flowing into,
Within, or through any designated fire
Zone, except that this means need not be
provided—
(1) For lines and fittings forming an
integral part of an engine; or
(2) In the case of reciprocating en
gines only, for engine oil Systems in
Category B rotorcraft using engines of
less than 500 cubic inches displacement.
(b) The closing of any fuel shutoff
valve for any engine may not make fuel
unavailable to the remaining engines.
(c) For category A rotorcraft, no haz
ardous quantity of flammable fluid may
drain into any designated fire zone after
shutoff has been accomplished, nor may
the closing of any fuel shutoff valve for
an engine make fuel unavailable to the
remaining engines.
(d) The operation of any shutoff may
not interfere with the later emergency
operation of any other equipment, such
as the means for declutching the engine
from the rotor drive.
(e) Each shutoff must be outside of
designated fire zones, unless an equal
degree of safety is otherwise provided.
(f) There must be means to prevent
inadvertent operation of each shutoff
and to make it possible for the crew to
reopen it in flight after it has been
closed.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 970, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.1191 Firewalls.
(a) Each engine, including the com
bustor, turbine, and tailpipe sections of
turbine engine installations, must be iso
lated by a firewall, shroud, or equivalent
means, from personnel compartments,
structures, controls, rotor mechanisms,
and other parts that are—
(1) Essential to controlled flight and
landing; and
(2) Not protected under § 29.861.
(b) Each auxiliary power unit, com
bustion heater, and other combustion
equipment to be used in flight, must be
isolated from the rest of the rotorcraft
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
by firewalls, shrouds, or equivalent
Ineans.
(C) Each firewall or shroud must be
Constructed So that no hazardous quan
tity of air, fluid, or flame can pass from
any engine Compartment to other parts
of the rotorcraft.
(d) Each opening in the firewall or
shroud must be sealed with close-fitting
fireproof grommets, bushings, or firewall
fittings.
(e) Each firewall and shroud must be
fireproof and protected against corrosion.
(f) In meeting this Section, account
must be taken of the probable path of
a fire as affected by the airflow in nor
mal flight and in autorotation.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 8, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 970, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.1193 Cowling and engine compart
ment covering.
(a) Each cowling and engine com
partment covering must be constructed
and supported so that it can resist the
vibration, inertia, and air loads to which
it may be subjected in Operation.
(b) Cowling must meet the drainage
and ventilation requirements Of
§ 29.1187.
(c) On rotorcraft with a diaphragm
isolating the engine power section from
the engine accessory section, each part
of the accessory Section Cowling Subject
to flame in case of fire in the engine
power section of the powerplant must—
(1) Be fireproof; and
(2) Meet the requirements of
§ 29.1191.
(d) Each part of the cowling or
engine compartment covering subject to
high temperatures due to its nearness to
exhaust system parts or exhaust gas im
pingement must be fireproof.
(e) Each category. A rotorcraft must—
(1) Be designed and constructed SO
that no fire originating in any fire ZOne
can enter, either through openings or by
burning through external skin, any
other zone or region where it would
create additional hazards;
(2) Meet the requirements of sub
paragraph (1) of this paragraph with the
landing gear retracted (if applicable);
and
(3) Have fireproof skin in areas sub
ject to flame if a fire starts in or burns
out of any designated fire zone.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 970, Jan. 26,
1968]
401
§ 29.1197
§ 29.1194 Other surfaces.
All surfaces aft of, and near, engine
Compartments and designated fire zones,
other than tail Surfaces not subject to
heat, flames, or sparks emanating from
a designated fire zone or engine compart
ment, must be at least fire resistant.
[Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 970, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 29.1195 Fire extinguishing systems.
(a) Each turbine engine powered
rotorcraft and Category. A reciprocating
engine powered rotorcraft, and each
Category B reciprocating engine pow
ered rotorcraft with engines of more
than 1,500 cubic inches must have a fire
extinguishing system for the designated
fire zones. The fire extinguishing system
for a powerplant must be able to simul
taneously protect all Zones of the power
plant compartment for which protection
is provided.
(b) For multiengine rotorcraft—
(1) The fire extinguishing system, the
quantity of extinguishing agent, and the
rate of discharge must provide at least
two adequate discharges, or, in the case
of auxiliary power units and combus
tion equipment, at least one adequate
discharge; and
(2) It must be possible to direct both
discharges of the fire extinguishing sys
tem to any main engine installation.
(c) For single engine rotorcraft, the
quantity of extinguishing agent and the
rate of discharge must provide at least
One adequate discharge for the engine
COmpartment.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 970, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.1197 Fire extinguishing agents.
(a) Extinguishing agents must be
methyl bromide, carbon dioxide, or any
agent with equal extinguishing action.
(b) If methyl bromide, carbon di
oxide, or any other toxic extinguishing
agent is used, it must be shown by test
that entry of harmful concentrations of
fluid or fluid vapors into any personnel
compartment (due to leakage during
normal operation of the rotorcraft, or
discharge on the ground or in flight) is
prevented, even though a defect may
exist in the extinguishing System.
(c) Each methyl bromide container
must be charged with a dry agent and
sealed. This must be done by
(1) The fire extinguisher manufac
turer; or
 § 29.11.99 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(2) Any person using appropriate re
charging equipment.
Extinguishing agent contain
§ 29.1199
ers.
(a) Each extinguishing agent con
tainer must have a pressure relief to pre
vent bursting of the container by exces
sive internal pressures.
(b) Each discharge line from a relief
connection must end outside the rotor
craft in a location convenient for in
spection on the ground.
(c) There must be a visual discharge
indicator at the discharge end of each
discharge line.
(d) The temperature of each contain
er must be maintained, under intended
operating conditions, to prevent the
pressure in the container from—
(1) Falling below that necessary to
provide an adequate rate of discharge;
or
(2) Rising high enough to cause pre
mature discharge.
§ 29.1201 Fire extinguishing
materials.
(a) No materials in any fire extin
guishing System may react chemically
with any extinguishing agent so as to
Create a hazard. -
(b) Each System component in an en
gine compartment must be fireproof.
§ 29.1203 Fire detector systems.
(a) For each turbine engine powered
rotorcraft and Category. A reciprocating
engine powered rotorcraft, and for each
Category B reciprocating engine powered
rotorcraft with engines of more than 900
cubic inches displacement, there must
be approved, quick-acting fire detectors
in designated fire zones and in the com
bustor, turbine, and tailpipe sections of
turbine installations (whether or not
such sections are designated fire zones)
in numbers and locations ensuring
prompt detection of fire in those zones.
(b) Each fire detector must be con
structed and installed to withstand any
vibration, inertla, and other loads to
which it would be subjected in operation.
(c) No fire detector may be affected
by any oil, water, other fluids, or fumes
that might be present.
(d) There must be means to allow
crewmembers to check, in flight, the
functioning of each fire detector system
electrical circuit.
(e) The wiring and other components
of each fire detector system in an engine
compartment must be at least fire
resistant.
!
º
(f) No fire detector system compo
nent for any fire zone may pass through
another fire zone, unless—
(1) It is protected against the possi
bility of false warnings resulting from
fires in zones through which it passes; Or
(2) The zones involved are simulta
neously protected by the same detector
and extinguishing Systems.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt, 29–3, 33 F.R. 970, Jan. 26,
º
1968]
Subpart F-Equipment
GENERAL
§ 29.1301 Function and installation.
Each item of installed equipment
must—
(a) Be of a kind and design appropri
ate to its intended function;
(b) Be labeled as to its identification,
system function, or operating limitations, or any
applicable combination of these factors;
(c) Be installed according to limita
tions specified for that equipment; and
(d) Function properly when installed.
§ 29.1303 Flight and navigation instru
ments.
The following are required flight and
navigational instruments:
(a) An airspeed indicating System.
(b) A sensitive altimeter.
(c) A magnetic direction indicator.
(d) A clock (sweep-second).
(e) A free-air temperature indicator.
(f) A non-tumbling gyroscopic bank
and pitch indicator.
(g) A gyroscopic rate-of-turn indica
tor. With bank indicator.
(h) A gyroscopic direction indicator.
(i) A rate-of-climb (vertical speed)
indicator.
§ 29.1305 Powerplant instruments.
The following are required powerplant
instruments:
(a) For each rotorcraft—
(1) A carburetor air temperature indi
cator for each reciprocating engine:
(2) A cylinder head temperature in
dicator for each air-cooled reciprocating
engine, and a coolant temperature indi
cator for each liquid-cooled reciprocat
ing engine;
(3) A fuel quantity indicator for each
fuel tank;
402
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(4) If an engine can be supplied with
fuel from more than one tank, a warn
ing device to indicate, for each tank,
when a 5-minute usable fuel supply re
mains when the rotorcraft is in the most
adverse fuel feed condition for that tank,
regardless of Whether that condition can
be sustained for the 5 minutes;
(5) A manifold pressure indicator, for
each reciprocating engine of the altitude
type;
(6) An oil pressure warning device for
each pressure-lubricated gearbox to in
dicate when the oil pressure falls below
a safe value;
(7) An oil quantity indicator for each
oil tank and each rotor drive gearbox, if
lubricant is self-contained;
(8) An Oil temperature indicator for
each engine;
(9) An oil temperature warning device
to indicate unsafe oil temperatures in
each main rotor drive gearbox, including
gearboxes necessary for rotor phasing;
(10) A gas temperature indicator for
each turbine engine;
(11) A gas producer rotor tachometer
for each turbine engine;
(12) A tachometer for each engine
that, if combined with the applicable in
strument required by subparagraph (13)
of this paragraph, indicates rotor r.p.m.
during autorotation.
(13) At least one tachometer to indi
cate, as applicable—
(i) The r.p.m. of the single main rotor;
(ii) The common r.p.m. of any main
rotors whose speeds cannot vary appre
cíably with respect to each other; and
(iii) The r.p.m. of each main rotor
whose speed can vary Rppreciably with
respect to that of another main rotor;
(14) A free power turbine tachometer
for each turbine engine;
(15) A means, for each turbine engine,
to indicate power for that engine;
(16) For each turbine engine, an in
dicator to indicate the functioning of the
powerplant ice protection system;
(17) An indicator for the fuel strainer
or filter required by § 29.997 to indicate
the occurrence of contamination of the
Strainer or filter before it reaches the
capacity established in accordance with
§ 29.997 (d);
(18) For each turbine engine, a warn
ing means for the oil strainer or filter
required by § 29.1019, if it has no bypass,
to warn the pilot of the occurrence of
contamination of the strainer or filter
403
§ 29.1309
before it reaches the capacity established
in accordance with $ 29.1019 (a)(2); and
(19) An indicator to indicate the
proper functioning of any heater used to
prevent ice clogging of fuel system com
ponents.
(b) For category A rotorcraft—
(1) An individual oil pressure indi
Cator for each engine, and either an
independent warning device for each
engine or a master Warning device for
the engines with means for isolating the
individual warning circuit from the
master Warning device;
(2) An individual fuel pressure in
dicator for each engine, and either an
independent warning device for each
engine or a master warning device for
the engines with means for isolating the
individual warning circuit from the
master Warning device; and
(3) Fire warning indicators.
(c) For category B rotorcraft—
(1) An individual oil pressure indi
cator for each engine;
(2) An individual fuel pressure indi
cator for each engine; and
(3) Fire warning indicators, when fire
detection is required.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 8, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 970, Jan. 26,
1968; Amdt. No. 29–10, 39 FR 35463, Oct. 1,
1974]
§ 29.1307 Miscellaneous equipment.
The following is required miscellane
ous equipment:
(a) An approved seat for each occu
pant.
(b) An approved safety belt for each
Occupant.
(c) A master switch errangement for
electrical circuits other than ignition.
(d) An adequate source of electrical
energy.
(e) Electrical protective devices.
(f) Hand fire extinguishers.
(g) A windshield wiper or equivalent
device for each pilot station.
(h) A two-way radio communication
system.
(i) An ignition switch for each, and
for all, engines, as prescribed in § 29.1145.
§ 29.1309 Equipment, systems, and in
stallations.
(a) Functioning and reliability. The
equipment, systems, and installations
whose functioning is required by this
subchapter must be designed and in
stalled to ensure that they perform their
§ 29.1321 ; Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
intended functions under any foreseeable
operating condition.
(b) Hazards. The equipment, Sys
tems, and installations must be designed
to prevent hazards to the rotorcraft if
they malfunction or fail.
(c) Electrical systems. For electrical
Systems, equipment, and installations,
critical environmental conditions must
be considered in meeting the require
ments of paragraphs (a) and (b) of this
section.
(d) Category A; power supply. Each
installation whose functioning is required
by this subchapter and that requires a
power Supply is an “essential load” on the
power Supply. The power Sources and
the system must be able to supply the fol
lowing power loads in probable operating
combinations and for probable durations:
(1) Loads connected to the System
with the System functioning normally.
(2) Essential loads, after failure of
any one prime mover, power converter,
or energy storage device.
(3) Essential loads, after failure of—
(1) Any one engine, on rotorcraft with
two or three engines; and
(ii) Any two engines, on rotorcraft
With four or more engines.
(e) Category A; assumptions. In de
termining compliance with paragraph
(d) (2) and (3), the power loads may be
assumed to be reduced under a monitor
ing procedure consistent with Safety in
the kinds of operation authorized.
Loads not required for controlled flight
need not be considered for the two-en
gine-inoperative condition on rotorcraft
with four or more engines.
INSTRUMENTS: INSTALLATION
§ 29.1321 Arrangement and visibility.
(a) Each flight, navigation, and
powerplant instrument for use by any
pilot must be easily visible to him from
his station with the minimum practicable
deviation from his normal position and
line of vision when he is looking forward
along the flight path.
(b) Each instrument necessary for
safe operation, including the airspeed
indicator, gyroscopic direction indicator,
gyroscopic bank and pitch indicator, gy
roscopic turn and bank indicator, altim
eter, rate-of-climb indicator, rotor ta
chometers, and manifold pressure indi
cator, must be grouped and centered as
thearly as practicable about the vertical
plane of the pilot's forward vision.
404
(c) Other required powerplant in
struments must be closely grouped on the
instrument panel.
(d) Identical powerplant instruments
for the engines must be located so as to
prevent any confusion as to which engine
each instrument relates.
(e) Each powerplant instrument vital
to safe Operation must be plainly visible
to appropriate crewmembers.
(f) Instrument panel vibration may
not damage, or impair the readability or
accuracy of, any instrument.
§ 29.1322 Warning, caution, and advis
ory lights.
If warning, caution, or advisory lights
are used, they must be—
(a) Red, for warning lights (lights in
dicating a hazard requiring immediate
Corrective action);
(b) Amber, for caution lights (lights
indicating the possible need for future
corrective action); and
(c) Green, for advisory lights (lights
used solely for information not indicat
ing the need for corrective action).
[Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 970, Jan. 26, 1968]
§ 29.1323 Airspeed indicating system.
For each airspeed indicating system,
the following apply:
(a) Each airspeed indicating instru
ment must be calibrated to indicate true
airspeed (at sea level with a standard at
mosphere) with a minimum practicable
instrument calibration error When the
corresponding pitot and static pressures
are applied.
(b) Each System must be calibrated
to determine the system error, that is,
the relation between LAS and CAS.
This calibration must be determined,
over an appropriate range of speeds—
(1) In flight, for the flight conditions
of climb, level flight, and autorotation;
and
(2) During takeoff, with repeatable
and readable indications that ensure—
(1) Consistent realization of the field
lengths specified in the Rotorcraft Flight
Manual; and
(ii) Avoidance of the critical areas of
the limiting height-speed envelope estab
lished under § 29.79.
(c) For multiengine rotorcraft, the
airspeed error of the installation may
not exceed 3 percent, or 5 knots, which
ever is greater—
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(1) Throughout the Speed range in
level flight at forward Speeds of 30 knots
or over; and
(2) Throughout the Speed range in
climb from 10 knots below the takeoff
climbout safety Speed to 10 knots above
the best rate of climb Speed.
(d) For single engine rotorcraft, call
bration of the airspeed indicator must
be made in flight at forward speeds of
20 knots or over. The airspeed error of
the installation may not exceed 3 per
cent, or 5 knots, whichever is greater, at
any forward speed above 80 percent of
the climbout Speed.
(e) Each System must be arranged, SO
far as practicable, to prevent malfunc
tion or serious error due to the entry of
moisture, dirt, or other substances.
(f) Each system must have a heated
pitot tube or an equivalent means of
preventing malfunction due to icing.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 970, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.1325 Static air vent and pressure
altimeter systems.
(a) Each instrument with static air
case connections must be vented to the
outside atmosphere through an appro
priate piping System.
(b) Each vent must be located where
its orifices are least affected by airflow
variation, moisture, or other foreign
matter.
(c) Except for the vent into the at
mosphere, each system must be air
tight.
(d) Each pressure altimeter must be
approved and calibrated to indicate pres
sure altitude in a standard atmosphere
with a minimum practicable calibration
error when the corresponding static
pressures are applied.
(e) Each system must be designed and
installed so that the error in indicated
pressure altitude at sea level with a
standard atmosphere, excluding instru
ment calibration error, does not result
in an error of more than +30 feet in the
level flight speed range from 0 knots
to 0.97H.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 971, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.1327 Magnetic direction indicator.
(a) Each magnetic direction indicator
must be installed so that its accuracy is
§ 29,1333
not excessively affected by the rotor
craft's Vibration or magnetic fields.
(b) The compensated installation may
not have a deviation, in level flight,
greater than 10 degrees on any heading.
§ 29.1329 Automatic pilot system.
(a) Each automatic pilot system must
be approved, and must be designed so
that the automatic pilot can—
(1) Be quickly and positively disen
gaged by the pilots to prevent it from in
terfering with their control of the rotor
Craft; or
(2) Be sufficiently overpowered by one
pilot to let him control the rotorcraft.
(b) Unless there is automatic Syn
chronization, each system must have a
means to readily indicate to the pilot the
alignment of the actuating device in
relation to the control system it operates.
(c) Each manually operated control
for the system's operation must be read
ily accessible to the pilots.
(d) The System must be designed and
adjusted So that, within the range of
adjustment available to the pilot, it can
not produce hazardous loads on the
rotorcraft, or create hazardous devia
tions in the flight path, under any flight
condition appropriate to its use, either
during normal operation or in the event
of a malfunction, assuming that correc
tive action begins within a reasonable
period of time.
§ 29.1331 Instruments using a power
supply.
- For category. A rotorcraft—
(a) Each required flight instrument
using a power supply must have—
(1) Two independent sources of
power;
(2) A means of Selecting either power
Source; and
(3) A means to indicate the adequacy
of the power being Supplied; and
(b) The installation and power Supply
system must be such that failure of any
flight instrument connected to one
source, or of the energy supply from one
Source, or a fault in any part of the
power distribution system does not inter
fere with the proper supply of energy
from any other Source.
§ 29.1333 Duplicate instrument systems.
If duplicate flight instruments are re
quired by any operating rule in this
chapter—
405
§ 29.1337 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(a) Each operating system for flight
instruments for the first pilot and that
is required to be duplicated at other
flight crew stations must be independent
of the operating System for other flight
crew stations;
(b) Only the required flight instru
ments, and duplicates of required in
struments, provided for the first pilot,
may be connected to the operating Sys
tem provided for him; and
(c) If instruments other than required
instruments and their duplicates
connected to systems other than the first
pilot's operating system, there must be
means to disconnect or isolate those in
struments in flight.
§ 29.1337 Powerplant instruments.
(a) Instrument lines. Each power
plant instrument line must meet the re
quirements of §§ 29.993 and 29.1183.
Each line carrying flammable fluids or
gases under pressure must have restrict
ing orifices or equivalent safety devices
at the source of pressure to prevent the
escape of excessive fluid or gas if the line
fails.
(b) Fuel quantity indicator.
must be means to indicate to the flight
crew members the quantity, in gallons or
equivalent units, of usable fuel in each
tank during flight. In addition—
(1) Each fuel quantity indicator must
be calibrated to read “Zero” during level
flight when the quantity of fuel remain
ing in the tank is equal to the unusable
fuel supply determined under § 29.959;
(2) When two or more tanks are
closely interconnected by a gravity feed
System and vented, and when it is im
possible to feed from each tank sep
arately, at least one fuel quantity indi
cator must be installed;
(3) Tanks with interconnected out
lets and airspaces may be treated as one
tank and need not have separate indica
tors; and
(4) Each exposed sight gauge used as
a fuel quantity indicator must be pro
tected against damage.
(c) Fuel flow meter system. If a fuel
flowmeter System is installed,
metering component must have a means
for bypassing the fuel supply if malfunc
tion of that component severely restricts
fuel flow.
(d) Oil quantity indicator. There
must be a stick gauge or equivalent
means to indicate the quantity of oil—
(1) In each tank; and
(2) In each transmission gearbox.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EquTPMENT
§ 29.1351 General.
(a) Electrical system capacity. The
required generating capacity and the
number and kind of power Sources must–
(1) Be determined by an electrical load
analysis; and
(2) Meet the requirements of § 29.1309.
are
(b) Generating system. The generat
ing system includes electrical power
Sources, main power busses, transmission
cables, and associated control, regula
tion, and protective devices. It must be
designed so that—
(1) Power sources function properly
When independent and when connected
in combination;
(2) No failure or malfunction of any
p0Wer SOurce Can Create a hazard or im
pair the ability of remaining sources to
Supply essential loads;
(3) The system voltage and frequency
(as applicable) at the terminals of es
Sential load equipment can be maintained
There within the limits for which the equipment
is designed, during any probable operat
ing condition;
(4) System transients due to switch
ing, fault clearing, or other causes do
not make essential loads inoperative, and
do not cause a Smoke or fire hazard;
(5) There are means accessible in
flight to appropriate crewmembers for
the individual and collective disconnec
tion of the electrical power sources from
the main bus; and
(6) There are means to indicate to
appropriate crewmembers the generat
ing system quantitles essential for the
safe operation of the system, such as the
Voltage and current supplied by each
generator.
§ 29.1353 Electrical equipment and in
stallations.
(a) Electrical equipment, controls,
and wiring must be installed so that
operation of any one unit or system of
each units will not adversely affect the simul
taneous operation of any other electrical
unit or system essential to safe opera
tion.
(b) Cables must be grouped, routed,
and Spaced so that damage to essential
circuits will be minimized if there are
faults in heavy current-carrying cables.
406
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(c) Storage batteries must be designed
and installed as follows:
(1) Safe cell temperatures and pres
Sures must be maintained during any
probable charging and discharging con
dition. No uncontrolled increase in cell
temperature may result when the battery
is recharged (after previous complete
discharge)—
(i) At maximum regulated Voltage;
(ii) During a flight of maximum
duration; and
(iii) Under the most adverse cooling
condition likely in service.
(2) Compliance with subparagraph
(1) of this paragraph must be shown by
test unless experience with similar bat
teries and installations has shown that
maintaining safe cell temperatures and
pressures presents no problem.
(3) No explosive or toxic gases emitted
by any battery in normal operation, or
as the result of any probable malfunction
in the charging system or battery in
stallation, may accumulate in hazardous
quantities within the rotorcraft.
(4) No corrosive fluids or gases that
may escape from the battery may damage
surrounding structures or adjacent es
sential equipment.
§ 29.1355 Distribution system.
(a) The distribution system includes
the distribution busses, their associated
feeders, and each control and protective
device.
(b) Each system must be designed so
that—
(1) For category. A rotorcraft, individ
ual distribution Systems ensure that
essential load circuits can be supplied in
the event of reasonably probable faults
or open circuits; and
(2) If two independent sources of
electrical power for particular equipment
or systems are required by this chapter,
their energy supply is ensured.
§ 29.1357 Circuit protective devices.
(a) Automatic protective devices must
be used to minimize distress to the elec
trical system and hazard to the rotor
craft in the event of Wiring faults or
serious malfunction of the System or
connected equipment.
(b) For category. A rotorcraft, there
must be means in the generating systern
to automatically de-energize and dis
connect from the main bus any power
Source developing hazardous overvoltage.
407
§ 29.1381
(c) Each resettable circuit protective
device must be designed so that, when an
overload or circuit fault exists, it will
open the circuit regardless of the posl
tion of the operating control.
(d) If the abllity to reset a circuit
breaker or replace a fuse is essential to
Safety in flight, that device must be
located and identified so that it can be
readily reset or replaced in flight.
(e) Each circuit for essential loads
must have individual circuit protection.
(f) If fuses are used, there must be
Spare fuses for use in flight equal to at
least 50 percent of the number of fuses
of each rating required for complete
circuit protection.
§ 29.1359 Electrical system fire and
smoke protection.
(a) Components of the electrical sys
tern must meet the applicable fire and
Smoke protection provisions of $3.29.831
and 29,863.
(b) Electrical cables, terminals, and
equipment, in designated fire zones, and
that are used in emergency procedures,
must be at least fire resistant.
§ 29.1363 Electrical system tests.
(a) When laboratory tests of the elec
trical system are conducted—
(1) The tests must be performed on a
mock-up using the same generating
equipment used in the rotorcraft;
(2) The equipment must simulate the
electrical characteristics of the distribu
tion wiring and connected loads to the
:*
an
necessary for valid test results;
(3) Laboratory generator drives must
simulate the prime movers on the rotor
Craft with respect to their reaction to
generator loading, including loading due
to faults.
(b) For each flight condition that can
not be simulated adequately in the labo
ratory or by ground tests on the rotor.
craft, flight tests must be made.
LIGHTS
§ 29.1381 Instrument lights.
The instrument lights must–
(a) Make each instrument, switch,
and other device for which they are pro
vided easily readable; and
(b) Be installed so that—
(1) Their direct rays are shielded from
the pilot's eyes; and
(2) No objectionable reflections are
Visible to the pilot.
§ 29.1383 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 29.1383 Landing lights.
(a) Each required landing or hover
ing light must be approved.
(b) Each landing light must be in
stalled so that—
(1) No objectionable glare is visible to
the pilot:
(2) The pilot is not adversely affected
by halation; and
(3) It provides enough light for night
operation, including hovering and land
ing.
(c) At least one separate switch must
be provided, as applicable—
(1) For each separately installed
landing light; and
(2) For each group of landing lights
installed at a common location.
§ 29.1385 Position light system installa
tion.
(a) General. Each part of each posi
tion light system must meet the appli
cable requirements of this Section and
each system as a whole must meet the
requirements of §§ 29.1387 through 29.-
1397.
(b) Forward position lights. Forward
position lights must consist of a red and
a green light spaced laterally as far apart
as practicable and installed forward on
the rotorcraft so that, with the rotor
craft in the normal flying position, the
red light is on the left side, and the green
light is on the right side. Each light
must be approved.
(c) Rear position light. The rear
position light must be a white light
mounted as far aft as practicable, and
must be approved.
(d) Circuit. The two forward posi
tion lights and the rear position light
must make a single circuit.
(e) Light covers and color filters.
Each light cover or color filter must be
at least flame resistant and may not
change color or shape or lose any appre
clable light transmission during normal
use.
§ 29.1387 Position light system dihedral
angles.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(e) of this section, each forward and rear
position light must, as installed, show
unbroken light Within the dihedral
angles described in this Section.
(b) Dihedral angle L (left) is formed
by two intersecting vertical planes, the
first parallel to the longitudinal axis
of the rotorcraft, and the other at 110
408
degrees to the left of the first, as viewed
When looking forward along the longitu
dinal axis.
(c) Dihedral angle R (right) is
formed by two intersecting vertical
planes, the first parallel to the longitu
dinal axis of the rotorcraft, and the
other at 110 degrees to the right of the
first, as Viewed when looking forward
along the longitudinal axis.
(d) Dihedral angle A (aft) is formed
by two intersecting vertical planes
making angles of 70 degrees to the right
and to the left, respectively, to a verti
cal plane passing through the longitu
dinal axis, as viewed when looking aft
along the longitudinal axis.
(e) If the rear position light, when
mounted as far aft as practicable in ac
cordance with $ 29.1385(c), cannot show
unbroken light within dihedral angle A
(as defined in paragraph (d) of this sec
tion), a solid angle or angles of ob
Structed visibility totaling not more than
0.04 steradians is allowable within that
dihedral angle, if such solid angle is
Within a cone whose apex is at the rear
position light and whose elements make
an angle of 30° with a vertical line pass
ing through the rear position light.
(49 U.S.C. 1655(c)) [Docket No. 5084, 29 F.R.
16150, Dec. 3, 1964 as amended by Amdt.
29–9, 36 F.R. 21279, Nov. 5, 1971]
§ 29.1389 Position light distribution and
intensities.
(a) General. The intensities pre
Scribed in this section must be provided
by new equipment with light covers
and color filters in place. Intensities
must be determined with the light source
operating at a steady value equal to the
average luminous output of the source
at the normal operating voltage of the
rotorcraft. The light distribution and
intensity of each position light must
meet the requirements of paragraph (b)
of this section.
(b) Forward and rear position lights.
The light distribution and intensities of
forward and rear position lights must
be expressed in terms of minimum in
tensities in the horizontal plane, mini
mum intensities in any vertical plane,
and maximum intensities in overlapping
beams, within dihedral angles, L, R, and
A, and must meet the following
requirements:
(1) Intensities in the horizontal plane.
Each intensity in the horizontal plane
(the plane containing the longitudinal
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration § 29.1399

axis of the rotorcraft and perpendicular
to the plane of symmetry of the rotor
craft), must equal or exceed the values
in § 29.1391.
(2) Intensities in any vertical plane.
Each intensity in any vertical plane (the
plane perpendicular to the horizontal
plane) must equal or exceed the appro
priate value in § 29.1393 where I is the
minimum intensity prescribed in § 29.-
1391 for the corresponding angles in the
horizontal plane.
(3) Intensities in overlaps between
adjacent signals. No intensity in any
overlap between adjacent signals may
exceed the values in § 29.1395, except
that higher intensities in overlaps may
be used with the use of main beam in
tensities substantially greater than the
minima specified in §§ 29.1391 and
29.1393 if the overlap intensities in re
lation to the main beam intensities do
not adversely affect signal clarity.
§ 29.1391 Minimum intensities in the
horizontal plane of forward and rear
position lights.
Each position light intensity must
equal or exceed the applicable values in
the following table:
Angle from right or
Dihedral angle leſt of longitudinal Intensity
(11ght included) axis, measured from! (candles)
dead ahead
ing table, except as provided in § 29.1389
(b) (3).
Maximum intensity
Overlaps
Area A | Area B
(candles) (candles)
Green in dihedral angle L.--------- 10 1
Red in dihedral angle R----------- 10 1.
Green in dihedral angle A--------- 5 1
Red in dihedral angle A ---------- 5 1
Rear white in dihedral angle L.---- 5 1
Rear white in dihedral angle R---- 6 1
Where—
(a) Area A includes all directions in
the adjacent dihedral angle that pass
through the light Source and intersect
the common boundary plane at more
than 10 degrees but less than 20 degrees;
and
(b) Area B includes all directions in
the adjacent dihedral angle that pass
through the light source and intersect
the common boundary plane at more
than 20 degrees.
§ 29.1397 Color specifications.
Each position light color must have the
applicable International Commission on
Illumination chromaticity coordinates as
follows:
(a) Aviation red–
“y” is not greater than 0.335; and
“z” is not greater than 0.002.

ano o
(b) Aviation green—
40
L and
andgreen). ſº.
R (forward red |bºo to rios III. 30 “z” is not greater than 0.440–0.320y;
5 “r” is not greater than y—0.170; and
A (rear white).---------- 110° to 180°-------- 20 “y” is not less than 0.390–0.1702.
(c) Aviation white—
§ 29.1393 Minimum intensities in any “a” is not less than 0.300 and not greater
vertical plane of forward and rear than 0.540;
position lights. “y” is not less than “z–0.040” or “y.
–0.010," whichever is the smaller; and
Each position light intensity must “y” is not greater than “r-H0.020" nor
equal or exceed the applicable values in “0.636–0.400r";
the following table. Where “yo” is the “y” coordinate of the
Planckian radiator for the value of “a”
Angle above or below the
Intensity considered.
horizontal plane:
O” ------------------------------ 1.00 I. [Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964,
0" to 5’-------------------------- 0.90 I. as amended by Amdt. 29–7, 36 F.R. 12972,
5° to 10"------------------------- 0.80 I. July 10, 1971]
10° to 15"------------------------ 0.70 1.
0.50 I.
§ 29.1399 Riding light.
15" to 20"------------------------
20" to 80"------------------------ 0.30 I. (a) Each riding light required for
80° to 40"------------------------ 0.10 I. Water operation must be installed so that
40° to 90"------------------------ 0.05 I. it can—
(1) Show a White light for at least two
§ 29.1395 Maximum intensities in over miles at night under clear atmospheric
lapping beams of forward and rear Conditions; and
position lights. (2) Show a maximum practicable un
No position light intensity may ex broken light with the rotorcraft on the
ceed the applicable values in the follow Water.

39–059–75—27 409
$ 29.1401 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(b) Externally hung lights may be
used.
§ 29.1401 Anticollision light system.
(a) General. If certification for night
operation is requested, the rotorcraft
must have an anticollision light System
that—
(1) Consists of one or more approved
anticollision lights located so that their
emitted light will not impair the Crew's
vision or detract from the conspicuity of
the position lights; and
(2) Meets the requirements of para
graphs (b) through (f) of this section.
(b) Field of coverage. The system
must consist of enough lights to illumi
nate the vital areas around the rotor
craft, considering the physical config
uration and flight characteristics of the
rotorcraft. The field of coverage must
extend in each direction within at least
30 degrees above and 30 degrees below
the horizontal plane of the rotorcraft,
except that there may be solid angles of
obstructed visibility totaling not more
than 0.5 steradians.
(c) Flashing characteristics. The ar
rangement of the System, that is, the
number of light sources, beam width,
speed of rotation, and other character
istics, must give an effective flash fre
quency of not less than 40, nor more than
100, cycles per minute. The effective
flash frequency is the frequency at which
the rotorcraft's complete anticollision
light system is observed from a distance,
and applies to each sector of light in
cluding any overlaps that exist when the
system consists of more than one light
Source. In overlaps, flash frequencies
may exceed 100, but not 180, cycles per
minute.
(d) Color. Each anticollision light
must be either aviation red or aviation
white and must meet the applicable re
quirements of § 29.1397.
(e) Light intensity. The minimum
light intensities in any vertical plane,
measured with the red filter (if used)
and expressed in terms of “effective” in
tensities must meet the requirements of
paragraph (f) of this section. The fol
lowing relation must be assumed:
*1(t)at
ſº
0.2+ (ta- ti)
where:
1e = effective intensity (candles).
I(t) = instantaneous intensity as a func
tion of time.
ta–ti =flash time interval (seconds).
410
Normally, the maximum value of effec
tive intensity is obtained when tº and t,
are chosen so that the effective intensity
is equal to the instantaneous intensity at
tº and tr.
(f) Minimum effective intensities for
anticollision lights. Each anticollision
light effective intensity must equal or
exceed the applicable values in the
following table.
Effective
Angle above or below intensity
the horizontal plane: (candles)
0° to 5’---------------------------- 400
5° to 10°--------------------------- 240
10° to 20°– 80
20° to 30°-------------------------- 40
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 29–7, 36 F.R. 12972,
July 10, 1971]
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
§ 29.1411 General.
(a) Accessibility. Required safety
equipment to be used by the crew in an
emergency, such as automatic liferaft
releases, must be readily accessible.
(b) Stowage provisions. S to w a ge
provisions for required emergency equip
ment must be furnished and must—
(1) Be arranged so that the equip
ment is directly accessible and its loca
tion is obvious; and
(2) Protect the Safety equipment from
inadvertent damage.
(c) Emergency erit descent device.
The Stowage provisions for the emer
gency exit descent device required by
§ 29.809 (f) must be at the exits for
which they are intended.
(d) Liferafts. Life r a ft S must be
Stowed near exits through which the
rafts can be launched during an un
planned ditching. Rafts automatically
or remotely released outside the rotor
craft must be attached to the rotorcraft
by the static line prescribed in § 29.1415.
(e) Long-range signaling device. The
stowage provisions for the long-range
signaling device required by § 29.1415
must be near an exit available during an
unplanned ditching.
(f) Life preservers. Each life pre
server must be within easy reach of each
occupant while seated.
§ 29.1413 Safety belts: passenger warn
ing device.
If there are means to indicate to the
passengers when safety belts should be
fastened, they must be installed to be
operated from either pilot Seat.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 29.1415 Ditching equipment.
(a) Emergency flotation and signaling
equipment required by any operating
rule of this chapter must meet the re
quirements of this section.
(b) Each liferaft and each life pre
server must be approved. In addition
(1) Unless excess rafts of enough
capacity are provided, the buoyancy and
seating capacity beyond the rated ca
pacity of the rafts must accommodate
all occupants of the rotorcraft in the
event of a loss of one raft of the largest
rated capacity; and
(2) Each raft must have a trailing
line, and must have a static line designed
to hold the raft near the rotorcraft but
to release it if the rotorcraft becomes
totally submerged.
(c) Approved survival equipment must
be attached to each liferaft.
(d) There must be a survival type
emergency locator transmitter that
meets the applicable requirements of
§ 37.200 of this chapter for use in One
life raft.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–8, 36 F.R. 18722, Sept.
21, 1971]
MISCELLANEOUS Equipm ENT
§ 29.1431 Electronic equipment.
(a) Radio communication and navl
gation equipment installations must be
free from hazards in themselves, in their
method of operation, and in their effects
on other components, under any critical
environmental conditions.
(b) Radio communication and navi
gation equipment, controls, and wiring
must be installed so that operation of
any one unit or system of units will not
adversely affect the simultaneous opera
tion of any other radio or electronic unit,
or system of units, required by this
chapter.
§ 29.1433 Vacuum systems.
(a) There must be means, in addition
to the normal pressure relief, to auto
matically relieve the pressure in the dis
charge lines from the vacuum air pump
When the delivery temperature of the air
becomes unsafe.
(b) Each vacuum air System line and
º
fitting on the discharge Side of the pump
that might contain flammable vapors or
!! fluids must meet the requirements of
§ 29.1183 if they are in a designated fire
: 2One.
411
§ 29.1439
(c) Other vacuum air System com
ponents in designated fire zones must be
at least fire resistant.
§ 29.1435 Hydraulic systems.
(a) Design. Each hydraulic System
must be designed as follows:
(1) Each element of the hydraulic
system must be designed to withstand,
without detrimental, permanent defor
mation, any structural loads that may be
imposed simultaneously with the maxi
mum operating hydraulic loads.
(2) Each element of the hydraulic
system must be designed to withstand
pressures sufficiently greater than those
prescribed in paragraph (b) of this sec
tion to show that the System will not
rupture under Service conditions.
(3) There must be means to indicate
the pressure in each main hydraulic
power System.
(4) There must be means to ensure
that no pressure in any part of the sys
tem will exceed a Safe limit above the
maximum operating pressure of the sys
tem, and to prevent excessive pressures
resulting from any fluid volumetric
change in lines likely to remain closed
long enough for such a change to take
place. The possibility of detrimental
transient (surge) pressures during oper
ation must be considered.
(5) Each hydraulic line, fitting, and
component must be installed and Sup
ported to prevent excessive vibration and
to withstand inertia loads. Each ele
ment of the installation must be pro
tected from abrasion, corrosion, and
mechanical damage.
(6) Means for providing flexibility
must be used to connect points, in a hy
draulic fluid line, between which relative
motion or differential vibration exists.
(b) Tests. Each element of the sys
tem must be tested to a proof pressure of
1.5 times the maximum pressure to which
that element will be subjected in normal
operation, without failure, malfunction,
or detrimental deformation of any part
of the system.
(c) Fire protection. Each hydraulic
System using flammable hydraulic fluid
must meet the applicable requirements
of §§ 29,861, 29.1183, 29.1185, and 29.1189.
§ 29.1439 Protective breathing equip
ment.
(a) If one or more cargo or baggage
Compartments are to be accessible in
flight, protective breathing equipment
must be available for an appropriate
crewmember.
§ 29.1457 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(b) For protective breathing equip
ment required by paragraph (a) Of this
section or by any operating rule of this
chapter—
(1) That equipment must be designed
to protect the crew from Smoke, carbon
dioxide, and other harmful gases while
on flight deck duty;
(2) That equipment must include—
(i) Masks covering the eyes, nose, and
mouth; or
(ii) Masks covering the nose and
mouth, plus accessory equipment to pro
tect the eyes; and
(3) That equipment must Supply pro
tective oxygen of 10 minutes duration
per crewmember at a pressure altitude of
8,000 feet with a respiratory minute
volume of 30 liters per minute BTPD.
§ 29.1457 Cockpit voice recorders.
(a) Each cockpit voice recorder re
quired by the operating rules of this
chapter must be approved, and must be
installed so that it will record the
following:
(1) Voice communications transmitted
from or received in the rotorcraft by
radio.
(2) Voice communications of flight
crewmembers on the flight deck.
(3) Voice communications of flight
crewmembers on the flight deck, using
the rotorcraft's interphone system.
(4) Voice or audio signals identifying
navigation or approach aids introduced
into a headset or speaker.
(5) Voice communications of flight
crewmembers using the passenger loud
speaker system, if there is such a system,
and if the fourth channel is available in
accordance with the requirements of
paragraph (c)(4) (ii) of this section.
(b) The recording requirements of
paragraph (a)(2) of this section may be
met—
(1) By installing a cockpit-mounted
area microphone, located in the best posi
tion for recording voice communications
originating at the first and second pilot
stations and voice communications of
other crewmembers on the flight deck
when directed to those stations; or
(2) By installing a continually ener
gized or voice-actuated lip microphone at
the first and second pilot stations.
The microphone specified in this para
graph must be so located and, if neces
sary, the preamplifiers and filters of the
recorder must be so adjusted or supple
mented, that the recorded communica
tions are intelligible when recorded un
412
*
der flight cockpit noise conditions and
played back. The level of intelligibility
must be approved by the Administrator.
Repeated aural or visual playback of the
record may be used in evaluating
intelligibility.
(c) Each cockpit voice recorder must
be installed so that the part of the com
munication or audio signals specified in
paragraph (a) of this section obtained
from each of the following sources is
recorded on a separate channel:
(1) For the first channel, from each
microphone, headset, or Speaker used at
the first pilot station.
(2) For the second channel, from each
microphone, headset, or speaker used at
the second pilot station.
(3) For the third channel, from the
cockpit-mounted area microphone, or the
Continually energized or voice-actuated
lip microphones at the first and second
pilot stations.
(4) For the fourth channel, from—
(i) Each microphone, headset, or
Speaker used at the stations for the third
and fourth crewmembers; or
(ii) If the stations Specified in sub
division (i) of this subparagraph are not
required or if the signal at such a station
is picked up by another channel, each
microphone on the flight deck that is
used with the passenger loudspeaker
System if its signals are not picked up by
another channel.
(iii) Each microphone on the flight
deck that is used with the rotorcraft's
loudspeaker system if its signals are not
picked up by another channel.
(d) Each cockpit voice recorder must
be installed so that—
(1) It receives its electric power from
the bus that provides the maximum re
liability for operation of the cockpit
Voice recorder without jeopardizing serv
ice to essential or emergency loads;
(2) There is an automatic means to
simultaneously stop the recorder and
prevent each erasure feature from func
tioning, within 10 minutes after crash
impact; and
(3) There is an aural or visual means
for preflight checking of the recorder
for proper Operation.
(e) The record container must be lo
cated and mounted to minimize the
probability of rupture of the container
as a result of crash impact and conse
quent heat damage to the record from
fire.
(f) If the cockpit voice recorder has
a bulk erasure device, the installation
 Chapter l—Federal Aviction Administration
must be designed to minimize the prob
ability of inadvertent operation and
actuation of the device during crash
impact.
(g) Each recorder container must be
either bright orange or bright yellow.
[Amdt. 29–6, 35 F.R. 7293, May 9, 1970]
§ 29.1461 Equipment containing high
energy rotors.
(a) Equipment containing high energy
rotors must meet paragraph (b), (c), Or
(d) of this Section.
(b) High energy rotors contained in
equipment must be able to withstand
damage caused by malfunctions, vibra
tion, abnormal speeds, and abnormal
temperatures. In addition—
(1) Auxiliary rotor cases must be able
to contain damage caused by the failure
of high energy rotor blades; and
(2) Equipment control devices, sys
tems, and instrumentation must reason
ably ensure that no operating limitations
affecting the integrity of high energy
rotors will be exceeded in Service.
(c) It must be shown by test that
equipment containing high energy rotors
can contain any failure of a high energy
rotor that occurs at the highest Speed
obtainable with the normal speed con
trol devices inoperative.
(d) Equipment containing high energy
rotors must be located where rotor fail
ure will neither endanger the occupants
nor adversely affect continued
flight.
[Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 971, Jan. 26, 1968]
Subpart G–Operating Limitations
cºnd Information
§ 29.1501 General.
Each operating limitation specifled in
$$ 29.1503 through 29.1525, and other
information necessary for safe operation,
must be—
(a) Included in the Rotorcraft Flight
Manual;
(b) Expressed in markings and plac
ards; and
(c) Made available by any other
means that will convey the information
to the crewmembers.
OPERATING LIMITATIONS
§ 29.1503 Airspeed limitations: general.
(a) An Operating Speed range must
be established.
(b) When airspeed limitations are a
function of weight, weight distribution,
altitude, rotor speed, power, or other
§ 29.1517
factors, airspeed limitations correspond
ing with the critical combinations of
these factors must be established.
§ 29.1505 Never-exceed speed.
(a) The never-exceed speed Vya must
be established so that it is—
(1) Not less than Wr with the engines
at maximum continuous power; and
(2) Not more than the lesser of—
(i) 0.9W established under § 29.309;
and
(ii) 0.9 times the maximum speed
shown under §§ 29.251 and 29.629.
(b) WNE may vary with altitude, r.p.m.,
temperature, and Weight, if–
(1) No more than two of these
Variables (or no more than two instru
ments integrating more than one of
these variables) are used at One time;
and
(2) The ranges of these variables (or
of the indications on instruments inte
grating more than one of these variables)
are large enough to allow an operation
ally practical and safe variation of Vys.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 971, Jan. 26
1968]
§ 29.1509 Rotor speed.
(a) Marimum power-off (autorota
tion). The maximum power-off rotor
speed must be established so that it does
not exceed 95 percent of the lesser of
(1) The maximum design r.p.m. deter
safe mined under § 29.309(b); and
(2) The maximum r.p.m. shown dur
ing the type tests.
(b) Minimum power-off. The mini
mum power-off rotor speed must be es
tablished so that it is not less than 105
percent of the greater of
(1) The minimum shown during the
type tests; and
(2) The minimum determined by de
sign substantiation.
(c) Minimum power-on. The mini
mum power-on rotor speed must be es
tablished so that it is—
(1) Not less than the greater of
(i) The minimum shown during the
type tests; and
(ii) The minimum determined by de
sign substantiation; and
(2) Not more than a value determined
under § 29.33 (a)(1) and (c) (1).
§ 29.1517 Limiting height-speed enve
lope.
If a range of heights exists at any
Speed, including zero, within which it is
not possible to make a Safe landing fol
413
§ 29.1519 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
lowing power failure, the range of
heights and its variation with forward
speed must be established, together with
any other pertinent information, Such as
the kind of landing Surface.
§ 29.1519 Weight and center of gravity.
The weight and center of gravity lim
itations determined under §§ 29.25 and
29.27, respectively, must be established
as operating limitations.
§ 29.1521 Powerplant limitations.
(a) General. The powerplant limita
tions prescribed in this section must be
established so that they do not exceed
the corresponding limits for which the
engines are type certificated.
(b) Takeoff operation. The power
plant takeoff operation must be limited
by—
(1) The maximum rotational Speed,
which may not be greater than—
(i) The maximum value determined
by the rotor design; or
(ii) The maximum value shown during
the type tests;
(2) The maximum allowable manifold
pressure (for reciprocating engines);
(3) The maximum allowable turbine
inlet or turbine outlet gas temperature
(for turbine engines);
(4) The maximum allowable power or
torque for each engine, considering the
power input limitations of the transmis
sion with all engines operating;
(5) The maximum allowable power or
torque for each engine considering the
power input limitations of the trans
mission with one engine inoperative;
(6) The time limit for the use of the
power corresponding to the limitations
established in subparagraphs (1)
through (5) of this paragraph; and
(7) If the time limit established in
subparagraph (6) of this paragraph
exceeds 2 minutes—
(i) The maximum allowable cylinder
head or coolant outlet temperature (for
reciprocating engines); and
(ii) The maximum allowable engine
and transmission oil temperatures.
(c) Continuous operation. The con
tinuous operation must be limited by—
(1) The maximum rotational speed,
which may not be greater than—
(i) The maximum value determined
by the rotor design; or
(ii) The maximum value shown dur
ing the type tests;
414
(2) The minimum rotational speed
shown under the rotor speed require
ments in § 29.1509 (c).
(3) The maximum allowable manifold
pressure (for reciprocating engines);
(4) The maximum allowable turbine
inlet or turbine outlet gas temperature
(for turbine engines);
(5) The maximum allowable power
or torque for each engine, considering
the power input limitations of the trans
mission with all engines operating;
(6) The maximum allowable power or
torque for each engine, considering the
power input limitations of the trans
mission with one engine inoperative; and
(7) The maximum allowable tempera
tures for—
(i) The cylinder head or coolant out
let (for reciprocating engines);
(ii) The engine oil; and
(iii) The transmission oil.
(d) Fuel grade or designation. The
minimum fuel grade (for reciprocating
engines) or fuel designation (for turbine
engines) must be established so that it
is not less than that required for the
Operation of the engines within the lim
itations in paragraphs (b) and (c) of
this section.
(e) Cooling limitations. The maxi
mum Sea level temperature established
for Satisfactory cooling must be shown.
(f) Two and one-half-minute power
Operation. For helicopters for which
compliance with the 2%-minute power
requirements of this part is shown, the
established time limit for the use of 212
minute power must be 2% minutes for
any period in which that power is used.
The use of 2%-minute power must also
be limited by—
(1) The maximum rotational speed,
which may not be greater than—
(1) The maximum value determined
by the rotor design; or
(ii) The maximum value shown dur
ing the type tests;
(2) The maximum allowable gas tem
perature;
º The maximum allowable torque;
an
(4) The maximum allowable oil tem
perature.
(g) Thirty-minute power operation.
For helicopters for which compliance
with the 30-minute power requirements
of this part is shown, the established time
limit for the use of 30-minute power
must be 30 minutes for any period in
which that power is used. The use of
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
30-minute power must also be limited
by—
(1) The maximum rotational speed,
which may not be greater than—
(i) The maximum value determined
by the rotor design; or
(ii) The maximum value shown dur
ing the type tests;
(2) The maximum allowable gas
temperature;
(3) The maximum allowable torque;
and
(4) The maximum allowable oil
temperature.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 29–1, 30 F.R. 8778, July
13, 1965; Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 971, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.1523 Minimum flight crew.
The minimum flight crew must be es
tablished so that it is sufficient for safe
operation, considering—
(a) The Workload on individual Crew
: members;
(b) The accessibility and ease of oper
ation of necessary controls by the appro
priate crewmember; and
(c) The kinds of operation authorized
under § 29.1525.
§ 29.1525 Kinds of operation.
The kinds of operation to which the
rotorcraft is limited are established by
the flight characteristics and installed
equipment.
§ 29.1529 Rotorcraft Maintenance Man
ual.
(a) Each rotocraft must be furnished
with a Rotocraft Maintenance Manual
containing the following:
(1) All information that the appli
cant considers essential for proper
maintenance, including replacement
times for major components, if replace
ment is anticipated. Part numbers (or
equivalent) must be furnished for major
components for which a replacement
time is furnished.
(2) The replacement times, inspection
intervals, and related procedures ap
proved under § 29.571 and the part num
ber (or equivalent) of each component
to which they apply. This section of the
manual must be identified by the title
“AirWorthiness Limitations.” The infor
mation and procedures in this section
of the manual—
(i) Must be consistent With the infor
mation in the rest of the manual;
(ii) Must be practicable; and
415
§ 29.1547
(iii) Must indicate where “equivalent”
procedures are to be permitted.
(b) The information in the “Air
worthiness Limitations” Section of the
manual must be segregated and clearly
distinguished from the rest of the
manual.
(Secs. 604, 605, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424,
1425) [Amdt. No. 29–4, 83 F.R. 14106, Sept.
18, 1968]
MARKINGS AND PLACARDS
§ 29.1541 General.
(a) The rotorcraft must contain–
(1) The markings and placards speci
fied in §§ 29.1545 through 29.1565; and
(2) Any additional information, in
strument markings, and placards re
quired for the safe operation of the
rotorcraft if it has unusual design, oper
ating or handling characteristics.
(b) Each marking and placard pre
Scribed in paragraph (a) of this
Section—
(1) Must be displayed in a conspicuous
place; and
(2) May not be easily erased, dis
figured, or obscured.
§ 29.1543 Instrument markings: gen
eral.
For each instrument—
(a) When markings are on the cover
glass of the instrument there must be
means to maintain the correct align
ment of the glass cover with the face of
the dial; and
(b) Each arc and line must be wide
enough, and located to be clearly visible
to the pilot.
§ 29.1545 Airspeed indicator.
(a) Each airspeed indicator must be
marked to show indicated airspeed.
(b) The following markings must be
made:
(1) For the limit beyond which opera
tion is dangerous, a red radial line.
(2) For the caution range, a yellow
arC.
(3) For the Safe Operating range, a
green arc.
§ 29.1547 Magnetic direction indicator.
(a) A placard meeting the require
ments of this section must be installed
on or near the magnetic direction
indicator.
(b) The placard must show the call
bration of the instrument in level flight
with the engines operating.
§ 29,1549 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(c) The placard must state whether
the calibration was made with radio re
ceivers on or off.
(d) Each calibration reading must be
in terms of magnetic heading in not more
than 45 degree increments.
§ 29.1549 Powerplant instruments.
For each required powerplant instru
ment—
(a) Each maximum and, if applicable,
minimum safe operating limit must be
marked with a red radial line;
(b) Each normal operating range
must be marked with a green arc not ex
tending beyond the maximum and mini
mum safe operating limits;
(c) Each takeoff and caution range
must be marked with a yellow arc; and
(d) Each engine and rotor Speed
range that is restricted because of ex
cessive vibration stresses must be marked
With a red arc.
§ 29.1551 Oil quantity indicator.
Each oil quantity indicator must be
marked with enough increments to indi
cate readily and accurately the quantity
of oil.
§ 29.1553. Fuel quantity indicator.
If the unusable fuel supply for any
tank exceeds one gallon, or five percent
of the tank capacity, whichever is great
er, a red arc must be marked on its indi
cator extending from the calibrated zero
reading to the lowest reading obtainable
in level flight.
§ 29.1555 Control markings.
(a) Each cockpit control must be
plainly marked as to its function and
method of Operation.
(b) For powerplant fuel controls—
(1) Each fuel tank selector valve con
trol must be marked to indicate the posi
tion corresponding to each tank and to
each existing cross feed position;
(2) If safe operation requires the use
of any tanks in a specific sequence, that
sequence must be marked on, or adja
cent to, the Selector for those tanks;
and
(3) Each valve control for any engine
of a multiengine rotorcraft must be
marked to indicate the position corre
sponding to each engine controlled.
(c) The capacity of each tank must
be marked on or near each selector con
trolling that tank.
(d) For accessory, auxiliary, and
emergency controls—
416
(1) Each essential visual position in
dicator, such as those showing rotor
pitch or landing gear position, must be
marked so that each crewmember can
determine at any time the position of
the unit to which it relates; and
(2) Each emergency control must be
red and must be marked as to method of
Operation.
§ 29.1557 Miscellaneous markings and
placards.
(a) Baggage and cargo compartments,
and ballast location. Each baggage and
Cargo Compartment, and each ballast lo
cation must have a placard stating any
limitations on contents, including weight,
that are necessary under the loading
requirements.
(b) Seats. If the maximum allow
able weight to be carried in a seat is less
than 170 pounds, a placard stating the
lesser weight must be permanently at
tached to the seat structure.
(c) Fuel and oil filler openings. The
following must be marked on or near
each appropriate filler cover:
(1) The word “fuel”, the minimum
fuel grade or designation for the engines,
and the usable fuel tank capacity.
(2) The Word “oil” and the oil tank
capacity.
(d) Emergency erit placards. Each
placard and operating control for each
emergency exit must differ in color from
the surrounding fuselage surface as
prescribed in § 29.811(h) (2). A placard
must be near each emergency exit con
trol and must clearly indicate the loca
tion of that exit and its method of
Operation.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 971, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.1559 Limitations placard.
There must be a placard in clear view
of the pilot stating: “This (helicopter,
gyrodyne, etc.) must be operated in com
pliance with the operating limitations
Specified in the FAA approved Rotor
craft Flight Manual.” If the Rotorcraft
Maintenance Manual contains an “Air
Worthiness Limitations” section issued
under § 29.1529(a)(2), the placard must
contain the following additional state
ment: “The “Airworthiness Limitations'
section of the Rotorcraft Maintenance
Manual must be complied with.”
(Secs. 604, 605, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424.
1425) [Amdt. No. 29–4, 33 F.R. 14107, Sept.
18, 1968]
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 29.1561 Safety equipment.
(a) Each Safety equipment control to
be operated by the crew in emergency,
Such as controls for automatic liferaft
releases, must be plainly marked as to
its method of Operation.
(b) Each location, such as a locker or
compartment, that carries any fire ex
tinguishing, signaling, or other life Sav
ing equipment, must be so marked.
3.
(c) Stowage provisions for required
emergency equipment must be conspicu
ously marked to identify the contents
and facilitate removal of the equipment.
(d) Each liferaft must have obviously
i marked Operating instructions.
(e) Approved survival equipment must
be marked for identification and method
of operation.
§ 29.1565 Tail rotor.
Each tall rotor must be marked so
that its disc is conspicuous under nor
mal daylight ground conditions.
[Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 971, Jan. 26, 1968]
ROTORCRAFT FLIGHT MANUAL
§ 29.1581 General.
(a) A Rotorcraft Flight Manual must
be furnished with each rotorcraft.
(b) Each part of the manual listed in
§§ 29.1583 through 29.1589 must be veri
fied and approved, and must be segre
gated, identified, and clearly distin
guished from each unapproved part of
that manual.
(c) Any information not specified in
$$ 29.1583 through 29.1589 that is re
quired for safe operation because of un
usual design, operating, or handling
characteristics, must be furnished.
§ 29.1583 Operating limitations.
(a) Airspeed and rotor limitations.
Information necessary for the marking
of airspeed and rotor limitations on or
near their respective indicators must be
furnished. The significance of
limitation and of the color coding must
be explained.
(b) Powerplant limitations. Infor
mation must be furnished to explain the
powerplant limitations, and to allow
marking the instruments under §§ 29.-
1549 through 29.1553.
(c) Weight and loading distribution.
The weight and center of gravity limits
required by §§ 29.25 and 29.27, respec
tively, must be furnished. If the variety
of possible loading conditions warrants,
instructions must be included to allow
ready observance of the limitations.
§ 29.1587
(d) Flight crew. When a flight crew
of more than one ts required, the number
and functions of the minimum flight
crew determined under § 29.1523 must be
furnished.
(e) Kinds of operation. Each kind
of operation for which the rotorcraft and
its equipment installations are approved
must be listed.
(f) Limiting heights. Enough infor
mation must be furnished to allow com
pliance with $29,1517.
(g) Unusable fuel. If the unusable
fuel in any tank exceeds one gallon,
or five percent of tank capacity, which
ever is greater, there must be means to
Warn the flight personnel that the fuel
remaining in that tank when the quan
tity indicator reads “Zero” cannot be
safely used in flight.
[Doc. No. 5084, 29 F.R. 16150, Dec. 3, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 29–3, 33 F.R. 971, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 29.1585 Operating procedures.
(a) The parts of the manual contain
ing operating procedures must have
information concerning any normal and
emergency procedures, and other infor
mation necessary for safe operation, in
cluding the applicable procedures, such
as those involving minimum speeds, to
be followed if an engine fails.
(b) For multiengine rotorcraft, infor
mation identifying each operating con
dition in which the fuel system inde
pendence prescribed in § 29.953 is neces
sary for safety must be furnished, to
gether with instructions for placing the
fuel system in a configuration used to
Show compliance with that Section.
[Amdt. 29–2, 32 F.R. 6914, May 5, 1967]
§ 29.1587 Performance information.
(a) Category A. For each category A
rotorcraft, the Rotorcraft Flight Man
ual must contain a Summary of the per
each formance data, including data necessary
for the application of any operating rule
of this chapter, together with descrip
tions of the conditions, such as airspeeds,
under which this data was determined,
and must contain—
(1) The indicated airspeeds corre
sponding with those determined for
takeoff, and the procedures to be fol
lowed if the critical engine fails during
takeoff;
(2) The airspeed calibrations;
(3) The techniques, associated air
Speeds, and rates of descent for auto
rotative landings; and
417
§ 29.1589 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(4) The maximum allowable wind for Sec.
31.47 Heaters.
safe operation near the ground.
(b) Category B. For each category 31.49 Control systems.
31.51 Ballast.
B rotorcraft, the Rotorcraft Flight Man Drag rope.
31.53
ual must contain— 31.55 Deflation means.
(1) The takeoff distance and the take 31.57 Rip cords.
off safety airspeed together with the 31.59 Trapeze, basket, or other means pro
pertinent information defining the flight vided for occupants.
path with respect to autorotative landing 31.61 Static discharge.
31.63 Safety belts.
if an engine fails, including the calcu
31.65 Position lights.
lated effects of altitude and tempera
ture; Subpart E–Equipment
(2) The steady rates of climb and how 31.71 Functional and installational re
ering ceiling, together with the cor quirements.
responding airspeeds and other pertinent
information, including the calculated ef Subpart F-Operating limitations and
Information
fects of altitude and temperature;
31.81 General.
(3) The landing distance, appropriate
glide airspeed, and kind of landing sur 31.83 Conspicuity.
31.85 Required basic equipment.
face, together with any pertinent infor
mation that might affect this distance, AUTHORITY: The provisions of this Part
including the calculated effects of alti 31 issued under secs. 313, 601, 603, 72 Stat.
752, 775; 49 U.S.C. 1354, 1421, 1423.
tude and temperature;
(4) The maximum safe Wind for Source: The provisions of this Part 31
operation near the ground; contained in Docket No. 1437, 29 F.R. 8258,
July 1, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 31–1, 29
(5) The airspeed calibrations; and F.R. 14563, Oct. 24, 1964, unless otherwise
(6) Any additional performance data noted.
necessary for the application of any
Operating rule in this chapter. Subpart A–General
§ 29.1589 Loading information. § 31.1 Applicability.
There must be loading instructions (a) This part prescribes airworthiness
for each possible loading condition be requirements for issuing type certificates,
tween the maximum and minimum and changes to those certificates, for
Weights determined under § 29.25 that manned free balloons.
can result in a center of gravity beyond (b) For the purposes of this part—
any extreme prescribed in § 29.27, assum (1) A captive gas balloon is a balloon
ing any probable occupant weights. that derives its lift from a captive
lighter-than-air gas;
PART 31–AIRWORTHINESS STAND (2) A hot air balloon is a balloon that
ARDS: MANNED FREE BALLOONS derives its lift from heated air;
(3) The envelope is the enclosure in
Subpart A–General which the lifting means is contained:
Sec.
31.1 Applicability. (4) The basket is the container, sus
pended beneath the envelope, for the
Subpart B–Flight Requirements balloon occupants;
31.11 Controllability. (5) The trapeze is a harness or is a
seat consisting of a horizontal bar or
Subpart C–Strength Requirements
platform suspended beneath the enve
31.21 Loads.
lope for the balloon occupants; and
31.23 Flight load factor.
Factor of safety.
(6) The design maximum Weight is
81.25
31.27 Strength. the maximum total weight of the bal
loon, less the lifting gas or air.
Subpart D–Design Construction
31.31 General. Subpart B–Flight Requirements
81.33 Materials. § 31.11 Controllability.
81.35 Fabrication methods.
81.37 Fastenings. The applicant must show that the
31.39 Protection. balloon is safely controllable and ma
31.41 Inspection provisions. neuverable during takeoff, ascent, de
31.43 Fitting factor. scent, and landing without requiring
81.45 Fuel cells. exceptional piloting skill.
418
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
Subpart C–Strength Requirements
§ 31.21 Loads.
Strength requirements are specified in
terms of limit loads, that are the maxi
mum load to be expected in service, and
ultimate loads, that are limit loads mul
tiplied by prescribed factors of safety.
Unless otherwise specified, all prescribed
loads are limit loads.
§ 31.23 Flight load factor.
In determining limit load, the limit
flight load factor must be at least 1.4.
§ 31.25 Factor of safety.
(a) Except as Specified in paragraphs
(b) and (c) of this section, the factor of
Safety is 1.5.
(b) A factor of Safety of at least five
must be used in envelope design. A re
duced factor of Safety of at least two
may be used if it is shown that the se
lected factor will preclude failure due
to creep or instantaneous rupture from
lack of rip stoppers. The selected factor
must be applied to the more critical of
the maximum operating pressure or
envelope stress.
(c) A factor of Safety of at least five
must be used in the design of all fibrous
or non-metallic parts of the rigging and
related attachments of the envelope to
basket, trapeze, or other means provided
for carrying occupants. The primary at
tachments of the envelope to the basket,
trapeze, or other means provided for
carrying Occupants must be designed so
that failure is extremely remote or so
that any single failure will not jeopardize
safety of flight.
(d) In applying factors of safety, the
effect of temperature, and other operat
ing characteristics, or both, that may
affect strength of the balloon must be
accounted for.
(e) For design purposes, an occupant
weight of at least 170 pounds must be
assumed.
[Doc. No. 1437, 29 F.R. 8258, July 1, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 31–2, 30 F.R. 3377, Mar. 13,
1965)
§ 31.27 Strength.
(a) The structure must be able to sup
port limit loads without detrimental
effect.
(b) The structure must be substan
tiated by test to be able to withstand the
ultimate loads for at least three seconds
without failure. For the envelope, a test
419
§ 31.37
of a representative part is acceptable, if
the part tested is large enough to in
clude critical seams, joints, and load
attachment points and members.
(c) An ultimate free-fall drop test
must be made of the basket, trapeze, or
other place provided for occupants. The
drop test height must be that height that
results in a contact velocity at least equal
to the maximum contact velocity ex
pected in service, including emergency
descent conditions. The test must be
made at design maximum weight on a
horizontal concrete surface, with the
basket, trapeze, or other means provided
for carrying occupants, striking the sur
face at angles of 0, 15, and 30 degrees.
The Weight may be distributed to simu
late actual conditions. There must be
no distortion or failure that is likely to
cause serious injury to the occupants.
In the absence of a rational analysis, a
drop test height of 36 inches may be used.
Subpart D–Design Construction
§ 31.31 General.
The suitability of each design detail
or part that bears on safety must be
established by tests or analysis.
§ 31.33 Materials.
(a) The suitability and durability of
all materials must be established on the
basis of experience or tests. Materials
must conform to approved specifications
that will ensure that they have the
strength and other properties assumed
in the design data.
(b) Material strength properties must
be based on enough tests of material con
forming to specifications so as to estab
lish design values on a statistical basis.
§ 31.35 Fabrication methods.
The methods of fabrication used must
produce a consistently sound structure.
If a fabrication process requires close
control to reach this objective, the proc
ess must be performed in accordance
with an approved process specification.
§ 31.37 Fastenings.
Only approved bolts, pins, screws, and
rivets may be used in the structure. Ap
proved locking devices or methods must
be used for all these bolts, pins, and
screws, unless the installation is shown
to be free from vibration. Self-locking
nuts may not be used on bolts that are
Subject to rotation in service.
§ 31.39 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 31.39 Protection.
Each part of the balloon must be suit
ably protected against deterioration or
loss of strength in service due to weather
ing, corrosion, or other Causes.
§ 31.41 Inspection provisions.
There must be a means to allow close
examination of each part that require
repeated inspection and adjustment.
§ 31.43 Fitting factor.
(a) A fitting factor of at least 1.15
must be used in the analysis of each
fitting the strength of which is not
proven by limit and ultimate load tests
in which the actual stress conditions are
simulated in the fitting and surrounding
structure. This factor applies to all
parts of the fitting, the means of attach
ment, and the bearing on the members
joined.
(b) Each part with an integral fltting
must be treated as a fitting up to the
point where the section properties be
come typical of the member.
(c) The fitting factor need not be used
if the joint design is made in accordance
with approved practices and is based on
comprehensive test data.
§ 31.45 Fuel cells.
If fuel cells are used the attachments
and related supporting structure must
be able to withstand, without failure, any
inertia loads to which the installation
may be subjected, including the drop tests
prescribed in § 31.27 (c). For pressurized
fuel systems, each element and its con
necting fittings must be tested to an ulti
mate pressure of at least twice the maxi
mum pressure to which the system will
be subjected in normal operation. In
the test, no part of the system may fail
or malfunction.
[Doc. No. 1437, 29 F.R. 8258, July 1, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 31–2, 30 F.R. 3377,
Mar. 13, 1965)
§ 31.47 Heaters.
(a) If a heater is used to provide the
lifting means, the system must be de
signed and installed so as not to Create
a fire hazard.
(b) There must be shielding to protect
parts adjacent to the burner flame, and
the occupants, from heat effects.
(c) There must be controls, instru
ments, or other equipment essential to
the safe control and operation of the
heater. They must be shown to be able
to perform their intended functions dur
ing normal and emergency operation.
420
(d) The heater System (including the
burner unit, controls, fuel lines, fuel cells,
regulators, control valves, and other re
lated elements) must be substantiated
by an endurance test of at least 50 hours.
In making the test, each element of the
System must be installed and tested SO
as to simulate the actual balloon instal
lation. The test program must be con
ducted so that each 10-hour part of the
test includes 7 hours at maximum heat
output of the heater and 3 hours divided
into at least 10 equal increments between
minimum and maximum heat output
IſangeS
(e) The test must also include at least
three flameouts and restarts.
(f) Each element of the system must
be serviceable at the end of the test.
[Doc. No. 1437, 29 F.R. 8258, July 1, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 31–2, 30 F.R. 3377, Mar.
13, 1965)
§ 31.49 Control systems.
(a) Each control must operate easily,
Smoothly, and positively enough to allow
proper performance of its functions.
Controls must be arranged and identified
to provide for convenience of operation
and to prevent the possibility of confu
Sion and Subsequent inadvertent opera
tion.
(b) Each control system and operating
device must be designed and installed
in a manner that will prevent jamming,
chafing, or interference from passengers,
cargo, or loose objects. Precaution must
be taken to prevent foreign objects from
jamming the controls. The elements of
the control system must have design fea
tures or must be distinctly and perma
nently marked to minimize the possibility
of incorrect assembly that could result
in malfunctioning of the control system.
(c) Each balloon using a captive gas
as the lifting means must have an auto
matic valve or appendix that is able to
release gas automatically at the rate of
at least three percent of the total volume
per minute when the ballon is at its max
imum operating pressure.
(d) Each hot air balloon must have a
means to allow the controlled release of
hot air during flight.
(e) Each hot air balloon must have a
means to indicate the maximum envelope
skin temperatures occurring during op
eration. The indicator must be readily
visible to the pilot and marked to indi
cate the limiting safe temperature of the
envelope material. If the markings are
on the cover glass of the instrument.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
there must be provisions to maintain the
correct alignment of the glass cover with
the face of the dial.
[Doc. No. 1437, 29 F.R. 8258, July 1, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 31–2, 30 F.R. 3377, Mar
13, 1965)
§ 31.51 Ballast.
Each captive gas balloon must have a
means for the safe storage and controlled
release of ballast. The ballast must Con
sist of material that, if released during
flight, is not hazardous to persons on the
ground.
§ 31.53 Drag rope.
If a drag rope is used, the end that is
released overboard must be stiffened to
preclude the probability of the rope be
coming entangled with trees, wires, or
other objects on the ground.
Deflation means.
§ 31.55
There must be a means to allow emer
gency deflation of the envelope SO as to
allow a safe emergency landing. If a
system other than a manual system is
used, the reliability of the system used
must be substantiated.
[Amdt. 31–2, 30 F.R. 3377, Mar. 13, 1965)
§ 31.57 Rip cords.
(a) If a rip cord is used for emergency
deflation, it must be designed and in
stalled to preclude entanglement.
(b) The force required to operate the
rip cord may not be less than 25, or more
than 75, pounds.
(c) The end of the rip cord to be op
erated by the pilot must be colored red.
(d) The rip cord must be long enough
to allow an increase of at least 10 per
cent in the vertical dimension of the
envelope.
§ 31.59 Trapeze, basket, or other means
provided for occupants.
(a) The trapeze, basket, or other
means provided for carrying occupants
may not rotate independently of the
envelope.
(b) Each projecting object on the tra
peze, basket, or other means provided
for carrying occupants, that could cause
injury to the occupants, must be padded.
§ 31.61 Static discharge.
Unless shown not to be necessary for
safety, there must be appropriate bond
ing means in the design of each balloon
using flammable gas as a lifting means
421
§ 31.81
to ensure that the effects of static dis
charges will not create a hazard.
[Amdt. 31–2, 30 F.R. 3377, Mar. 13, 1965)
§ 31.63 Safety belts.
There must be a safety belt, harness, or
other restraining means for each occu
pant, unless the Administrator finds it
unnecessary. If installed, the belt, har
ness, or other restraining means and its
Supporting Structure must meet the
Strength requirements of Subpart C of
this part.
[Amdt. 31–2, 30 F.R. 3377, Mar. 13, 1965)
§ 31.65 Position lights.
(a) If position lights are otherwise
required by this chapter, there must be
one steady white position light, and one
flashing red position light with an effec
tive flash frequency of at least 40, but
not more than 100, cycles per minute.
(b) Both lights must have 360 de
grees horizontal coverage and must be
visible for at least 2 miles under clear
atmospheric conditions.
(c) The white light must be located
not more than 20 feet below the basket,
trapeze, or other means for carrying
Occupants. The red light must be
located not less than 7, or more than 10,
feet below the white light.
(d) There must be a means to retract
and store the lights.
[Amdt. 31–2, 30 F.R. 3377, Mar. 13, 1965)
Subpart E–Equipment
§ 31.7l Functional and installational re
quirements.
Each item of equipment on a balloon
must be—
(a) Designed and installed to ensure
that it will perform the intended func
tion reliably under all reasonably fore
Seeable operating conditions;
(b) Designed to safeguard against haz
an
º: to the balloon if it malfunctions;
(c) Shown to function properly in the
balloon.
Subpart F-Operating Limitations and
Information
§ 31.81 General.
The operating limitations, normal and
emergency procedures, and other perti
nent information peculiar to the bal
loon's operating characteristics and nec
essary for Safe operation must be
provided by the manufacturer by a
balloon flight manual furnished with
 § 31.83 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
each balloon, or by a placard or marking Sec.
on the balloon that is clearly visible to 83.35 Fuel and induction system.
the operator. The operating limitations 83.37 Ignition system.
must include the maximum certificated 83.39 Lubrication system.
weight. Subpart D–Block Tests; Reciprocating Aircraft
Engines
§ 31.83 Conspicuity. 33.41 Applicability.
The exterior surface of the envelope 33.42 General.
must be of a contrasting color or colors 33.43 Vibration test.
so that it will be conspicuous during op 33.45 Calibration tests.
33.47 Detonation test.
eration. However, multicolored banners
33.49 Endurance test.
or streamers are acceptable if it can 33.51 Operation test.
be shown that they are large enough, 33.53 Engine component tests.
and there are enough of them of con 33.55 Teardown inspection.
trasting color, to make the balloon Con 33.57 General conduct of block tests.
spicuous during flight. Subpart E-Design and Construction; Turbine
Required basic equipment. Aircraft Engines
§ 31.85
33.61 Applicability.
In addition to any equipment required 33.62 Stress analysis.
by this subchapter for a specific kind of 33.63 Vibration.
operation, the following equipment is 33.65 Surge and stall characteristics.
required: 33.66 Bleed air system.
(a) For all balloons: 33.67 Fuel system.
33.68 Induction system icing.
(1) A COmpa SS.
33.69 Ignitions system.
(2) An altimeter.
83.71 Lubrication system.
(3) A rate of climb indicator. 33.72 Hydraulic actuating systems.
(b) For hot air balloons: 33.73 Power or thrust response.
(1) A fuel quantity gage. 33.75 Safety analysis.
(2) An envelope temperature indi 33.77 Foreign object ingestion.
Cator. 33.79 Fuel burning thrust augmentor.
[Amdt. 31–2, 30 F.R. 3377, Mar. 13, 1965) Subpart F-Block Tests; Turbine Aircraft Engines
33.81 Applicability.
PART 33–AIRWORTHINESS STAND 33.82 General.
33.83 Vibration test.
ARDS: AIRCRAFT ENGINES 33.85 Calibration tests.
Subpart A–General 33.87 Endurance test.
Sec. 33.88 Rotor tests.
33.1 Applicability. 33.89 Operation test.
General. 33.90 Overhaul test.
s3.3
33.5 Instructions. 33.91 Engine component tests.
33.7 Engine ratings and operating limita 33.92 Windmilling tests.
tions. 33.93 Teardown inspection.
33.8 Selection of engine power and thrust 33.95 Engine-propeller systems tests.
ratings. 33.97 Thrust reversers.
33.99 General conduct of block tests.
Subpart B–Design and Construction; General
AUTHORITY: The provisions of this Part 33
33.11 Applicability. issued under secs. 313, 601, 603, 72 Stat. 752.
33.13 [Reserved] 775; 49 U.S.C. 1354, 1421, 1423.
33.14 Start-stop cyclic stress (low-cycle
fatigue). Source: The provisions of this Part 33
33.15 Materials. contained in Docket No. 3025, 29 F.R. 7458.
33.17 Fire prevention. June 10, 1964, unless otherwise noted.
33.19 Durability. NOTE: For miscellaneous amendments to
83.21 Engine cooling. cross references in this Part 33, see Amdt.
83.23 Engine mounting attachments and 33–2, 31 F.R. 92.11, July 6, 1966.
Structure.
33.25 Accessory attachments. Subpart A–General
33.27 Turbine, compressor, and turbo-super
charger rotors. § 33.1 Applicability.
33.29 Instrument connection.
This part describes airworthiness re
Subpart C–Design and Construction; Reciprocal quirements for issuing type certificates,
ing Aircraft Engines supplemental type certificates, and
83.31 Applicability. changes to those certificates, for aircraft
83.33. Vibration. engines.

2

Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 33.3 General.
Each applicant must show that the
aircraft engine concerned meets the ap
plicable requirements of this part.
§ 33.5 Instructions.
Each applicant must prepare and make
available to the Administrator prior to
the issuance of the type certificate and to
the owner at the time of delivery of the
engine, instructions for installing, oper
ating, servicing, and maintaining the
engine. The instructions must include at
least the following:
(a) Installation instructions. (1) The
location of engine mounting attachments,
the method of attaching the engine to
the aircraft, and the maximum allowable
load for the mounting attachments and
related structure.
(2) The location and description of
engine connections to be attached to ac
cessories, pipes, wires, cables, ducts, and
cowling.
(3) An outline drawing of the engine
including overall dimensions.
(b) Operation instructions. (1) The
operating limitations established by the
Administrator.
(2) The power or thrust ratings and
procedures for correcting for nonstand
ard atmosphere.
(3) The recommended procedures, un
der normal and extreme ambient con
ditions for—
(i) Starting;
(ii) Operating on the ground; and
(iii) Operating during flight.
(c) Service instructions. (1) The tech
niques and methods of service.
(2) The frequency of service.
(3) The fuel, lubricant, and hydraulic
fluid that may be used in the engine.
(d) Maintenance and inspection in
structions. (1) The techniques and meth
ods for performing inspections.
(2) The frequency of checking, clean
ing, lubricating, and adjusting.
(e) Overhaul and replacement instruc
tions. (1) The frequency of the over
hauls.
(2) The life limits of components re
quiring replacement.
(3) The techniques and methods of re
placing components which have life
limits.
(4) The techniques and methods of
:
:
disassembly and reassembly.
(5) The fits and clearances of each
component.
423
§ 33.7
(6) The techniques for testing each
component after overhaul Or replace
ment of the component.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35463, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.7 Engine ratings and operating lim
itations.
(a) Engine ratings and operating limi
tations are established by the Adminis
trator and included in the engine cer
tificate data sheet specified in § 21.41 of
this chapter, including ratings and limi
tations based on the Operating conditions
and information specified in this section,
as applicable, and any other information
found necessary for safe operation of the
engine.
(b) For reciprocating engines, ratings
and operating limitations are established
relating to the following:
(1) Horsepower or torque, r.p.m.,
manifold pressure, and time at critical
pressure altitude and sea level pressure
altitude for—
(i) Rated maximum continuous power
(relating to unsupercharged Operation
Or to operation in each Supercharger
mode as applicable); and
(ii) Rated takeoff power (relating to
unsupercharged operation or to opera
tion in each supercharger mode as ap
plicable).
(2) Fuel grade or specification.
(3) Oil grade or specification.
(4) Temperature of the—
(i) Cylinder;
(ii) Oil at the oil inlet; and
(iii) Turbosupercharger turbine wheel
inlet gas.
(5) Pressure of .
(i) Fuel at the fuel inlet; and
(ii) Oil at the main oil gallery.
(6) Accessory drive torque and over
hang moment.
(7) Component life.
(8) Turbosupercharger turbine wheel
I’.p.m.
(c) For turbine engines, ratings and
operating limitations are established re
lating to the following:
(1) Horsepower, torque, or thrust,
r.p.m., gas temperature, and time for—
(i) Rated maximum continuous power
or thrust (augmented);
(ii) Rated maximum continuous power
or thrust (unaugmented);
(iii) Rated takeoff power or thrust
(augmented) ;
(iv) Rated takeoff power or thrust (un
augmented);
(v) Rated 30 minute power; and
(vi) Rated 2% minute power.
§ 33.8 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(2) Fuel designation or specification.
(3) Oil grade or specification.
(4) Hydraulic fluid Specification.
(5) Temperature of—
(i) Oil at the oil inlet;
(ii) Induction air at the inlet face of
a supersonic engine, including steady
state operation and transient over-tem
perature and time allowed;
(iii) Hydraulic fluid of a SuperSonic
engine;
(iv) Fuel at a location on a Supersonic
engine that is specified by the applicant;
and
(v) External surfaces of the engine,
if specified by the applicant.
(6) Pressure of—
(i) Fuel at the fuel inlet;
(ii) Oil at the main oil gallery;
(iii) Induction air at the inlet face
of a superSonic engine, including steady
state operation and transient overpres
sure and time allowed; and
(iv) Hydraulic fluid.
(7) Accessory drive torque and over
hang moment.
(8) Component life.
(9) Fuel filtration.
(10) Oil filtration.
(11) Bleed air.
(12) The number of start-stop stress
cycles approved for each rotor disc and
Spacer.
(13) Inlet air distortion at the engine
inlet.
(14) Transient rotor shaft overspeed
r.p.m., and number of overspeed occur
rences.
(15) Transient gas overtemperature,
and number of overtemperature occur
rences.
(16) Engine rotor Windmilling rota
tional r.p.m.
(17) Time for first overhaul.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35463, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.8 Selection of engine power and
thrust ratings.
(a) Requested engine power and thrust
ratings must be selected by the appli
cant.
(b) Each selected rating must be for
the lowest power or thrust that all en
gines of the same type may be expected
to produce under the conditions used to
determine that rating.
[Amdt. 33–3, 32 F.R. 3736, Mar. 4, 1967]
424
Subpart B–Design and Construction;
General
$33.11 Applicability.
This subpart prescribes the general
design and construction requirements
for reciprocating and turbine aircraft
engines.
§ 33.13 [Reserved]
§ 33.14 Start-stop cyclic stress (low
cycle fatigue).
An operating limitation must be estab
lished that specifies as a service life the
number of start-stop stress cycles for
each rotor disc and each rotor spacer of
the compressor and the turbine. A start
stop stress cycle consists of Starting the
engine, accelerating it to its maximum
rated power or thrust and maintaining
the power setting until the disc and
spacer temperatures are stabilized, after
which the engine is stopped and disc
and Spacer temperatures are again sta
bilized or reduced to a value which can
be shown to produce the same stress
range as stabilization. The number of
start-stop stress cycles initially estab
lished as an operating limitation for any
spacer or disc may not exceed one-third
of the number of cycles determined to
be the maximum number of cycles that
can be sustained without failure for that
disc or spacer. The initial limitation may
be increased for any disc or spacer by
testing at least three samples of that disc
or spacer, that have been operated
through the limiting number of cycles
in actual service, through an additional
number of cycles equal to at least twice
the number of cycles comprising the
increase in the limit.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35464, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.15 Materials.
The suitability and durability of the
materials used in the engine must be
established on a basis of experience or
tests. Each material must conform to
approved specifications to ensure that
it has the strength and other properties
assumed in the design data.
§ 33.17 Fire prevention.
(a) The design and construction of
the engine and the materials used must
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
minimize the probability of the occur
rence and spread of fire.
(b) Except as provided in paragraphs
(c), (d), and (e) of this section, each ex
ternal line, fitting, and other component,
which contains or conveys flammable
fluid must be fire resistant. Components
must be shielded or located to safeguard
against the ignition of leaking flammable
fluid.
(c) Flammable fluid tanks and sup
ports which are part of and attached to
the engine must be fireproof or be en
closed by a fireproof shield unless dam
age by fire to any non-fireproof part will
not cause leakage or spillage of flamma
ble fluid. For a reciprocating engine hav
ing an integral oil Sump of less than 20
quart capacity, the oil sump need not be
fireproof nor be enclosed by fireproof
shield.
(d) For turbine engines type certifi
cated for use in supersonic aircraft, each
external component which conveys or
contains flammable fluid must be fire
proof.
(e) Unwanted accumulation of flam
mable fluid and vapor must be prevented
by draining and Venting.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35464, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.19. Durability.
Engine design and construction must
minimize the development of an unsafe
condition of the engine between overhaul
periods. The design of the compressor
and turbine rotor cases must provide for
the containment of damage from rotor
blade failure.
§ 33.21 Engine cooling.
Engine design and construction must
provide the necessary cooling under con
ditions in which the airplane is expected
to operate.
§ 33.23 Engine mounting attachments
and structure.
(a) The maximum allowable loads for
engine mounting attachments and re
lated structure must be Specified by the
applicant.
(b) The engine mounting attachments
and related structure must be able to
withstand the specified loads without
failure, malfunction, or permanent de
formation.
[Amdt. 33–3, 32 F.R. 3736, Mar. 4, 1967]
39–059–75–28
425
§ 33.27
§ 33.25 Accessory attachments.
The engine must operate properly with
the accessory drive and mounting at
tachments loaded. Each accessory drive
and mounting attachment used only for
an aircraft service must be loaded With
the limit load specified by the applicant
for the engine drive or attachment point
during rated maximum continuous power
and higher output. Each engine acces
sory drive and mounting attachment
must be sealed to prevent contamination
of or leakage from the engine interior.
A drive and mounting attachment requir
ing lubrication of external drive splines
Or coupling by engine oil must be sealed
to prevent loss of oil and to prevent con
tamination from sources outside the
chamber enclosing the drive connection.
The design of the engine must allow for
the examination, adjustment, or removal
of each accessory required for engine op
eration.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35464, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.27 Turbine, compressor, and turbo
supercharger rotors.
(a) Turbine, compressor, and turbo
supercharger rotors must have sufficient
strength to withstand the rotor speed,
temperature, and Vibration test condi
tions specified in paragraph (c) of this
section.
(b) The design and functioning of en
gine control devices, systems, and instru
ments must give reasonable assurance
that those engine operating limitations
that affect turbine, compressor, and
turbosupercharger rotor structural integ
rity will not be exceeded in service.
(c) The turbine rotor, the compres
SOr rotor, and the turbosupercharger
rotor Sustaining the highest operating
stress at the maximum limiting r.p.m., of
all such rotors, respectively, in an engine
or turborsupercharger, must each be
tested—
(1) At its maximum operating tem
perature, except as provided in para
graph (c) (3) (v) of this section;
(2) For a period of 5 minutes; and
(3) At a speed of—
(i) 120 percent of its maximum limit
ing r.p.m. if on a rig and the rotor disc
is equipped with either blades or blade
weights;
(ii) 115 percent of its maximum limit
ing r.p.m. if on an engine;
 § 33.29 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(iii) Maximum limiting r.p.m. if on an
engine and the rotor disc section is thin
ner than specified in the type design SO
that the operating stress induced at
maximum limiting r.p.m. is the same as
for a rotor conforming to type design at
115 percent of its maximum limiting
l'.p.Ill.,
(iv) 115 percent of its maximum limit
ing r.p.m. if on a turbosupercharger
driven by a hot gas supply from a special
burner rig; or
(v) 120 percent of the r.p.m. at which,
While cold spinning, the disc is Subject to
the same operating stresses that are in
duced at the maximum limiting tempera
ture and r.p.m., provided that disc tem
perature survey data from operating en
gines and data on hot strength properties
of the disc material establish the effect of
temperature on stress.
Following the test, each rotor must be
within the dimensional limits allowed by
the type design for installation in an
engine and may not be cracked.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35464, Oct. 1, 1974]
$ 33.29 Instrument connection.
(a) Unless it is constructed to prevent
its connection to an incorrect instrument,
each connection provided for powerplant
instruments required by aircraft air
worthiness regulations or necessary to
insure operation of the engine in compli
ance with any engine limitation must be
marked to identify it with its correspond
ing instrument.
(b) A connection must be provided
On each turbojet engine for an indicator
system to indicate rotor System unbal
ance.
[Amdt. No. 33–5, 39 FR 1831, Jan. 15, 1974,
as amended by Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35465,
Oct. 1, 1974]
Subpart C–Design and Construction;
Reciprocating Aircraft Engines
§ 33.31. Applicability.
This subpart prescribes additional de
sign and construction requirements for
reciprocating aircraft engines.
§ 33.33. Vibration.
The engine must be designed and con
structed to function throughout
its
normal operating range of crankshaft
rotational speeds and engine powers
without inducing excessive stress in any
of the engine parts because of vibration
and without imparting excessive vibra
tion forces to the aircraft structure.
426
§ 33.35 Fuel and induction system.
(a) The fuel system of the engine
must be designed and constructed to
Supply an appropriate mixture of fuel
to the cylinders throughout the complete
Operating range of the engine under all
flight and atmospheric conditions.
(b) The intake passages of the engine
through which air or fuel in combination
With air passes for combustion purposes
must be designed and constructed to
minimize the danger of ice accretion in
those passages. The engine must be de
signed and constructed to permit the use
of a means for ice prevention.
(c) The type and degree of fuel filter
ing necessary for protection of the engine
fuel system against foreign particles in
the fuel must be specified. The appli
cant must show that foreign particles
passing through the prescribed filtering
means Will not critically impair engine
fuel system functioning.
(d) Each passage in the induction sys
tem that conducts a mixture of fuel and
air must be self-draining, to prevent a
liquid lock in the cylinders, in all atti
tudes that the applicant establishes as
those the engine can have when the air
craft in which it is installed is in the
static ground attitude.
§ 33.37 Ignition system.
Each Spark ignition engine must have
a dual ignition system with at least two
Spark plugs for each cylinder and two
separate electric circuits with separate
sources of electrical energy, or have an
ignition system of equivalent in-flight
reliability.
§ 33.39 Lubrication system.
(a) The lubrication System of the en
gine must be designed and constructed
so that it will function properly in all
flight attitudes and atmospheric condi
tions in which the airplane is expected to
operate. In Wet Sump engines, this re
quirement must be met when only one
half of the maximum lubricant Supply is
in the engine.
(b) The lubrication system of the en
gine must be designed and constructed
to allow installing a means of cooling
the lubricant.
(c) The crankcase must be vented to
the atmosphere to preclude leakage of
oil from excessive pressure in the crank
Case.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
Subpart D–Block Tests; Reciprocating
Aircraft Engines
§ 33.41 Applicability.
This subpart prescribes the block tests
and inspections for reciprocating aircraft
engines.
§ 33.42 General.
Before each endurance test required by
this subpart, the adjustment setting and
functioning characteristic of each com
ponent having an adjustment setting and
a functioning characteristic that can be
established independent of installation
on the engine must be established and
: recorded.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35465, Oct. 1, 1974]
$33.43 Wibration test.
(a) Each engine must undergo a vibra
tion Survey to establish the torsional and
bending vibration characteristics of the
crankshaft and the propeller shaft or
other output shaft, Over the range of
crankshaft Speed and engine power,
under steady state and transient condi
tions, from idling speed to either 110 per
cent of the desired maximum continuous
Speed rating or 103 percent of the maxi
mum desired takeoff speed rating, which
ever is higher. The survey must be re
peated with that cylinder not firing that
has the most adverse vibration effect,
except that the speed range need be only
from idle to the maximum desired take
off speed rating. The survey must be con
ducted using, for airplane engines, the
same configuration of the propeller type
which is used for the endurance test, and
using, for other engines, the same con
figuration of the loading device type
which is used for the endurance test.
(b) The torsional and bending vibra
tion stresses of the crankshaft and the
propeller shaft or other output shaft
may not exceed the endurance limit
stress of the material from which the
shaft is made. If the maximum stress in
the shaft cannot be shown to be below
the endurance limit by measurement,
the vibration frequency and amplitude
must be measured. The peak amplitude
must be shown to produce a stress below
the endurance limit; if not, the engine
must be run at the condition producing
the peak amplitude until, for steel shafts,
10 million stress reversals have been
sustained without fatigue failure and,
for other shafts, until it is shown that
fatigue will not occur within the endur
ance limit stress of the material.
427
§ 33.49
(c) Each accessory drive and mount
ing attachment must be loaded, with the
loads imposed by each accessory used
only for an aircraft service being the
limit load specified by the applicant for
the drive or attachment point.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35465, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.45 Calibration tests.
(a) Each engine must be subjected to
the calibration tests necessary to estab
lish its power characteristics and the con
ditions for the endurance test specified
in § 33.49. The results of the power char
acteristics calibration tests form the
basis for establishing the characteristics
of the engine over its entire operating
range of crankshift rotational speeds,
manifold pressures, fuel/air mixture set
tings, and altitudes. Power ratings are
based upon standard atmospheric condi
tions with only those accessories in
stalled which are essential for engine
functioning.
(b) A power check at sea level condi
tions must be accomplished on the en
durance test engine after the endurance
test. Any change in power characteristics
which occurs during the endurance test
must be determined. Measurements
taken during the final portion of the
endurance test may be used in showing
compliance with the requirements of this
paragraph.
[Docket No. 3025, 29 FR 7453, June 10, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35465,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.47 Detonation test.
Each engine must be tested to estab
lish that the engine can function with
out detonation throughout its range of
intended conditions of operation.
$33.49 Endurance test.
(a) General. Each engine must be
Subjected to an endurance test that in
cludes a total of 150 hours of operation
(except as provided in paragraph (e) (1)
(iii) of this section) and, depending
upon the type and contemplated use of
the engine, consists of one of the series
of runs specified in paragraphs (b)
through (e) of this section, as applicable.
The runs must be made in the order
found appropriate by the Administrator
for the particular engine being tested.
During the endurance test the engine
power and the crankshaft rotational
Speed must be kept within +3 percent
of the rated values. During the runs at
rated takeoff power and for at least 35
§ 33.49 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
hours at rated maximum continuous
power, one cylinder must be operated at
not less than the limiting temperature,
the other cylinders must be operated at
a temperature not lower than 50 degrees
F below the limiting temperature, and
the oil inlet temperature must be main
tained within +10 degrees F of the limit
ing temperature. An engine that is
equipped with a propeller shaft must be
fitted for the endurance test with a pro
peller that thrust-loads the engine to
the maximum thrust which the engine
is designed to resist at each applicable
operating condition specified in this sec
tion. Each accessory drive and mounting
attachment must be loaded. During op
eration at rated takeoff power and rated
maximum continuous power, the load
imposed by each accessory used only for
an aircraft service must be the limit load
specified by the applicant for the engine
drive or attachment point.
(b) Unsupercharged engines and en
gines incorporating a gear-driven Single
speed supercharger. For engines not
incorporating a supercharger and for
engines incorporating a gear-driven
single-speed supercharger the applicant
must conduct the following runs:
(1) A 30-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods of 5 minutes at rated takeoff
power with takeoff speed, and 5 minutes
at maximum best economy cruising
power or maximum recommended cruis
ing power.
(2) A 20-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods of 1% hours at rated maxi
mum continuous power with maximum
continuous speed, and #2 hour at 75 per
cent rated maximum continuous power
and 91 percent maximum continuous
speed.
(3) A 20-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods of 1% hours at rated max
imum continuous power with maximum
continuous speed, and 42 hour at 70 per
cent rated maximum continuous power
and 89 percent maximum continuous
speed.
(4) A 20-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods of 1% hours at rated max
imum continuous power with maximum
continuous speed, and /2 hour at 65 per
cent rated maximum continuous power
and 87 percent maximum continuous
(5) A 20-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods of 1% hours at rated maxi
mum continuous power with maximum
continuous speed, and 1/2 hour at 60 per
cent rated maximum continuous power
428
and 84.5 percent maximum continuous
Speed.
(6) A 20-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods of 1% hours at rated maxi
mum continuous power with maximum
continuous Speed, and 42 hour at 50 per
cent rated maximum continuous power
and 79.5 percent maximum continuous
speed.
(7) A 20-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods of 2% hours at rated maxi
mum COntinuous power With maximum
continuous Speed, and 2% hours at max
imum best economy cruising power or at
maximum recommended cruising power.
(c) Engines incorporating a gear
driven two-speed supercharger. For
engines incorporating a gear-driven two
speed supercharger the applicant must
conduct the following runs:
(1) A 30-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods in the lower gear ratio of
5 minutes at rated takeoff power with
takeoff speed, and 5 minutes at maxi
mum best economy cruising power or at
maximum recommended cruising power.
If a takeoff power rating is desired in
the higher gear ratio, 15 hours of the
30-hour run must be made in the higher
gear ratio in alternate periods of 5 min
utes at the observed horsepower obtain
able with the takeoff critical altitude
manifold pressure and takeoff speed, and
5 minutes at 70 percent high ratio rated
maximum continuous power and 89 per
cent high ratio maximum continuous
Speed.
(2) A 15-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods in the lower gear ratio of
1 hour at rated maximum continuous
power with maximum continuous speed,
and 2 hour at 75 percent rated maxi
mum continuous power and 91 percent
maximum continuous Speed.
(3) A 15-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods in the lower gear ratio of
1 hour at rated maximum continuous
power with maximum continuous speed,
and 42 hour at 70 percent rated maxi
mum continuous power and 89 percent
maximum continuous speed.
(4) A 30-hour run in the higher gear
ratio at rated maximum continuous
power with maximum continuous speed.
(5) A 5-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods of 5 minutes in each of the
Supercharger gear ratios. The first 5
minutes of the test must be made at
maximum continous speed in the higher
gear ratio and the observed horsepower
obtainable with 90 percent of maximum
continuous manifold pressure in the
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
higher gear ratio under sea level condi
tions. The condition for Operation for
the alternate 5 minutes in the lower gear
ratio must be that obtained by shifting
to the lower gear ratio at constant speed.
(6) A 10-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods in the lower gear ratio of
1 hour at rated maximum continuous
power with maximum continuous speed,
and 1 hour at 65 percent rated maximum
Continuous power and 87 percent maxi
mum continuous speed.
(7) A 10-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods in the lower gear ratio of
1 hour at rated maximum continuous
power with maximum continuous speed,
and 1 hour at 60 percent rated maximum
continuous power and 84.5 percent max
imum continuous speed.
(8) A 10-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods in the lower gear ratio of 1
hour at rated maximum continuous
power with maximum continuous speed,
and 1 hour at 50 percent rated maxi
num continuous power and 79.5 percent
maximum continuous speed.
(9) A 20-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods in the lower gear ratio of
2 hours at rated maximum continuous
power with maximum continuous speed,
and 2 hours at maximum best economy
cruising power and speed or at maximum
recommended cruising power.
(10) A 5-hour run in the lower gear
ratio at maximum best economy cruis
ing power and speed or at maximum
recommended cruising power and Speed.
Where simulated altitude test equip
ment is not available when operating in
the higher gear ratio, the runs may be
made at the observed horsepower
obtained with the critical altitude mani
fold pressure or Specified percentages
thereof, and the fuel-air mixtures may
be adjusted to be rich enough to suppress
detonation.
(d) Helicopter engines. To be eligi
ble for use on a helicopter each engine
must either comply with paragraphs (a)
through (j) of $ 29.923 of this chapter,
or must undergo the following series
of runs:
(1) A 35-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods of 30 minutes each at rated
takeoff power with takeoff speed, and
at rated maximum continuous power
with maximum continuous speed.
(2) A 25-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods of 2% hours each at rated
maximum continuous power with maxi
mum continuous speed, and at 70 per
429
§ 33.49
cent rated maximum continuous power
with maximum continuous Speed.
(3) A 25-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods of 2% hours each at rated
maximum continuous power with maxi
mum continuous speed, and at 70 per
cent rated maximum continuous power
with 80 to 90 percent maximum con
tinuous speed.
(4) A 25-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods of 2% hours each at 80
percent rated maximum continuous
power with takeoff speed, and at 80
percent rated maximum continuous
power with 80 to 90 percent maximum
continuous speed.
(5) A 25-hour run consisting of alter
nate periods of 2% hours each at 80 per
cent rated maximum continuous power
with takeoff speed, and at either rated
maximum continuous power with 110
percent maximum continuous speed or
at rated takeoff power with 103 percent
takeoff speed, whichever results in the
greater speed.
(6) A 15-hour run at 105 percent
rated maximum continuous power with
105 percent maximum continuous speed
or at full throttle and corresponding
speed at standard sea level carburetor
entrance pressure, if 105 percent of the
rated maximum continuous power is not
exceeded.
(e) Turbosupercharged engines. For
engines incorporating a turbosuper
charger the following apply except that
altitude testing may be simulated pro
vided the applicant shows that the en
gine and supercharger are being sub
jected to mechanical loads and operating
temperatures no less severe than if run
at actual altitude conditions:
(1) For engines used in airplanes the
applicant must conduct the runs speci
fied in paragraph (b) of this section, ex
cept—
(i) The entire run specified in para
graph (b) (1) of this section must be
made at sea level altitude pressure;
(ii) The portions of the runs specified
in paragraphs (b) (2) through (7) of
this section at rated maximum continu
Ous power must be made at critical alti
tude pressure and the portions of the
runs at other power must be made at
critical altitude pressure and the por
tions of the runs at other power must be
made at 8,000 feet altitude pressure; and
(iii) The turbosupercharger used dur
ing the 150-hour endurance test must be
run on the bench for an additional 50
hours at the limiting turbine wheel inlet
§ 33.51 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
gas temperature and rotational speed for
rated maximum continuous power opera
tion unless the limiting temperature and
Speed are maintained during 50 hours of
the rated maximum continuous power
Operation.
(2) For engines used in helicopters the
applicant must conduct the runs speci
fied in paragraph (d) of this section, ex
cept—
(i) The entire run specified in para
graph (d) (1) of this section must be
made at critical altitude pressure;
(ii) The portions of the runs specified
in paragraphs (d) (2) and (3) of this
section at rated maximum continuous
power must be made at critical altitude
pressure and the portions of the runs at
other power must be made at 8,000 feet
altitude pressure;
(iii) The entire run specified in para
graph (d) (4) of this section must be
made at 8,000 feet altitude pressure;
(iv) The portion of the runs specified
in paragraph (d) (5) of this section at 80
percent of rated maximum continuous
power must be made at 8,000 feet alti
tude pressure and the portions of the
runs at other power must be made at
critical altitude pressure;
(v) The entire run specified in para
graph (d) (6) of this section must be
made at critical altitude pressure; and
(vi) The turbosupercharger used dur
ing the endurance test must be run on
the bench for 50 hours at the limiting
turbine wheel inlet gas temperature and
rotational speed for rated maximum con
tinuous power operation unless the limit
ing temperature and speed are main
tained during 50 hours of the rated
maximum continuous power operation.
[Amdt. No. 33–3, 32 FR 3736, Mar. 4, 1967,
as amended by Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35465,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.5l Operation test.
The operation test must include the
testing found necessary by the Admin
1strator to demonstrate backfire char
acteristics, starting, idling, acceleration,
overspeeding, functioning of propeller
and ignition, and any other operational
characteristic of the engine. If the en
gine incorporates a multiSpeed super
charger drive, the design and construc
tion must allow the Supercharger to be
shifted from operation at the lower Speed
ratio to the higher and the power appro
priate to the manifold pressure and speed
Settings for rated maximum continuous
power at the higher supercharger Speed
430
ratio must be obtainable Within five
Seconds.
[Doc. No. 3025, 29 F.R. 7453, June 10, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 33–3, 32 F.R. 3737, Mar. 4,
1967]
$33.53 Engine component tests.
(a) For each engine that cannot be
adequately substantiated by endurance
testing in accordance with $ 33.49, the
applicant must conduct additional tests
to establish that components are able to
function reliably in all normally antici
pated flight and atmospheric conditions.
(b) Temperature limits must be estab
lished for each component that requires
temperature controlling provisions in the
aircraft installation to assure satisfac
tory functioning, reliability, and durabil
ity.
§ 33.55 Teardown inspection.
After completing the endurance test—
(a) Each engine must be completely
disassembled;
(b) Each component having an ad
justment setting and a functioning char
acteristic that can be established inde
pendent of installation on the engine
must retain each setting and function
ing characteristic within the limits that
were established and recorded at the be
ginning of the test; and
(c) Each engine component must con
form to the type design and be eligible
for incorporation into an engine for con
tinued operation, in accordance with
information Submitted in compliance
With $ 33.5 (e).
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35466, Oct. 1, 1974)
§ 33.57 General conduct of block tests.
(a) The applicant may, in conducting
the block tests, use separate engines of
identical design and construction in the
vibration, calibration, detonation, endur
ance, and operation tests, except that, if
a separate engine is used for the endur
ance test it must be subjected to a cali
bration check before starting the endur
ance test.
(b) The applicant may service and
make minor repairs to the engine during
the block tests in accordance with the
Service and maintenance instructions
submitted in compliance with $ 33.5. If
the frequency of the service is excessive.
or the number of stops due to engine
malfunction is excessive, or a major re
pair, or replacement of a part is found
necessary during the block tests or as the
result of findings from the teardown in
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
spection, the engine or its parts may be
subjected to any additional test the Ad
ministrator finds necessary.
(c) Each applicant must furnish all
testing facilities, including equipment
and competent personnel, to conduct the
block tests.
[Docket No. 3025, 29 FR 7453, June 10, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35466,
Oct. 1, 1974]
Subpart E–Design and Construction;
Turbine Aircraft Engines
§ 33.61 Applicability.
This subpart prescribes additional de
sign and construction requirements for
turbine aircraft engines.
$33.62 Stress analysis.
A stress analysis must be performed
On each turbine engine showing the de
sign safety margin of each turbine en
gine rotor, spacer, and rotor shaft.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35466, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.63 Vibration.
Each engine must be designed and
constructed to function throughout its
normal operating range of rotational
Speeds and engine power without induc
ing excessive stress in any engine part
because of vibration and without im
parting excessive vibration forces to the
aircraft structure.
$33.65 Surge and stall characteristics.
When the engine is operated in accord
ance with operating instructions required
by § 33.5(b), starting, a change of power
or thrust, power or thrust augmentation,
limiting inlet air distortion, or inlet air
temperature may not cause surge or stall
to the extent that flameout, structural
failure, overtemperature, or failure of
the engine to recover power or thrust will
occur at any point in the operating en
velope.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35466, Oct. 1, 1974]
$33.66 Bleed air system.
The engine must Supply bleed air with
out adverse effect on the engine, exclud
2. ing reduced output, at the discharge flow
condition established as a limitation. If
bleed air used for engine anti-icing can
be controlled, provision must be made
for connecting the bleed air System to a
means to indicate the functioning of the
aircraft powerplant ice protection sys
tem.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35466, Oct. 1, 1974]
431
§ 33.67
§ 33.67 Fuel system.
(a) With fuel supplied to the engine
at the flow and pressure specified by .
the applicant, the engine must function
properly under each operating condition
required by this Part. Each fuel control
adjusting means that may not be ma
nipulated while the fuel control device is
mounted on the engine must be secured
by a locking device and sealed, or other
wise be inaccessible. All other fuel con
trol adjusting means must be accessible
and marked to indicate the function of
the adjustment unless the function is
obvious. Each fuel system must be cap
able of sustained operation throughout
its flow and pressure range with fuel ini
tially saturated with water at 80 degrees
F and having 0.75cc. of free water per
gallon added and cooled to the most criti
cal condition for icing likely to be en
countered in operation.
(b) There must be a fuel Strainer or
filter between the engine fuel inlet Open
ing and the inlet of either the fuel meter
ing device or the engine-driven positive
displacement pump whichever is nearer
the engine fuel inlet. In addition, the fol
lowing provisions apply to each strainer
or filter required by this paragraph (b) :
(1) It must be accessible for drain
ing and cleaning and must incorporate
a screen or element that is easily
removable.
(2) It must have a sediment trap and
drain except that it need not have a drain
if the strainer or filter is easily removable
for drain purposes.
(3) It must be mounted so that its
weight is not supported by the connect
ing lines or by the inlet or outlet connec
tions of the strainer or filter.
(4) It must have the type and degree
of fuel filtering specified as necessary for
protection of the engine fuel System
against foreign particles in the fuel. The
applicant must demonstrate that foreign
particles passing through the specified
filtering means do not impair engine
fuel system functioning.
(5) It must have the capacity (with
respect to operating limitations estab
lished for the engine) and the mesh to
ensure that engine fuel System function
ing is not impaired with fuel contami
nated to a degree (with respect to par
ticle size and density) that is greater
than that established for the engine in
paragraph (b) (4) of this section.
(6) Any strainer or filter bypass must
be designed and constructed so that the
§ 33.68 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
release of collected contaminants is mini
mized by appropriate location of the
bypass to ensure that collected con
taminants are not in the bypass flow
path.
(7) The fuel System must incorporate
means to indicate the occurrence of con
tamination of the strainer or filter before
it reaches the capacity established in
accordance with paragraph (b) (5) of
this section.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35466, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.68 Induction system icing.
Each engine, with all icing protection
Systems operating, must—
(a) Operate throughout its flight
power range (including idling) without
the accumulation of ice on the engine
components that adversely affects engine
Operation or that causes a serious loss
of power or thrust in continuous maxi
mum and intermittent maximum icing
conditions as defined in Appendix C of
Part 25 of this chapter; and
(b) Idle for 30 minutes on the ground,
with the available air bleed for engine
icing protection at its critical condition,
without adverse effect, in an atmosphere
that is at a temperature of 29 degrees F
and has a liquid water content of 0.6
grams per cubic meter in the form of
drops having a mean effective diameter
of 40 microns, followed by a momentary
operation at takeoff power or thrust.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35466, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.69 Ignitions system.
Each engine must be equipped with an
ignition System for starting the engine
On the ground and in flight. An electric
ignition system must have at least two
igniters and two separate secondary elec
tric circuits, except that only one igniter
is required for fuel burning augmentation
Systems.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35466, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.71 Lubrication system.
(a) General. Each lubrication system
must function properly in the flight at
titudes and atmospheric conditions in
which an aircraft is expected to operate.
(b) Oil Strainer or filter. There must
be an oil strainer or filter through which
all of the engine oil flows and there must
be a separate strainer or filter ahead of
each Scavenge pump. In addition:
(1) Each strainer or filter required
by this paragraph that has a bypass must
be constructed and installed so that oil
will flow at the normal rate through the
43:
rest of the System with the Strainer Or
filter element completely blocked.
(2) The type and degree of filtering
necessary for protection of the engine
oil system against foreign particles in the
oil must be specified. The applicant
must demonstrate that foreign particles
passing through the Specified filtering
means do not impair engine oil system
functioning.
(3) Each strainer or filter required by
this paragraph must have the capacity
(With respect to Operating limitations
established for the engine) and the mesh
to ensure that engine oil system func
tioning is not impaired with the oil con
taminated to a degree (with respect to
particle size and density) that is greater
than that established for the engine in
paragraph (b) (2) of this section.
(4) The oil system must incorporate
means, for each strainer or filter required
by this paragraph except the strainer or
filter at an oil tank outlet or for a scav
enge pump, to indicate contamination
of the screen before it reaches the ca
pacity established in accordance with
paragraph (b) (3) of this section.
(5) Any filter bypass must be designed
and constructed so that the release of
collected contaminants is minimized by
appropriate location of the bypass to
ensure that the collected contaminants
are not in the bypass flow path.
(6) Each strainer or filter required by
this paragraph that has no bypass, ex
cept the strainer or filter at an oil tank
Outlet or for a scavenge pump, must have
provisions for connection with a warning
means to warn the pilot of the occur
rence of contamination of the screen be
fore it reaches the capacity established in
accordance with paragraph (b) (3) of
this section.
(7) Each strainer or filter required by
this paragraph must be accessible for
draining and cleaning.
(c) Oil tanks. (1) Each oil tank must
have an expansion space of not less than
10 percent of the tank capacity.
(2) It must be impossible to inad
vertently fill the oil tank expansion
Space.
(3) Each recessed oil tank filler con
nection that can retain any appreciable
quantity of oil must have provision for
fitting a drain.
(4) Each oil tank cap must provide an
oil-tight seal.
(5) Each oil tank filler must be
marked with the word “oil” and the tank
Capacity.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(6) Each oil tank must be vented from
the top part of the expansion space, with
the vent so arranged that condensed
water vapor that might freeze and ob
struct the line cannot accumulate at any
point.
(7) There must be means to prevent
entrance into the oil tank or into any oil
tank outlet, of any object that might
obstruct the flow of oil through the
System.
(8) There must be a shutoff valve at
the outlet of each oil tank, unless the ex
ternal portion of the oil system (includ
ing oil tank supports) is fireproof.
(9) Each unpressurized oil tank may
not leak when subjected to maximum
operating temperature and an internal
pressure of 5 p.s.i., and each pressurized
oil tank may not leak when subjected to
maximum operating temperature and an
internal pressure that is not less than 5
p.s.i. plus the maximum operating pres
sure of the tank.
(10) Leaked or spilled oil may not ac
cumulate between the tank and the re
mainder of the engine.
(11) Each oil tank must have an oil
quantity indicator.
(d) Oil drains. There must be an ac
cessible oil drain that will drain the en
tire oil system. The drain must have a
manual or automatic means for positive
locking in the closed position.
(e) Oil radiators. Each oil radiator
must withstand, without failure, any
vibration, inertia, and oil pressure load
to which it is Subjected during the block
tests.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35466, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.72 Hydraulic actuating systems.
Each hydraulic actuating system must
function properly under all conditions in
which the engine is expected to operate.
Each filter or screen must be accessible
for servicing and each tank must meet
the design criteria of § 33.71.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35467, Oct. 1, 1974]
$33.73 Power or thrust response.
:
The design and construction of the
engine must enable an increase—
(a) From minimum to rated takeoff
power or thrust with the maximum bleed
air and power extraction to be permitted
in an aircraft, without overtemperature,
surge, stall, or other detrimental factors
:
occurring to the engine Whenever the
power control lever is moved from the
minimum to the maximum position in
not more than 1 Second, except that the
433
§ 33.77
Administrator may allow additional time
increments for different regimes of con
trol operation requiring control schedul
ing; and
(b) From the fixed minimum flight
idle power lever position when provided,
or if not provided, from not more than
15 percent of the rated takeoff power or
thrust available to 95 percent rated take
off power or thrust in not over 5 seconds.
The 5-second power or thrust response
imust occur from a stabilized Static Con
dition using only the bleed air and ac
cessories loads necessary to run the en
gine. This takeoff rating is specified by
the applicant and need not include thrust
augmentation.
[Amdt. 33–1, 36 F.R. 5493, Mar. 24, 1971)
§ 33.75 Safety analysis.
It must be shown by analysis that any
probable malfunction or any probable
single or multiple failure, or any prob
able improper operation of the engine
will not cause the engine to
(a) Catch fire;
(b) Burst, (penetrate its case);
(c) Generate loads greater than those
Specified in § 33.23; or
(d) Lose the capability of being shut
down.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35467, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.77 Foreign object ingestion.
(a) Ingestion of a 4-pound bird, a
piece of tire tread, or a broken rotor
blade, under the conditions set forth in
paragraph (f) of this section, may not
cause the engine to
(1) Catch fire;
(2) Burst (penetrate its case);
(3) Generate loads greater than those
Specified in § 33.23; or
(4) Lose the capability of being shut
down.
(b) Ingestion of 3-ounce birds, 1%-
pound birds, or mixed gravel and sand,
under the conditions set forth in para
graph (f) of this section, may not cause
more than a sustained 25 percent power
or thrust loss or require the engine to be
shut down.
(c) Ingestion of water, ice, or hail,
under the conditions set forth in para
graph (f) of this section may not cause
a sustained power or thrust loss or re
quire the engine to be shut down.
(d) For an engine that incorporates
a protective device, compliance with this
Section need not be demonstrated with
respect to foreign objects sought to be
§ 33.77 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
ingested under the conditions set forth
in paragraph (f) of this section, if it is
shown that—
(1) Such foreign objects are of a size
that will not pass through the protective
device;
(2) The protective device will with
stand the impact of the foreign objects;
and
(3) The foreign object or objects
stopped by the protective device will not
obstruct the flow of induction air into
the engine.
(e) In showing compliance with
paragraphs (a) and (b) of this section,
the engine need be tested by ingesting
only that foreign object specified in
paragraph (a) of this section which the
applicant shows has the most severe
effect on the engine and by ingesting the
mixed gravel and sand specified in para
graph (b) of this section and either the
3-ounce birds or the 1%-pound birds, as
specified in paragraph (f) of this section.
(f) The prescribed foreign object in
gestion conditions are as follows:

Foreign object Test quantity Speed of foreign object Engine operation Ingestion

Birds: .
3-07 size----------- One for each 50 in 2 of Liſtoff speed of typical Takeoff----------- In rapid sequence to
inlet area or fraction aircraft. simulate a flock
thereof up to a maxi encounter.
mum of 16 birds. 3
oz bird ingestion not
required iſ a 1%-lb
bird will pass the in
let guide vanes into
the rotor blades.
1%-lb size--------- One for the first 300 in? Initial climb speed of -----do------------ Do.
of inlet area, if it can typical aircraft.
enter the inlet, plus
One for each addi
tional 600 in? of inlet
area or fraction
thereof up to maxi
mum of 8 birds.
4-lb size----------- One if it can enter the Maximum climb Maximum cruise. - Aimed at critical area.
inlet. speed.
Ice-------------------- Maximum accumula Sucked in -----------------do------------ To simulate an inter
tion on inlet cowl mittent maximum
and engine face re icing encounter at
Sulting from a 30 25° F.
Second delay in ac
tuating anti-icing
System.
Hail (0.8 to 0.9 specific For subsonic and Rough air flight Maximum cruise In a volley to simu
gravity). SuperSonic engines: speed of typical at 15,000 ſt late a hailstone
With inlet areas of aircraft. altitude. encounter. One half
not more than 100 the number of hail
in2: one 1-in hail- Stones aimed at
stone. With inlet random areas over
area of more than the face of the inlet
100 in 2: one 1-in area and the other
and one 2-in. hail- half aimed at the
stones for each 150 critical face area.
in? of inlet area of
fraction thereof.
For supersonic Supersonic cruise Maximum cruise -- Aimed for critical
engines (in addi- velocity. Alter- engine face area.
tion): 3 hailstones natively use sub
each having a Sonic velocities
diameter equal to with larger hail
that in a straight stones to give
line variation from equivalent kinetic
1 in at 35,000 ft to eilergy.
34 in at 60,000 ft
using diameter
corresponding to
the lowest super
Sonic cruise altitude
expected.
Water------------------ 4 percent of engine Sucked in------------- Takeoff and For 3 minutes at each
airflow by weight. flight idle. engine operation
condition as spray
to simulate ruin.

434
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration § 33.83

Foreign object Test quantity Speed of foreign object Engine operation Ingestion

Mixed gravel and sand 1 oz for each 100 in? -----do---- ------------- Takeoff----------- Over a 15-minute
(one part Stolles of inlet area or period.
with diameter not fraction thereof.
less than 346–nor
rimore than 34 in and
7 parts sand.)
Broken rotor blade: 1-------------------------------- ------------------- do------------- Release from rotor
(The heaviest com followed by 15
pressor or turbine second delay prior
blade, broken at the to initiating
outermost retention shutdown.
groove or member
or at least SO percent
of an integral
blade.)
tread (having -----do---------------------do--- ------------------ do------------------------------------
width and length
equal to full width of
tread).

1 Blade containment must be demonstrated with a complete engine to evaluate secondary effects of blade loss and
to determine blade fragment trajectories, except that in fan engines, the fan assembly may be tested separately for
blade containment iſ it is demonstrated that fan Wlade or vane debris would not enter the compressor after a fan blade
failure.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35467, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.79 Fuel burning thrust augmentor.
Each fuel burning thrust augmentor,
including the nozzle, must—
(a) Provide cutoff of the fuel burning
thrust augmentor;
(b) Permit on-off cycling:
(c) Be controllable within
tended range of operation;
(d) Upon a failure or malfunction of
augmentor combustion, not cause the
engine to lose thrust other than that
provided by the augmentor; and
(e) Have controls that function Com
patibly with the other engine controls
and automatically shut off augmentor
fuel flow if the engine rotor speed drops
below the minimum rotational Speed at
which the augmentor is intended to
function.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35468, Oct. 1, 1974]
Subpart F-Block Tests; Turbine
Aircraft Engines
§ 33.81 Applicability.
This subpart prescribes the block tests
and inspections for turbine engines.
[Docket No. 3025, 29 FR 7453, June 10, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35468,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.82 General.
Before each endurance test required
by this subpart, the adjustment setting
and functioning characteristic of each
component having an adjustment setting
and a functioning characteristic that can
be established independent of installa
tion on the engine must be established
and recorded.
[Amdt. No. 36–6, 39 FR 35468, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.83 Vibration test.
the in (a) Each engine must undergo a vibra
tion survey to establish the vibration
characteristics of the rotors, rotor shafts,
and rotor and stator blades at the maxi
mum inlet air distortion limit, over the
range of rotor shaft speeds and engine
power or thrust, under steady state and
transient conditions, from idling speed
to 103 percent of the maximum desired
takeoff speed rating. The Survey must be
conducted using, for turbopropeller en
gines, the same configuration of the pro
peller type which is used for the endur
ance test, and using, for other engines,
the same configuration of the loading
device type which is used for the
endurance test.
(b) The Vibration stresses of the
rotors, rotor shafts, and rotor and stator
bladed may not exceed the endurance
limit stress of the material from which
these parts are made. If the maximum
stress in the shaft cannot be shown to
be below the endurance limit by measure
ment, the vibration frequency and am
plitude must be measured. The peak
amplitude must be shown to produce a
stress below the endurance limit; if not,
the engine must be run at the condition
producing the peak amplitude until, for

º)
§ 33.85 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
steel parts, 10 million stress reversals
have been sustained without fatigue
failure and, for other parts, until it is
shown that fatigue failure will not occur
within the endurance limit stress of the
material.
(c) Each accessory drive and mount
ing attachment must be loaded, with the
load imposed by each accessory used
only for an aircraft service being the
limit load specified by the applicant for
the engine drive or attachment point.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35468, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.85 Calibration tests.
(a) Each engine must be subjected to
those calibration tests necessary to es
tablish its power characteristics and the
conditions for the endurance test speci
fled $ 33.87. The results of the power
characteristics calibration tests form the
basis for establishing the characteristics
of the engine over its entire operating
range of Speeds pressures, temperatures,
and altitudes. Power ratings are based
upon standard atmospheric conditions
with no airbleed for aircraft services and
with only those accessories installed
which are essential for engine func
tioning.
(b) A power check at sea level con
ditions must be accomplished on the en
durance test engine after the endurance
test and any change in power character
istics which occurs during the endurance
test must be determined. Measurements
taken during the final portion of the
endurance test may be used in showing
compliance with the requirements of this
paragraph.
[Docket No. 3025, 29 FR 7453, June 10, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35468,
Oct. 1, 1974]
$ 33.87 Endurance test.
(a) General. Each engine must be sub
jected to an endurance test that in
cludes a total of 150 hours of operation
and, depending upon the type and con
templated use of the engine, consists of
one of the series of runs specified in
paragraphs (b) through (e) of this sec
tion, as applicable. The following test
requirements apply:
(1) The runs must be made in the or
der found appropriate by the Adminis
trator for the particular engine being
tested.
4:36
(2) Any automatic engine control that
is part of the engine must control the
engine during the endurance test except
for operations where automatic control
is normally overridden by manual control
or where manual control is otherwise
specified for a particular test run.
(3) Power or thrust, gas temperature,
rotor shaft rotational Speed, and, if
limited, temperature of external surfaces
of the engine must be at least 100 percent
of the value associated with the par
ticular engine operation being tested.
More than one test may be run if all
parameters cannot be held at the 100
percent level simultaneously.
(4) The runs must be made using fuel,
lubricants and hydraulic fluid which
conform to the specifications specified
in complying with $ 33.7 (c).
(5) Maximum air bleed for engine and
aircraft services must be used during
at least one-fifth of the runs.
(6) Each accessory drive and mount
ing attachment must be loaded. The
load imposed by each accessory used only
for an aircraft service must be the limit
load specified by the applicant for the
engine drive or attachment point during
rated maximum continuous power or
thrust and higher output.
(7) During the runs at any rated
power or thrust the gas temperature and
the oil inlet temperature must be main
tained at the limiting temperature ex
cept where the test periods are not longer
than 5 minutes and do not allow stabili
zation. At least One run must be made
with fuel, oil, and hydraulic fluid at the
minimum pressure limit and at least one
run must be made with fuel, oil, and
hydraulic fluid at the maximum pres
Sure limit with fluid temperature re
duced as necessary to allow maximum
pressure to be attained.
(8) If the number of Occurrences of
either transient rotor shaft overspeed or
transient gas overtemperature is limited,
that number of the accelerations re
quired by paragraphs (b), (c), (d), and
(e) of this section must be made at the
limiting overspeed or overtemperature.
If the number of occurrences is not
limited, half the required accelerations
must be made at the limiting overspeed
or overtemperature.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(9) For each engine type certificated
for use on SuperSonic aircraft the follow
ing additional test requirements apply:
(i) To change the thrust setting, the
power control lever must be moved from
the initial position to the final position
in not more than one second except for
movements into the fuel burning thrust
augmentor augmentation position if ad
ditional time to confirm ignition
necessary.
(ii) During the runs at any rated aug
:
mented thrust the hydraulic fluid tem
perature must be maintained at the
limiting temperature except where the
test periods are not long enough to allow
stabilization.
i (iii) During the simulated supersonic
ºE. runs the fuel temperature and induction
air temperature may not be less than the
limiting temperature.
(iv) The endurance test must be con
ducted with the fuel burning thrust aug
mentor installed, with the primary and
secondary exhaust nozzles installed, and
with the variable area exhaust nozzles
º: operated during each run according to
the methods specified in complying with
§ 33.5(b).
(v) During the runs at thrust settings
for maximum continuous thrust and per
centages thereof, the engine must be
Operated with the inlet air distortion at
the limit for those thrust settings.
(b) Engines other than certain heli
copter engines. For each engine, except
a helicopter engine for which a rating is
desired under paragraph (c) or (d) of
: this section, the applicant must conduct
the following runs:
(1) Takeoff and idling. One hour of
alternate five-minute periods at rated
takeoff power and thrust and at idling
power and thrust. The developed powers
and thrusts at takeoff and idling condi
tions and their corresponding rotor Speed
and gas temperature conditions must be
as established by the power control in ac
cordance with the schedule established
by the manufacturer. The applicant
may, during any one period, manually
control the rotor speed, power, and
thrust while taking data to check per
formance. For engines with augmented
takeoff power ratings that involve in
º creases in turbine inlet temperature,
rotor speed, or shaft power, this period of
§ 33.87
running at takeoff must be at the aug
mented rating. For engines with aug
mented takeoff power ratings that do not
materially increase operating severity,
the amount of running conducted at the
augmented rating is determined by the
Administrator. In changing the power
Setting after each period, the power-con
trol lever must be moved in the manner
is prescribed in subparagraph (5) of this
paragraph.
(2) Rated marimum continuous and
takeoff power and thrust. Fifteen periods
each of 30 minutes duration at rated
maximum continuous power and thrust
and 10 periods each of 30 minutes dura
tion at rated takeoff power and thrust.
(3) Rated marimum continuous power
and thrust. One hour and 30 minutes at
rated maximum continuous power and
thrust.
(4) Incremental cruise power and
thrust. Two hours and 30 minutes at
the successive power lever positions cor
responding to at least 15 approximately
equal speed and time increments between
maximum continuous engine rotational
speed and ground or minimum idle ro
tational Speed. For engines operating at
constant speed, the thrust and power
may be varied in place of speed. If
there is significant peak vibration any
where between ground idle and maxi
mum continuous conditions, the number
of increments chosen may be changed
to increase the amount of running made
while subject to the peak vibrations up to
not more than 50 percent of the total
time Spent in incremental running.
(5) Acceleration and deceleration
runs. 30 minutes of accelerations and de
celerations, consisting of six cycles from
idling power and thrust to rated takeoff
power and thrust and maintained at the
takeoff power lever position for 30 Sec
onds and at the idling power lever posi
tion for approximately four and one-half
minutes. In complying with this sub
paragraph, the power-control lever must
be moved from one extreme position to
the other in not more than one second,
except that, if different regimes of con
trol operations are incorporated necessi
tating scheduling of the power-control
lever motion in going from one extreme
position to the other, a longer period of
time is acceptable, but not more than two
Seconds.
437
§ 33.87 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(6) Starts. One hundred Starts must
be made, of which 25 starts must be
preceded by at least a two-hour engine
shutdown. There must be at least 10
false engine starts, pausing for the ap
plicant's specified minimum fuel drain
age time, before attempting a normal
start. There must be at least 10 normal
restarts with not longer than 15 min
utes Since engine shutdown. The re
maining starts may be made after com
pleting the 150 hours of endurance
testing.
(c) Helicopter engines for which a 30
minute power rating is desired. For
each helicopter engine for which a 30
minute power rating is desired the ap
plicant must conduct the following series
Of test.S:
(1) Takeoff and idling. One hour of
alternate five-minute periods at rated
takeoff power and thrust and at idling
power and thrust. The developed powers
and thrusts at takeoff and idling condi
tions and their corresponding rotor Speed
and gas temperature conditions must be
as established by the power control in ac
cordance with the Schedule established
by the manufacturer. During any one
period the rotor speed, power, and thrust
may be controlled manually while tak
ing data to check performance. For en
gines with augmented takeoff power rat
ings that involve increases in turbine
inlet temperature, rotor speed, or shaft
power, this period of running at rated
takeoff power must be at the augmented
power rating. In changing the power set
ting after each period, the power-control
lever must be moved in the manner pre
scribed in subparagraph (5) of this
paragraph.
(2) Rated 30-minute power. 30 min
utes at rated 30-minute power and
thrust.
(3) Rated marimurn continuous power
and thrust. Two hours at rated maximum
continuous power and thrust.
(4) Incremental cruise power and
thrust. Two hours at the successive
power-lever positions corresponding with
not less than 12 approximately equal
speed and time increments between max
imum continuous engine rotational Speed
and ground or minimum idle rotational
Speed. For engines operating at con
stant speed, the thrust and power may
438
be varied in place of Speed. If there are
Significant peak vibrations anywhere be
tween ground idle and maximum con
tinuous conditions, the number of incre
ments chosen must be changed to
increase the amount of running con
ducted while being subjected to the peak
vibrations up to not more than 50 per
cent of the total time spent in incre
mental running.
(5) Acceleration and deceleration
rums. 30 minutes of accelerations and de
Celerations, consisting of six cycles from
ldling power and thrust to rated takeoff
power and thrust and maintained at the
takeoff power lever position for 30 sec
onds and at the idling power lever posi
tion for approximately 4% minutes. In
complying with this subparagraph, the
power-control lever must be moved from
One extreme position to the other in not
more than One Second, except that, if
different regimes of control operations
are incorporated necessitating schedul
ing of the power-control lever motion
in going from one extreme position to the
other, a longer period of time is accept
able, but not more than two seconds.
(6) Starts. One hundred starts, of
which 25 starts must be preceded by at
least a two-hour engine shutdown.
There must be at least 10 false engine
starts, pausing for the applicant’s speci
fied minimum fuel drainage time, before
attempting a normal start. There must
be at least 10 normal restarts with not
longer than 15 minutes since engine
shutdown. The remaining starts may be
made after completing the 150 hours of
endurance testing.
(d) Helicopter engines for which a 2%
Tminute power rating is desired. For
each helicopter engine for which a 2%
minute power rating is desired the appli
cant must conduct the following series of
testS:
(1) One hour of alternate five
minute periods at rated takeoff power
and thrust and at idling power and
thrust except that, during the third and
sixth takeoff power periods, only 2%
minutes need be conducted at rated take
off power and the remaining 2% minutes
must be conducted at rated 2% minute
power. The developed powers and thrusts
at takeoff, 2% minute, and idling condi
tions and their corresponding rotor speed
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
and gas temperature conditions must be
as established by the power control in
accordance with the schedule established
by the manufacturer. The applicant may,
during any one period, control manually
the rotor speed, power, and thrust while
taking data to check performance. For
engines with augmented takeoff power
ratings that involve increases in turbine
inlet temperature, rotor Speed, or shaft
power, this period of running at rated
takeoff power must be at the augmented
rating. In changing the power setting
after or during each period, the power
control lever must be moved in the man
ner prescribed in subparagraph (5) of
paragraph (c) of this section.
(2) The tests required in subpara
graphs (2) through (6) of paragraph (c)
of this Section.
(e) Supersonic aircraft engines. For
each engine type certificated for use on
Supersonic aircraft the applicant must
conduct the following:
(1) Subsonic test under sea level am
bient atmospheric conditions. Thirty
runs of one hour each must be made,
consisting of—
(i) Two periods of 5 minutes at rated
takeoff augmented thrust each followed
by 5 minutes at idle thrust;
(ii) One period of 5 minutes at rated
takeoff thrust followed by 5 minutes at
not more than 15 percent of rated takeoff
thrust;
(iii) One period of 10 minutes at rated
takeoff augmented thrust followed by 2
minutes at idle thrust, except that if
rated maximum continuous augmented
thrust is lower than rated takeoff aug
mented thrust, 5 of the 10-minute periods
must be at rated maximum continuous
augmented thrust; and
(iv) Six periods of 1 minute at rated
takeoff augmented thrust each followed
by 2 minutes, including acceleration and
deceleration time, at idle thrust.
(2) Simulated supersonic test. Each
run of the simulated supersonic test must
be preceded by changing the inlet air
temperature and pressure from that at
tained at SubSonic condition to the tem
perature and pressure attained at super
sonic velocity, and must be followed by
a return to the temperature attained at
Subsonic condition. Thirty runs of 4
hours each must be made, consisting of
439
§ 33.87
(i) One period of 30 minutes at the
thrust obtained with the power control
lever set at the position for rated maxi
mum continuous augmented thrust fol
lowed by 10 minutes at the thrust ob
tained with the power control lever set
at the position for 90 percent of rated
maximum continuous augmented thrust.
The end of this period in the first five
runs must be made with the induction
air temperature at the limiting condi
tion of transient overtemperature, but
need not be repeated during the pe
riods specified in paragraphs (e) (2) (ii)
through (iv) of this section;
(ii) One period repeating the run
Specified in subdivision (i) of this sub
paragraph, except that it must be fol
lowed by 10 minutes at the thrust ob
tained with the power control lever set at
the position for 80 percent of rated maxi
mum continuous augmented thrust;
(iii) One period repeating the run
Specified in Subdivision (i) of this sub
paragraph, except that it must be fol
lowed by 10 minutes at the thrust ob
tained with the power control lever set
at the position for 60 percent of rated
maximum continuous augmented thrust
and then 10 minutes at not more than
15 percent of rated takeoff thrust;
(iv) One period repeating the runs
Specified in paragraphs (e) (2) (i) and
(ii) of this section; and
(V) One period of 30 minutes with 25
of the runs made at the thrust obtained
with the power control lever set at the
position for rated maximum continuous
augmented thrust, each followed by idle
thrust and with the remaining 5 runs at
the thrust obtained with the power con
trol lever set at the position for rated
maximum continuous augmented thrust
for 25 minutes each, followed by subsonic
Operation at not more than 15 percent
or rated takeoff thrust and accelerated to
rated takeoff thrust for 5 minutes using
hot fuel.
(3) Starts. One hundred starts must
be made, of which 25 starts must be pre
Ceded by an engine shutdown of at least
2 hours. There must be at least 10 false
engine starts, pausing for the applicant's
Specified minimum fuel drainage time
before attempting a normal start. At
least 10 starts must be normal restarts,
each made no later than 15 minutes after
§ 33.88 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
engine shutdown. The starts may be
made at any time, including the period
of endurance testing.
[Doc. No. 3025, 29 F.R. 7453, June 10, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 33–3, 32 F.R. 3737, Mar. 4,
1967; Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35468, Oct. 1,
1974]
§ 33.88 Rotor tests.
Each engine must be run for 30 min
utes at maximum rated r.p.m. and with
the gas temperature 75 degrees F. higher
than the maximum operating limit. Fol
lowing the run each rotor must remail.
within the dimensional limits allowed by
the type design and may not be cracked.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35469, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.89 Operation test.
(a) The operation test must include
testing found necessary by the Admin
istrator to demonstrate—
(1) Starting, idling, acceleration, Over
speeding, ignition, functioning of the
propeller (if the engine is designated to
operate with a propeller) ;
(2) Compliance with the engine re
sponse requirements of § 33.73; and
(3) The minimum power or thrust re
Sponse time to 95 percent rated takeoff
power or thrust, from power lever posi
tions representative of minimum idle and
of minimum flight idle, starting from
stabilized idle Operation, under the ſol
lowing engine load conditions:
(i) No bleed air and power extraction
for aircraft use.
(ii) Maximum allowable bleed air and
power extraction for aircraft use.
(iii) An intermediate value for bleed
air and power extraction representative
of that which might be used as a maxi
mum for aircraft during approach to a
landing.
(4) If testing facilities are not avail
able, the determination of power extrac
tion required in paragraph (a) (3) (ii)
and (iii) of paragraph (3) of this section
may be accomplished through appro
priate analytical means.
(b) The operation test must include all
testing found necessary by the Adminis
trator to demonstrate the effect of maxi
mum and minimum operating annbient
temperature and maximum Operating al
titude on the engine. The operation test
must include Several power changes and
440
the operation of the fuel burning thrust
augmentor through several complete cy
cles from ignition to shutoff.
[Amdt. No. 33–4, 36 FR 5493, Mar. 24, 1971,
as amended by Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35469,
Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.90 Overhaul test.
Each engine, except engines being type
certificated through amendment of an
existing type certificate or through sup
plemental type certification procedures,
must undergo a test run simulating the
conditions in which the engine is expect
ed to operate in Service, including start
stop cycles typical of expected service
for the period of time established as the
limitation on operation prior to the first
Overhaul under § 33.7. The test run must
be accomplished on an engine which sub
stantially conforms to the final type
design.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35469, Oct. 1, 1974)
§ 33.91 Engine component tests.
(a) For those systems that cannot be
adequately substantiated by endurance
testing in accordance with the provisions
of § 33.87, additional tests must be made
to establish that components are able
to function reliably in all normally an
ticipated flight and atmospheric condi
tions.
(b) Temperature limits must be estab
lished for those components that re
quire temperature controlling provisions
in the aircraft installation to assure sat
isfactory functioning, reliability, and
durability.
(c) Each unpressurized hydraulic fluid
tank may not fail or leak when subjected
to maximum operating temperature and
an internal pressure of 5 p.s.i., and each
pressurized hydraulic fluid tank may not
fail or leak when subjected to maximum
operating temperature and an internal
pressure not less than 5 p.s.i. plus the
maximum operating pressure of the tank.
(d) For an engine type certificated for
use in supersonic aircraft, the systems,
safety devices, and external components
that may fail because of operation at
maximum and minimum operating tem
peratures must be identified and tested at
maximum and minimum operating tem
peratures and while temperature and
other operating conditions are cycled
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
between maximum and minimum operat
ing Values.
[Docket No. 3025, 29 FR 7453, June 10, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35469,
Oct. 1, 1974]
$33.92 Windmilling tests.
(a) Unless means are incorporated in
the engine to stop rotation of the engine
rotors when the engine is shut down in
flight, each engine rotor must either seize
or be capable of rotation for 3 hours at
the limiting windmilling rotational r.p.m.
with no oil in the engine system, without
the engine—
(1) Catching fire;
(2) Bursting (penetrating the case); or
(3) Generating loads greater than
those specified in § 33.23.
(b) A turbojet or turbofan engine in
corporating means to stop rotation of the
engine rotors when the engine is shut
down in flight must be subjected to 25
operations under the following con
ditions:
(1) Each engine must be shut down
while operating at rated maximum con
tinuous thrust.
(2) For engines certificated for use on
supersonic aircraft, the temperature of
the induction air and the external Sur
faces of the engine must be held at the
maximum limit during the tests required
by this paragraph.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35470, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.93 Teardown inspection.
After completing the endurance test
each engine must be completely disas
sembled, and—
(a) Each component having an adjust
ment setting and a functioning char
acteristic that can be established inde
pendent of installation on the engine
must retain each setting and functioning
characteristic within the limits that
were established and recorded at the be
ginning of the test; and
(b) Each engine component must con
form to the type design and be eligible
for incorporation into an engine for con
tinued operation, in accordance with in
formation submitted in compliance with
§ 33.5.
[Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35470, Oct. 1, 1974]
§ 33.95 Engine-propeller systems tests.
If the engine is designed to operate
with a propeller, the following tests
89–059–75–29
441
§ 33.97
must be made with a representative
propeller installed by either including
the tests in the endurance run or other
wise performing them in a manner ac
ceptable to the Administrator:
(a) Feathering operation: 25 cycles.
(b) Negative torque and thrust system
operation: 25 cycles from rated maxi
Inum continuous power.
(c) Automatic decoupler operation: 25
cycles from rated maximum continuous
power (1ſ repeated decoupling and re
coupling in service is the intended func
tion of the device).
(d) Reverse thrust operation: 175
cycles from the flight-idle position to full
reverse and 25 cycles at rated maximum
continuous power from full forward to
full reverse thrust. At the end of each
cycle the propeller must be operated in
reverse pitch for a period of 30 seconds at
the maximum rotational speed and power
Specified by the applicant for reverse
pitch operation.
(Doc. No. 3025, 29 F.R. 7453, June 10, 1964, as
Amended by Amdt. 33–3, 32 FIR. 3737, Mar. 4,
1967] .
§ 33.97 Thrust reversers.
(a) If the engine incorporates a re
Verser, the endurance calibration, opera
tion, and vibration tests prescribed in
this subpart must be run with the re
verser installed. In complying with this
Section, the power control lever must
be moved from one extreme position to
the other in not more than one second
except, if regimes of control operations
are incorporated necessitating schedul
ing of the power-control lever motion in
going from one extreme position to the
other, a longer period of time is accept
able but not more than three seconds.
In addition, the test prescribed in para
graph (b) of this section must be made.
This test may be scheduled as part of
the endurance run.
(b) 175 reversals must be made from
flight-idle forward thrust to maximum
reverse thrust and 25 reversals must be
made from rated takeoff thrust to maxi
mum reverse thrust. After each reversal
the reverser must be operated at full re
verse thrust for a period of one minute.
except that, in the case of a reverser in
tended for use only as a braking means
on the ground, the reverser need only be
§ 33.99 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
Sec.
operated at full reverse thrust for 30 35.41 Functional test.
seconds.
35.43 Special tests.
[Doc. No. 3025, 29 F.R. 7453, June 10, 1964, as 35.45 Teardown inspection.
amended by Amdt. 33–3, 32 F.R. 3737, Mar. 4, 85.47 Propeller adjustments and parts re
1967] placements.
§ 33.99 General conduct of block tests. AUTHoRITY: The provisions of this Part 35
(a) Each applicant may, in making a issued under secs. 313, 601, 603, 72 Stat. 752,
775; 49 U.S.C. 1354, 1421, 1423.
block test, use separate engines of iden
tical design and construction in the Wi Source: The provisions of this Part 35
bration, calibration, endurance, and Op contained in Docket No. 2095, 29 F.R. 7458,
eration tests, except that, if a separate June 10, 1964, unless otherise noted.
engine is used for the endurance test
it must be subjected to a calibration Subpart A–General
check before starting the endurance § 35.1 Applicability.
test.
This part prescribes airworthiness re
(b) Each applicant may service and quirements for issuing type certificates,
make minor repairs to the engine during supplemental type certificates, and
the block tests in accordance with the
changes to those certificates, for propel
service and maintenance instructions lers.
submitted in compliance with $ 33.5. If
the frequency of the service is excessive, § 35.3 Instruction manual.
or the number of stops due to engine Each applicant must prepare and make
malfunction is excessive, or a major re available an approved manual or manuals
pair, or replacement of a part is found containing instructions for installing, op
necessary during the block tests or as the erating, servicing, and maintaining the
result of findings from the teardown in propeller.
spection, the engine or its parts must be
subjected to any additional tests the Ad § 35.5 Propeller operating limitations.
ministrator finds necessary. Propeller operating limitations estab
(c) Each applicant must furnish all lished by the Administrator are based on
testing facilities, including equipment the propeller operating conditions dem
and competent personnel, to conduct the OnStrated during the tests required by
block tests. this part.
[Docket No. 3025, 29 FR 7453, June 10, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 33–6, 39 FR 35470, Subpart B–Design and Construction
Oct. 1, 1974] § 35.11 Applicability.
PART 35–AIRWORTHINESS This subpart prescribes the design and
STANDARDS, PROPELLERS Construction requirements for propellers.
Sec. Subpart A-General § 35.13 General.
35.1 Applicability.
Instruction manual.
Each applicant must show that the pro
35.3
35.5
peller concerned meets the design and
Propeller operating limitations.
construction requirements of this sub
Subpart B–Design and Construction part.
35.11 Applicability.
35.13 General. § 35.15 Design features.
35.15 Design features.
35.17 Materials. The propeller may not have design fea
35.19 Durability. tures that experience has shown to be
35.21 Reversible propellers. hazardous or unreliable. The suitability
35.23 Pitch control. of each questionable design detail or part
Subpart C–Tests and Inspections must be established by tests.
35.31 Applicability. § 35.17 Materials.
35.33 General.
35.35 Blade retention test. The suitability and durability of the
35.37 Vibration load limit test. materials used in the propeller must be
35.39 Endurance test. established on a basis of experience or

442
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
tests. Each material must conform to
approved specifications to ensure that it
has the strength and other properties
assumed in the design data.
§ 35.19. Durability.
Each part of the propeller must be
designed and constructed to minimize
the development of any unsafe condition
of the propeller between overhaul periods.
§ 35.21 Reversible propellers.
A reversible propeller must be adapt
able for use with a reversing System in an
airplane so that no single failure or mal
function in that System during normal
or emergency operation will result in
unwanted travel of the propeller blades
to a position substantially below the
normal flight low-pitch stop. Failure
of structural elements need not be con
sidered if the occurrence of Such a failure
is expected to be extremely remote. For
the purposes of this section the term “re
versing system” means that part of the
complete reversing system that is in the
propeller itself and those other parts
that are supplied by the applicant for in
stallation in the aircraft.
§ 35.23 Pitch control.
(a) No loss of normal propeller pitch
control may cause hazardous overspeed
ing of the propeller under intended op
erating conditions.
(b) Each pitch control System that is
within the propeller, or supplied with the
propeller, and that uses engine oil for
feathering, must incorporate means to
override or bypass the normally opera
tive hydraulic System components so as
to allow feathering if those components
fail or malfunction.
[Amdt. 35–2, 32 F.R. 3737, Mar. 4, 1967]
Subpart C–Tests and Inspections
§ 35.31 Applicability.
This subpart prescribes the tests and
inspections for propellers and their es
sential accessories.
§ 35.33 General.
(a) Each applicant must show that
the propeller concerned and its essential
accessories Complete the tests and in
spections of this subpart without evi
dence of failure or malfunction.
44
§ 35.39
(b) Each applicant must furnish test
ing facilities, including equipment, and
competent personnel, to conduct the re
quired tests.
§ 35.35 Blade retention test.
The hub and blade retention arrange
ment of propellers with detachable
blades must be subjected to a centrifugal
load of twice the centrifugal force to
which the propeller is to be subjected
in normal operation. This may be done
by either a whirl test or a static pull test.
[Doc. No. 2095, 29 F.R. 7458, June 10, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 35–2, 32 F.R. 3737, Mar. 4,
1967]
§ 35.37 Vibration load limit test.
The vibration load limits of each metal
hub and metal blade, and of each pri
mary load-carrying metal component of
nonmetallic blades, must be determined
for all reasonably foreseeable vibration
load patterns.
[Amdt. 35–2, 32 F.R. 3737, Mar. 4, 1967]
§ 35.39 Endurance test.
(a) Fired-pitch wood propellers.
Fixed-pitch Wood propellers must be sub
jected to one of the following tests:
(1) A 10-hour endurance block test
on an engine with a propeller of the
greatest pitch and diameter for which
Certification is sought at the rated ro
tational Speed.
(2) A 50-hour flight test in level flight
or in climb. At least five hours of this
flight test must be with the propeller
operated at the rated rotational speed,
and the remainder of the 50 hours must
be with the propeller operated at not
less than 90 percent of the rated rota
tional Speed. This test must be conducted
On a propeller of the greatest diameter
for which certification is requested.
(3) A 50-hour endurance block test on
an engine at the power and propeller ro
tational speed for which certification is
Sought. This test must be conducted on
a propeller of the greatest diameter for
which certification is requested.
(b) Fiaced-pitch metal propellers and
ground adjustable-pitch propellers.
Each fixed-pitch metal propeller or
ground adjustable-pitch propeller must
be subjected to the test prescribed in
either paragraph (a)(2) or (a) (3) of
this Section.
§ 35.41 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(c) Variable-pitch propellers. Compli
ance with this paragraph must be shown
for a propeller of the greatest diameter
for which certification is requested. Each
variable-pitch propeller (a propeller the
pitch setting of which can be changed
by the flight crew or by automatic means
while the propeller is rotating) must be
subjected to one of the following tests:
(1) A 100-hour test on an engine with
the same power and rotational speed
characteristics as the engine or engines
with which the propeller is to be used.
Each test must be made at the maximum
continuous rotational speed and power
rating of the propeller. If a takeoff rat
ing greater than the maximum continu
ous rating is to be established, and addi
tional 10-hour block test must be made
at the maximum power alld rotational
speed for the takeoff rating.
(2) Operation of the propeller through
out the engine endurance tests prescribed
in Part 33 of this subchapter.
[Doc. No. 2095, 29 FIR. 7458, June 10, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 35–2, 32 FR 3737, Mar. 4,
1967]
§ 35.41 Functional test.
(a) Fach variable-pitch propeller
must be subjected to the applicable
functional tests of this section. The
same propeller used in the endurance
test must be used in the functional tests
and must be driven by an engine on a
test stand or on an aircraft.
(b) Manually controllable propellers.
500 complete cycles of control must be
made throughout the pitch and rota
tional Speed ranges.
(c) Automatically controllable pro
pellers. 1,500 complete cycles of control
must be made throughout the pitch and
rotational Speed ranges.
(d) Feathering propellers. 50 cycles
of feathering operation must be made.
(e) Repersible-pitch propellers. 200
complete cycles of control must be made
from the lowest normal pitch to the
maximum reverse pitch.
§ 35.43 Special tests.
The Administrator may require any
additional tests he finds necessary to sub
stantiate the use of any unconventional
features of design, material, or construc
tion,
§ 35.45 Teardown inspection.
(a) After completing the tests pre
scribed in this subpart, the propeller
must be completely disassembled and a
444
detailed inspection must be made of the
propeller parts for fatigue, wear, and
distortion.
(b) After the inspection the applicant
must make any changes to the design or
any additional tests that the Adminis
trator finds necessary to establish the air
worthiness of the propeller.
§ 35.47 Propeller adjustments and parts
replacements.
The applicant may service and make
minor repairs to the propeller during the
tests. If major repairs or replacement
of parts are found necessary during the
tests or in the teardown inspection, the
parts in question must be subjected to
any additional tests the Administrator
finds necessary.
PART 36–NOISE STANDARDS: AIRCRAFT
TYPE AND AIRWORTHINESS CERT
FICATION 1
Subpart A–General
Sec.
36.1 General.
36.2 Special retroactive requirements.
36.3 Compatibility with airworthiness
requirements.
36.5 Limitation of part.
Subpart B–Noise Measurement and Evaluation
36.101 NOlse measurement.
36.103 Noise evaluation.
Subpart C–Noise limits
36.201 Noise limits.
Subport D [Reserved]
Subpart E [Reserved]
Subport F. IReserved]
Subpart G–Operating Information and Airplans
Flight Manual
86.1501 Procedures and other information.
36.1581 Airplane Flight Manual.
Appendix A–Aircraft noise measurement
under § 36.101
Appendix *—º: Iloise evaluation under
.108
Appendix C–Noise levels for subsonic trans
port category and turbojet pow
ered airplanes under § 36.201
Appendix D–E [Reserved]
AUTHORITY: The provisions of this Part 36
issued under secs. 313 (a). 601, 603, and 611;
49 U.S.C. 1354, 1421, 1423, and 1431; sec. 6(c)
(49 U.S.C. 1655(c)).
SouhcE: The provisions of this Part 36 con
tained in Docket No. 9337, 34 F.R. 18364, Nov.
18, 1969, unless otherwise noted.
* Amdt. No. 36–2, 38 FR 29574, Oct. 26, 1973.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
Subpart A-General
§ 36.1 General.
(a) This part prescribes noise stand
ards for the issue of type certificates,
and changes to those certificates, and
for the issue of certain standard cate
gory airworthiness certificates, for Sub
Sonic transport category airplanes, and
for subsonic turbojet powered airplanes
regardless of category.
(b) Each person who applies under
Part 21 of this chapter for a type certifi
cate must show compliance with the ap
plicable requirements of this part, in ad
dition to the applicable airworthiness
requirements of this chapter.
(c) Each person who applies under
Part 21 of this chapter for approval of
an acoustical change described in § 21.93
(b) of this chapter must show that the
airplane meets the following require
ments in addition to the applicable air
Worthiness requirements of this chapter:
(1) The noise limits prescribed in Ap
endix C of this part, for airplanes that
can achieve those noise levels, or lower
noise levels, prior to the change in type
design.
(2) The noise levels created by the
airplane prior to the change in type de
sign, measured and evaluated as pre
scribed in Appendices A and B of this
part, for airplanes that cannot achieve
the noise limits prescribed in Appendix
C of this part prior to the change in type
design. For airplanes covered by this sub
paragraph for which application for
acoustical change approval is received by
the FAA after September 17, 1971, the
following must be complied with, in ad
dition to the applicable provisions of
Appendices A and B of this part, in deter
mining the takeoff and sideline noise
levels of the airplane:
(i) There may be no reduction in
power or thrust, below the highest air
worthiness approved power or thrust,
during the tests conducted before and
after the change in type design.
(ii) For the noise levels measured and
evaluated before and after the change in
type design, the test day speeds and the
acoustic day reference speed must be the
minimum approved value of Va.--10 knots,
or the all-engines-operating speed at 35
feet (for turbine engine powered air
planes) or 50 feet (for reciprocating en
gine powered airplanes), whichever
Speed is greater as determined under
445
§ 36.2
the regulations constituting the type cer
tification basis of the airplane. The tests
must be conducted at the test day speeds
+3 knots. Noise values measured at the
test day speeds must be corrected to the
acoustic day reference speed.
(iii) During the tests conducted before
the change in type design, the quietest
airworthiness approved configuration
available for the highest approved take
off weight must be used.
(d) Each person who applies for the
original issue of Standard Airworthiness
Certificates under § 21.183, must, regard
less of date of application, show compli
ance with this Part (including Appendix
C), as effective on December 1, 1969, for
airplanes that have not had any flight
time before—
(1) December 1, 1973, for airplanes
with maximum weights greater than
75,000 lbs., except for airplanes that are
powered by Pratt and Whitney Turbo
Wasp JT3D series engines;
(2) December 31, 1974, for airplanes
with maximum weights greater than
75,000 lbs. and that are powered by Pratt
and Whitney Turbo Wasp JT3D series
engines; and -
(3) December 31, 1974, for airplanes
with maximum weights of 75,000 lbs. and
less.
(Secs. 2(b)(2), Dept. of Transportation Act
(49 U.S.C. 1651 (b)(2), Title I of the National
Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 U.S.C.
4321 et seq.), E.O. 11514, Mar. 5, 1970)
[Docket No. 9337, 34 FR 18364, Nov. 16, 1969,
as amended by Amdt. No. 36–2, 38 FR 29574.
Oct. 26, 1973; Amdt. No. 36–3, 39 FR 43832,
Dec. 19, 1974]
EFFECTIVE DATE Note: The provisions of
§ 36.1 (c) (2) become effective January 20,
1975. For the convenience of the user, the
superseded text set forth below is effective
through January 19, 1975.
(2) The noise levels created by the air
plane prior to the change in type design,
measured and evaluated as prescribed in
Appendixes A and B of this part, for air
planes that cannot achieve the noise limits
prescribed in Appendix C of this part prior
to the change in type design.
$36.2 Special retroactive requirements.
(a) Notwithstanding § 21.17 of this
chapter, and irrespective of the date of
application, each applicant covered by
§ 36.201 (b) and (c) (1), and sec. C36.5 of
Appendix C to this part who applies for a
new type certificate, must show compli
ance with the applicable provisions of
this part,
§ 36.3 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(b) Notwithstanding $ 21.101(a) of
this chapter, each person who applies for
an acoustical change to a type design
specified in § 21.93(b) of this chapter
must show compliance with the appli
cable provisions of this part.
[Docket No. 9337,34 F.R. 18364, Nov. 18, 1969;
84 F.R. 19025, Nov. 29, 1969]
§ 36.3 Compatibility with airworthiness
requirements.
It must be shown that the airplane
meets the airworthiness regulations Con
stituting the type certification basis of
the airplane under all conditions in
which compliance with this part
shown, and that all procedures used in
complying with this part, and all pro
cedures and information for the flight
crew developed under this part, are con
sistent with the airworthiness regulations
constituting the type certification basis
of the airplane.
§ 36.5 Limitation of part.
Pursuant to 49 U.S.C. 1431(b) (4), the
noise levels in this part have been deter
mined to be as low as is economically
reasonable, technologically practicable,
and appropriate to the type of aircraft
to which they apply. No determination is
made, under this part, that these noise
levels are or should be acceptable or un
acceptable for operation at, into, or out
of, any airport.
Subpar? B–Noise Medsurement and
Evaluation
§ 36.101 Noise measurement.
The noise generated by the airplane
must be measured under Appendix A of
this part or under an approved equiva
lent procedure. - tion date is modified to show compliance
§ 36.103 Noise evaluation.
Noise measurement information ob
tained under § 36.101 must be evaluated
under Appendix B of this part or under
an approved equivalent procedure.
Subpart C–Noise Limits
§ 36.201 Noise limits.
(a) Compliance with this section must
be shown with noise levels measured and
evaluated as prescribed in Subpart B of
this part, and demonstrated at the meas
uring points prescribed in Appendix C
of this part.
(b) For airplanes that have turbojet
engines with bypass ratios of 2 or more
and for which— -
(1) Application was made before Jan
uary 1, 1967, it must be shown that the
noise levels of the airplane are no greater
than those prescribed in Appendix C of
this part, or are reduced to the lowest
levels that are economically reasonable,
technologically practicable, and appro
priate to the particular type design; and
(2) Application was or is made on or
after January 1, 1967, it must be shown
that the noise levels of the airplane are
no greater than those prescribed in Ap
is pendix C of this part.
(c) For airplanes that do not have
turbojet engines with bypass ratios of 2
Or more and for which—
(1) Application was made before De
cember 1, 1969, it must be shown that
the lowest noise levels, reasonably ob
tainable through the use of procedures
and information developed for the flight
crew under § 36.1501 are determined;
and
(2) Application was or is made on or
after December 1, 1969, it must be
Shown that the noise levels of the air
plane are no greater than those pre
Scribed in Appendix C of this part.
(d) For aircraft to which paragraph
(b) (1) of this section applies and that
do not meet Appendix C of this part, a
time period will be placed on the type
certificate. The type certificate will spee
ify that, upon the expiration of this time
period, the type certificate will be subject
to Suspension or modification under sec
tion 611 of the Federal Aviation Act of
1958 (49 U.S.C. 1431) unless the type
design of aircraft produced under that
type certificate on and after the expira
with Appendix C. With respect to any
possible suspensions or modifications un
der this paragraph, the certificate holder
Shall have the same notice and appeal
rights as are contained in section 609 of
the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 (49
U.S.C. 1429).
Subpart G–Cperating Information
and Airplane Flight Manual
§ 36.1501 Procedures and other infor
mation.
All procedures, any other informa
tion for the flight crew, that are em
ployed for obtaining the noise reductions
446
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
prescribed in this part must be developed.
This must include noise levels achieved
during type certification.
§ 36.1581 Airplane flight manual.
(a) The approved portion of the Air
plane Flight Manual must contain pro
cedures and other information approved
under § 36.1501. Except as provided in
: paragraph (b) of this Section, no operat
ing limitations may be furnished under
this section. The following statement
must be furnished near the listed noise
levels:
No determination has been made by the
Federal Aviation Administration that the
Inoise levels in this manual are or should
be acceptable or unacceptable for operation
at, into, or out of, any airport.
:
(b) If the weight used in meeting the
takeoff or landing noise requirements of
. this part is less than the maximum
weight or design landing weight, respec
tively, established under the applicable
airworthiness requirements, those lesser
;:~
weights must be furnished, as operating
limitations, in the operating limitations
Section of the Airplane Flight Manual.
APPENDIX A-AIRCRAFT NOISE MEASUREMENT
UNDER § 36.101
Section A36.1 Noise certification test and
measurement conditions—(a) General. This
section prescribes the conditions under
which noise type certification tests must be
conducted and the measurement procedures
that must be used to measure the noise
made by the aircraft for which the test is
conducted.
: (b) General test conditions. (1) Tests to
º
-
show compliance with established noise type
**
certification levels must consist of a series
*:
of takeoffs and landings during which meas
*
urements must be taken at the measuring
-
points defined in Appendix C of this part.
º The sideline noise measurements must also
be made at symmetrical locations on each
º side of the runway. On each test takeoff,
simultaneous measurements must be made
at the sideline measuring points on both
sides of the runway and also at the takeoff
flyover measuring point. If the height of the
ground at each measuring point differs from
that of the nearest point on the runway by
Inore than 20 feet, corrections must be made
as defined in 5 A36.3(d) of this appendix.
(2) Locations for measuring noise from
an aircraft in flight must be surrounded by
relatively flat terrain having no excessive
Sound absorption characteristics such as
might be caused by thick, matted, or tall
grass, shrubs, or wooded areas. No obstruc
tions which significantly influence the sound
44 ſ
App. A
field from the aircraft may exist within a
conical space above the measurement posi
tion, the cone being defined by an axis nor
mal to the ground and by a half-angle 75°
from this axis.
(3) The tests must be carried out under
the following weather conditions:
(i) No rain or other precipitation.
(ii) Relative humidity not higher than
90 percent or lower than 30 percent.
(iii) Ambient temperature not above
86° F. and not below 41° F. at 10 meters
above ground.
(iv) Airport reported wind not above 10
knots and crosswind component not above
5 knots at 10 meters above ground.
(v) No temperature inversion or anoma
lous wind conditions that would significantly
affect the noise level of the aircraft when
the noise is recorded at the measuring points
defined in Appendix C of this part.
(c) Aircraft testing procedures. (1) The
aircraft testing procedures and noise meas
urements must be conducted and processed
in an approved manner to yield the noise
evaluation measure designated as Effective
Perceived Noise Level, EPNL, in units of
EPNdB, as described in Appendix B of this
part.
(2) The aircraft height and lateral posi
tion relative to the extended centerline of
the runway must be determined by a method
independent of normal flight instrumenta
tion such as radar tracking, theodolite tri
angulation, or photographic scaling tech
niques to be approved by the FAA.
(3) The aircraft position along the flight
path must be related to the noise recorded
at the noise measurement locations by means
of synchronizing signals. The position of the
aircraft must be recorded relative to the
runway from a point at least 4 nautical
miles from threshold to touchdown during
the approach and at least 6 nautical miles
from the start of roll during the takeoff.
(4) The takeoff test may be conducted at
a weight different from the maximum take
off weight at which noise certification is re
quested if the necessary EPNL correction does
not exceed 2 EPNdB. The approach test
may be conducted at a weight different from
the maximum landing weight at which noise
certification is requested provided the neces
sary EPNL correction does not exceed 1
EPNdB. Approved data may be used to deter
mine the variation of EPNL with weight for
both takeoff and approach test conditions.
(5) The takeoff test must meet the con
ditions of $ C36.7 of Appendix C of this part.
(6) The approach test must be conducted
with the aircraft stabilized and following a
3* +0.5° approach angle and must meet the
conditions of $ C36.9.
(d) Measurements. (1) Position and per
formance data required to make the cor
rections referred to in 5 A36.3 (c) of this
appendix must be automatically recorded at
-
App. A Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
an approved sampling rate. Measuring equip
ment must be approved by the FAA.
(2) Position and performance data must
be corrected, by the methods outlined in
$ A36.3(d) of this appendix to standard pres
sure at sea level, an ambient temperature of
77° F., a relative humidity of 70 percent, and
Zero Wind.
(3) Acoustic data must be corrected by the
methods of 5 A36.3(d) of this appendix to
standard pressure at sea level, an ambient
temperature of 77° F., and a relative humid
ity of 70 percent. Acoustic data corrections
Inlist also be made for a minimum distance
of 370 feet between the aircraft's approach
path and the approach measuring point, a
takeoff path vertically above the flyover
measuring point and for differences of more
than 20 feet in elevation of measuring loca
tions relative to the elevation of the nearest
point of the runway.
(4) The airport tower or another facility
must be approved for use as the location at
which measurements of atmospheric param
eters are representative of those condi
tions existing over the geographical area in
Which aircraft noise measurements are made.
However, the surface wind velocity and tem
perature must be measured near the micro
phone at the approach, sideline, and take
off measurement locations, and the tests are
not acceptable unless the conditions con
form to § A36.1(b)(3) of this appendix.
(5) Enough sideline measurement sta
tions must be used during tests so that the
maximum sideline noise is clearly defined
with respect to location and level.
Section A862 Measurement of aircraft
noise received on the ground—(a) General.
(1) These measurements provide the data
for determining one-third octave band noise
produced by aircraft during testing proce
dures, at specific observation stations, as a
function of time.
(2) Methods for determination of the dis
tance from the observation stations to the
aircraft include theodolíte triangulation
techniques, scaling aircraft dimensions on
photographs made as the aircraft flies
directly over the measurement points, radar
altimeters, and radar tracking systems. The
method used must be approved.
(3) Sound pressure level data for noise
type certification purposes must be obtained
With approved acoustical equipment and
measurement practices.
(b) Measurement system. (1) The acousti
cal measurement system must consist of
approved equipment equivalent to the
following:
(1) A microphone system with frequency
response compatible with measurement and
analysis system accuracy as stated in para
graph (c) of this section.
(ii) Tripods or similar microphone mount
ings that minimize interference with the
sound being measured.
448
(iii) Recording and reproducing equip
ment characteristics, frequency response, and
dynamic range compatible with the response
and accuracy requirements of paragraph (c)
of this section.
(iv) Acoustic calibrators using sine wave
or broadband noise of known sound pressure
level. If broadband noise is used, the signal
must be described in terms of its average
and maximum rms value for a nonoverload
signal level.
(v) Analysis equipment with the response
and accuracy requirements of paragraph (d)
of this section.
(c) Sensing, recording, and reproducing
equipment. (1) The sound produced by the
aircraft shall be recorded in such a way that
the complete information, time history in
cluded, is retained. A magnetic tape recorder
is acceptable.
(2) The characteristics of the system must
comply with the recommendations given in
International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) Publication No. 179 with regard to the
sections concerning microphone and ampli
fier characteristics. The text and specifica
tions of IEC Publication No. 179 entitled:
“Precision Sound Level Meters” are incorpo
rated by reference into this part and are
made a part hereof as provided in 5 U.S.C.
552(a)(1) and 1 CFR Part 20. This pub
lication was published in 1965 by the Bureau
Central de la Commission Electrotechnique
Internationale located at 1, rue de Varembe,
Geneva, Switzerland, and copies may be pur
chased at that place. Copies of this publica
tion are available for examination at the
DOT Library, Federal Office Building 10A
Branch and at the Office of Noise Abatement
both located at Headquarters, Federal Avia
tion Administration, 800 Independence Ave
nue, Washington, D.C. Moreover, copies of
this publication are available for examina
tion at the Regional Offices of the FAA.
Furthermore, a historic, official file will be
maintained by the Office of Noise Abatement
and will contain any changes made to this
publication.
(3) The response of the complete system
to a sensibly plane progressive sinusoidal
wave of constant amplitude must lie within
the tolerance limits specified in IEC Publica
tion No. 179, over the frequency range 45 to
11,200 Hz.
(4) If limitations of the dynamic range
of the equipment make it necessary, high
frequency preemphasis must be added to
the recording channel with the converse de
emphasis on playback. The preemphasis
must be applied such that the instantaneous
recorded sound pressure level of the noise
signal between 800 and 11,200 Hz does not
vary more than 20 dB between the maximum
and minimum one-third octave bands.
(5) The equipment must be acoustically
calibrated using facilities for acoustic free
field calibration and electronically calibrated
as stated in paragraph (d) of this section.
 Chapter i–Federal Aviation Administrction
ºt
* (6) A windscreen must be employed with
the microphone during all measurements of
fºr aircraft noise when the wind speed is in
excess of 6 knots. Corrections for any in
! ºn sertion loss produced by the windscreen, as
rºy a function of frequency, must be applied to
! 3.3, the measured data and the corrections ap
: ; ; pled must be reported.
º (d) Analysis equipment. (1) A frequency
analysis of the acoustical signal sh be per
rººs formed using one-third octave filters comply
:*: Ing with the recommendations given in In
ternational Electrotechnical Commission
r; r. (IEC) Publication No. 225. The text and spec
rº ifications of IEC publication No. 225 en
:*In titled “Octave, Half-Octave and Third-Oc
tave Band Filters Intended for the Analysis
of Sounds and Vibrations" are incorporated
by reference into this part and are made a
part hereof as provided in 5 U.S.C. 552(a)(1)
and 1 CFR Part 20. This publication was
published in 1966 by the Bureau Central de
la Commission Electrotechnique Interna
tlonale located at 1, rue de Varembe, Geneva,
Switzerland, and copies may be purchased
at that place. Copies of this publication are
available for examination at the Office of
Notse Abatement and at the DOT Library,
Federal Office Building 10A Branch both lo
cated at Headquarters, Federal Aviation Ad
ministration, 800 Independence Avenue,
Washington, D.C. Moreover, copies of this
publication are available for examination at
the Regional Offices of the FAA. Furthermore
a historic, official ſile will be maintained by
the Office of Noise Abatement and will con
tan any changes made to this publication.
(2) A set of 24 consecutive one-third oc
tave filters must be used. The first filter of
the set must be centered at a geometric mean
frequency of 50 Hz and the last of 10 kHz.
(3) The analyzer indicating device must
be analog, digital, or a combination of both.
* preferred sequence of signal processing
º (1) Squaring the one-third octave filter
outputs:
** (11) Averaging or integrating; and
º (111) Linear to logarithmic conversion.
The indicating device must have a minimum
Crest factor capacity of 3 and shall measure,
within a tolerance of +1.0dB, the true root
mean-square (rms) level of the signal in
*ach of the 24 one-third octave bands. If
other than a true rms device is utilized, it
º must be calibrated for nonsinusoidal signals
*d time varying levels. The calibration must
Provide means for converting the output
"els to true rms values.
(4) The dynamic response of the analyzer
* input signals of both full-scale and 20
. * than full-scale amplitude, shall con
* to the following two requirements:
alº: a sinusoidal pulse of 0.5-second
of e 9n at the geometrical mean frequency
th *ch one-third octave band is applied to
**Put, the maximum output value shall
449
App. A
read 4 dB+ 1 dB less than the value obtained
for a steady state sinusoidal signal of the
same frequency and amplitude.
(ii) The maximum output value shall ex
ceed the final steady state value by 0.5 + 0.5
dB when a steady state sinusoidal signal at
the geometrical mean frequency of each one
third octave band is suddenly applied to the
analyzer input and held constant.
(5) A single value of the rms level must
be provided every 0.5+0.01 second for each
of the 24 one-third octave bands. The levels
from all of the 24 one-third octave bands
must be obtained within a 50-millisecond
period. No more than 5 milliseconds of data
from any 0.5-second period may be excluded
from the measurement.
(6) The amplitude resolution of the
analyzer must be at least 0.25 dB.
(7) Each output level from the analyzer
must be accurate within + 1.0 dB W1th re
spect to the input signal, after all systematic
errors have been eliminated. The total sys
tematic errors for each of the output levels
must not exceed --3 dB. For contiguous filter
systems, the systematic correction between
adjacent one-third octave channels may not
exceed 4 dB.
(8) The dynamic range capabllity of the
analyzer for display of a single aircraft noise
event must be at least 55 dB in terms of the
difference between full-scale output level
and the maximum noise level of the analyzer
equipment.
(9) 'The complete electronic system must
be subjected to a frequency and amplitude
electrical calibration by the use of sinusoidal
or broadband signals at frequencies covering
the range of 45 to 11,200 Hz, and of known
amplitudes covering the range of signal levels
furnished by the microphone. If broadband
signals are used, they must be described in
terms of their average and maximum rms
values for a nonoverload signal level.
(e) Noise measurement procedures. (1)
The microphones must be oriented so that
the maximum sound received arrives as
nearly as reasonable in the direction for
which the microphones are calibrated. The
microphones must be placed so that their
sensing elements are approximately 4 feet
above ground.
(2) Immediately prior to and after each
test, a recorded acoustic calibration of the
system must be made in the field with an
acoustic calibrator for the two purposes of
checking system sensitivity and providing
an acoustic reference level for the analysis
of the sound level data.
(3) For the purpose of minimizing equip
ment or operator error, field calibrations
must be supplemented with the use of an
insert voltage device to place a known signal
at the input of the microphone, just prior
to and after recording aircraft noise data.
(4) The ambient noise, including both
acoustical background and electrical noise
App. A Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
of the measurement system, must be re
corded and determined in the test area. With
the system gain set at levels which will be
used for aircraft noise measurements.
Section A36.3 Reporting and correcting
measured data—(a) General. Data represent
ing physical measurements or corrections to
measured data must be recorded in perma
nent form and appended to the record except
that corrections to measurements for normal
equipment response deviations need not be
reported. All other corrections must be ap
proved. Estimates must be made of the indi
vidual errors inherent in each of the opera
tions employed in obtaining the final data.
(b) Data reporting. (1) Measured and
corrected sound pressure levels must be pre
sented in one-third octave band levels
obtained with equipment conforming to
the standards described in § A36.2 of this
appendix.
(2) The type of equipment used for meas
urement and analysis of all acoustic aircraft
performance and meteorological data must be
reported.
(3) The following atmospheric environ
mental data, measured at hourly intervals or
less during the test period at the observation
points prescribed in 5 A36.1 (d) (4) of this
appendix, must be reported:
(1) Air temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
and relative humidity in percent.
(11) Maximum, minimum, and average
Wind in knots and their direction.
(iii) Atmospheric pressure in inches of
Mercury.
(4) Comments on local topography, ground
cover, and events that might interfere with
sound recordings must be reported.
(5) The following aircraft information
must be reported:
(1) Type, model, and serial numbers (if
any) of aircraft and engines.
(ii) Gross dimensions of aircraft and lo
cation of engines.
(iii) Aircraft gross weight for each test
run.
(iv) Aircraft configuration such as flap
and landing gear positions.
(v) Airspeed in knots.
(vi) Engine performance in pounds of net
thrust, engine pressure ratios, jet exit tem
peratures, and fan or compressor shaft
rev./min, as recorded by cockpit instruments
and manufacturer's data.
(vii) Aircraft height in feet determined
by a method independent of cockpit instru
mentation such as radar tracking theodolite
triangulation, or approved photographic
techniques.
(6) Aircraft speed and position and engine
performance parameters must be recorded
at an approved sampling rate sufficient to cor
rect to the noise type certification reference
conditions prescribed in § A36.3 (c) of this
appendix. Lateral position relative to the
450
extended centerline of the runway, configu
ration, and gross weight must be reported.
(c) Noise type certification reference con
ditions—(1) Meteorological conditions. Air
craft position and performance data and the
noise measurements must be corrected to
the following noise type certification refer
ence atmospheric conditions:
(a) Sea level pressure of 2116 psf. (76 cm
mercury),
(b) Ambient temperature of 77* F.
(ISA+10°C.),
(c) Relative humidity of 70 percent,
(d) Zero wind.
(2) Aircraft conditions. The reference con
dition for takeoff is the maximum Weight ex
cept as provided in § 36.1581 (b).
The reference conditions for approach are:
(a) Design landing weight, except as pro
vided in § 36.1581 (b),
(b) Approach angle of 3°,
(c) Aircraft height of 370 feet above noise
measuring station.
(d) Data corrections. (1) The noise data
must be corrected to the noise type certifl
cation reference conditions as stated in
$ A36.3 (c) of this appendix. The measured
atmospheric conditions must be those ob
tained in accordance with $ A36.1 (d) (4) of
this appendix. Atmospheric attenuation of
sound requirements are given in 5 A36.5 of
this appendix.
(2) The measured flight path must be
corrected by an amount equal to the dif
ference between the applicant's predicted
flight paths for the test conditions and for
the noise type certification reference con
ditions. Necessary corrections relating to air
craft flight path or performance may be de
rived from approved data other than cer
tification test data. The flight path correction
procedure for approach noise must be made
with reference to a fixed aircraft height of
370 feet and a glide angle of 3”. The effective
perceived noise level correction must be less
than 2 EPNdb to allow for:
(a) The aircraft not passing vertically
above the measuring point.
(b) The difference between 370 feet and
the actual minimum distance of the air
craft's ILS antenna from the approach meas
uring points.
(c) The difference between the actual ap
proach angle and 3°.
Detailed correction requirements are given
in § A36.6 of this appendix.
(3) If aircraft sound pressure levels do
not exceed the background sound pressure
levels by at least 10 dB in any one-third
octave band, approved corrections for the
contribution of background sound pressure
levels to observed sound pressure levels must
be applied.
(e) Walidity of results. (1) The test re
sults must produce three average EPNL val
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
ues and their 90 percent confidence limits,
each being the arithmetic average of the cor
rected acoustical measurements for all valid
test runs at the takeoff, approach, and side
line measuring points, respectively. If more
than one acoustic measurement system is
used at any single measurement location
(such as for the symmetrical sideline meas
uring points), the resulting data for each test
run must be averaged as a single measure
Inent.
(2) The minimum sample size acceptable
for each of the three certification measuring
points is six. The samples must be large
enough to establish statistically for each of
the three average noise type certification
levels a 90 percent confidence limit not ex
ceeding + 1.5 EPNdB. No test result may be
onnitted from the average process unless
otherwise specified by the FAA.
(3) The average EPNL values and their
90 percent confidence limits obtained by the
foregoing process must be those by which
the noise performance of the aircraft is
assessed against the noise type certification
criteria, and must be reported.
Section A36.4 Symbols and units—(a)
General. The symbols used in Appendixes
A and B of this part have the following
meanings.
Symbol Unit Meaning
ant-------------------- Antilogarithm to the Pare 10.
C(k) ------- dB-------- Tone Correction. The factor
to be added to PNL(k) to
account for the presence of
spectral irregularities such
as tones at the k-th increment
of time.
d----------- sec-------- Duration Time. The length of
the significant noise time
history being the time in
terval between the limits of
t(1) and t(2) to the nearest
Second.
P---------- dB-------- Duration Correction. The factor
to be added to PNLM to
account for the duration of
the noise.
EPNL----- EPNdB -- Effective Perceired Noise Lepel.
he value of PNL adjusted
for both the presence of dis
crete frequencies and the
time history. (The unit
EPN dB is used instead of
the unit dB.)
J(ſ) or fl---- Hz-------- Frequency. The geometrical
mean frequency for the i-th
one-third octave band.
Fſ!, k) ----- dB-------- Delta-d B. The difference be
tween the original and
background sound pressure
levels in the i-th one-third
octave band at the k-th
interval of time.
b----------- dB-------- d B-Down. The level to be
subtracted from PNLTM
that defines the duration
of the noise.
H---------- %--------- Relatire Humidity. The am
bient atmospheric relative
humidity.
(1) or 1------ -----------. Frequency Band Inder. The
numerical indicator that
denotes any one of the 24
one-third octave bands with
jº. mean frequencies
m 50 to 10,000 Hz.
451
App. A
Symbol Unit Meaning
(k)--------------------- Time Increment Inder. The
numerical indicator that de
notes the number of equal
time increments that have
elapsed from a reference
zero.
log--------------------- Logarithm to the Base 10.
log n(a)----------------- Noy Discontinuity Coordinate.
The log n value of the inter
section point of the straight
lines representing the varia
tion of SPL with log n.
M(b), M(c)------------- Noy Inverse Slope. The recip
rocals of the slopes of the
x straight lines representing
the variation of SPL with
log n.
D----------- Doy------- Perceired Noisiness. The per
ceived noisiness at any
instant of time that occurs
in a specified frequency
range.
n(l, k)------ noy------- Perceived Noisiness. The per
ceived noisiness at the k-th
instant of time that occurs
in the i-th one-third octave
band.
n(k)-------- noy------- Marimum Perceired Noisiness.
The maximum value of all
of the 24 values of n(i) that
occurs at the k-th instant of
time.
N(k).------- noy------- Total Perceived Noisiness. The
total perceived noisiness at
the k-th instant of time cal
culated from the 24-instan
taneous values of n (i, k).
P(b), p(c)--------- ----- Noy Slope. The slopes of the
straight lines representing
the variation of SPL with
log n.
PNL------- PNdB---- Perceived Noise Level. The per
ceived noise level at any
instant of time (the unit
PNd B is used instead of the
unit dB).
PNL(k)---- PNd B---- Perceired Noise Lerel. The per
ceived noise level calculated
from the 24 values of SPL
(i,k) at the k-th increment
of time. (The unit PNd B is
used instead of the unit dB.)
PNLM.---- PNdB.---- Marimum Perceired Noise
Level. The maximum value
of PNL(k) that occurs
during the aircraft flyover.
(The unit PNdB is used in
stead of the unit dB.)
PNLT----- PNd B---- Tone Corrected Perceired Noire
Lerel. The value of PNL
adjusted for the presence of
spectral irregularities (dis
crete frequencies) at any in
stant of time. (The unit
PNd B is used instead of the
unit dB.)
PNLT(k) -- PNd B---- Tone Corrected Perceired Noise
Letel. The value of PNL ſk)
adjusted for the presence of
discrete frequencies that
o “curs at the k-th increment
of time. (The unit PNdB is
used instead of the unit dB.)
PNLTM--- PNdB.---- Mariinum Tone Corrected Per
ceited Noise Lerel. The Inaxi
mum value of PNLT (k)
that occurs during the air
craft flyover. (The unit
PNdB is used instead of the
unit dB.)
App. A Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
Symbol Unit Meaning
s(i,k)------- dB-------- Slope of Sound Pressure
- Lerel.
… 1 ºz ºr, we
º: º º !etween
adjacent one-third octave
band sound pressure levels
º the tº. for the k-th
instant of time.
As(l, k) ---- dB-------- cºſ. in Sºº'ſ Sound
Cºttrº Leºtl. . . . .
s’(i, k)------ dB-------- Adjusted Slope of Sound Pres-
º Level. The change in
level between adjacent
adjusted one-third octave
band sound pressure levels
at the i-th band for the k-th
- instant of time.
s(t, k)------ dB-------- Aſſºp, of Sound Pres-
8PL-------- dB re **** Hºtel.
Sound . . The
Presentre Level. ..
0.0002 sound pressure level at any
micro- instant of time that occurs
bar. in a specified frequency range.
8PL(a)----- dB re Noy Discontinuity Coordinate.
0.()002 The SP1, value of the inter
micro- section point of the straight
bar. lines representing the varia
tion of SPL with log n.
SPL(b), dB re Noy Intercept. The intercepts
SPL(c) 0.0002 on the SPL-axis of the
micro- straight lines representing
bar. the variation of SPL with
log n.
SPL(t, k) -- dB re Sound Pressure Level. The
0.0002 sound pressure level at the
Inicro- k-th instant of time that
bar. occurs in the i-th one-third
octave band.
SPL’(i, k) -- dB re Adjusted Sound Pressure Lerel.
0.0.*02 The first approximation to
Inicro- background level in the i-th
bar. one-third octave band for
the k-th instant of time.
8PL” (, k) – dB re Background Sound Pressure
0.0002 Lerel. The final |º.
microbar ton to background level in
the i-th one-third octave
band for the k-th instant
of time.
BPLi----- -- dB re Marimum Softnd Preesture
0.0002 Lºvel. The sound pressure
Inicrobar level that occurs in the i-th
one-third octave band of
the spectrum for PNLTM.
8PLlc------ dB re Corrected Maximum Sound
0.0002 Pressure Letel. The sound
microbar pressure level that occurs in
the i-th one-third octave
band of the spectrum for
PNLTM corrected for
atmospheric sound absorp
tion.
t----------- sec----- --- Elapsed Time. The length of
time measured from a
reference zero.
t{1), t^2)---- Sec-------- Time Limit. The beginning
and and of the significant
noise time history defined
by h.
At--------- 88C-------- Time Increment. The equal
increments of time for which
PNL(k) and PNLT (k) are
calculated.
T----------- see-------- Normalizing Time Constant.
The length of time used as
a reference in the integration
method for computing
duration corrections.
T---------- *F--------- Temperature. The ambient
? - atmospheric temperature.
of---------- dB/feet.---- Test Atmospheric Absorption.
of--------- __dH/1000-- The atmospheric attenua
ſeet. tion of sound that occurs in
the i-th one-third octave
band for the measured at
mospheric temperature and
relative humidity.
452.
Symbol Unit Meaning
ado
“”--------- dB/feet. Reference Atmospheric Abs
º’...I. dB/1000 tion. The atmospheric g”
feet, tenuation of sound that oc
curs in the i-th one-third
octave band for the reference
atmospheric temperature
and i. º
8----------- d ---- -
º: - . §º.
--- degrees.
3- Thrust Cutback Angles. The
* ----------- degrees. angles defining the points
on the takeoff flight path at
which thrust reduction is
started and euded respec
tively.
* ------------ degrees. --- Approach Angle.
6----------- deg
e egrees ... º; ºangle
Take ise -
and
noise path for takeoff o
tion. It is identical for both
measured and corrected
flight paths.
^----------- degrees---- Approach Noise Angle. The
angle between the flight
path and the noise path for
approach operation. It is
identical for both measured
and corrected ſlight paths.
Al---------- EPNdB -- PNLT Correction. The corree
tion to be added to the
FPNL calculated from
measured data to account
for noise level changes due
to differences in atmospheric
absorption and noise path
length between reference
and test conditions.
A2---------- EPN dB -- Noise Path Duration Correc º,
tion. The correction to be
added to the EPN I, calcul
lated from measured data to
account for noise level
changes due to the noise
duration because of diſſer
ences in flyover altitude
between reference and test
condition.
A3----- ----- EPNoib -- Weight Correction. The correc
tion to be added to the
EPNL calculated from
measured data to account #.
for noise level changes due
to differences between maxi
nºm and test aircraft
weights.
A*---------- EPNdB. - Approach Angle Correction,
he correction to be added
to the EPNL calculated
from measured data to
account for noise level
changes due to differences
between 3° and the test
approach angle.
AAB------- feet Takeoff Profile Changes. The
- degrees. changes in the basic param
- degrees. eters defining the takeoff
--- degrees profile due to differences s
Ae---------- degrees between reference and test ~
conditions.
FLIGHT PROFILE IDENTIFICATION POSITIONS
Position Description
A-------- Start of takeoff roll.
B-------- Liftoff.
C-------- Start of first constant climb.
P-------- Start of thrust reduction.
E_ -- Start of second constant climb.
Ec------- Start of second constant climb on
corrected flight path.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administraſion App. A

FLIGHT PROFILE IDENTIFICATIory

POSITIONs—Continued Distance Unit Meaning

Position Description
F-------- End of noise certification takeoff
flight path.
Fc------- End of second constant climb on
corrected ſlight path.
G-------. Start of noise certification ap
proach flight path.
Gr------. Start of noise certification ap
proach on reference flight path.
H-------. Position on approach path di
rectly above noise measuring
Station.
I-------- Start of level off.
Ir------- Start of level off on reference ap
proach flight path.
J-------- Touchdown.
K------- Takeoff noise measuring station.
I.-------- Sideline noise measuring station
(not on flight track).
M------- End of noise type certification
takeoff flight track.
N-------- Approach noise measuring station.
O-------. Threshold of approach end of
runway
P-------- Start of noise type certification
approach flight track.
Q-------- Position on measured
flight path corresponding
PNLTM at station K.
Qc------- Position on corrected
flight path corresponding
PNLTM at station K.
R-------- Position on measured
flight path nearest to station K.
Re------. Position on corrected
flight path nearest to station K.
B-------- Position on measured approach
flight path corresponding
PNLTM at Station N.
Sr------- Position on reference approach
flight path corresponding to
PNLTM at station N.
T-------- Position on measured approach
flight path nearest to station N.
Tr------- Position on reference approach
flight path nearest to station N.
X-------. Position on Imeasured takeoff
flight path corresponding
PNLTM at station L.
FLIGHT PROFILE DISTANCES
Unit Meaning
AM--------- feet------- Takeoff Flight Trnck Distance.
‘I he distance from the start
of roll to the takeof flight
track position along the
extented centerline of the
runway for which the
position of the aircraft
need no longer be recorded.
KQ--------- feet------- Measured Takeoff Noise Pauh.
The distance from station
K to the neasured aircraft
position Q.
KQc-------- feet-------- Corrected Takeoff Noise Path.
The distance from station
K to the corrected aircraft
position Qc.
KR-------- feet-------- Measured Takeoff Minimum
Distance. The distance from
station K to point R on the
measured flight path.
KRC------- feet------- Corrected Takeoff Minimum
ADistance. The distance from
station K to point Ke on
the corrected flight path.
LX--------- feet------. Measured Sideline Noise Path.
The distance from station
I, to the measured aircraft
position X.
NH-------- feet------- Aircraft Approach Height. The
vertical distance between
the aircraft and the ap
proach measuring station.
N8--------- feet------- Mensured Approach Noise
Puth. The distance from
takeoff
Station N to the measured
to aircraft position S.
NSr-------- feet------- Reference Approach Noise
takeoff Pith. The distance from sta
tion N to the reference air
to craft position Sr.
NT--------- feet------- Measured Approach Minimum
takeoff Distance. The distance from
Station N to point T on the
measured flight path.
takeoff NTr------- feet------- Reference ſº Minimum
Distance. Time distance from
station N to point Tr on the
corrected flight path; it
to equals 369 feet.
ON--------- feet------- Approach Measurement Dis
tance. The distance from the .
runway threshold to the ap
proach measurement station
along the extended center
line of the runway.
OP--------- feet------- Approach Flight Track Dis
tance. The distance from the
runway threshold to the ap
proach flight track position
along the extended center
line of the runway for which
to the position of the aircraft
need no longer be recorded.
Section A36.5 Atmospheric attenuation of
sound—(a) General. The atmospheric at
tenuation of Sound must be determined in

AB--------- feet------- Length of Takeoff Roll. The

distance along the runway
between the start of takeoff
roll and liſt off.
AK--------- feet------- Takeoff Measurement Distance.
The distance from the start
of roll to the takeoff noise
measurement station along
the extended centerline
of the runway.
accordance with the curves of Figure 15
presented in SAE ARP 866 or by the simplified
procedure presented below. SAE ARP 866 is
a publication entitled: “Standard Values of
Atmospheric Absorption as a Function of
Temperature and Humidity for Use in
Evaluating Aircraft Flyover Noise” and the
recommendations presented therein are in
Corporated by reference into this Part and

453
App. A Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
are made a part hereof as provided in 5 U.S.C.
522(a)(1) and 1 CFR Part 20. This publica
tion was published on August 31, 1964, by
the Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.,
located at 2 Pennsylvania Plaza, New York,
N.Y. 10001, and copies may be purchased
at that place. Copies of this publica
tion are available for examination
DOT Library, Federal Office Building 10A
Branch and at the Office of Noise Abatement
both located at Headquarters, Federal Avia
tion Administration, 800 Independence Ave
nue, Washington, D.C. Moreover, copies of
this publication are available for examina
tion at the Regional Offices of the FAA. Fur
thermore, a historic, Official file
maintained by the Office of Noise Abatement
and will contain any changes made to this
publication.
(b) Reference conditions. For the refer
ence atmospheric conditions of temperature
and relative humidity equal to 77° F. and 70
percent, respectively, and for all other con
ditions of temperature and relative humidity
where their product is equal to or greater
than 4,000, the sound absorption must be ex
pressed by the following equation:
alo'-fi/500 (dB/1,000 ft.)
olo' is the atmospheric attenuation of sound
that occurs in the i-th one-third Octave
band for the reference atmospheric condi
tions and fi is the geometrical mean fre
quency for the i-th one-third octave band.
(c) Nonreference conditions. (1) For all
atmospheric conditions of temperature and
relative humidity where their product is
equal to or less than 4,000, the relationship
between sound absorption, frequency, tem
perature, and humidity must be expressed
by the following equation:
at the
500ai'/fl= (2/3) [11/2) — (HT/1,000)]
ai' is the atmospheric attenuation of sound
that occurs in the i-th one-third octave
band for a relative humidity of H percent
and a temperature of Tº Fahrenheit.
(2) Figure A1 graphically illustrates the
simplified relationship. The second equation
Will be represents the inclined line which is valid
for all values of HT up to and including
4,000. For all values of 4,000 and greater, the
horizontal line, represented by the first
equation, is valid. The minimum, reference,
and maximum values of humidity and tem
perature are indicated in Figure A1.
Section A36.6 Detailed correction proce
dures—(a) General. If the noise type certifi
cation test conditions are not equal to the
noise certification reference conditions, ap
propriate positive corrections must be made
to the EPNL calculated from the measured
data. Differences between reference and test
conditions which lead to positive corrections
can result from the following:
(1) Atmospheric absorption of sound un
der test conditions greater than reference,

4 gimmuniſm rtſ IIII IIHTTH IIHTTH ITTTTTT IIIT III ITITIII H

H = 30%
T = 41°F

## NN
N H = 70% º,|
T = 77.9F 86° F

| Ok

O
11, lull liulluliului, utiliu Lullu 111111111 11111111. tº ilu
l 2 3 4

HUMIDITYx TEMPERATURE, HT/1000, 9% of

5 6 7 8

FIGURE Al. SIMPLIFIED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATMOSPHERIC

SOUNDATTENUATION, FREQUENCY, HUMIDITY,
AND TEMPERATURE.

4.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
tº h, (2) Test flight path at higher altitude
tº: than reference, and
(3) Test weight less than maximum.
*::::
*::::::
Negative corrections are permitted if the
:::::::: atmospheric absorption of sound under test
4 ºx conditions is less than reference and also
if the test flight path is at a lower altitude
at ... than reference.
The takeoff test flight path can occur at a
*:::: higher altitude than reference if the meteor
*-*… n. ological conditions permit superior aero
:: dynamic performance (“cold day” effect).
:::::: Conversely, the “hot day” effect can cause
lºz, the takeoff test flight path to occur at a
*::::::: lower altitude than reference. The approach
--- i. test flight path can occur at either higher
tº:- or lower altitudes than reference irrespec
tive of the meteorological conditions.
tº gº,
: 2: The correction procedures presented in the
following discussion consist of one or more
sº-ºº:
of five possible values added algebraically to
the EPNL calculated as if the tests were con
ducted completely under the noise type certi
fication reference conditions. The flight pro
files must be determined for both takeoff and
approach, and for both reference and test
conditions. The test procedures require noise
and flight path recordings with a synchro
nized time signal from which the test profile
can be delineated, including the aircraft
position for which PNLTM is observed at the
noise measuring station. For takeoff, a flight
profile corrected to reference conditions may
be derived from manufacturer's data, and for
approach, the reference profile is known.
The noise paths from the aircraft to the
noise measuring station corresponding to
PNLTM are determined for both the test
6 N.M. MINIMUM
FIGURE A2. MEASURED TAKEOFF PROFILE.
455
App, A
and reference profiles. The SPL values in the
spectrum of PNLTM are then corrected for
the effects of:
(1) Change in atmospheric Sound
absorption,
(2) Atmospheric sound absorption on the
change in noise path length,
(3) Inverse square law on the change in
noise path length.
The corrected values of SPL are then con
verted to PNLT from which is subtracted
PNLTM. The difference represents the correc
tion to be added algebraically to the EPNL
calculated from the measured data.
The minimum distances from both the
test and reference profiles to the noise meas
uring station are calculated and used to"
determine a noise duration correction due
to the change in the altitude of aircraft fly
over. The duration correction is added alge
bralcally to the EPNL calculated from the
measured data.
From approved data in the form of curves
or tables giving the variation of EPNL with
takeoff weight and also for landing weight,
corrections are determined to be added to
the EPNL calculated from the measured data
to account for noise level changes due to
differences between maximum and test air
craft weights.
From approved data in the form of curves
or tables giving the variation of EPNL with
approach angle, corrections are determined
to be added algebraically to the EPNL cal
culated from measured data to account for
noise level changes due to differences be
tween 3° and the test approach angle.
(b) Takeoff profiles. Figure A2 illustrates
a typical takeoff profile. The aircraft begins
F *
f
App. A Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
the takeoff roll at point A, lifts off at point
B, and initiates the first constant climb at
point C at an angle 8. The noise abatement
thrust cutback is started at point D and
completed at point E where the second con
stant climb is defined by the angle 8 (usu
ally expressed in terms of the gradient in
per cent).
The end of the noise type certification
takeoff flight path is represented by aircraft
position F whose vertical projection on the
flight track (extended centerline of the run
way) is point M. The position of the aircraft
must be recorded for a distance AM of at
least 6 nautical Iniles.
Position K is the takeoff noise measuring
station whose distance AK is specified as 3.5
nautical miles. Position L is the Sideline noise
measuring station located on a line parallel
to and a specified distance from the runway
centerline where the noise level during take
off is greatest.
The takeoff profile is defined by the fol
lowing five parameters: AB, the length of
takeoff roll; 8, the first constant climb angle;
y, the second constant climb angle; and
8 and e, the thrust cutback angles. These five
parameters are functions of the aircraft per
formance and weight and the atmospheric
conditions of temperature, pressure, and
wind velocity and direction. If the test con
ditions are not equal to the reference condi
tions, the corresponding test and reference
profile parameters will be different as shown
in Figure A3. The profile parameter changes,
identified as AAB, A5, Ao, A6, and Ae, can
be derived from the manufacturer's data
(approved by the FAA) and can be used to
define the flight profile corrected to the
reference conditions. The relationships be
FIGURE A3. COMPARISON OF MEASURED AND
CORRECTED TAKEOFF PROFILES.
456
tween the measured and corrected takeoff
flight profiles can then be used to determine
the corrections, which if positive, must be
applied to the EPNL calculated from the
measured data.
NoTE: Under reference atmospheric con
ditions and with maximum takeoff weight,
the gradient of the second constant climb
angle, 8, is specified to be not less than 4
percent. However, the actual gradient will
depend upon the test atmospheric condi
tions, assuming maximum takeoff weight
and the parameters characterizing engine
performance are constant (rpm, epr, or any
other parameter used by the pilot).
Figure A4 illustrates portions of the meas
ured and corrected takeoff flight paths in
cluding the significant geometrical relation
ships influencing sound propagation. EF
represents the measured second constant
flight path with climb angle y, and EcFc
represents the corrected second constant
flight path at reduced altitude and with re
duced climb angle 3–A8.
Position Q represents the aircraft location
on the measured takeoff flight path for which
PNLTM is observed at the noise measuring
station K, and Qc is the corresponding posi
tion on the corrected flight path. The meas
ured and corrected noise propagation paths
are KQ and KQc, respectively, which form
the same angle 6 with their flight paths.
Position R represents the point on the
measured takeoff flight path nearest the
noise measuring station K, and Rc is the
corresponding position on the corrected
flight path. The minimum distance to the
measured and corrected flight paths are in
dicated by the lines KR and KRC, respec
tively, which are normal to their flight paths.
MEASURED F
FLIGHT
CORRECTED
FLIGHT
PATH
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration App. A
ld tº:
MEASURED F
4; - - FLIGHT Q -

A.L.E. º.
PATH
* ºr
Tuº ºr
ºf ºt.
* : *.
tº ºr
a.º.
Tº -y-
arºt:
; :::::
º CORRECTED
º FLIGHT
º: lº
PATH
ºº::::::: *
! ºr
i ºr -
ang: , ;
ºf ºf
it: i.i.

ºf ºf
grº
* :* :
º:
naº. Tº

FIGURE A4. TAKEOFF PROFILE CHARACTERISTICS

|NFLUENCING SOUND PROPAGATION.
/ (c) Approach profiles. Figure A5 illus-
trates a typical approach profile. The begin-
ning of the noise type certification approach
profile is represented by aircraft position G
whose vertical projection on the flight track
(extended centerline of the runway) is point
P. The position of the aircraft must be re
corded for a distance OP from the runway
threshold O of at least 4 nautical miles.
The aircraft approaches at an angle ºn,
passes vertically over the noise measuring
station N at a height of NH, begins the level

4 N.M. MINIMUM
_ —h-
~ r

FIGURE A5. MEASURED APPROACH PROFILE.

39–059–75 30
407
App. A Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
MEASURED
G APPROACH

REFERENCE
APPROACH
PATH

FIGURE A6. COMPARISON OF MEASURED AND

CORRECTED APPROACH PROFILES.
off at position I, and touches down at posi
tion J. The distance ON is specified as 1.0
Inautical mile.
The approach profile is defined by the ap
proach angle m and the height NH which are
functions of the aircraft operating conditions
controlled by the pilot. If the measured ap
proach profile parameters are different from
the corresponding reference approach param
eters (3* and 370 feet, respectively, as shown
in Figure A6), corrections, if positive, must
be applied to the EPNL calculated from the
measured data.
Figure A7 illustrates portions of the meas
ured and reference approach flight paths
including the significant geometrical rela
tionships influencing sound propagation.
GI represents the measured approach path
with approach angle n, and Grir represents
the reference approach flight path at lower
altitude and approach angle of 3°.
Position S represents the aircraft location
on the measured approach flight path for
Which PNLTM is observed at the noise meas
uring station N, and Sr is the corresponding
position on the reference approach flight
path. The measured and corrected noise
propagation paths are NS and NSr., respec
tively, which form the same angle A with
their flight paths.
Position T represents the point on the
measured approach flight path nearest the
noise measuring station N, and Tr is the
corresponding point on the reference ap
proach flight path. The minimum distances
to the measured and reference flight paths
are indicated by the lines NT and NTr, re
spectively, which are normal to their flight
paths.

MEASURED
APPROACH
PATH

REFERENCE ****
APPROACH -

PATH Ir

FIGURE A7. APPROACH PROFILE CHARACTERISTICS

INFLUENCING SOUND PROPAGATION.
458
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration App. A
NoTE: The reference approach flight path correction term accounts for the effects of
is defined by 7–3° and NH=370 feet. Con atmospheric sound absorption on the change
sequently, NTr can also be defined; NTr=369 in the noise path length where KQC is the
feet to the nearest foot and is, therefore, corrected takeoff noise path. The third cor
considered to be one of the reference rection term accounts for the effects of the
parameters. inverse square law on the change in the
(d) PNLT corrections. Whenever the am noise path length.
bient atmospheric conditions of tempera The corrected values of SPLic are then
ture and relative humidity differ from the converted to PNLT and a correction term
reference conditions (77° F. and 70 percent, calculated as follows:
respectively) and whenever the measured A1 = PNLT—PNLTM
takeoff and approach flight paths differ from
the corrected and reference flight paths re which represents the correction to be added
spectively, it may be necessary or desirable algebraically to the EPNL calculated from
to apply corrections to the EPNL values cal the measured data.
culated from the measured data. If the The same procedure is used for the ap
corrections are required, they must be proach flight path except that the values
calculated as described below. for SPLlc relate to the approach noise paths
Referring to the takeoff flight path shown shown ln Figure A7 as follows:
in Figure A4, the spectrum of PLNTM ob SPLic=SPLi+ (al-aio) NS
tº ºt, served at station K, for the aircraft at po
+aio (NS-NSr.)
tº dº. sition Q, is decomposed into its individual +20 log (NS/NSr)
; alſº: SPLl values. A set of corrected values are
then computed as follows: Where NS and NSr. are the measured and
h fºr
tº: reference approach noise paths, respectively.
SPLic = SPLi+ (ai — aio) KQ The remainder of the procedure is the same
the ºrº + aio (KQ-KQC)
as for the takeoff flight path.
:::::: --20 log (KQARQc) The same procedure is used for the side
where SPLi and SPLic are the measured and line flight path except that the values for
and $5
corrected sound pressure levels, respectively, SPLic relate only to the measured sideline
tº gº in the i-th one-third octave band. The first noise path as follows:
Correction term accounts for the effects Of
is ºf SPLic=SPLi+ (ai — alo) LX
change in atmospheric sound absorption
ºf::s Where ai and alo are the sound absorption where LX is the measured sideline noise path
*:::: coefficients for the test and reference at from station L (Figure A2) to position X of
it tº mospheric conditions, respectively, for the the aircraft for Which PNLTM is observed at
lºgº º i-th one-third octave band and KQ is the station L. Only the correction term account
tº tº measured takeoff noise path. The second ing for the effects of change in atmospheric
sº +
tº

A3
EPNL

TEST MAXIMUM

AIRCRAFT TAKEOFF WEIGHT

FIGURE A8. TAKEOFF WEIGHT CORRECTION FOR

EPNL AT 3.5 NAUTICAL MILES
FROM BRAKE RELEASE.
459
App. A Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
sound absorption is considered. The differ
ence between the measured and corrected
noise path lengths are assumed negligible
for the sideline flight path. The remainder
of the procedure is the same as for the takeoff
flight path.
(e) Duration corrections. Whenever the
measured takeoff and approach flight paths
differ from the corrected and reference flight
paths, respectively, it may be necessary or
desirable to apply duration corrections to
the EPNL values calculated from the meas
ured data. If the corrections are required,
they shall be calculated as described below.
Referring to the takeoff flight path shown
in Figure A4, a correction term is calculated
as follows:
A2= –10 log (KR/KRc)
which represents the correction to be added
algebraically to the EPNL calculated from
the measured data. The lengths KR and KRC
are the measured and corrected takeoff
minimum distances, respectively, from the
noise measuring station K to the measured
and corrected flight paths. The negative sign
indicates that, for the particular case of a
duration COrrection, the EPNL calculated
from the measured data is reduced if the
measured flight path is at a greater altitude
than the corrected flight path.
The same procedure is used for the ap
proach flight path except that the correction
relates to the approach minimum distances
shown in Figure A7 as follows:
- *.
EPNL
AIRCRAFT LANDING WEIGHT
FIGURE A9. APPROACH WEIGHT CORRECTION
FOR EPNL AT 1.0 NAUTICAL MILE
FROM RUNWAY THRESHOLD.
460
A2= –10 log (NT/369)
where NT is the measured approach min.
mum distance from the noise measuring sta.
tion N to the measured flight path and 359
feet is the minimum distance from station
N to the reference filght path.
No duration correction is computed for
the sideline flight path because the differ.
ences between the measured and corrected
flight paths are assumed negligible.
(f) Weight corrections. Whenever the air.
craft weight, during either the noise type
certification takeoff, sideline, or approach
test, is less than the corresponding maximum
takeoff or landing weight, a correction must
be applied to the EPNL value calculated from
the measured data. The corrections are deter
mined from approved data in the form of
tables or curves such as schematically ind!.
cated in Figures A8 and A9. The data must
be applicable to the noise type certification
reference atmospheric conditions.
(g) Approach angle corrections. Whenever
the aircraft approach angle during the noise
type certification approach test is greater
than 3”, a correction must be applied to the
EPNL value calculated from the measured
data. The corrections are determined from
an proved data in the form of tables or curves
such as schematically indicated in Figure
A10. The data must be applicable to the
noise type certification reference atmos
pheric conditions and to the test landing
welght.
Tſ.
TEST MAXIMUM
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration App. B

EPNL

A 4

30 TEST

ANGLE OF APPROACH, m

FIGURE A10. APPROACH ANGLE CORRECTION FOR

EPNL AT 1.0 NAUTICAL MILE
FROM RUNWAY THRESHOLD.
APPENDIx B–AIRCRAFT NoLSE EVALUATIon subjective response to the presence of the
UNDER § 36.103 Inaximum tone.

Section B36.1 General. The procedures in
this appendix must be used to determine the
noise evaluation quantity designated as
effective perceived noise level, EPNL, under
§ 36.103. These procedures, which use the
physical properties of noise measured as pre
scribed by Appendix A of this part, consist
of the following:
(a) The 24 one-third octave bands of
sound pressure level are converted to per
ceived noisiness by means of a noy table. The
noy values are combined and then converted
to instantaneous perceived noise levels,
PNL (k).
(b) A tone correction factor, C(k), is cal
culated for each spectrum to account for the
(c) The tone correction factor is added to
the perceived noise level to obtain tone cor
rected perceived noise levels, PNLT(k), at
each one-half second increment of time. The
instantaneous values of tone corrected per
ceived noise level are noted with respect to
time and the maximum value, PNLTM, is
determined.
PNLT(k) =PNL(k) +c(k)
(d) A duration correction factor, D, is
computed by integration under the curve of
tone corrected perceived noise level versus
time.
(e) Effective perceived noise level, EPNL, is
determined by the algebraic sum of the maxi

461
App. B Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
mum tone corrected perceived noise level and
the duration correction factor. N(k) = n(k)+0.15 [[ > nù, k)] -nº]
i-1
-

EPNL=PNLTM-HD
14
Section B36.2 Perceived noise let'el. In =0.85n(k)+0.15X adº)
r-i
stantaneous perceived noise levels, PNL(k),
must be calculated from instantaneous one where n(k) is the largest of the 24 values of
third octave band sound pressure levels, n (i,k)and N (k) is the total perceived
SPL (1,k), as follows: noisiness.
Step 1. Convert each one-third octave Step 3. Convert the total perceived nois!”
band SPL (1,k), from 50 to 10,000 Hz, to per ness, N(k), into perceived noise level, PNL(k),
ceived noisiness, n(1,k), by reference to by the following formula:
Table B1, or to the mathematical formulation PNL(k) =40.0+33.3 log N(k)
of the noy table given in § B36.7 of this
which is plotted in Figure B1, PNL(k) may
appendix.
also be obtained by choosing N(k) in the
Step 2. Combine the perceived noisiness 1,000 Hz column of Table B1 and then read
values, n (1,k), found in step 1 by the ing the corresponding value of SPLt!.k)
following formula: which, at 1,000 Hz, equals PNL(k).
150ſ– I I TTTTT T T TTTTT i I ITT I Trim
140E -

|-
-
H. -

|-
-

130H
T 2^ -

E
120E H. 2^
O

0O
–i
90

80

7O

60 Z
50 2
40 | | | | |||| 1–1 | | | | | | l I | | |||
10 100 1000
10000
Total Perceived Noisiness, N, noys.
Figure Bl. Perceived Noise Level as a Function of Noys.

462
-- as

App. B

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App. B Title 14—Aeronautics and Space

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464
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
Section B36.3 Correction for spectral ir
regularities. Noise having pronounced irreg
ularities in the spectrum (for example, dis
Crete frequency components or tones), must
be adjusted by the correction factor C(k)
Calculated as follows:
Step 1. Starting with the corrected sound
pressure level in the 80 Hz one-third octave
band (band number 3), calculate the
changes in sound pressure level (or “slopes")
in the remainder of the one-third octave
bands as follows:
s(8,K) =no value
s(4.k) =SPL(4.k) —SPL(3,1:)
s(1x)=SPL(i.k)—split (1–1)+]
s(24k)=SPL(24k)—SPL(28.k)
Step 2. Encircle the value of the slope,
s(1,k), where the absolute value of the
change in slope is greater than 5; that is,
Where º pressure levels as follows:
| Asſi, k)|=|s(i, k)—sſ(i-1), k)|>5.
Step 3. (a) If the encircled value of the
slope s(1,k) is positive and algebraically
greater than the slope sſ (1–1),k), encircle
SPL(i,k).
(b) If the encircled value of the slopes (1,k)
is zero or negative and the slope s (1–1),k)
is positive, encircle (SPLſ (1–1),k])
(c) For all other cases, no sound pressure
level value is to be encircled.
Step 4. Omit all SPL (1,k) encircled in Step
3 and compute new sound pressure levels
SPL’(1,k) as follows:
(a) For nonencircled sound pressure levels,
let the new sound pressure levels equal the
--
º ; original sound pressure levels,
* .
--
SPL' (i,k) =SPL(1,k)
g (b) For encircled sound pressure levels in
bands 1–23, let the new soulid pressure level
equal the arithmetic average of the preceding
and following sound pressure levels,
SPL'(i.k)=(#4)[SPL[(i-1),k]+SPL[(i+1),k)]
(c) If the sound pressure level in the
highest frequency band (1=24) is encircled,
let the new sound pressure level in that
band equal
SPL'(24k) =SPL(23,k) +s (23,k).
Step 5. Recompute new slopes s” (1,k), in
cluding one for an imaginary 25-th band, as
follows:
s’ (3, k) =s* (4, k)
s’ (4, k) =SPL’(4, k) –SPL’(3, k)
' (1,k) =SPL’(1,k) –SPL’ſ (1–1),k)
465
App. B
s’ (24, k) =SPL' (24, k) –SPL' (23, k)
s’ (25, k) =s’ (24, k)
Step 6. For i from 3 to 23, compute the
arithmetic average of the three adjacent
slopes as follows:
s(1,k) = (1/3) [s’ (i, k) +s'ſ (1+1), kl
+s’ [ (i+2), k] ]
Step 7. Compute final adjusted one-third
octave-band sound pressure levels, SPL”
(1,k), by beginning with band number 3 and
proceeding to band number 24 as follows:
SPL” (3, k) =SPL(3, k)
SPL” (4. k.) =SPL” (3. k.) +s (3. k.)
spl"ºk) =SPL’ſ (1–1),k]+sſ (1–1),k]
SPL” (24, k) = SPL'' (23, k) +s (23, k)
Step 8. Calculate the differences, F(1,k),
, between the original and the adjusted sound
F(1.k) =SPL(1,k) —SPL" (1,k)
and note only values greater than zero.
Step 9. For each of the 24 one-third octave
bands, determine tone correction factors from
the sound pressure level differences F(i,k)
and Table B2.
Step 10. Designate the largest of the tone
correction factors, determined in Step 9, as
C(k). An example of the tone correction
procedure is given in Table B3.
Tone corrected perceived noise levels
PNLT(k) are determined by adding the C(k)
values to corresponding PNL (k) values, that
ls,
PNLT(k) = PNL(k) +c(k)
For any 1-th one-third octave band, at any
k-th increment of time, for which the tone
correction factor is suspected to result from
something other than (or in addition to) an
actual tone (or any spectral irregularity
other than aircraft noise), an additional
analysis may be made using a filter with a
bandwidth narrower than one-third of an
octave. If the narrow band analysis cor
roborates that suspicion, then a revised value
for the background sound pressure level,
SPL’’ (1,k), may be determined from the
analysis and used to compute a revised tone
correction factor, F(1,k), for that particular
One-third Octave band.
Section B36.4 Macfm?urn tone corrected
perceived noise level. The maximum tone
corrected perceived noise level, PNLTM, is
the maximum calculated value of the tone
corrected perceived noise level, PNLT(k), cal
culated in accordance with the procedure of
§ B36.3 of this Appendix. Figure B2 is an ex
ample of a flyover noise time history where
the maximum value is clearly indicated.
Half-second time intervals, At, are small
enough to obtain a satisfactory noise time
history.
App. B Title 14—Aeronautics and Space

eſ-----|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--
7 L -

co 6 H.
* 500 - f =~ 5000 HZ

95 H
º
.9

§ 4F
5
O 3 H.
co
c

19 2 H.
f ~ 500 HZ
1 – f S- 5000 HZ -

0 L-L-l |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--
0 5 10 15 20 25

Level Difference F, dB

Level Tone
Frequency Difference Correction
f, HZ
F, dB C, dà

F 2 3 0
50 = f < 500 3 - F - 20 F/6
20 < F 3 1/3

F ~ 3 O
500 => f = 5000 3 z F - 20 F/3
20 - F 6 2/3

F ~ 3 O
5000 < f < 10000 3 × F - 20 F/6
20 < F 3 1/3

Table B2.. Tone Correction Factors

§
466
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration App. B

(i) (2) (3) (3) (3) (3) (7) (3) (D)

Band | f | SPL | S || AS] | SPL' | S' 5 SPL" F C.
(i) || HZ dB | dB dB dB dB | dB dB dB | dB
Step |Step |Step |Step | Step Step | Step Step
l 2 4 5 6 7 8 9

l 50 || – - - - - - - - -

2 63 - - - - - - - - -

3 80 || 70 - || 70 || -8 |-2 1/3 70
- -

4 100 || 62 || – 8 || – 62 -8 |+3 1/3 || 67 2/3 || –

5 125 (7) || (3) 13 || 7 || 9 || E3 2/3 || 7] -

6 160T 86 TTL || 2 || 30 || 3 || 2 2/3 |77 273 || 2 l/3

7 200 [T32 ||(2) 8 || 82 T2 T-TV3 || 30, 173 || 2/3
8 250 (33) | | | | | | 79 -3 ||—l L/3 |79 4 2/3
9 315|| 73 |--| 8 || 76 T-3 || ||73 |77 273 -
10 400 (80) || KZ) l l 7 +2 || 4-l 78 2
|| 500 || 80 O || 4 || 80 || +2 || 0 79 l
12 630 || 79 || – | | | 79 || – || || 0 79 -

13 800 78 – 1 || 0 || 78 –l – 1/3 || 79 -

14 || 1000 || 80 | + 2 || 3 || 80 +2 – 2/3|78 2/3 || 1 1/3

15 1250 78 – 2 || 4 || 78 –2 || – 1/3 || 78 -

16 | 1600l 76 || - 2 || 0 || 76 l =2 | l/3177. 2/3 || -

17 2000 || 79 || 4 3 || 5 || 79 +3 || 4 | 78 l

º
:
i8 || 2500 (85) || + 6 || 3 || 79
ISTT3]50T 73 L-(6), 12
O |- 1/3 || 79
OT-2 2/3 F8 273 TV3
6
79
[2]

-
20 | 4000 || 78 || – || 5 || 78 —l |-6 l/3 |76 2
2TT5000TWiT -(7) || 3 || 7 |T-7 TI-8 39 273 || ||73
22 i 6300 || 60 | – l 4 || 60 | – || |-8 273 || 6 || 2/3 || –
23 8000 || 54 || – 6 5 54 || -6 |-8 53 l 0
24 || 0000 || 45 - 9 || 3 || 45 -9 || – 45 -

–9

Step l (3)(i) - (3) (i-1) Step 6 | [(7) (i) + (7) (i+1)

Step 2 || |(4) (i) - (3) (i-1)| + (7) (i+2)] + 3
Step 3 see instructions Step 7 (9) (i-1)+(3)(i-1)
Step 4 see instructions Step 8 (3)(i) - (3)(i)
Step 5 (3)(i) - (6) (i-1) Step 9 see Table B2.

Table B3. Example of Tone Correction Calculation

for a Turbofan Engine
If there are no pronounced irregularities in PNL(k). For this case, PNLTM would be the
the spectrum, then the procedure of 5 B36.3 maximum value of PNL(k) and would equal
of this Appendix would be redundant since PNLM.
PNLT(k) would be identically equal to Section B36.5 Duration correction. The

467
App. B Title 14—Aeronautics and Space

PNLTM

§§
Qix -

9 H.
q) –1 PNLT (k
-U or
# -5
Q
>

; 9:
O A t
q) "2.

r
#3

t(1) t(2)
Flyover Time t, sec.
Figure B2. Example of Perceived Noise Level Corrected
for Tones as a Function of Aircraft Flyover
Time

duration correction factor D is determined Using the above values, the equation for D
by the integration technique defined by the becomes
expression: 2d

D=10 log [artſ. ant (PNLT/10] at]-PNLTM D = 10 log [:

where T is a normalizing time constant,
PNLTM is the maximum value of PNLT, and
t(1) and t(2) are the limits of the significant
noise time history.
Since PNLT is calculated from measured
values of SPL, there will, in general, be no
obvious equation for PNLT as a function of
time. Consequently, the equation can be re
written with a summation sign instead of an
integral sign as follows:
d/at
D=10 log [art) 2. At ant
k--
PNLtdoſio]-PNLTM
where At is the length of the equal incre
ments of time for which PNLT(k) is calcu
lated and d is the time interval
nearest 1.0 second during which PNLT(k) is
within a specified value, h, of PNLTM.
Half-second time intervals for At are small
enough to obtain a satisfactory history of the
perceived noise level. A shorter time interval
may be selected by the applicant provided
aproved limits and constants are used.
The following values for 'I', At, and h, must
be used in calculating D:
T=10 sec,
/\t- 0.5 sec, and
h = 10 dB.
k-e
ant (PNLtºnoj-PNLTM-H
where the integer d is the duration time
defined by the points that are 10 dB less
than PNLTM.
If the 10 dB-down points fall between cal
culated PNLT(k) values (the usual case),
the applicable limits for the duration time
must be chosen from the PNLT (k) values
closest to PNLTM – 10. For those cases with
more than one peak value of PNLT (k), the
applicable limits must be chosen to yield the
largest possible value for the duration time.
If the value of PNLT(k) at the 10 dB
down points is 90 PNdB or less, the value of
d may be taken as the time interval between
the initial and the final times for which
PNLT(k) equals 90 PNdB.
to the
Section B36.6 Effective perceived noise
level. The total subjective effect of an air
craft flyover is designated “effective per
ceived noise level,” EPNL, and is equal to
the algebraic sum of the maximum value of
the tone corrected perceived noise level,
PNLTM, and the duration correction, D.
That is,
EPNL – PNLTM 4-D
where PNLTM and D are calculated under
$$ B36.4 and B36.5 of this appendix.
The above equation can be rewritten by
substituting the equation for D from ; B365
of this appendix, that is,

468
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration App. B

3d one or two straight lines depending upon the

EPNL=10 log [:
*-0
ant (PNLT&/10]
Section B36.7 Mathematical formulation
of noy tables. The relationship between sound
pressure level and perceived noisiness given
in Table B1 is illustrated in Figure B3. The
variation of SPL with log n for a given one
third octave band can be expressed by either
–13
frequency range. Figure B3(a) illustrates the
double line case for frequencies below 400
Hz, and above 6,300 Hz and Figure B3(b)
illustrates the single line case for all other
frequencies.
The important aspects of the mathematical
formulation are: -

-1
a
un

&
9 SPL (a)
-> |
w
§ I

Tº SPL (b) |
-> 2^ | f < 400 HZ
3 .* | f = 6300 HZ
, ºr I

SPL (c) * | (a)

I

log n(a)
Log Perceived Noisiness, log n

-:

-
n
vo

º -à
>

&
. s
~
:2
sº
a

g
3 400 - f < 6300 HZ

SPL (c) (b)

Log Perceived Noisiness, log n

Figure B3. Sound Pressure Level as a Function of Noys.
46.)
App. C Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
1. the slopes of the straight lines, p(b) Table B4 lists the values of the important
and p (C), constants necessary to calculate sound
2. the intercepts of the lines on the SPL pressure level as a function of perceived
axis, SPL(b), and SPL (c), and noisiness.
3. the coordinates of the discontinuity, APPENDIx C–Norse LEVELS FOR SUBSONIC
SPL(a), and log n(a). TRANSPORT CATEGORY and TURBouet
The equations are as follows: PowerED AIRPLANEs UNDER § 36.201

Case 1. Figure B3(a), f <400 Hz. Section C.36.1 Noise measurement and
f > 6300 Hz. evaluation. Compliance with this appendix
must be shown with noise levels measured
p(c) SPL(b) —p (b) SPL(c)
SPL(a) = and evaluated as prescribed, respectively, by
p(c) — p(b) Appendix A and Appendix B of this part, or
under approved equivalent procedures.
SPL (c) — SPL(b) Section C36.3 Noise measuring points.
log n (a) = Compliance with the noise level standards
p(b) — p(c) of § C36.5 must be shown—
(a) SPL(b) < SPL: SPL(a). (a) For takeoff, at a point 3.5 nautical
miles from the start of the takeoff roll on the
SPL–SPL(b) extended centerline of the runway;
n = ant
(b) For approach, at a point 1 nautical
(b) mile from the threshold on the extended
(b) SPL =SPL(a). centerline of the runway; and
SPL–SPL(c) (c) For the sideline, at the point, on a line
n=ant parallel to and 0.25 nautical miles from the
p(c) extended centerline of the runway, where
the noise level after liftoff is greatest, except
(c) 0 = log n = log n(a). that, for airplanes powered by more than
SPL=p(b) log n+SPL(b) three turbojet engines, this distance must
(d) log n > log n(a). be 0.35 nautical miles.
SPL=p(c) log n+SPL(c) Section C36.5 Noise levels—(a) General.
Case 2. Figure B3(b),400 =f -6300 Hz. Except as provided in paragraphs (b) and
(c) of this section, it must be shown by
(a) SPL:SPL(c). flight test that the noise levels of the air
SPL–SPL(c) plane, at the measuring points prescribed in
n = ant p(c)
§ 36.3, do not exceed the following (with
appropriate interpolation between weights);
(b) log n >0. (1) For approach and sideline, 108
SPL=p(c) log n+SPL(c) EPNdB for maximum weights of 600,000
Let the reciprocals of the slopes be defined as, pounds or more, less 2 EPNdIB per halving
M(b) = 1/p (b) of the 600,000-pound maximum weight down
M(c) = 1/p (c) to 102 EPNdB for maximum weights of 75,-
Then the equations can be written, 000 pounds and under.
Case 1. Figure B3(a), fºº()0 Hz. (2) For takeoff, 108 EPNdIB for maximum
f>6300 Hz. weights of 600,000 pounds or more, less 5
_M(b) SPL(b)—M(c) SPL(c) EPNdB per halving of the 600,000-pound
SPL(a) = M(b) —M.(c) maximum weight down to 93 EPNdE for max
imum weights of 75,000 pounds and under.
_M(b) M(c) (SPL(c)—SPL(b)] (b) Tradeoff. The noise levels in paragraph
log n(a)=– May–Mö–– (a) may be exceeded at one or two of the
measuring points prescribed in § C36.3, if–
(a) SPL(b) < SPL: SPL(a). (1) The sum of the exceedances is not
n=ant M(b) [SPL–SPL(b) ) greater than 3 EPNdB;
(b) SPL = SPL(a). (2) No exceedance is greater than 2
n=ant M(c) (SPL–SPL(c)] EPNdIB; and
(c) 0-log n = log n(a). (3) The exceedances are completely offset
by reductions at other required measuring
_log
SPL- n
ife;4-selº) points.
(c) Prior applications. For applications
(d) log n = log n(a). made before December 1, 1969, for airplanes
powered by more than three turbojet engines
log n with bypass ratios of two or more, the value
SPL=ria, +SPL(c) prescribed in paragraph (b)(1) of this sec
tion may not exceed 5 EPNdIB and the value
Case 2. Figure B3(b), 400 -f- 6300 Hz. prescribed in paragraph (b)(2) of this sec
(a) SPL P. SPL(c). tion may not exceed 3 EPNdE.
n=ant M(c) [SPL–SPL(c)]
Section C36.7 Takeoff test conditions. (a)
(b) log n > 0. Except as provided in § 36.1 (c) (2) this
log n section applies to all takeoffs conducted in
spºtspute) showing compliance with this part.

470
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration App. C

M(b) SPL SPL M(c)

(b) (a)
HZ dB dB

50 0.043473 9] 0.030.103
63 0.040570 60 85
80 0.03683] 56 87

125 0.035336 5] 79
160 0.033333 48 76
200 46 74.
250 0.03205) 44 74
0.030675 42 94.

500
l
l 800
14 1000
15 1250
16 1600
17 2000
18 25
19 31 50
20 4000
2] 5000
22 6300
23 8000 0.042285 37
24 10000 -- 4l

Table B4. Constants for Mathematically Formulated NOY Values

(b) Takeoff power or thrust must be used
from the start of the takeoff to the point
at which an altitude of at least 1,000 feet
above the runway is reached, except that,
for airplanes powered by more than three tur
bojet engines, this altitude must not be less
than 700 feet.
(c) Upon reaching the altitude specified
in paragraph (b) of this section, the power
or thrust may not be reduced below that
power or thrust that will provide level flight
with one engine inoperative, or below that
power or thrust that will maintain a climb
gradient of at least 4 percent, whichever
power or thrust is greater.
(d) A speed of at least V2+10 knots must
be attained as soon as practicable after lift
off, and must be maintained throughout the
takeoff noise test.
(e) A constant takeoff configuration, se
lected by the applicant, must be maintained
throughout the takeoff noise test, except
that the landing gear may be retracted.
Section C36.9 Approach test conditions.
(a) This section applies to all approaches
conducted in showing compliance with this
part.
(b) The airplane's configuration must be
that used in showing compliance with the
landing requirements in the airworthiness
regulations constituting the type certifica
tion basis of the airplane. If more than one
configuration is used in showing compliance
with the landing requirements in the air
worthiness regulations constituting the type
certification basis of the airplane, the con
figuration that is most critical from a noise
standpoint must be used.
(c) The approaches must be conducted
with a steady glide angle of 3°--O.5° and
must be continued to a normal touchdown
with no airframe configuration change.
(d) A steady approach speed of not less
than 1.30 Vs--10 knots must be established
and maintained over the approach measur
ing point.
(e) All engines must be operating at ap
proximately the same power or thrust.
[Docket No. 9337,34 F.R. 18364, Nov. 18, 1969,
as amended by Amdt. 36–1, 34 F.R. 18815,
Nov. 25, 1969; 34 FR 19025, Nov. 29, 1969;
Amdt. No. 36–3, 39 FR 43832, Dec. 19, 1974]
EFFECTIVE DATE NoTE: The provisions of
Section S36.7 (a) of Appendix C become ef
fective January 20, 1975. For the convenience
of the user, the superseded text set forth
below is effective through January 19, 1975.
Section C36.7. Takeoff test conditions. (a)
This section applies to all takeoffs conducted
in showing compliance with this part.
APPENDIx D–E [REs ERVED]

471
Port 37 Title 14—Aeronautics cºnd Space
Sec.
PART 37—TECHNICAL STANDARD 37.133 Parachutes—TSO–C23b.
ORDER AUTHORIZATIONS 37.134 Technical Standard Order C24:
Subpcrº A–General “Landing Flares".
Sec. 37.135 Aircraft seats and berths (Type I
87.1 Applicability. transport, 6g forward load)—TSO
37.3 TSO authorization required. C25a.
87.5 Application and issue. 37.136, Aircraft seats and berths—TSO–C39a.
37.7 General rules governing holders of 37.137 Airborne Radio Marker Receiving
TSO authorizations. Equipment—TSO–C35d.
87.9 Approval for deviation. 37.138 VOR radio receiving equipment op
87.11 Design changes. erating within the radio-frequency
37.13 Recordkeeping requirements. range of 108–118 megacycles (for
37.15 FAA inspection. air carrier aircraft)—TSO–C40a.
37.17 Reporting of failures, malfunc 37.139 Airborne radio receiving and direc
tions, and defects. tion finding equipment TSO–C41c.
37, 19 Noncompliance. 37.140 Propeller feathering hose assemblies
87.21 Transferability and duration. (rubber and wire braid construc
37.23 Incorporation by reference. tion) —TSO–C42.
37.141 Aircraft position lights—TSO–C30b
Subpart B–Technical Standard Orders 87.142 Temperature indicators—TSO–C43.
37.111 cargo and baggage compartment 37.143 Fuel Flowmeters—TSO-C44a.
sm o ke detection instruments 37.144 Manifold pressure indicating instru
TSO–C1b. ments—TSO-C45.
37.112 Airspeed indicator (pltot static)- 37.145 Maximum allowable airspeed indi
TSO–C2b. -

37.113 Turn-and-slip indicator (TSO-C3b).
37.114 Bank and pitch instruments (indl
cating gyro-stabilized type) (gy
roscopic horizon, attitude gyro) –
TSO--C4c.
37.115 Direction instrument, non-magnetic,
gyro-stabilized type (directional
gyro)—TSO–C5c.
87.116 Direction instrument,
(gyro-stabilized type)—TSC-C6c.
37.117 Direction instrument, magnetic, non
stabilized type (magnetic corn
pass)—TSO–C7c.
37.118 Rate of climb indicator, pressure
actuated (vertical speed indica
tor) —TSO–C3b.
37.119 Automatic pilots—TSO–C9c.
37.120 Aircraft, altimeter, pressure, actu
ated, sensitive type—TSO–C10b.
87.121 Fire detectors (thermal sensing and
ionization sensing types) –TSO
C11ºl.
37.1.22 Life rafts (twin tube)—TSO–C12c.
37,123 Life preservers—TSO-C13c.
87.124 Aircraft fabric, intermediate grade;
external covering material—TSO
C14a.
87.125 Aircraft fabric, grade A; external
covering material—TSO-C15c.
87.126 Technical Standard Order C16:
- “Air-Speed Tubes (Electrically
Heated) ".
37.127 Fire resistant aircraft sheet and
structural material—TSO–C17a.
37.128 Position light flashers (air-carrier
aircraft) —TSO–C18c.
37.129 Portable water-solution type fire ex
tinguishers—TSO-C19b.
37.130 Technical Standard Order C20:
“Combustion Heaters".
87.131 special aircraft turnbuckle assem
blies and/or turnbuckle safetying
devices—TSO–C21a.
37.132 Safety belts—TSO-C22f.
cator systems—TSO–C46a.
37.146 Pressure instruments—fuel, oil, and
hydraulic—TSO-C47.
37.147 Carbon monoxide detector instru
ments—TSO–C48.
87.148 Electric tachometer: magnetic drag
(for air carrier aircraft)—TSO
C49a.
37.149 Aircraft audio and interphone ampli
magnetic fiers—TSO–C50b.
37.150 Alrcraft flight recorder—TSO–C51a.
87.151 Flight directors—TSO–C52a.
37.152 Fuel and engine oll system hose as
semblies (rubber or tetrafluoroeth
ylene tube and wire braid con
struction)—TSO–C53a.
37.153 Stall warning instruments—TSO
C54.
37.154 Fuel and oil quantity instruments
(for reciprocating engine air
craft) –TSO-C55.
37.155 Engine-driven direct current genera
tors for aircraft certificated under
Part 25–TSO–C56.
37.156 Aircraft headsets and speakers (for
air carrier aircraft)—TSO–C57.
37.157 Aircraft microphones (for air carrier
aircraft)—TSO–C58.
37.158 High Frequency (HF) radio commu
nication transmitting equipment
operating within the radio fre
quency range of 1.5 to 80 mega
cycles (TSO–C31c).
37.159 High Frequency (HF) radio commu
nication receiving equipment oper
ating within the radio frequency
range of 1.5 to 30 megacycles
(TSO–C32c).
37.160 Airborne ILS glide slope receiving
equipment (for air carrier air
craft)—TSO–C34b.
37.161 Airborne ILS localizer receiving
equipment operating within the
radio-frequency range of 108–112
megacycles—TSO-C36b.
472
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration § 37.3

Sec. Sec.
37.162 VHF radio communications trans 37.194 Position light flashers, single-circuit
mitting equipment operating W1th (for non-air-carrier aircraft)—
in the radio-frequency range of TSO–C33.
- 118–136 megacycles—TSO–C37b. 37.195 Airborne Low-Range Radio Altimeter
‘. 37.163 VHF radio communications receiving TSO–C87.
equipment operating within the 37.197 Automatic pressure altitude digitizer
radio-frequency range of 118–136 equipment; TSO-C88.
megacycles—TSO–C38b. 37.198. Oxygen regulators, demand—TSO
37.164 Airborne selective calling equipment C89.
(for air carrier aircraft)—TSO 37.199 Cargo pellets, nets, and containers,
C59. TSO–C90.
37.165 Airborne Loran. A receiving equip
37.200 Emergency locator transmitters—
ment operating within the radio TSO–C91.
frequency range of 1800–2000 kilo
cycles (for air carrier aircraft)— AUTHoRITY: The provisions of this Part 37
TSO–C60. issued under secs. 313, 601, 72 Stat. 752, 775;
37.166 Portable aircraft emergency com 49 U.S.C. 1354, 1421, unless otherwise noted.
munications equipment (for air Source: The provisions of this Part 37 con
carrier aircraft)—TSO-C61a. tained in Docket No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov.
37.167 aircraft tires—TSO–C62b.
17, 1964 unless otherwise noted.
37.168 Airborne weather radar equipment
TSOC–63b. NOTE: For miscellaneous amendments to
87.169 Oxygen mask assembly, continuous cross references in this Part 37, see Amdt.
flow, passenger (for air carrier 37–6, 31 FF. 9211, July 6, 1966.
aircraft)—TSO–C64.
37.170 Airborne doppler radar ground speed Subpart A–General
and/or drift angle measuring § 37.1 Applicability.
equipment (for air carrier air
craft)—TSO–C65. (a) This part prescribes—
37.171 Airborne distance measuring equip (1) Requirements for the issue of
ment (air carrier aircraft)—TSO Technical Standard Order Authoriza
C66a. tions; and
37.172 Aircraft wheels and brakes—TSO (2) Technical Standard Orders (here
C28a.
after referred to in this part as “TSO’s”)
37.173 Airborne radar altimeter equipment
(for air carrier alreraft)—TSO– containing minimum performance and
C67. quality control standards for specified
37.174 Airborne automatic dead reckoning materials, parts, or appliances (here
computer equipment utilizing air after referred to in this part as “arti
craft heading and doppler-obtained cles”) used on civil aircraft.
ground speed and drift angle data (b) The performance standards in
(for air carrier aircraft)—TSO each TSO are those that the Adminis
C68.
trator finds necessary to ensure that the
37.175 Emergency evacuation slides—TSO article concerned will Operate Satisfac
C69.
37.176 Liferafts (nonreversible)—TSO–C70. torily or will accomplish satisfactorily
37.177 Airborne static (“DC to DC”) electri its intended purpose under specifled
cal power converter (for air car conditions.
rier aircraft)—TSO–C71. (c) An article manufactured under a
37.178 Individual flotation devices—TSO TSO authorization or an FAA letter of
C72b.
37.179 statto electrical
acceptance as described in § 37.3(b), is
power inverter—
Tso-C73. an approved article for the purpose of
87.180 Airborne ATC transponder equip meeting the regulations of this chapter
ment—TSO-C74c. that require the article to be approved.
37.181 Hydraulic hose assemblies—TSO (d) For the purposes of this part, a
C75. manufacturer is a person who controls
37.182 Fuel drain valves—TSO–C76. the design and quality of an article pro
37.183 Gas turbine auxiliary power units— duced under the TSO system (or to be
TSO–C77.
Crew member demand
produced, in the case of an application)
37.184 oxygen
masks—TSO–C78. including the parts thereof and any proc
87.185 Fire detectors (radiation sensing esses or services related thereto that are
type)—TSO–C79. procured from an outside source.
37.186 Flexible fuel and oil cell material—
TSO–C80. § 37.3 TSO authorization required.
37.190 Cockpit voice recorder—TSO-C84. (a) Except as provided in paragraph
37.191 Burvivor locator lights—TSO-C85. (b) of this Section, no perSOn may iden
37.192 Twin Seaplane Floats—TSO–C27. tify an article with a TSO marking un
37.193 Aircraft Skis–TSO–C28. less he holds a TSO authorization and

39–059–75 31
47:
§ 37.5 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
the article meets applicable TSO
standards.
(b) The holder of an FAA letter of
acceptance of a statement of conform
ance issued for an article before July 1,
1962, may continue to manufacture that
article without obtaining a TSO authori
zation, but shall comply with the re
quirements of §§ 37.7 through 37.21.
§ 37.5 Application and issue.
(a) The manufacturer (or his author
ized agent) must submit an application
for a TSO authorization, together with
the following documents, to the Chief,
Engineering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, of the region
in which the manufacturer is located (or,
in the case of the Western Region, the
Chief, Aircraft Engineering Division):
(1) A statement of conformance Cer
tifying that the applicant has met the
requirements of this subpart and that
the article concerned meets the appli
cable performance standards of Subpart
B of this part.
(2) Copies of the technical data re
quired in the applicable performance
standards of Subpart B of this part, un
less a lesser number of copies is author
ized by Chief, Engineering and Manu
facturing Branch in the region in which
the manufacturer is located or in the
case of the Western Region, the Chief,
Aircraft Engineering Division.
(3) A description of his quality con
trol system in the detail Specified in
§ 21.143 of this chapter.
In complying with this paragraph, the
manufacturer may refer to current qual
ity control data filed with the FAA as a
part of a previous application. When a
Series of minor changes in accordance
with $ 37.11 is anticipated, the manu
facturer may set forth in his applica
tion the basic model number of the arti
cle with open brackets after it to denote
that suffix change letters will be added
from time to time.
(b) After receiving the application
and other documents required by para
graph (a) of this Section to Substantiate
the manufacturer's compliance with this
part and his ability to produce duplicate
articles under this part, the Adminis
trator issues a TSO authorization to the
manufacturer to identify the article with
the applicable TSO marking.
(c) If the application is deficient, the
applicant must, when requested by the
Administrator, submit any additional in
formation necessary to show compliance
474
With this part. If the applicant fails to
submit the additional information within
30 days after the Administrator's re
quest, his application is denied and the
applicant is so notified.
(d) The Administrator issues or de
nies the application within 30 days after
its receipt or, if additional information
has been requested, within 30 days after
receiving that information.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 37–29, 36 F.R. 15, Jan. 1,
1971)
§ 37.7 General rules governing holders
of TSO authorizations.
Each manufacturer of an article for
Which a TSO authorization has been is
sued under this part must—
(a) Manufacture the article in ac
Cordance with Subpart A of this part and
the applicable requirements of Subpart
B of this part;
(b) Conduct all required tests and in
Spections, and establish and maintain a
quality control System adequate to en
Sure that the article meets the require
ments of paragraph (a) of this section
and is in condition for safe operation;
(c) Prepare and maintain, for each
model of each article for which a TSO
authorization has been issued, a current
file of complete technical data and rec
ords in accordance with $ 37.13; and
(d) Permanently and legibly mark
each article to which this section applies
with the following information:
(1) The name and address of the
manufacturer.
(2) The name, type, or model desig
nation of the article.
(3) The nominal weight of the article,
which must be within +0.2 pounds of
the actual weight or +3 percent of the
actual weight, whichever is greater, ex
cept that the difference between the
weight marked on the article and the
actual Weight of the article may not
exceed -- 10 pounds.
(4) The serial number or the date of
manufacture of the article, or both.
(5) The applicable TSO number.
[Docket No. 5065, 29 FR 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 37–36, 38 FR 14265,
May 31, 1973]
§ 37.9 Approval for deviation.
_(a) Each manufacturer who requests
approval to deviate from any perform
ance standard of Subpart B of this paſt
must show that the standards from
which a deviation is requested are COIn
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
pensated for by factors or design fea
tures providing an equivalent level of
Safety.
(b) The request for approval to de
viate, together with all pertinent data,
must be submitted to the Chief, Engi
neering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, of the region
in which the manufacturer is located
(or, in the case of the Western Region,
the Chief, Aircraft Engineering Divi
Sion).
§ 37.11 Design changes.
(a) Minor changes by the manufac
turer holding the authorization. The
manufacturer of an article under an
: authorization issued under this part may
make minor design changes (any change
other than a major change) without
further approval by the Administrator.
In this case, the changed article keeps
the original model number and the
manufacturer shall forward to the ap
propriate Chief, Engineering and Manu
facturing Branch (in the case of the
Western Region, the Chief, Aircraft Engi
neering Division), any revised data that
is necessary for compliance with $ 37.5
(a).
(b) Major changes by manufacturer
holding the authorization. Any design
change by the manufacturer that is ex
tensive enough to require a substantially
complete investigation to determine com
pliance with Subpart B of this part is a
major change. Before making such a
change, the manufacturer must assign
a new type or model designation to the
article and apply for an authorization
under § 37.5.
(c) Changes by person other than
manufacturer. No design change by any
person (other than the manufacturer
who submitted the statement of con
formance for the article) is eligible for
approval under this part, unless the per
son seeking the approval is a manufac
turer and applies under § 37.5(a). Per
sons other than a manufacturer may Ob
tain approval for design changes under
Part 43 or under the applicable air
worthiness regulations.
§ 37.13 Recordkeeping requirements.
(a) Keeping of records. Each manu
facturer holding a TSO authorization
under this part shall, for each article
manufactured under that authorization,
keep the following records at his factory:
(1) A complete and Current technical
data flle for each type or model article,
475
§ 37.17
including design drawings and specifl
cations.
(2) Complete and current inspection
records showing that all inspections and
tests required to assure compliance with
this part have been properly done and
documented.
(b) Retention of records. The manu
facturer shall retain the records de
scribed in paragraph (a) (1) of this sec
tion until he no longer manufactures the
article concerned under this part. At
that time, he shall send copies of these
records to the Administrator. The man
ufacturer shall retain the records de
Scribed in paragraph (a)(2) of this sec
tion for a period of at least two years.
§ 37.15 FAA inspection.
Upon the request of the Administrator,
each manufacturer of an article under a
TSO authorization shall allow the Ad
ministrator to inspect—
(a) Any article manufactured under
that authorization;
(b) The manufacturer's quality con
trol inspections and tests;
(c) The manufacturing facilities; and
(d) The technical data files on that
article.
§ 37.17 Reporting of failures, malfunc
tions, and defects.
(a) After January 3, 1971, except as
provided in paragraph (d) of this sec
tion, each manufacturer holding a TSO
authorization under this part, shall re
port any failure, malfunction, or defect
in any article manufactured by it that
it determines has resulted in any of the
Occurrences listed in paragraph (c) of
this section.
(b) After January 3, 1971, each manu
facturer holding a TSO authorization
under this part, shall report any defect
in any article manufactured by it that
has left its quality control system and
that it determines could result in any of
the occurrences listed in paragraph (c)
Of this section.
(c) The following occurrences must be
reported as provided in paragraphs (a)
and (b) of this section:
(1) Fires caused by a system or equip
ment failure, malfunction, or defect.
(2) An engine exhaust system failure,
malfunction, or defect which causes
damage to the engine, adjacent aircraft
structure, equipment, or components.
(3) The accumulation or circulation
of toxic or noxious gases in the crew
Compartment or passenger cabin.
§ 37.19 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(4) A malfunction, failure, or defect of
a propeller control system.
(5) A propeller or rotorcraft hub or
blade structural failure.
(6) Flammable fluid leakage in areas
where an ignition Source normally
exists.
(7) A brake system failure caused by
structural or material failure during
Operation.
(8) A sigificant aircraft primary Struc
tural defect or failure caused by any
autogenous condition (fatigue, under
strength, corrosion, etc.).
(9) Any abnormal vibration or buffet
ing caused by a structural or system mal
function, defect, or failure.
(10) An engine failure.
(11) Any structural or flight control
system malfunction, defect, or failure,
which causes interference with normal
control of the aircraft or which dero
gates the flying qualities.
(12) A complete loss of more than one
electrical power generating system of
hydraulic power system during a given
operation of the aircraft.
(13) A failure or malfunction of more
than one attitude, airspeed, or altitude
instrument during a given operation of
the aircraft.
(d) The requirements of paragraph
(a) of this section do not apply to—
(1) Failures, malfunctions, and de
fects that the holder of a TSO
authorization—
(i) Determines were caused by im
proper maintenance or improper usage;
(ii) Knows were reported to the FAA
by another person under the Federal
Aviation Regulations; Or
(iii) Has already reported under the
accident reporting provisions of Part 430
of the regulations of the National
Transportation Safety Board.
(2) Failures, malfunctions, or defects
in articles manufactured by a foreign
manufacturer and exported to
United States under § 21.502 of
chapter.
(e) Each report required by
Section—
(1) Shall be made to the FAA Re
gional Office in which the holder is lo
cated within 24 hours after the holder
has determined that the failure, mal
function, or defect required to be re
ported has occurred, except that a report
due on a Saturday or a Sunday may be
delivered on the following Monday and
one that is due on a holiday may be
delivered on the next workday;
(2) Shall be transmitted in a manner
and form acceptable to the Adminis
trator by the most expeditious method
available; and
(3) Shall include as much of the fol
lowing information on the article as is
available and applicable:
(i) Aircraft serial number.
(ii) Article serial number.
(iii) Article model designation.
(iv) Identification of the part, com
ponent, or System involved. The identifi
cation must include the part number.
(W) Nature of the failure, malfunction,
Or defect.
(f) Whenever the investigation of an
accident or service difficulty report shows
that an article manufactured under a
TSO authorization is unsafe because of a
manufacturing or design defect, the
Inanufacturer shall, upon the request of
the Administrator, report to the Admin
istrator the results of his investigation
and any action, taken or proposed by the
manufacturer to correct that defect. If
action is required to correct the defect
in existing articles, the manufacturer
shall Submit to the Chief, Engineering
and Manufacturing Branch (in the case
of the Western Region, the Chief, Air
craft Engineering Division), FAA
Regional Office in the region in which
he is located, the data necessary for the
issue of an appropriate airworthiness
directive.
[Amdt. 37–26, 35 F.R. 18188, Nov. 28, 1970, as
sº by Amdt. 37–27, 35 F.R. 18450, Dec
§ 37.19 Noncompliance.
The Administrator may, upon notice,
withdraw the TSO authorization of any
manufacturer who identifles With a TSO
marking an article not meeting the ap
ºble performance standards of this
part.
§ 37.21 Transferability and duration.
the
this An authorization issued under this
part is not transferable and is effective
this until Surrendered, or withdrawn or
otherwise terminated by the Adminis
trator.
§ 37.23 Incorporation by reference.
In accordance with 5 U.S.C. 552(a)(1).
the technical publications to which refer
ence is made in TSOs in Subpart B, and
which have been prepared by organiza
tions other than the FAA, are incorpo
rated and made a part of such TSOs.
The incorporated technical publications
476
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
are available for inspection at Federal
* Aviation Administration, 800 Independ
ence Avenue SW., Washington,
* 20590. Additional availability will be indi
cated as appropriate in particular TSOs.
: [Amdt. 37–18, 34 F.R. 9851, June 26, 1069)
Subpart B–Technical Standard
Orders
§ 37.111 Cargo and baggage compart
ment smoke detection instruments—
TSO–CI b.
g
: (a) Applicability. This technical
: standard order prescribes the minimum
performance standards that cargo and
baggage compartment Smoke detection
instruments must meet in order to be
identified with the applicable TSO mark
ing. New models of equipment that are
to be so identified, and that are manu
factured on or after March 24, 1967, must
meet the requirements of the “Federal
Aviation Standard, Cargo and Baggage
Compartment Smoke Detection Instru
ments” set forth at the end of this
section.
(b) Marking. In addition to
markings specified in § 37.7, the equip
ment must be marked to indicate the
following:
(1) Eligibility for installation in either
piston or turbine-powered aircraft, or
both.
(2) Operational ratings (electrical,
vacuum, etc.).
(c) Data requirements. The techni
cal data to be submitted in accordance
with $ 37.5 (a) (2) is as follows:
(1) Seven copies of the manufactur
er's operating instructions, equipment
limitations, and installation procedures;
and
(2) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Smoke detector models approved prior
to March 24, 1967, may continue to be
manufactured under the provisions of
their original approval.
FEDERAL AvīATION STANDARD CARGO AND
BAGGagº Cox'ſ PaRTMENT SMoRE DETECTION
INSTRUMENTS
1. Purpose. This document provides mini
rnum performance standards and test pro
cedures for cargo and baggage compartment
sInoke detection instruments Which are to
be approved under this TSO.
2. Classification. Smoke detection instru
rinents are classified by method of detection
as follows:
Type I—Measurement of carbon monoxide
gas (CO detectors).
§ 37.111
Type II—Measurement of light transmis
sibility in air (photoelectric devices).
Type III—Visual detection of the presence
D.C.
of smoke by directly viewing air samples
(visual devices).
3. Minimum performance standards. Ex
cept where otherwise indicated, the mini
mum performance standards of this section
are applicable to Types I, II, and III instru
ments. The term “instrument”, wherever
referred to in this TSO, does not include any
lengths of tubing used to conduct air sam
ples from sampling stations to testing
stations.
3.1 Type characteristics. The instru
ments must perform as follows:
Type I—By testing air for carbon mon
oxide content, the instrument must be
capable of actuating an alarm (or control)
circult at all concentrations of CO that are
0.025 percent and greater by volume. At
concentrations over 0.015 but less than 0.025
percent the instrument may actuate the cir
cuit but at concentrations 0.015 percent and
less, it must not actuate the circuit.
Type II—By testing air for smoke content
of all colors or particle sizes, the instrument
must be capable of actuating an alarm (or
control) circuit to indicate the presence of
smoke particles at all concentrations at
which the light transmission percentage is
the 60 percent or less. At light transmission
percentages over 60 but less than 96, the
instrument may actuate the circuit but at
percentages 96 and over, it must not actuate
the circuit. Light transmission percentage
is defined as the light falling on a photo
electric cell through a 1-foot distance oc
cupied by smoke particles in air, expressed
as a percentage of the 11ght transmitted
through 1 foot of clean air.
Type III—By testing air for the presence
of smoke of all colors or particle sizes, the
instrument must provide a visual display
to indicate clearly all smoke concentrations
in which the light transmission percentage
is 60 percent or less. The instrument may,
but is not required to, indicate smoke con
centrations for which the light transmission
percentage is over 60. Light transmission
percentage is as defined for Type II
instruments.
3.2 Materials. Smoke detection instru
ments must be constructed of materials of a
quality that experience or tests or both
have demonstrated to be suitable and de
pendable for use in aircraft application.
3.3 False alarm signals. Type I and Type
II instruments conforming to the require
ments of this standard must not actuate the
alarm (or control) circuit as a result of
dust and haze normally present in the cargo
compartment, nor of the dust that normally
accumulates Within the instrument. The
design must be such that the instrument
will not produce a false alarm (or control)
signal as a result of abnormal attitudes,
ambient light conditions, variations in volt
age between 0 and 125 percent of the rated
value, nor of accelerations encountered dur
ing takeoff, flight, and landing.
A-A-
4( .
§ 37.111 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
8.4 Functional test provisions. Type I affected by exposure to the range of temper
and Type II instrument design must incor ature shown in Column B below:
porate a means for testing the functioning
of the system in flight. Instrument location A. B
3.5 Response time. Type I and Type II
instruments must be designed to actuate an
alarm (or control) circuit, and Type III in Heated areas (tem- –30° to 50° C. -65° to 70° C.
perature con
struments to show visually the presence of trolled).
smoke, within a maximum time period of Unheated areas (tem- || –55° to 70° C. -65° to 70° C.
30 seconds after an air sample, applicable to perature uncon
the type of instrument, is introduced into trolled).
the instrument. Air samples used to
demonstrate compliance with this paragraph 4.2 Altitude. Each instrument type must
must contain the concentrations of carbon be designed to function properly from sea
monoxide or possess the light transmission level up to the altitudes listed below. The
characteristics, as applicable, specified in instrument must not be adversely affected
paragraph 3.1. when subjected to an ambient pressure of
8.6 Air sampling cycle. An instrument 50 inches of mercury absolute.
designed to sample the air from more than Instrument location Altitude (feet)
one sampling station on a cycling basis must Pressurized areas------------------- 15,000
cycle at a rate sufficient to sample all sta
tions within a total time of one minute. Nonpressurized areas--------------- 45,000
When an alarm signal is given, the signal 4.3 Vibration. Each instrument type
must indicate the location in which the must be designed to function properly and
smoke or gas is being detected and must not be adversely affected when subjected to
continue to do so until the condition is vibrations of the following characteristics:
eliminated. The instrument must begin
cycling in a normal manner within 30 Fre- Maxi
seconds after the alarm signal is cleared. quency inunn Maxi
3.7 Environmental ranges. The design cycles double naura

of any instrument conforming to this stand per ampli- | accelera

Second I tude in tion
ard must ensure that it is capable of func inches
tioning without being adversely affected
following prolonged exposure to the ranges
of environmental conditions as stated under Piston engine powered:
section 4. Wings or empennage- 5–500 0.036 10g
Fuselage-------------- 5-500 .036 5g
8.8 Power variation. Each instrument Panel or rack (vibra
type must be designed to ensure proper tion isolated)------ 5-50 . 020 1.5g
Turbine engine
functioning with the following variations of powered:
power parameters (where applicable) from Fuselage
rated values: d.c. voltage, -- 15 percent; a.c. Forward of spar
voltage, -- 10 percent; frequency, +5 percent. area-------------- 5-500 .036
Center of spar area-- 5-1000 . 036 4g
3.9 Explosion protection. Where the in Aft of spar area----- 5–500 . 036 7g
strument is intended to be installed in areas 500-1000 ---------- 5g
of the airplane where flammable fluids or Vibration isolated
rack-------------- 5–1000 030 1g
vapors might be liberated by leakage or fail Instrument panel--- 0 | .020 !----------
ure in fluid systems, design precautions 30-1000 ! ---------- 25g
must be made to safeguard against the
ignition of such fluids or vapors due to op
eration of the instrument. 5. Qualification tests. As evidence of com
3.10 Humidity. Each instrument type pliance with this standard, the applicant
must be designed to function properly and must perform evaluation tests on prototype
not be adversely affected following exposure instruments to demonstrate proper design,
to any relative humidity in the range from reliability in performance of its intended
0 to 95 percent at a temperature of approxi functions, and conformity with the perform
ance standards of section 3. Tests and test
mately 70° C.
3.11 Hazards due to malfunction or fail procedures employed for this purpose must
ure. Each instrument type must be de reasonably demonstrate the absence of any
signed to safeguard against hazards to the adverse effect on the instrument's perform
aircraft in the event of malfunction or fail ance due to the following factors: power
ure. The maximum operating temperature variations, pressure and altitude changes,
of any instrument-component surface that humidity changes, high and low temperature
conditions, airplane vibrations and prolonged
comes in contact with air samples must not operational usage.
exceed 200° C.
6. Individual performance. Each instru
4. Environmental conditions. ment manufactured in accordance with this
4.1 Temperature. Each instrument type standard must be capable of meeting all the
must be designed to function properly over performance standards under section S.
the range of ambient temperatures shown Each instrument must be tested so that when
in Column A below and not be adversely an air sample applicable to the type of instru

478
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
tº ºr ment per section 3.1 is introduced into the
instrument under standard atmospheric con
ditions, the alarm (or control) circuit is
actuated (for Type I and II instruments),
or the visual display occurs (for Type III
instruments), in 30 seconds or less.
(Sec. 603, 72 Stat. 776, 49 U.S.C. 1423)
[Amdt. 37–12, 32 F.R. 3142, Feb. 22, 1967]
-*.
§ 37.112 Airspeed indicator (pitot
static)—TS0–C2b.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
:::::: formance standards. Minimum per
*::: formance standards are hereby estab
:: *t lished for airspeed indicators which
ºff specifically are required to be approved
-::s for use in the civil aircraft of the United
States. New models of airspeed indi
Cators (pitot Static) manufactured
for installation on civil aircraft on or
after November 1, 1957, shall meet
the standards set forth in SAE Aero
nautical Standard AS–391B, “Airspeed
Indicator (Pitot Static),” dated Decem
ber 15, 1954.” Airspeed indicators (pitot
static) approved by the Civil Aeronautics
Administration prior to November 1,
1957, may continue to be manufactured
-
under the provisions of their original
º: -
approval.
t (b) Marking. In lieu of the marking
requirement of § 37.7 (c) the range shall
be shown.
(c) Data requirements. With the
: statement of conformance, one copy of
manufacturer's operating instructions,
schematic diagrams, and installation
procedures shall be furnished the Chief,
Engineering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avia
tion Administration, in the region in
which the manufacturer is located.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.113, Turn-and-slip indicator (TSO
C3b).
(a) Applicability. This TSO pre
scribes the minimum performance stand
ards that instruments measuring rate
of-turn and slip (formerly turn-and
bank indicators) must meet in order to be
identified with the applicable TSO mark
ing. New models of equipment that are
to be so identified and that are manu
factured on or after the effective date
of this section, must meet the minimum
performance standards set forth at the
end of this Section.
* Copies may be obtained from the Society
of Automotive Engineers, 485 Lexington Ave
nue, New York 17, New York.
479
§ 37.113
(b) Marking. In addition to the
markings required by § 37.7, the equip
ment must also be marked with the in
strument's operational power rating
(electrical voltage and frequency, air
preSSure).
(c) Data requirements. In accord
ance with $ 37.5, the manufacturer must
furnish the Chief, Engineering and
Manufacturing Branch, Flight Stand
ards Division, Federal Aviation Adminis
tration, in the region in which the manu
facturer is located the following tech
nical data:
(1) Seven copies of the manufacturer's
Operating instructions, equipment limi
tations, installation procedures (includ
ing applicable instrument mounting
angle restrictions).
(2) Information regarding specialized
procedures employed in the calibration
of the instrument, such as the instru
ment slip angle.
(3) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Turn-and-slip indicators (formerly
identified as turn-and-bank indicators),
approved prior to the effective date of
this section may continue to be manu
factured under the provisions of the
Original approval.
FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION STANDARD
Turn-and-slip INDICATOR
1. Purpose. This document provides mini
mum performance standards and test pro
cedures for turn-and-slip indicators which
are to be approved under this TSO.
2. Scope. This standard covers instruments
incorporating or utilizing components that
can sense aircraft angular motions and lat
eral accelerations to indicate aircraft flight
path information in regard to rate-of-turn
and slip motions. It provides for three basic
type of turn-and-slip indicators as follows:
Type I—Driven by air pressure;
Type II—Driven electrically by Direct Cur
rent; and
Type III—Driven electrically by Alternat
ing Current.
3. Performance requirements.
3.1 General.
(a) Materials. Materials must be of a
quality demonstrated to be suitable and de
pendable for use in aircraft instruments.
(b) Environmental conditions. The in
strument must be capable of performing its
intended function and not be adversely
affected during or following prolonged ex
posure to the environmental conditions as
stated under § 4. Where optional environ
mental COnditions are Set forth in the con
dition selected must be declared as an equip
Inent limitation.
§ 37.113 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
3.2 Detail requirements.
(a) Indicating means. Rate-of-turn may
be indicated by means of a pointer, deflecting
in the direction of turn, or by any other
means conforming to the standards of this
TSO. Slip may be indicated by means of a
ball, free to move in a curved transparent
tube, or any other means conforming to the
Standards of this TSO.
(b) Power variation. The instrument
must provide reasonably reliable and useful
indications of aircraft turning and slip mo
tions when operating under rated power con
ditions with variation of—
(1) Plus or minus 30 percent of rated dif
ferential air pressure;
(2) Plus or minus 15 percent of rated DC
voltage; or
(3) Plus or minus 10 percent of rated AC
voltage and +5 percent of rated frequency.
(c) Power malfunction indication. For
Types II and III indicators, means must be
incorporated in the instrument to indicate
when the electrical power being supplied is
outside the lower limit of power variations
specified in paragraph (b) of this section.
Power malfunction must be indicated in a
positive manner.
3.3 Design requirements.
(a) Fire hazard. The instrument must be
designed to safeguard against fire hazards
to the aircraft in the event of malfunction
or failure. Under normal conditions, the
maximum operating temperature of ex
ternal surfaces of the instrument must not
exceed 200° C. due to self-heating.
(b) Magnetic effect. The instrument must
not generate an electromagnetic field which
will introduce a magnetic course error cor
responding to a maximum of 5 degrees de
flection of a free magnet approximately 1%
inches long, in a magnetic field with a hori
zontal intensity of 0.18+0.01 gauss when
the instrument is held in various positions
on an east-west line with its nearest part
12 inches from the center of the magnet.
(c) Visibility. Turn-and-slip indications
must be visible from any point within the
frustum of a cone, the side of which makes
an angle of at least 30 degrees with the per
pendicular to the dial and the small di
ameter of which is the aperture of the in
strument case. The distance between the
dial and the cover glass must be a practical
minimum. At the extreme positions of the
slip indicator, at least 4 of the indicator
must be visible from a point 12 inches
directly in front of the zero position.
(d) Slip indicator characteristics. The slip
indicator must operate freely when the in
strument is rotated about its longitudinal
axis with the dial vertical. The range of slip
angle indications must be at least 8 degrees
either slde of vertical. With the instrument
in its normal position for mounting, the
position of the indicator must be zero +15.2
inch.
(1) Damping. While operating at room
temperature, the time for the slip indicator
to move from the zero position of the slip
480
indication to the rest position must not be
less than 0.2 seconds following a sudden
rotation of the instrument from a position of
12 degrees bank through the vertical to 12
degrees opposite bank. With the tempera
ture of the instrument stabilized at -30° C.
this time must not exceed 4 seconds.
(2) Slip indicator filling. Instruments
using a liquid as a damping medium for the
slip indicator must be so designed and filled
that no part of an air bubble will be visible
from a point 12 inches directly in front of
the instrument. When the instrument is
rotated to an angle of roll of 45°.
(e) Turn indicator characteristics.
(1) Sensitivity.
(1) When the instrument is operating at
room temperature under rated power and
subjected to the turning rates specified in
Column A, the turn indicator deflection, in
inches, must be within the limits of either
Column B or C. The indicator movement
must be smooth.
Column. A Column B Column C
Rate of turn
(degrees per Deflection of indicator (inches)
Inlinute
0 0–1–0.015 0–0.015
36 $$2+}64 14 s—ké4
90 %4==}42 $42–$42
180 %2+%2 $16–%is
360 $46+%6 94 e=}s
NotE.-Column B values pertain to instru
ments set to indicate a standard rate of turn
(180° per minute) with one indicator unit
deflection. Column C provides double this
displacement for instruments providing in
creased sensitivity.
(ii) For instruments possessing display .
features such that the dimensional charac
teristics prescribed by Columns B and C of
subparagraph (1) do not apply, the applicant
may demonstrate that the instrument can
reliably indicate the prescribed rates of turn
(Column A) with clarity and accuracy equiv
alent to that specified in Column B. or C.
(2) Damping. The time for the turn indi
cator or index to return to the zero mark
without crossing the zero mark must be at
least 2, but not more than 4 seconds, when
the instrument is—
(1) Suddenly stopped after being rotated
about its vertical axis at a rate that causes
full-scale pointer or index deflection; and
(11) Operated at room temperature under
rated power in a normal attitude position.
(3) Turn indicator starting. When started
by the application of the instrument's rated .
power, rated performance must be reached
in 3 minutes or less. When started under re
duced power— -
(1) For Type I indicators, the gyro must
start to rotate and continue to run on a
pressure differential not to exceed 50 percent
of rated value. After no more than 5 minutes
 Chapter l—Federal Aviarion Administration
tº: operation at this reduced power, the instru
; it ment must be able to provide an adequate
indication of aircraft turning motions.
(ii) For Types II and III indicators, the
gyro must start to rotate and continue to
run on an applied" power not to exceed 80
percent of the rated voltage and at rated
frequency. After no more than 5 minutes'
operation at this reduced power, the instru
ment must be able to provide an adequate
indication of aircraft turning motions.
NoTE.—When the instrument is operated
under the reduced power conditions of
$ 3.3(e) (3), the sensitivity and damping re
quirements of $ 3.3(e) (1) and (2) do not
apply.
4. Environmental conditions. The follow
ing ranges of environmental conditions are
appropriate:
: (a) Temperature. The instrument must
provide reasonably reliable and useful indi
cations of aircraft turn-and-slip motions
over the range of ambient temperature of
–30° C. to 50° C. and must not be adversely
affected by exposure to temperatures of —65°
C. to 70° C.
(b) Altitude. The instrument must provide
reasonably reliable and useful indications of
aircraft turn-and-slip motions from — 1,000
feet standard altitude up to the maximum
declared operating altitude. It must not be
adversely affected following exposure to ex
tremes in ambient pressure of 50 and 3 inches
of mercury absolute.
(c) Vibration. The instrument must pro
vide reasonably reliable and useful indica
tions of aircraft turn-and-slip motions and
must not be adversely affected when sub
jected to vibrations as follows:
Instrument Maximum
panel Frequency double
mounted cycles per amplitude
(vibration | second (Inches)
isolated -
Reciprocating 5-50 0.020
engine-powered
aircraft.
Turbineºn-
power
| 5–55 } 0.
020
aircraft. 55–1,000
(d) Humidity. The instrument must pro
vide reasonably reliable and useful indica
tions of aircraft turn-and-slip motions and
must not be adversely affected following ex
posure to any relative humidity in the range
of 0 to 95 percent at a temperature of ap
proximately 70° C.
5. Compliance testing. As evidence of com
pliance with this standard, the manufacturer
must perform evaluation tests on prototype
instruments to demonstrate proper design,
reliability in performance of its intended
functions, and conformity with all of the
performance standards of section 3. Tests
must be performed to demonstrate compli
ance with the environmental
specified in § 4.
§ 37.114
6. Individual performance t e s ts. The
manufacturer must conduct tests or checks
of each instrument as may be necessary to
assure that it will function properly and
will individually meet the minimum perform
ance requirements of section 3.3 (c), 3.3(d),
and 3.3(e) (1) and (2) of this TSO.
[Amdt. No. 37–13, 32 F.R. 12109, Aug. 23,
1967]
§ 37.114 Bank and pitch instruments
(indicating gyro-stabilized type)
(gyroscopic horizon, attitude
gyro)—TS0—C4c.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for bank and pitch instruments
(indicating gyro-stabilized type) (gyro
scopic horizon, attitude gyro) which
specifically are required to be approved
for use on civil aircraft of the United
States. New models of bank and pitch
instruments (indicating gyro-stabilized
type) (gyroscopic horizon, attitude gyro)
manufactured for installation on civil
aircraft on or after April 1, 1959, shall
meet the standards set forth in SAE
Aeronautical Standard AS–396B, “Bank
and Pitch Instruments (Indicating
Stabilized Type) (Gyroscopic Horizon,
Attitude Gyro),” dated July 15, 1958?
with the exceptions listed in subpara
graph (2) of this paragraph. Bank and
pitch instruments (indicating gyro
stabilized type) (gyroscopic horizon, at
titude gyro) approved prior to April 1,
Maximum
1959, may continue to be manufactured
accelera under the provisions of their original
tion approval.
(2) Eacceptions. (1) Conformance
with the following sections is not re
1.5g
quired: 3.1; 3.1.1; 3.1.2; 3.2; 4.3.5.
0
.25g
(ii) Substitute the following for Sec
tion 7: “Performance tests: The fol
| lowing tests, in addition to any others
deemed necessary by the manufacturer,
shall be the basis for determining Com
pliance with the performance require
ments of this standard.”
(b) Marking. In lieu of the weight
specified in paragraph (c) of § 37.7, the
rating if applicable, i.e., electrical,
vacuum, etc., shall be shown.
(c) Data requirements. With the
statement of conformance, one copy each
of the manufacturer's operating instruc
tions, schematic diagrams, and installa
1 Copies may be obtained from the Society
conditions of Automotive Engineers, Inc., 485 Lexington
Avenue, New York 17, New York.
481
§ 37.115 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
tion procedures shall be furnished the
Chief, Engineering and Manufacturing
Branch, Flight Standards Division, Fed
eral Aviation Administration, in the
region in which the manufacturer is
located.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 Fr. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.115 Direction instrument, non
magnetic, gyro-stabilized type (direc
tional gyro)—TSO–C5c.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for direction instruments, non
magnetic, gyro-stabilized type (direc
tional gyro) which specifically are re
quired to be approved for use on civil
aircraft of the United States. New mod
els of direction instruments, non-mag
netic, gyro-stabilized type (directional
gyro) manufactured for installation on
civil aircraft on or after April 1, 1959,
shall meet the standards set forth in
SAE Aeronautical Standard AS–397A,
“Direction Instrument, Non-Magnetic,
Stabilized Type (Directional Gyro),”
dated July 15, 1958," with the exceptions
listed in subparagraph (2) of this para
graph. Direction instruments, non
magnetic gyro-stabilized type (direc
tional gyro) approved prior to April 1,
1959, may continue to be manufactured
under the provisions of their original
approval.
(2) Eacceptions. (i) Conformance
with the following sections is not re
quired: 3.1; 3.1.1; 3.1.2; 3.2; 4.3.3.
(ii) Substitute the following for Sec
tion 7: “Performance tests: The fol
lowing tests, in addition to any others
deemed necessary by the manufacturer,
shall be the basis for determining Com
pliance with the performance require
ments of this standard.”
(b) Marking. In lieu of the weight
specified in paragraph (c) of $ 37.7, the
following shall be shown:
(1) Instrument type (I or II).
(2) Rating if applicable, i.e., electrical,
Vacuum, etc.
(c) Data requirements. With the
statement of conformance, one copy each
of the manufacturer's operating instruc
tions, Schematic diagrams and installa
tion procedures shall be furnished the
Chief, Engineering and Manufacturing
Branch, Flight Standards Division, Fed
eral Aviation Administration, in the
482
region in which the manufacturer is
located.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 82 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967] -
§ 37.116 Direction instrument, magnetic
(gyro-stabilized type)—TSO-C6c.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for direct i on instruments,
magnetic (gyro-stabilized type) which
specifically are required to be approved
for use on civil aircraft of the United
States. New models of direction instru
ments, magnetic (gyro-stabilized type)
manufactured for installation on civil
aircraft on or after April 1, 1959, shall
meet the standards set forth in SAE
Aeronautical Standard AS-399A, “Di
rection Instrument, Magnetic (Stabilized
Type),” dated July 15, 1958,” with the
exceptions listed in subparagraph (2) of
this paragraph. Direction instruments,
magnetic (gyro-stabilized type) approved
prior to April 1, 1959, may continue to be
manufactured under the provisions of
their original approval.
(2) Eacceptions. (i) Conformance
With the following sections is not re
quired: 3.1; 3.1.1; 3.1.2; 3.2; 4.3.3.
(ii) Substitute the following for sec
tion 7: “Performance tests: The follow
ing tests in addition to any others
deemed necessary by the manufacturer,
shall be the basis for determining com
pliance with the performance require
ments of this Standard.”
(b) Marking. In lieu of the weight
specified in paragraph (c) of § 37.7, the
rating if applicable, i.e., electrical, vac
uum, etc., shall be shown.
(c) Data requirements. With the
statement of conformance, one copy
each of the manufacturer's operating in
structions, schematic diagrams, and in
stallation procedures shall be furnished
the Chief, Engineering and Manufactur
ing Branch, Flight Standards Division,
Federal Aviation Administration, in the
region in which the manufacturer is
located.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
1 Copies may be obtained from the Society
of Automotive Engineers, 485 Lexington Ave
nue, New York 17, N.Y.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 37.117 Direction instrument, magnetic,
non-stabilized type (magnetic com
pass)—TS0—C7c.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for direction instruments, mag
netic, non-stabilized type (magnetic
compass) which specifically are re
quired to be approved for use on civil
aircraft of the United States. New
models of direction instruments, mag
netic, non-stabilized type (magnetic
compass) manufactured for installation
on civil aircraft on or after April 1,
1959, shall meet the Standards set forth
in SAE Aeronautical Standard AS
398A, “Direction Instrument, Magnetic,
Non-Stabilized Type (Magnetic Com
pass),” dated July 15, 1958, with the
exceptions listed in subparagraph (2) of
this paragraph. Direction instruments,
magnetic, non-stabilized type (magnetic
compass) approved prior to April 1, 1959,
may continue to be manufactured under
the provisions of their original approval.
(2) Eacceptions. (i) Conformance with
the following sections is not required:
3.1; 3.1.1; 3.1.2; 3.2; 4.3.3.
(ii) Substitute the following for sec
tion 7.: “Performance tests: The follow
ing tests in addition to any others
deemed necessary by the manufacturer,
shall be the basis for determining com
pliance with the performance require
ments of this standard.”
(b) Marking. In lieu of the weight
specified in paragrah (c) of § 37.7, the
following shall be shown:
(1) Instrument type (I or LI).
*** * (2) Rating if applicable, i.e., elec
--
trical, Vacuum, etc.
º ing Branch, Flight Standards Division,
(c) Data requirements. With the
º statement of conformance, one copy
each of the manufacturer's operating in
structions, schematic diagrams, and in
º stallation procedures shall be furnished
the Chief, Engineering and Manufactur
º ing Branch, Flight Standards Division,
Federal Aviation Administration, in the
region in which the manufacturer is
located.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.118 Rate of climb indicator, pres
sure actuated (vertical speed indi
cator)—TSO–C3b.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
:s formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
483
§ 37.119
lished for rate of climb indicators,
pressure actuated (vertical speed indica
tor) which specifically are required to
be approved for use on civil aircraft of
the United States. New models of rate
of climb indicators, pressure actuated
(vertical speed indicator) manufactured
for installation on civil aircraft on Or
after April 1, 1959, shall meet the stand
ards set forth in SAE Aeronautical
Standard AS–394A, “Rate of Climb In
dicator, Pressure Actuated (Vertical
Speed Indicator),” dated July 15, 1958,”
with the exceptions listed in subpara
graph (2) of this paragraph. Rate of
climb indicators, pressure actuated (ver
tical speed indicator) approved prior to
April 1, 1959, may continue to be manu
factured under the provisions of their
original approval.
(2) Eacceptions. (i) Conformance with
the following sections is not required:
3.1; 3.1.1; 3.1.2; 3.2; 4.2.1.
(ii) Substitute the following for sec
tion 7.: “Performance tests: The follow
ing tests in addition to any others deemed
necessary by the manufacturer, shall be
the basis for determining compliance
with the performance requirements of
this standard.”
(b) Marking. In lieu of the weight
specified in paragraph (c) of § 37.7, the
following shall be shown:
(1) Instrument type (I, II, III or IV).
(2) Range (feet per minute climb and
descent).
(c) Data requirements. With the
statement of conformance, one copy
each of the manufacturer's operating in
structions, schematic diagrams, and in
stallation procedures shall be furnished
the Chief, Engineering and Manufactur
Federal Aviation Administration, in the
region in which the manufacturer is
located.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.119 Automatic pilots—TSO–C9c.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for automatic pilots to maintain
flight and/or to provide maneuvering
about the three axes through servo con
trol which specifically are required to be
approved for use in civil aircraft of the
United States. New models of autopilots
manufactured for such use on or after
September 15, 1960, shall meet the stand
$37,120 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
ards set forth in SAE Aeronautical
Standard AS–402A, “Automatic Pilots,”
dated February 1, 1959,” with the ex
ceptions listed in subparagraph (2) of
this paragraph and the additions listed
in subparagraph (3) of this paragraph.
Automatic pilots approved prior
September 15, 1960, may continue to be
manufactured under the provisions of
their original approval.
(2) Eacceptions. (1) Conformance with
the following section is not required: 3.1,
3.1.1, 3.1.2, 3.2.
(ii) Substitute the following for sec
tion 7.: “Performance tests: The follow
ing tests, in addition to any others
deemed necessary by the manufacturer,
shall be the basis for determining Com
pliance with the performance require
ments of this standard.”
(3) Additions. In addition to
means of indication specifled in section
4.3 of AS–402A, the following shall be
included:
(i) Power malfunction indication.
Means shall be provided to indicate
readily to the pilot in a positive manner
when each phase of the primary power
(voltage and/or current) to the auto
matic pilot is not adequate for safe
operation.
(ii) Airborne navigation reference in
dication. A visual means shall be pro
vided to indicate readily to the pilot in
a positive manner when the automatic
pilot is not engaged to the airborne navi
gation reference.
(b) Marking. In addition to
markings required in § 37.7, range and/
or rating if definable shall be shown on
each component of the system.
(c) Data requirements. With
statement of conformance, one copy
each of the following shall be furnished
to the Chief, Engineering and Manu
facturing Branch, Flight Standards
Division, Federal Aviation Administra
tion, in the region in which the manu
facturer is located:
(1) Manufacturer's operating instruc
tions
(2) Manufacturer's typical installa
tion instructions
(3) Exploded views for each major
component of the system
(4) Schematic diagrams for
major component and the System
(5) The manufacturer's compliance
test report.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 Fr. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.120 Aircraft, altimeter, pressure,
actuated, sensitive type—TSO–C10h.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for aircraft altimeters which spe
to cifically are required to be approved for
use on civil aircraft of the United States.
New models of altimeters manufactured
for such use on or after September 1,
1959, shall meet the standards set forth
in SAE Aeronautical Standard AS 392C."
“Altimeter, Pressure Actuated Sensitive
Type,” revision date February 1, 1959,”
with the exceptions listed in subpara
graph (2) of this paragraph. Altimeters
approved under prior issuances of this
Section may continue to be manufac
tured under the earlier provisions.
(2) Eacceptions. (i) The following
the
specifically numbered paragraphs in AS
392C do not concern minimum perform
ance and therefore are not essential to
compliance with this section: 3.1, 3.1.1,
3.1.2, 3.2, 3.2(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f).
(ii) In lieu of section 7, in AS 392C,
it is a requirement that the altimeters
covered by this section be capable of suc
cessfully passing the tests in paragraphs
7.1 through 7.5 and an External Case
Pressure Test which is as follows:
Ertermal Case Pressure Test. The static
pressure source of the instrument shall be
sealed when an ambient temperature of 25°C
and an ambient pressure of 29.92 inches
(absolute) of mercury have been achieved.
The ambient pressure shall then be increased
the at a rate of 20 inches of mercury in two
seconds to 50 inches (absolute) of mercury
and held at that pressure for three minutes.
There shall be no adverse effect on the in
strument or its accuracy.
the
(iii) The “Reference Section” under
Table II of AS 392C is not applicable.
(b) Marking. In lieu of the weight
Specified in § 37.7 (c) the range shall be
ShOWn.
(c) Data requirements. With the
Statement of conformance, one copy
each of the following shall be furnished
to the Chief, Engineering and Manufac
turing Branch, Flight Standards Divi
sion, Federal Aviation Administration, in
* Copies may be obtained from the Society
each of Automotive Engineers, 485 Lexington Ave.,
New York 17, New York.
* In addition to the performance standards
herein, altimeters when installed in aircraft
must meet installation requirements as well
as functional and reliability filght tests of
the pertinent airworthiness sections of the
Federal Aviation Regulations.
484
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
the region in which the manufacturer is
located:
(1) Manufacturer's operating instruc
tions.
(2) Complete set of instrument's
drawings of major components and a
test report.
(3) Installation procedures with ap
plicable schematic drawings.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.121 Fire detectors (thermal sens
ing and ionization sensing types)-
TSO CIld.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby es
tablished for fire detectors of the subject
types which are required to be approved
for use on piston and/or turbine engine
powered civil aircraft of the United
States. New models of these types of fire
detectors manufactured for use on civil
aircraft of the United States on or after
the effective date of this section, shall
meet the standards specified in Federal
Aviation Administration Standards “Fire
Detectors (Thermal Sensing and Ioniza
tion Sensing Types),” dated August 1,
1961. Fire detectors approved prior to the
effective date of this section, may con
tinue to be manufactured under the pro
visions of their original approval.
(b) Marking. In lieu of information
required in § 37.7 (c), the alarm tem
perature shall be shown. Compliance of
the detector with the piston or turbine
engine requirements, or both, shall be
designated by –P, —T, or –PT, respec
tively, as a suffix following the TSO des
ignation, as TSO–C11d—P.
(c) Data requirements. (1) The man
ufacturer shall maintain a current file
of complete design data.
(2) The manufacturer shall maintain
a current file of complete data describing
the inspection and test procedures ap
plicable to his equipment. (See para
graph (d) of this section.)
(3) Six copies each, except where
noted, of the following, shall be furnished
with the statement of conformance Cer
tifying that the instrument conforms to
this section, to the Chief, Engineering
and Manufacturing Branch, Flight
Standards Division, Federal Aviation
Administration, in the region in which
the manufacturer is located.
(i) Manufacturer's operating instruc
tions and equipment limitations.
485
§ 37,122
(ii) Installation procedures with ap
plicable schematic drawings, wiring
diagrams, and specifications. Indicate
any limitations, restrictions, or other
conditions pertinent to the installation.
This data shall include the following:
(a) Starting ambient temperature
used in determining the response time
(see $ 7.1.1);
(b) Maximum allowable normal ambi
ent temperature at the point of Sensor
location;
(c) Maximum allowable rate of tem
perature rise at point of sensor location
as a result of normal operation;
(d) Operating voltage;
(e) Mounting or support method; and
(f) Maximum or minimum number of
units or detector length which can be
used in one circuit or one fire zone
without adversely affecting sensitivity or
Causing false indications due to tem
fºur- associated with normal opera
on.
(iii) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(d) Quality control. Fire detectors
shall be produced under a quality con
trol system, established by the manufac
turer, which will assure that each
detector is in conformity with the re
quirements of this section and is in a
condition for safe operation. This sys
tem shall be described in the data re
quired under paragraph (c) (2) of this
Section. The Administrator shall be
permitted to make Such inspections and
tests at the manufacturer's facility as
may be necessary to determine compli
ance with the requirements of this
Section.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.122 Life rafts (twin tube)—TSO
C12c.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for life rafts (twin tube) which
Specifically are required to be approved
for use on civil aircraft of the United
States. New models of life rafts manu
factured on or after October 15, 1959,
shall meet the standards set forth in the
ATA Specification No. 800, “Airline Life
Rafts,” dated May 1, 1958, with the ad
1 Copies may be obtained from the Air
Transport Association, 1000 Connecticut
Avenue NW., Washington 6, D.C.
§ 37.123 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
ditional requirements shown in subpara
graph (2) of this paragraph, and the
exceptions listed in subparagraph (3) of
this paragraph. Life raft models ap
proved prior to the effective date of this
section may continue to be used under
the provisions of their original approval
until they are no longer seaworthy.
(2) Additional requirements. The de
gree of inflation shall be such that the
raft will be “rounded-out” (i.e., attain its
design shape and approximate dimen
sions) to be able to receive the first oc
cupant within one minute after the start
of inflation. Thereafter, inflation dur
ing boarding by the remainder of Oc
cupants shall be sufficient to ensure a
serviceable and rigid raft.
(3) Eacceptions. For the purpose of
this section, conformance is not required
with the provision of section 4.2.8 of
ATA Specification No. 800 that the length
of the installed gas release cables be
identical and not exceed 30 inches.
(b) Marking. In lieu of the marking
requirements specified by § 37.7, the
marking instructions contained in ATA
Specification No. 800 shall be acceptable
and, in addition, each life raft shall be
permanently marked with the Technical
Standard Order designation, FAA—TSO
C12c, to identify the life raft as meeting
the requirements of this section.
(c) Data requirements. (1) With the
Statement of conformance, One COpy
each of the manufacturer's operation
and inflation instructions, schematic dia
grams, and installation procedures shall
be furnished the Chief, Engineering
and Manufacturing Branch, Flight
Standards Division, Federal Aviation
Administration, in the region in which
the manufacturer is located.
(2) The raft manufacturer must also
provide the purchaser with applicable
limitations pertaining to installation of
rafts on aircraft. These limitations shall
include the minimum and maximum
stowage area temperatures and any
other limitations which will prevent the
raft from performing its intended func
tion and complying with the minimum
performance standards under all reason
ably foreseeable emergency conditions.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 FIR. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 82 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.123 Life preservers—TS0–C13c.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance stand a r ds are hereby
486
established for life preservers which
Specifically are required to be approved
for use on civil aircraft of the United
States. New models of life preservers
manufactured on or after October 15,
1960, shall meet the standards set forth
in ATA Specification No. 801, “Airline
Life Jackets,” dated July 1, 1958,” with
the exceptions listed in subparagraph
(2) of this paragraph. Life preservers
approved prior to October 15, 1960, may
continue to be manufactured under the
provisions of their original approval.
(2) Eacceptions. (i) Compliance with
Section 4.1.1 of ATA Specification No.
801 is optional. Life preservers may be
non-reversible provided the design of the
preservers is such so as to preclude the
probability of improper donning.
(ii) In addition to the placarding in
structions contained in section 4.2.2 of
ATA Specification No. 801, the preserver
shall also be marked with instructions
which will describe the proper donning
procedure.
(b) Marking. Each life preserver
shall be marked in accordance with
§ 37.7 except that the weight specified
in § 37.7 (c) may be omitted, and the
following additional information shall
be shown:
(1) Date of manufacture of fabric
(month and year);
(2) “Adult” or “child”, as the case
may be.
(c) Data requirements. With the
statement of conformance, one copy
each of the manufacturer's operation
and inflation instructions shall be fur
nished the Chief, Engineering and Man
ufacturing Branch, Flight Standards
Division, Federal Aviation Administra
tion, in the region in which the manu
facturer is located.
(d) Quality control. Each life pre
server shall be produced under a quality
control system, established by the manu
facturer, which will assure that each life
preserver is in conformity with the re
quirements of this standard and is in
condition for use. This system shall be
described in the records required by sec
tion 4.3.1 of ATA Specification No. 801.
The Administrator shall be permitted
to make such inspections and tests at the
* Copies may be obtained from the Society
of Automotive Engineers, 485 Lexington Ave
nue, New York 17, New York.
 chapter 1–Federal Aviation Administration
manufacturer's facility as may be neces
sary to determine compliance with the
requirements of this standard.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 FIR. 15817; Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 82 F-R-
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.124 Aircraft fabric, intermediate
grade; external covering material
TS0–Cl4a.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum perform
ance standards are hereby established
for aircraft fabric, intermediate grade,
for use as an external covering on
aircraft of the United States with wing
loadings of less than 9 p.s.f. and never
exceed speeds of less than 160 m.p.h.
Fabric manufactured on or after
31, 1959, shall meet the requirements
set forth in section 3 of SAE Aeronau
tical Material Specification 3804A,
“Cloth, Airplane, Cotton, Mercerized; 65
Ib Breaking Strength,” revised May 1,
1954. Fabric approved prior to July 31,
1959, may continue to be manufactured
under the provisions of its original
approval.
(b) Marking. The welght required in
$ 37.7 need not be included. The TSO
number shall be marked continuously
along the selvage edge of the fabric.
§ 37.125
ternal Aircraft fabric,
covering grade A: ex
material—TSO
C15c.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for aircraft fabric, grade A, for
use as an external covering on civil air
craft of the United States. Fabric man
ufactured on or after September 23.
1959, shall meet the requirements set
forth in section 3 of SAE Aeronautical
Material Specification 3806A, “Cloth,
Airplane, Cotton, Mercerized: 80 lb.
Breaking Strength,” revised June 15,
1952, with the exception listed in Sub
paragraph (2) of this paragraph.
ric approved prior to September 23,
1959, may continue to be manufactured
under the provisions of its original
approval.
(2) Eacception. The elongation limits
specified in AMS 3806A 3.2.4.
amended as follows for the purpose of
this section.
§ 37,126
Marimum
elongation
Nominal width (inches): (percent)
86-------------------------------- 18
**-------------------------------- 13
5769, 99-------------------------------- 14
99-------------------------------- 15
99-------------------------------- 16
(b) Marking. The weight required in
$ 37.7 need not be included. The TSO
number shall be marked continuously
along the Selvage edge of the fabric.
§ 37.126 Technical Standard Order C16:
“Air-Speed Tubes (Electrically
Heated)”.
Civil
(a) Introduction. (1) This Technical
Standard Order is intended to serve as a
criterion by which the product manufac
turer can obtain approval of his electri
July cally heated air-speed tube.
(2) In the establishment of this Tech
nical Standard Order, consideration has
been given to existing Government and
industry standards for air-speed tubes
for the purpose of adopting the perform
ance requirements of one of the recog
nized aeronautical standards as the mini
mum Safety requirements for air-speed
tubes which are intended for use in civil
aircraft. The specification of the Society
of Automotive Engineers for electrically
heated air-speed tubes contains such re
quirements.
(b) Directive—(1) Provision. The
performance requirement for air-speed
tubes as set forth in sections 5 and 6 of
SAE Specification AS–393, Air-Speed
Tubes, Electrically Heated, dated Decem
per ber 1, 1947,” stated below, are hereby
established as minimum safety require
ments for electrically heated air-speed
tubes which are intended for use in civil
aircraft.
1. Purpose. To specify minimum require
ments for Electrically Heated Air-Speed
Tubes for use on aircraft the operation of
which may subject the instrument to envi
ronmental conditions specified in section 3.4.
2. Scope. This specification covers the fol
lowing basic types:
Type I. Pitot Pressure, Straight and
Fab L-shaped, 12 and 24 volt nominal, 2 wire
circuit.
Type II. Pitot and Static Pressures,
Straight and L-shaped 12 and 24 volt nom
inal, 2 wire circuit.
3. General requirements.
3.1 Materials and workmanship.
3.1.1 Materials. Materials shall be of a
are quality which experience and/or tests have
demonstrated to be suitable and dependable
for the purpose intended.
*y
48
 § 37.126 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
3.1.2 Workmanship. Workmanship shall
be consistent with high grade instrument
manufacturing practice.
3.2 Radio interference. The instrument
shall not be the source of objectionable in
terference under operating conditions at any
frequencies used on aircraft, either by radia
tion or feedback, in radio sets installed in
the same aircraft as the instrument.
8.3 Identification. The following infor
mation shall be legibly and permanently
marked On the units or attached thereto:
a. Name of instrument.
b. SAE Spec. AS 393.
c. Rating (Norminal Voltage).
d. Manufacturer's Part No.
e. Manufacturer's Serial No. or date of
manufacture.
f. Manufacturer's name and/or trade
mark.
3.4 Environmental conditions. The fol
lowing conditions have been established as
design criteria only. Tests shall be conducted
as specified in sections 5, 6, 7.
3.4.1 Temperature. When the instru
ments are mounted in accordance With
manufacturer's instructions, they shall
function over the range of ambient tempere
tures of —65° C to +70° C and shall not be
adversely affected by exposure to tempera
tures of —65° C to +70° C.
3.4.2 Vibration. When the Instruments
are mounted in accordance With the manu
facturer's instructions, they shall function
and shall not be adversely affected when
subjected to the following vibration:
Frequency: 500–3,000 cycles per minute.
Amplitude: 0.250 inch.
Maximum Acceleration: 32.5 g.
NoTE: It is understood that the unit shall
withstand vibration at higher frequencies
but the acceleration Value need not exceed
that shown above.
When specified by the purchaser for use
in rotary wing aircraft, the frequency range
shall be 150–3,000 cycles per minute.
4. Detail requirements.
4.1 Drainage. The tube shall be designed
to provide maximum drainage of water, re
sulting from rain or melting ice, consistent
with maintaining the calibration specified in
sections 6.3, 6.4 and 6.5.
4.2 Marking. Pilot pressure and static
pressure lines shall be identified by the let
ters P and S, respectively, stamped, etched,
engraved or otherwise permanently marked
on the lines or fittings. The top of the tube
shall be identified.
5. Individual performance tests. All in
struments shall be subjected to whatever
tests the manufacturer deems necessary to
demonstrate specific compliance with the
specification including the following require
ments, where applicable.
5.1 Leakage. With a pressure of 10 inches
of mercury applied separately to the pitot
pressure and/or the static pressure lines,
there shall be no evidence of leakage when
488
the corresponding pitot or static pressure
openings and drain holes are sealed.
5.2 Dielectric. The insulation shall with
stand without evidence of damage the ap
plication of a sinusoidal voltage at a com
mercial frequency between the terminals of
the heater circuit and the shell (case) for a
period of 5 seconds. The R. M. S. value of .
the sinusoidal voltage applied shall be 500
volts.
5.3 Heater operation. When mounted in
its normal position, the tube shall be tested
for heater operation by applying the mini
mum rated voltage (12 or 24 volts) for a
period of 2 minutes. The power consump
tion at that time shall be within +30 per
cent of the power consumption at rated
voltage.
6. , Qualification tests. As many instru
ments as deemed necessary to demonstrate
that all instruments will comply with the
requirements of this section shall be tested
in accordance with the manufacturer's rec
ommendations, where applicable.
6.1 Vibration. The tubes shall be sub
Jected to vibration for three hour periods in
each of the three perpendicular reference
planes such that a point on the tip of the
tubes will oscillate $4 inch. The test shall
be conducted such that each period of three
hours shall consist of one hour at 1,000,
2,000 and 3,000 cycles per minute. Rated
Voltage shall be applied to the terminals
continuously during this test. Ambient
temperature shall be 20° to 30° C. There
shall be no failure of any kind.
6.2 Endurance. The tubes shall be made
to operate continuously in still air at 15 or
30 volts (as applicable) for, at least, five
hours. Ambient temperature shall be 70° C.
There shall be no damage of any kind ex
cept discoloration, which will not affect cor
rosion resistance.
6.3 Calibration at zero angle of attack.
The tube shall be mounted in a wind tun
nel in line with the airflow and tested sepa
rately for pitot pressure and for static pres
sure at the values for air speeds specified in
table I. The test shall be made by com
parison With the results obtained under sim
ilar conditions with a calibrated tube. The -
error of the tube expressed in terms of indi
cated air speed shall not exceed 1 percent of
the indication or 1 MPH, whichever is
greater, and the static pressure shall be
within the tolerances specified in table I.
TABLE I—PERMISSIBLE ERRORS IN STATIC
PRESSUEE
Tolerance
Indicated air speed m.p.h.: inches of upater
50
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
6.4 Calibration at various angles of at
tack. The tube shall be tested as Specified
for “Error at Zero Angle of Attack” at ap
proximately 125 MPH except that the angle
of attack shall be varied by 2-degree in
tervals from +16 to — 10 degrees inclusive.
The indicated error expressed in terms of in
indicated air speed shall not differ from the
indicated error at zero angle of attack by
more than 3 miles per hour, and the error in
static pressure shall not differ from the static
pressure at zero angle of attack by more than
0.20 inch of water.
6.5 Calibration at various angles of yaw.
The tube shall be tested as specified in sec
tion 6.3 at approximately 125 MPH except
that the angle of yaw shall be varied between
plus and minus five degrees. The indicated
error expressed in terms of indicated air speed
shall not differ from the error at zero angle
of yaw by more than 8 miles per hour and
the error in static pressure shall not differ
from the static pressure at zero angle of yaw
by more than 0.20 inch of water.
6.6 Magnetic effect. The magnetic effect
of the tube shall be determined in terms of
the deflection of a free magnet approximately
1% inches long in a magnetic field with a
horizontal intensity of 0.18+0.01 gauss, when
the tube is held in various positions and
with rated voltage applied on an east-west
line with its nearest part five inches from
the center of the magnet. (An aircraft Com
pass with the compensating magnets re
moved therefrom may be used as the free
magnet for this test.) The maximum deflec
tion of the magnet shall not exceed 5 degrees
for any pointer deflection.
6.7 De-icing. The tube shall be tested in
an icing wind tunnel at a temperature of
– 10° to -20° C. and at an indicated tunnel
air speed of 200 miles per hour. When the
tube is coated with 4 inch of ice at the nose,
the minimum rated voltage shall be applied
to the terminals. The time required to clear
the ice cap shall not be more than 2 minutes
after the potential is applied. No re-icing
shall occur.
6.8 Cold resistance. The tube shall be
subjected to a temperature of —65° C. or
colder for a minimum period of 48 hours.
There shall be no evidence of damage. After
this test, the tube shall be capable of suc
cessfully passing all tests described hereto
fore.
(2) Application. (1) Air-speed tubes
complying with the specifications ap
pearing in this Technical Standard Or
der are hereby approved for all aircraft.
Air-speed tubes already approved may
continue to be installed in aircraft:
(a) For which an application for orig
inal type certificate is made prior to the
effective date of this order,
(b) The prototype of which is flown
within 1 year after the effective date of
this order, and
489
39–059–75—32
§ 37.126
(c) The prototype of which is not
flown within 1 year after the effective
date of this order if due to causes beyond
the applicant's control.
(ii) If a major change is made in the
installation within 9 months after the
effective date of this order involving a
change in type or model of air-speed
tube, previously approved types of air
speed tubes may be installed. However,
in any such change made after the 9
month period, new types of air-speed
tubes installed in aircraft used in in
strument flight shall meet the specifica
tions contained in this section.
(c) Specific instructions—(1) Mark
ing. In addition to the identification
information required in the referenced
Specification, each air-speed tube shall
be permanently marked with the Tech
nical Standard Order designation “FAA
TSO–C16” to identify the air-speed tube
aS meeting the requirements of this
order in accordance with the manufac
turer's statement of conformance out
lined below. This identification will be
accepted by the Administrator as evi
dence that the established minimum
Safety requirements for air-speed tubes
have been met.
(2) Data requirements. None.
(3) Effective date. After September
1, 1948, Specifications contained in this
Technical Standard Order will constitute
the basis for approval of air-speed tubes
for use in certificated aircraft used in
instrument flight.
(4) Deviations. Requests for devia
tion from, or waiver of, the requirements
of this order, which affect the basic air
worthiness of the component, should be
submitted for approval by the Chief,
Engineering and Manufacturing Branch,
, Flight Standards Division, Federal Avi
ation Administration, in the region in
which the manufacturer is located.
(5) Conformance. (i) The manufac
turer shall furnish to the Chief Engi
neering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avia
tion Administration, in the region in
which the manufacturer is located, a
written statement of conformance signed
by a responsible official of his company,
setting forth that the air-speed tube to
be produced by him meets the minimum
safety requirements established in this
order. Immediately thereafter distribu
tion of the air-speed tube conforming
with the terms of this order may be
started and continued.
§ 37.127 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(ii) The prescribed identification on
the air-speed tubes does not relieve
the
aircraft manufacturer or owner of re
sponsibility for the proper application of
the air-speed tube in his aircraft, nor
waive any of the requirements concern
ing type certification of
the aircraft in
accordance with existing Federal Avia
tion Regulations.
(iii) If complaints of nonconformance
with the requirements of this Order are
brought to the attention of the Adminis
trator and investigation indicates that
such compliants are justified, the Ad
ministrator takes appropriate action to
restrict the use of the product involved.
(iv) Copies of this Technical Standard
Order may be obtained from the Library
Services Division, HQ–630, Federal Avia
tion Administration, Washington, D.C.
20553.
[Doc.
as No. 5065,
amended by 29 F.R.
Doc. 8084, Nº";
No.15317, 17,
32 F.R.
Apr. 11, 1967]
s 37.127 Fire resistant aircraft sheet
and structural material—TSO–C17a.
(a) Introduction. This Technical
Standard Order is intended to serve as a
criterion by which the product manufac
turer may obtain Federal Aviation Ad
ministration approval of fire resistant
aircraft material when required for sheet
or structural members. Aircraft manu
facturers may also obtain approval of fire
resistant materials as part of their air
craft design, and should include them. On
the aircraft drawings. Such materials
shall comply with minimum requirements
stated herein, and approval thereof will
be recognized by all Federal Aviation
Administration representatives.
(b) Directive—(1) Provision. The re
quirements for fire resistant aircraft
material as set forth in section 3 of SAE
specification AMS-3851A, Fire Resistant
Properties for Aircraft Materials, dated
November 1, 1954, are hereby established
as minimum safety requirements for fire
resistant material which is intended for
use in civil aircraft.
(2) Application. Fire resistant ma
terials complying with the specifications
appearing in this Technical Standard Or
der are hereby approved for all aircraft.
(c) Specific instructions.—(1) Mark
ing. The material shall be permanently
marked with the Technical Standard Or
1 copies may be obtained from the Society
of Automotive Engineers, 485 Lexington Ave
nue, New York, N.Y., 10017.
der designation, FAA-TSO–C17a, to iden
tify the material as meeting the require
ments of this Order in accordance With
the manufacturers' Statement of con
formance outlined below. This identifi
cation will be accepted by the Federal
Aviation Administration as evidence that
the established minimum Safety require
ments for fire resistant material have
been met.
(2) Data requirements. None.
(3) Effective date. After February 1,
1955, Specifications contained in this Or
der will constitute the basis for approval
of fire resistant material for use in civil
aircraft.
(4) Deviations. Requests for devi
ation from, or waiver of, the require
ments of this Order, Which affect the
basic airworthiness of the component,
should be submitted for the approval of
the Chief, Engineering and Manufactur
1964,
5769, ing Branch, Flight Standards Division,
Federal Aviation Administration, in the
region in Which the manufacturer is
located.
(5) Conformance. (i) The manufac
turer shall furnish to the FAA (address
as noted under “Deviations” above), a
written statement Of conformance signed
by a responsible official of his company,
Setting forth that the fire resistant ma
terial to be produced by him meets the
minimum safety standards established
in this Order. Immediately thereafter,
distribution of the material conforming
with the terms of this Order may be
Started and continued.
(ii) The prescribed identification on
the material does not relieve the aircraft
manufacturer or owner of responsibility
for the proper installation in his aircraft,
nor waive any of the requirements con
cerning type certification of the aircraft
in accordance with existing Federal Avi
ation Regulations.
(iii) If complaints of nonconformance
with the requirements of this Order are
brought to the attention of the Federal
Aviation Administration and investiga
tion indicates that such complaints are
justified, the Administrator will take ap
propriate action to restrict the use of the
product involved.
(iv) Copies of this Technical Stand
ard Order and Other technical Standard
Orders may be obtained from the Distri
bution Section, HQ–436, Federal Aviation
Administration, Washington, D.C. 20553.
[Amdt. 37–13, 30 F.R. 13209, Oct. 16, 1965, as
amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769, Apr.
11, 1967]
490
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 37.128 Position light flashers (air
carrier aircraft)—TS0–C18c.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for position light flashers which
will be used on civil aircraft of the
United States engaged in air-carrier
operations. New models of position
light flashers manufactured for instal
lation in civil air-carrier aircraft on or
after July 15, 1957, shall meet the stand
ards set forth in SAE Specification
AS211, “Flasher, Position Light,” dated
November 1, 1948,” with the exceptions
listed in subparagraph (2) of this para
graph.
(2) Eacceptions. (i) For the purpose
of this section, the following shall apply
in lieu of section 4.2 of AS211:
The flashing cycle and its frequency shall
conform to either (a) or (b) of this Sub
paragraph. A maximum deviation of 5°
from the specified periods is permissible.
(a) Red and green forward position
lights, top and bottom fuselage
lights and white rear position
light “ON”--------------------- 130°
Park ---------------------------- 50°
Red and green forward position
lights, top and bottom fuselage
lights and red rear position light
“ON” ------------------------ 130°
Park ---------------------------- 50°
This cycle shall be repeated at not less
than 32.5 nor more than 42.5 times per
Ininute.
(b) Red and green forward position
lights and white rear position
light “ON”--------------------- 180°
Park ---------------------------- 50°
Top and bottom fuselage lights and
red rear position light “ON”----- 130°
Park ---------------------------- 50°
This cycle shall be repeated at not less
than 65 nor more than 85 times per
minute.
(ii) The following Shall apply in lieu
of the last sentence of section 4.3 of
AS211: The flasher contacts shall be ade
quate for the intended purpose.
(b) Marking. In lieu of the marking
requirement of § 37.7 (c), the following
shall be ShoWn:
(1) Voltage,
(2) Normal motor current—amps, and
(3) Flasher contact capacity—amps.
* Copies may be obtained from the Society
of Automotive Engineers, 485 Lexington Ave.,
New York 17, New York.
491
§ 37.130
(c) Data requirements. Six copies
each of installation, operating, and
maintenance recommendations or in
structions shall be furnished the Chief,
Engineering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avia
tion Administration, in the region in
which the manufacturer is located.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.129 Portable water-solution type
fire extinguishers—TSO–C19H.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for portable water-solution type
fire extinguishers which are to be used
in civil aircraft of the United States.
New models of portable water-solution
type fire extinguishers manufactured for
installation in civil aircraft on or after
the effective date of this order shall meet
the standards of sections 5 and 6 and
Subsections 4.1.1, 4.1.4, 4.1.5, 4.2.3, 4.3.1
and 4.3.2 of SAE Specification AS–245A,
dated December 15, 1956, with the ex
ceptions listed in subparagraph (2) of
this paragraph. Portable water-solution
type fire extinguishers approved by the
Civil Aeronautics Administration prior to
the effective date of this order may con
tinue to be manufactured under the
provisions of their original approval.
(2) Eacceptions. For the purpose of
this order, the dischargeable capacity
Specified in 4.1.1 of AS–245A may be at
least one quart.
(b) Marking. In addition to the in
formation required in § 37.7, the follow
ing also must be legibly and permanently
marked on the extinguisher: 1- capacity,
2- test pressure of container and 3- oper
ating and maintenance instructions.
§ 37.130 Technical Standard Order C20;
“Combustion Heaters”.
(a) Introduction. This Technical
Standard Order is intended to serve as a
Criterion by which the product manufac
turer may obtain approval of his com
bustion heaters.
(b) Directive—(1) Provision. The re
quirements for combustion heaters, as
Set forth in SAE Aeronautical Standard
AS143B; Heaters, Airplane, Internal
Combustion Heat Exchanger Type, dated
February 1, 1949, stated below, are here
by established as minimum safety stand
ards for combustion heaters intended for
use in civil aircraft:
§ 37.130 Title 14—Aerond utics
1. Purpose. To specify standards covering
minimum safety and performance require
ments for internal combustion heaters and
certain auxiliary devices which are considered
necessary to the safety and performance of
the heaters as used in aircraft. These stand
ards are to be considered currently applicable
and necessarily subject to revision from time
to time due to rapid development of the aero
nautical industry. The following standards
are based on practical engineering require
ments for such internal combustion heat
exchanger type heaters as are now used on
airplanes and for such as may be developed
to meet later requirements.
2. Scope. These standards are written to
cover internal combustion heat exchanger
type heaters used in the following applica
tions:
2.1 Cabin heating. (All occupied regions
and windshield heating.)
2.2 Wing and empennage heating.
2.3 Engine and accessory heating. (When
heater is installed as part of the aircraft.)
3. Definition. An internal combustion
heat exchanger type heater as used for air
plane heating is one that utilizes through a
heat exchanger the heat produced by com
bustion of a fuel within the heater for the
purpose of heating the air being supplied to
the airplane.
4. General requirements.
4.1 Heater components. An Internal
combustion type heater shall include all of
the following:
4.1.1 Combustion chamber and heat ex
changer assembly.
4.12 Casing or shroud for combustion
chamber and heat exchanger assembly.
4.1.8 Igniter.
Burner.
Ventilating air inlet.
Ventilating air outlet.
iii
-
4.
Combustion air inlet.
Exhaust outlet.
Fuel inlet.
Additional devices. In addition to the
heater, the following additional devices are
considered necessary to the safety and per
formance of the heater and Will be covered
in that respect by these standards. These
devices may be furnished separately or as
part of the heater. These standards do not
cover all tests necessary on these devices, but
only those required in their relationship to
the heater.
4.2.1 Fuel system.
4.2.1.1 Fuel nozzle, restrictor, orifice, or
equivalent.
4.2.1.2 Fuel shutoff valve.
4.2.1.3 Fuel filter.
4.2.2 Safety controls.
4.2.2.1. A device to prevent the heater from
becoming overheated.
4.2.2.2 A device to prevent fuel flow to the
heater when combustion air is insufficient
for safe operation.
42.8 Ignition system. (Required for
spark ignition only.)
499
-
and Space
4.2.3.1 Device to provide high voltage
power.
4.2.3.2 High voltage ignition lead assembly
or equivalent electrical linkage between high
voltage device and spark plug.
4.3 Materials and workmanship.
4.3.1 The heater and auxiliary equipment
shall be constructed throughout of materials
which are considered acceptable for the par
ticular use intended and shall be made and
furnished with a degree, uniformity, and
grade of workmanship generally accepted in
the aircraft industry.
4.3.2 The heater casing or shroud shall be
constructed of fireproof material.
4.4 Design features.
44.1 ... The design shall be such as to pre
clude the possibility of discharging harm
ful concentrations of carbon monoxide into
the ventilating air stream. See test, para
graph 6.5.4.1.
4.4.2 Where specified, the design shall be
such as to preclude excessive loss of pres
surized fuselage air. See test, paragraphs
6.5.4.2 and 6.5.4.3.
4.43. The design shall include protection
against excessive radio interference. See test,
Section 6.4.
4.4.4. The design shall be such as to pre
clude harmful effects on construction or per
formance due to vibration. See test
Section 6.3.
4.4.5 The design shall be such that the
life of the heater and accompanying devices
shall be comparable to other similar air
frame components and accessories. See test.
Section 6.5.
44.6 Unless otherwise specified, the design
shall be such that the heater and accom
panying devices shall operate satisfactorily
within normal ranges of power, fuel, and air
supplies available in aircraft.
4.5 Heater identification. The following
minimum information shall be legibly and
permanently marked on the heater or on a
nameplate attached thereto:
(a) Manufacturer's name
mark.
and/or trade
(b) Manufacturer's part number.
(c) Manufacturer's serial number.
(d) SAE rated output, ------ B. t. u. Mr.
(See section 5.1.)
(e) Rated fuel pressure, -------- psig.
(f) Electrical characteristics.
(g) BAE Spec. AS–143B. For Use: Unpr.
cabin --------, Press. cabin --------.
Wing
(Stamp “X” in one or more blanks
as applicable.)
5. Detail requirements.
5.1 SAE rating conditions. Heater shall
deliver at least SAE rated output at follow
ing conditions:
5.1.1 Sea level ambient pressure.
5.1.2 Rated fuel pressure, as specified by
manufacturer.
5.1.3 Rated sea level combustion air rate.
as specified by manufacturer.
5.1.4 Ventilating air temperature rise of
250° P.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
5.1.5 Inlet temperature of fuel and air
between 50° F. and 125° F.
5.2 Air supply.
5.2.1 When sufficient combustion or ven
tilating air for safe operation is not available
the heater shall be made automatically in
operative. See tests, paragraphs 6.5.7.1 and
6.5.7.2.
5.2.2 The combustion air and ventilating
air inlets on the heater shall be separated
from each other.
5.3 Fuel supply.
5.3.1 The fuel lines and fittings under
pressure in the heater shall be enclosed in
such manner as to prevent any fuel leakage
from entering the ventilating air stream, and
the enclosure shall have adequate provision
for draining to the combustion chamber or
to a fuel drain fitting.
5.3.2 A fuel drain outlet or equivalent
safety device shall be provided to prevent
accumulation of fuel in the combustion
chamber and heat exchanger assembly in
case the fuel flows without igniting.
5.3.3 All fuel lines in the heater shall be
constructed of steel or other fire resistant
material. Where flexibility is required in
these lines, flexible fire resistant coupled hose
assemblies shall be used to eliminate the pos
sibility of using hose clamp connections.
Connections in metal fuel lines shall not
employ solder nor other relatively low melt
1ng point materials which cannot withstand
a 2000* F. flame for five minutes.
5.3.4. All gaskets, synthetic rubber seals,
etc. shall be suitable for use with aromatic
fuels and shall be satisfactory for use at the
temperatures encountered within the over
heating limits of the heater.
53.5 The fuel system lines, fittings and
controls shall be sufficiently isolated from the
combustion side of the heater to prevent
their being damaged by flame, radiant heat
or backfire.
5.4 Combustion chamber and heat er
changer assembly.
5.4.1 The combustion chamber and heat
exchanger assembly shall be constructed
from a corrosion and heat resistant material
1n accordance with SAE Aeronautical Mate
rial Specification AMS 5540, or equivalent.
5.4.2 Means shall be provided to minimize
malfunctioning due to lead deposits and to
permit disassembly and cleaning of all parts
affected by products of combustion.
5.4.3 The accumulation of lead scale or
products of combustion deposits shall not
cause functional failure before 500 hours of
heater operation.
5.4.4 The heater combustion chamber and
heat exchanger assembly shall be so designed
that it will not rupture under the most severe
explosion conditions that can occur with any
possible fuel air mixture as demonstrated by
test procedure outlined in section 6.1.6.
5.5 Erhaust.
5.5.1 The temperature of the exhaust
gases at the point of discharge from the
heater shall not exceed 1200° F. at rating.
(See section 5.1.)
493
§ 37.130
5.6 Ignition.
5.6.1 Ignition may be accomplished by:
5.6.1.1 Electrically heated resistance hot
Wire.
5.6.1.2 Electric high-voltage spark plug.
5.6.2. Ignition may be sustained during
operation of the heater or discontinued if
satisfactory combustion is assured.
5.6.3 The igniter shall be capable of func
tioning over a period of 200 hours without
service. See test, section 6.5.5.
5.6.4 In event of ignition delay for an in
definite period, either with or without fuel
supply, no hazardous condition shall result.
5.6.5 Heaters which are intended for wing
empennage heating shall ignite within 15
seconds under conditions of paragraph 6.1.2.3
except that the temperature shall not be
higher than —20° F.
5.7 Safety controls. The following auto
matic safety controls shall be furnished sepa
rately or as part of the heater. These con
trols shall be independent of and in addition
to the normal operating controls.
5.7.1 a control to shut off the heater fuel
flow in case combustion air supply is in
sufficient for safe operation.
5.72 A control to prevent the heater from
becoming overheated under any condition of
ventilating air flow.
5.8 Lines and fittings.
5.8.1 All pipe and tubing fittings used
shall comply with applicable AN standards.
5.8.2. Other fittings not covered above
shall conform to accepted aircraft practice.
5.9 Electrical equipment.
5.9.1 All electrical equipment, including
wiring, instruments, motors, insulation,
shielding, relays, etc., shall conform to ao
ceptable aircraft practice.
6. Test requirements and methods.
6.1 Performance tests. Tests shall be con
ducted to establish the following:
6.1.1 Ignition characteristic curve, plot
ting altitude as the ordinate and combustion
air pressure differential as the abscissa such
that the area under the curve represents the
region of reliable starting and burning at
—65° F. Include information on tempera
ture of fuel and combustion air supplied to
heater. The service ceiling of the heater and
its accompanying ignition devices shall be
defined as the peak of the ignition charac
teristic curve. A time record shall be kept
on each test start.
6.1.2 Heat output, ventilating air pressure
drop, combustion air pressure drop, exhaust
temperature, ventilating air temperature
rise, fuel rate at
6.1.2.1 Sea level rating. (See section 5.1.)
6.1.2.2 Sea level rating, except with -6.5°
F. inlet ventilating air, combustion air, and
fuel temperatures.
6.1.2.3 20,000 feet pressure altitude with:
(a) Sea level rated weight of ventilating
air at –65° F., inlet temperature.
(b) Combustion air at –65° F., inlet tem
perature, and combustion air pressure dif
§ 37.130 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
ferential midway between 20,000 feet alti
tude ignition limits determined in 6.1.1.
(c) Sea level rated values of voltage and
fuel pressure.
(d) Fuel at –65° F., inlet temperature.
NotE: Temperature measurements for out
put shall be made in a manner which will
provide a representative average tempera
ture of the discharge air. Temperature sens
ing elements used in test shall be protected
against effects of radiation from the heater.
6.1.3 Maximum starting and maximum
running amperages required with normal
voltage for operation of the heater and ac
companying devices at sea level.
6.1.4 Voltage range within which the
heater and accompanying devices will operate
at sea level and service ceiling.
6.1.5 Collapsing pressure of the combus
tion chamber and heat exchanger assembly.
6.1.5.1 The heater shall be set up with an
adjustable restriction on the combustion
air inlet, and a source of Vacuum connected
to the exhaust outlet. The ventilating air
shall discharge freely to atmosphere (sea
level). A static pressure tap shall be pro
vided in the exhaust pipe within 12” of the
connection to the heater.
6.1.5.2 For a non-pressurized cabin heater
or a wing-empennage heater, the heater shall
be operated at sea level rating, except that
the exhaust outlet pressure is to be main
tained at a value which is at least 4 psi below
the ventilating air outlet pressure. After
operating the heater for at least one hour
at these conditions, there must be no per
manent distortion of any part of the heater,
unless it can be demonstrated that such dis
tortion does not affect the performance or
life of the heater.
6.1.5.3. For pressurized cabin heaters, the
test shall be the same as 6.1.5.2 except that
the exhaust outlet pressure shall be main
tained at a value which is at least 10 psi
below the ventilating air outlet pressure.
6.1.6 Combustion chamber burst pressure.
The following design test shall demonstrate
compliance with section 5.4.4.
6.1.6.1 With the combustion chamber and
heat exchanger assembly at room tempera
ture, introduce a gaseous fuel air mixture in
a ratio of from .085 to .095. Purge the com
bustion chamber and heat exchanger as
sembly with this mixture to the extent of at
least ten times the volume of the combustion
chamber and heat exchanger assembly. Ig
nite the mixture with the heater igniter.
Repeat procedure to complete 50 explosions.
The heater shall then meet the leakage re
quirements of section 6.5.4.2.
6.1.7 Fadio interference noise levels. See
test, section 6.4.
6.1.8 Effect of vibration of heater and ac
companying devices. See test, section 6.3.
6.1.9 Minimum life and service require
ments of heater and accompanying devices.
See test, section 6.5.
6.2 Test report. The manufacturer shall
furnish a report, on request, covering tests.
494
This report shall include an introduction, a
summary, a description of apparatus, instru
mentation, and tests, the results, a discus
sion, and conclusions.
6.3 Vibration test. The heater and aux
iliary equipment shall be capable of with
standing and satisfactorily operating when
subjected to a steady vibration over a range
of frequencies from 600 to 2,700 cycles per
minute with a total excursion of 1/16”, and
from 2,700 to 3,200 cycles per minute with
an acceleration not exceeding 6 G's. Unless
otherwise specified in detail specifications,
the equipment shall be mounted on the vi
brating apparatus with the longitudinal axis
of the heater in a plane parallel to the
vibrating surface of the apparatus and nor
mal to the direction of vibration.
6.3.1 The heater shall be vibrated over a
range of from 600 to 2,700 cycles per minute
with a total excursion of 146”. The fre
quencies at which resonance occurs, if any,
shall be observed and noted.
6.3.2. The heater Will be vibrated over a
range of from 2,700 to 3,200 cycles per minute
With an acceleration of not less than 5 G's
and not more than 6 G's. The frequencies at
which resonance occurs, if any, shall be ob
served and noted.
6.3.3 If resonance is observed under the
test of either 6.3.1 or 6.3.2, a vibration test
shall be conducted for fifteen hours at the
frequency showing the maximum resonance.
6.3.4. If no resonance is observed under the
tests of 6.3.1 or 6.3.2, a vibration test shall
be conducted for 15 hours at 2,700 cycles per
minute with 146” total excursion.
6.3.5 at the conclusion of the vibration
test there shall be no evidence of structural
failure and the heater and accompanying
devices shall operate satisfactorily.
6.4 Radio interference test.
6.4.1 The heater shall be set up with a
sleeve of bare metal ductwork having the
same diameter as the heater casing con
nected at each end of the casing. The length
of each piece of ductwork shall be not less
than five diameters and shall be connected
to the heater with a clamp of the type
normally used in an installation.
6.4.2 In the same manner as 6.4.1. connect
ductwork or tubing to the combustion air
inlet and to the exhaust outlet with respec
tive dimensions determined by diameters of
the combustion air inlet and exhaust outlet
fittings.
6.4.3 ºf the ignition voltage transformer
is not part of the heater, mount in external
to the heater and connect the high voltage
terminal to the spark plug by means of the
high voltage ignition lead assembly.
6.4.4 With the ignition system operating,
check the complete assembly including
heater, high voltage device, and high voltage
ignition lead assembly using the recom
mended procedure of specification JAN-I-225
dated June 14, 1945, and Radio Interference
Noise Limit Specification AAF—32466–A dated
October 17, 1945.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
6.5 Life tests. Life tests may be conducted
in such manner as to qualify the heater and
: accompanying devices for cabin heating,
wing-empennage anti-icing, or both. For
cabin heating only, the duration of the test
shall be at least 850 hours “on” time. For
wing-empennage anti-icing only, the dura
tion of the test shall be at least 500 hours
“on” time. For qualification of the heater
and accompanying devices under both cabin
heating and wing-empennage classifications,
the duration of the test may be 850 hours
heater “on” time providing at least 500 hours
“on” time is performed at wing-empennage
conditions.
6.5.1 General conditions. The general
conditions applying to both cabin and wing
empennage heater life tests shall be as fol
lows:
6.5.1.1 Tests shall be performed at sea level
rated fuel pressure and sea level rated com
bustion air rate.
6.5.1.2 Inlet air temperature shall not
exceed 125° F.
6.5.1.3 Approximately 50% of the life test
shall be with “continuous” operation, and
the remainder of the test with “rapid cycling"
operation.
6.5.1.3.1 During “continuous” operation,
the ventilating air rate shall be adjusted as
required to give the specified temperature
rise under steady conditions. At least once,
and not more than twice, during each two
hours of operating time, the fuel and ignition
system shall be shut off and the heater per
mitted to cool for at least 10 minutes with
continuous ventilating air and combustion
air flow. In calculating total “on” time for
the heater, the 10-minute cooling periods
shall not be included.
6.5.1.3.2. During “rapid cycling” operation,
a thermostatic switch in the ventilating air
outlet stream shall cycle the fuel on and off
and maintain a specified outlet air tempera
ture. The ventilating air rate shall be ad
justed so that the average heat output (as
suming that the setting of the cycling switch
represents the average outlet air tempera
ture) is between 60 and 75% of the rated
output. At least once, and not more than
twice during each 2 hours of operating time,
the fuel and ignition system shall be shut
off and the heater permitted to cool for at
least 10 minutes with continuous ventilating
air and combustion air flow. For cycling op
eration “on” time is defined as the total
elapsed time during which the rapid cycling
switch controls the heater operation; it does
not include the 10-minute cooling periods.
6.5.2 Cabin heater life tests. The cabin
heater life tests shall be divided into four
periods, as follows:
6.5.2.1 First period—250 hours. Contin
uous operation, with the ventilating air rate
adjusted to maintain a temperature rise of
at least 200* F. and an outlet air tempera
ture of at least 250° F.
6.5.2.2 Second period—250 hours. Rapid
cycling operation, with the cycling switch
set to control at 250+ 10° F. outlet air tem
perature.
49 O
§ 37.130
6.5.2.3 Third period—175 hours. Same
conditions as first period.
6.5.2.4 Fourth period—175 hours. Same
conditions as second period.
6.5.3 Wing-empennage anti-icing heater
life tests. Wing-empennage anti-icing
heater life tests shall be divided into two
periods, as follows:
6.5.3.1 First period—250 hours. Contin
uous operation, with the ventilating air rate
adjusted to maintain a temperature rise of
at least 300° F. and an outlet air temper
ature of at least 350° F.
6.5.3.2 Second period—250 hours Rapid
cycling operation, with the cycling switch
set to control at 350+ 10° F. outlet air tem
perature.
6.5.4 Performance after tests. At the end
of the life and vibration tests the heater shall
meet the following requirements:
6.5.4.1 Carbon monozide contamination.
At rating conditions, and with the burner
operating, carbon monoxide concentration in
the heated ventilating air stream shall not
exceed one part in 20,000 or 0.005 of 1%. This
test shall be run with the heater exhaust
discharging to atmosphere. The ventilating
air samples shall be taken from an unre
stricted duct fastened to the heater ventilat
ing air outlet. The duct shall be the same
diameter as the heater casing and at least
5 diameters in length. Use carbon monoxide
detector assembly AAF No. 46B1790 or Navy
Stock No. R–83–BUA–9258, or equivalent.
6.5.4.2 Leakage. With an air pressure of
8 psig instde the combustion chamber and
heat exchanger assembly, leakage shall not
exceed 9 lbs/hr. (sea level and 59° F.).
There shall be no leaks which could allow
liquid fuel to enter the ventilating air stream
in event of ignition failure, when the heater
is mounted in any normal position, with
drains open.
6.5.4.3 For pressurized cabin heaters, with
pressurized jacket, air leakage through the
ventilating air shroud or casing shall not
exceed 10 lbs hr. at Sea level and room tem
perature when air pressure of 16 psig is
applied to the ventilating air passages.
6.5.4.4 When heater is to be used for wing
empennage anti-icing, the output shall be
not less than 90% of the original rating after
the life test. If the heater is to be used for
cabin heating, the manufacturer shall re
cord in the test report the heater output at
the end of the life test.
6.5.5 Igniter. Whenever it becomes nec
essary due to ignition failure during the life
test, the 19 niter may be cleaned, adjusted,
or replaced. However, the igniter shall not
require servicing or replacement more than
twice during the life test of a wing-empen
nage heater or more than four times during
the life test of a cabin heater.
6.5.6 Fuel system.
6.5.6.1 Whenever necessary due to stop
page or failure, the fuel orifice or nozzle may
be cleaned or replaced. Such servicing shall
not be required more than once during a
*
§ 37.130 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
wing-empennage heater life test or twice . .
during a cabin heater life test.
6.5.6.2 The fuel shut off valve may be ,
cleaned once during a wing-empennage
heater life test and twice during a cabin
heater life test. It shall not be cleaned, .
serviced, or replaced due to failure to close
during the life test. At the end of the life
test the valve leakage in the closed position
with rated fuel pressure shall not exceed two
cubic centimeters of fuel in ten minutes.
6.5.6.3 The fuel filter may be cleaned or
the filter element replaced but the filter body
shall not be replaced during the life test.
At the end of the life test there shall be no
leakage through the case or body.
6.5.7 Safety controls.
6.5.7.1 The device used to prevent the
heater from becoming overheated shall not
be serviced or replaced during the life test
due to failure to shut off the heater. At the
beginning of the life test and at the end of
each test period (section 6.5.2 or 6.5.3), any
cycling or intermediate controls shall be by
passed and the ventilating air rate gradually
reduced over a period of 15 minutes to per
mit operation of this device. Operation shall
be within +25°. F. of the value obtained at
the beginning of the life test.
6.5.7.2 The device to prevent fuel flow
when combustion air is insufficient for safe
operation shall be sensitive to heater com
bustion air pressure differential or to com
bustion air pressure. The device may be an
air actuated electrical switch designed for
use with an electrical fuel shut off valve, or
an air actuated mechanical valve designed
to control the flow of fuel.
6.5.7.2.1. If an air actuated electrical
switch is used, it shall be checked as follows
at the end of each test period (section 6.5.2 plosions on being started.
or 6.5.3) with the heater in operation:
6.5.7.2.1.1 Reduce the combustion air dif- .
ferential pressure or combustion air pres
sure gradually (approximately 30 seconds)
from normal rating to a point where the
switch closes the electrical fuel shut off
valve. The combustion air differential pres
sure or combustion air pressure at which the
fuel shut off valve closes shall not be less
than the minimum value required for safe
heater operation. At the end of 15 minutes
“fuel off” time, the combustion air differen
tial pressure or combustion air pressure, as
applicable, shall be gradually increased at
the same rate and the switch shall open the
electrical fuel shut off valve at or above the
rated combustion air pressure differential.
6.5.7.2.2 If an air actuated mechanical fuel
valve is used it shall be checked as follow8
at the end of each test period (sections 6.5.2
or 6.5.3):
6.5.7.2.2.1 with the heater operating and
with the fuel shut off valve “open”, the com
bustion air differential pressure shall be
reduced gradually (approximately 30 sec
onds) from normal rating to value required
for safe heater operation. Leakage through
the air actuated mechanical fuel valve shall
then be measured and shall not exceed two
eubic centimeters in ten minutes. At the
end of 15 minutes “fuel off” time, the com
bustion air differential pressure shall be
gradually increased at the same rate and
the valve shall permit rated fuel flow when
the rated combustion air pressure differential
is reached.
6.5.7.3 Ignition system.
6.5.7.3.1. If necessary, the high voltage de
vice may be serviced or parts replaced once
during the life test.
6.5.7.3.2 If necessary, the high voltage ig
nition lead assembly or equivalent may be
serviced or replaced once during the life test.
6.5.7.4 Unless otherwise specified, items
6.5.7.1, 6.5.7.2, 6.5.7.2.1, 6.5.7.2.2, 6.5.7.3, and
6.5.7.3.2, if furnished separately, not as part
Of the heater, need not be tested more than
once providing no changes are made in their
design, construction, or adjustment.
6.5.7.5 In case of life test failure of one or
more of the devices in items 6.5.7.1, 6.5.7.2,
6.5.7.2.1, 6.5.7.2.2, 6.5.7.3, and 6.5.7.3.2, the test
may be continued to qualify the heater or
devices that have not failed. A separate life
test shall apply only to the failed device if
necessary to establish reliability.
7. Desirable features (Not Mandatory).
7.1 Operation.
7.1.1 The operation of the heater and ac
companying devices should require a mini
mum of moving parts.
7.1.2 The heater should start operation
within five seconds at —65° F. at sea level
and at its service ceiling, and should reach
its maximum output within three minutes
after being started.
7.1.3 The heater should be designed in
such a manner as to preclude violent ex
7.1.4 The heater should be designed in
such a manner and made from such ma
terials as to withstand deteriorating effects
of high humidity, condensation, fungus, and
abrasive particles in the air.
7.1.5 The heater and its accompanying
devices should not be adversely affected if
subjected to ambient temperatures up to
160° F. for indefinite periods.
7.1.6 The heater should be designed to
give low air pressure drop at high altitudes.
7.1.7 Where necessary, additional devices
such as the following, may be provided to
improve heater operation.
7.1.7.1 Air pressure regulator.
7.1.7.2 Fuel pressure regulator.
7.1.7.3 Combustion air blower.
7.1.7.4 Ventilating air blower.
T. 1.7.5 Fuel air ratio control.
7.1.7.6 Thermal cycling switch.
7.1.7.7 Cabin heat controls.
7.2 Igniter. The igniter should be acces
sible for quick replacement or servicing.
7.3 Fuel nozzle. The fuel nozzle should
be accessible for quick replacement or serv
icing.
(2) Application. (i) Combustion heat
ers complying with the Specifications
496
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
appearing in this order are hereby ap
proved for all aircraft. Heaters already
approved may continue to be installed
in aircraft:
(a) For which an application for
original type certificate is made prior to
the effective date of this order.
(b) The prototype of which is flown
within one year after the effective date of
this order, and
(c) The prototype of which is not
flown within one year after the effective
date of this order if due to causes beyond
the applicant's control.
(ii) If an alteration involving a change
in type or model of heater is made within
nine months after the effective date of
this order, previously approved types of
heaters may be installed. However, in
any such change made after the nine
month period, new types of heaters in
stalled shall meet the Specifications con
tained in this Section.
(c) Specific instructions—(1) Marking.
In addition to the identification infor
mation required in the referenced speci
fication, each heater shall be per
manently marked with the Technical
Standard Order designation, FAA—TSO
C20, to identify the heater as meeting
the requirements of this order in accord
ance with the manufacturers’ statement
of conformance outlined in subpara
graph (5) of this paragraph. This iden
tification will be accepted by the Admin
istrator as evidence that the established
minimum safety requirements for com
bustion heaters have been met.
(2) Data requirements. Ten copies of
the following technical information shall
be submitted by the manufacturer of
the heater With his Statement of Con
formance to the Chief, Engineering and
Manufacturing Branch, Flight Stand
ards Division, Federal Aviation Adminis
tration, in the region in which the manu and continued.
facturer is located:
(1) Rated combustion air flow rates ... the heater does not relieve the aircraft
(or pressure drop) including minimum
safe rate and variation with altitude.
(ii) Rated ventilating air flow rates
(or pressure drop) including minimum
safe rate and variation with altitude.
(iii) Ignition characteristics curve es
tablished in accordance With Section
6.1.1 of Specification AS143B.
(iv) Minimum operating voltage used
for subdivision (iii) of this subpara
graph.
(v) Maximum operating altitude.
(vi) Operating fuel pressure.
497
§ 37.130
(vii) Installation diagram showing In
stallation of safety devices necessary to
achieve compliance with sections 4.2,
5.7 and 6.5.7 through 6.5.7.2.2.1 of Speci
fication AS143B.
(viii) Recommended electrical ar
rangement and any necessary limita
tions and pressure or temperature set
tings which are considered essential to
proper and safe installation and opera
tion.
(3) Effective date. After June 15,
1949, specifications contained in this
order will constitute the basis for ap
proval of combustion heaters for use in
certificated aircraft.
(4) Deviations. Requests for deviation
from, or waiver of, the requirements of
this order, which affect the basic air
Worthiness of the component, should be
submitted for approval by the Chief,
Engineering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avia
tion Administration, in the region in
which the manufacturer is located.
(5) Conformance. (1) The manufac
turer shall furnish to the Chief, Engi
neering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avia
tion Administration, in the region in
which the manufacturer is located, a
written statement of conformance signed
by a responsible official of his company,
setting forth that the heater to be pro
duced by him meets the minimum safety
requirements established in this order.
This statement shall indicate whether
the heater meets the standards for cabin
or wing-empennage heaters as prescribed
in SAE Aeronautical Standard AS–143B
and whether it has met the Standards of
this specification pertinent to pressurized
Systems. Immediately thereafter distri
bution of the heaters conforming with
the terms of this order may be started
(ii) The prescribed identification on
manufacturer or owner of responsibility
for the proper application of the heater,
in his aircraft, nor waive any of the re
quirements concerning type certification
of the aircraft in accordance with exist
ing Federal Aviation Regulations.
(iii) If complaints of nonconformance
with the requirements of this order are
brought to the attention of the Adminis
trator and investigation indicates that
such complaints are justified. The Ad
ministrator takes appropriate action to
restrict the use of the product involved.
§ 37.131 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(iv) Copies of this Technical Standard
Order Library Services Division, HQ–630,
Federal Aviation Administration, Wash
ington, D.C. 20553.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.131 Special aircraft turnbuckle as
semblies and/or turnbuckle safe
tying devices—TS0–C21a.
(a) Applicability. (1) Minimum per
formance standards: Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for Special turnbuckle assemblies
and/or safetying devices which are to be
used on civil aircraft of the United
States.
(2) New models of special turnbuckle
assemblies and/or Safetying devices
manufactured on or after July 1, 1958,
shall meet the performance requirements
as set forth in Sections 3 and 4 of Military
Specification MIL-T-5685A dated April
6, 1950, with the additional tests, when
applicable, listed below. Special turn
buckle assemblies and/or safetying
devices already approved may continue
to be used for the purposes for which
approved.
(3) Tests: The following tests, when
applicable, are required in addition to
those set forth in MIL-T-5685A, and
shall be conducted to substantiate the
Strength and reliability of Special turn
buckle assemblies and/or Safetying de
vices. A minimum of six samples each
shall be used in conducting the tests
for torsion, tension, fatigue (tensile),
and fatigue (torsion).
(i) Torsion. At least one sample of
each size turnbuckle assembly and
Safetying device shall be tested in torsion
to determine that the torque necessary
to overcome the turnbuckle thread fric
tion and break the safetying device is
equal to or greater than that required
when the conventional safety wire is used
in accordance with the safetying proce
dure recommended in Civil Aeronautics
Manual 4b.329–2 effective April 30, 1955
[20 F.R. 2278].
(ii) Tension. At least one sample of
each size turnbuckle and safetying device
assembly shall be tested to determine
that the turnbuckle assembly (including
* Copies may be obtained from the Com
mander, Air Materiel Command, Attn:
MCSIFF–2, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,
Ohio, or from the Commanding Officer, Naval
Aviation Supply Depot, 700 Robbins Ave.,
Philadelphia 11, Pa., Code AD.
498
Safetying device) will not fail at any
tensile load under the maximum (ulti
mate) tensile strength for which the
comparable standard MIL or NAS turn
buckle is rated. For this test, the
Sample shall consist of the turnbuckle
assembly (including safetying device)
with a two (2) foot length of cable ap
propriately attached to each terminal
(end) of the turnbuckle. In making the
determination, the Sample shall be tested
for tensile strength in accordance With
Federal Test Method Std. No. 151.* If
the Sample does not fail under the speci
fled maximum load, it need not be tested
further to destruction.
(iii) Vibration. At least one sample of
each of 3 representative sizes of turn
buckle assemblies, i.e., the Smallest, the
largest, and an intermediate size, shall be
vibrated to determine that the lock Wire,
or other Safetying device which relies
upon Spring action or clamping to Safety
the turnbuckle, can be depended upon
not to jump out of place or otherwise lose
its safetying properties, under vibratory
conditions apt to be encountered in air
craft Service. It is Suggested that a cable
tension load equal to 25 percent of rated
ultimate cable strength and a frequency
of 3600 cpm with an overall amplitude
of ¥3 inch (parallel to the axis of the hole
through the barrel) for 25 hours, be used
for this determination.
(iv) Fatigue (tensile). At least one
sample of each size turnbuckle assembly
shall be given a repeated load test, in
which a load equal to two-thirds the ulti
mate tensile strength requirement is
applied repeatedly in tension for 300
applications of the load without failure
of any component part. For this test,
the Sample shall consist of the turnbuckle
assembly (including safetying device)
with a two (2) foot length of cable ap
propriately attached to each terminal
(end) of the turnbuckle.
(v) Fatigue (bending). The safety
wire used in the conventional lock Wire
safetying procedure recommended in
CAM 4b.329–2 is not considered to be re
usable. If the safety device used with
the Special aircraft turnbuckle assembly
is to be considered re-usable, at least
three (3) samples of the Shortest formed
non-standard safety wire (or other fin
ished safetying device) shall be tested
* Copies may be obtained from the General
Services Administration, Business Service
Center, Region 3, Seventh and D Streets,
SW., Washington 25, D.C., for 70% each.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
by alternate fastening and unfastening
of the wire (or other safetying device),
to determine that the device Will not
break after repeated applications of the
bending loads involved. 200 on and off
cycles, Simulating rough treatment apt
to be experienced during maintenance
should Substantiate a reasonable Service
life. It is felt that the shortest safety
wire (or other Safetying device) will
be subjected to the greatest bending
stresses. However, if the stresses may be
greater in a longer wire (or other safety
ing device) intended for a larger size
turnbuckle, the larger Size turnbuckle
and the longer Wire (or other Safetying
device) shall be used for this test.
(vi) Fatigue (torsion). At least one
sample of each size turnbuckle assembly
and/or safetying device shall be given a
repeated load test in which a load equal
to two-thirds the torque (determined in
test No. 1 above) required to overcome
the turnbuckle thread friction and break
the conventional Safety wire (CAM
4b.329–2) is applied in torsion first in
one direction and then reversed for 3000
complete cycles of reversal without fail
ure of any component part.
§ 37.132 Safety Belts—TSO-C22f.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. This technical
standard order prescribes the minimum
performance standards that safety belts
must meet in order to be identified with
the applicable TSO marking. New models
of safety belts that are to be so identified
and that are manufactured on or after
May 1, 1972, must meet the standards set
forth in National Aircraft Standards
(NAS) Specification 802 revised May 15,
1950, with the exceptions covered in sub
paragraph (2) of this paragraph. NAS
802 is incorporated by reference herein
in accordance with 5 U.S.C. 552(a)(1)
and § 37.23 and is available as indicated
in § 37.23. Additionally, NAS 802 may be
examined at any FAA regional office of
the Chief, Engineering and Manufactur
ing Branch (or in the case of the West
ern Region, the Chief, Aircraft Engineer
ing Division), and may be obtained from
the National Standards Association, 1321
14th Street NW., Washington, DC 20005,
at a cost of three (3) dollars. Belts ap
proved under prior issuances of this sec
tion may continue to be manufactured
under the earlier provisions.
(2) Eacceptions. (i) For the purpose
of this section the strengths specified in
section 4.1.1 of NAS 802 shall be 1,500
499
§ 37.132
pounds and 3,000 pounds instead of 3,-
000 pounds and 6,000 pounds.
(ii) In complying with section 4.3.2.2
of NAS 802, the curved portion of the test
form may be padded With no more than
one inch of medium density Sponge rub
ber, or equivalent, and covered with Suit
able fabric to simulate a person's body
and clothing.
(iii) Synthetic material Webbing
which is not subject to loss of strength
due to the influence of humidity, tem
perature variations, etc., need not be
subjected to the first six-month retest
ing period specified in section 3.1.2 of
NAS 802. Retesting at Succeeding Six
month periods will be necessary if the
belt manufacturer is unable to ascertain
by means of textile data available to
him that the webbing is unaffected by
ambient storage conditions for the pe
riod of time involved.
(iv) In complying with section 4.1.3
of NAS 802, the two-inch webbing width
shall be considered a nominal width.
Thus, after considering all manufactur
ing processes as are necessary Such as
weaving, dyeing, mildew proofing, flame
resistance and abrasion treatments, a
webbing width of 11%6 inches +%6 inch
shall be acceptable.
(v) The slots or openings in the hard
ware for attachment of the safety belt
webbing shall not be less than two
inches.
(vi) In lieu of compliance with para
graphs 1.1.1, 3.1.4, and 4.3.1.1 of NAS 802,
the webbing and all other materials used
in the belt assembly must comply with
the fire protection provisions of § 25.853
(b–2) of this chapter.
(b) Marking. (1) Each half of each
safety belt shall be marked in accord
ance with $ 37.7 except that the weight
required by paragraph (d) (3) of § 37.7
need not be shown and the rated
strength of the safety belt assembly shall
be shown, and
(2) In lieu of the marking require
ment in paragraph (d) (4) of § 37.7 the
date of manufacture is required. The
serial number may also be marked on
the belt, but not in lieu of the date of º
manufacture.
(c) Data requirements. (1) The
manufacturer shall maintain a current
file on complete design data.
(2) The manufacturer shall maintain
a current file of complete data describ
ing the inspection and test procedures
applicable to his product. (See para
graph (d) of this section.)
 § 37.133 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(3) One copy of the following shall
be furnished to the Chief, Engineering
and Manufacturing Branch, Flight
Standards Division, Federal Aviation Ad
ministration, in the region in which the
manufacturer is located: A drawing of
the complete belt assembly showing the
manufacturer's part numbers together
with a notation indicating the minimum
webbing strength specified by the belt
manufacturer. If the test belts were
tested to destruction, the average
strength of the belt assembly should also
be indicated.
(d) Quality control. Each safety belt
shall be produced under a quality con
trol System, established by the manufac
turer, which will assure that each belt is
in conformity with the requirements of
this standard. This system shall be de
scribed in the data required under para
graph (c) (2) of this section. The Ad
ministrator shall be permitted to make
such inspections and tests at the manu
facturer's facility as may be necessary to
determine compliance with the require
ments of this standard.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 37–3, 30 F.R. 13210,
Oct. 16, 1965; Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967; Amdt. 37–32, 37 F.R. 3973,
Feb. 24, 1972]
§ 37.133 Parachutes—TSO C23H.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for parachutes which are to be
used in civil aircraft of the United States.
New models of parachutes manufactured
for use in civil aircraft of the United
States on or after the effective date of
this section shall meet the minimum
performance standards of National Air
craft Standards Specification 804 dated
August 24, 1949," with the exceptions
covered in subparagraph (2) of this
paragraph. Parachutes approved prior
to the effective date of this section may
continue to be manufactured under the
provisions of the Original approval.
(2) Eacceptions. (i) The auxiliary
parachute used in combination with a
: standard parachute shall be designed for
use in combination with the specific
main parachute.
(ii) For the purpose of testing an
auxiliary type parachute used in com
1 Coples may be obtained from the National
Standards Association, 616 Washington Loan
and Trust Building, Washington 4, D.C.
500
bination with a standard parachute the
Speed Specified in Section 4.3.8 of NAS
Specification 804 shall be 25 feet per
Second instead of 21 feet per second.
(b) Marking. The auxiliary para
chute and its pack shall be marked
“Auxiliary Parachute” in addition to the
Other marking requirements contained
in § 37.7.
(c) Data requirements. (1) The
manufacturer shall maintain a current
file of complete design data.
(2) The manufacturer shall maintain
a current file of complete data describing
the inspection and test procedures appli
cable to his product. (See paragraph
(d) of this Section.)
(d) Quality control. Each parachute
shall be produced under a quality control
System, established by the manufacturer,
which will assure that each parachute
is in Conformity with the requirements
Of this section. This system shall be
described in the data required under
paragraph (c) (2) of this Section. The
Administrator shall be pèrmitted to make
Such inspections and tests at the manu
facturer's facility as may be necessary to
determine compliance with the require
ments Of this Section.
§ 37.134 Technical Standard Order C24:
“Landing Flares”.
(a) Introduction. (1) This Technical
Standard Order is intended to Serve as a
criterion by which the product manufac
turer may obtain approval of his landing
flares.
(b) Directive — (1) Provision. (1)
The performance requirements for land
ing flares as set forth in Sections 4.1 and
4.3 of National Aircraft Standards Speci
fication NAS 805 dated February 15,
1950,” stated below, are hereby estab
lished as minimum performance re
quirements for landing flares intended
for use in civil aircraft.
1. Applicable specifications.
1.1. None.
2. Types.
2.1 This specification covers four types of
landing flares suitable for use in certificated
civil aircraft.
Class 1.
Class 1A.
Class 2.
Class 3.
3. Material and workmanship.
* Coples may be obtained from the Ameri
can Aeronautical Forum, 527 Washington
Loan and Trust Building, Washington 4, D.C.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
3.1 Materials shall be of a quality which
experience and/or tests have conclusively
demonstrated to be suitable for use in land
ing flares. Workmanship shall be consistent
w1th high-grade landing flare manufacturing
practice.
3.2 The flare body should be so sealed as to
reduce to a minimum deterioration of the
ignition element and to increase, insofar as
possible the service life of the unit. All metal
parts should be suitably protected against
corrosion. All fabric except nylon material
should be mildew-proofed.
4. Detail requirements.
4.1. Design and construction.
4.1.1 Light duration. Each flare shall have
a minimum light duration as follows:
Classes 1 and 1A—3 Inlnutes.
Class 2—1% minutes.
Class 3–1 minute.
4.1.2 Light intensity. Each flare shall
have a minimum light intensity as follows:
Classes 1 and 1A—250,000 candlepower.
Class 2–110,000 candlepower.
Class 3–70,000 candlepower.
4.1.3 Rate of descent. Flares shall have
an average rate of descent not greater than
550 feet per minute.
4.1.4 Delaying fuse. Class 1A flares shall
incorporate a 90 second plus or minus 10
seconds delaying fuse.
4.1.5 Firing cord. Flares incorporating a
manual firing cord actuating cable shall have
cord length not less than 20 feet.
4.2 Marking and instructions.
4.2.1 Each flare shall carry the following
information legibly marked on or attached
to the flare and the flare container:
Manufacturer's name.
Model number or Inodel name.
Instructions for installation procedures
and safety precautions.
Date of manufacture (month and year).
National Aircraft Standard Number NAS
805.
4.3 Qualification tests. The following
qualification tests shall be conducted.
4.3.1 Functional tests. Five flares of each
Inodel shall be installed in an airplane ac
cording to the manufacturer's 1nstructions
and shall be dropped from an altitude ade
quate to insure complete burning of the
flare prior to ground contact.
4.3.1.1. In the event that there is
failure out of the five flares subjected to the
functional tests, five additional flares shall
be subjected to the functional tests.
4.3.1.2 Failure of two or more flares out
of the ten dropped shall be sufficient grounds
for rejection. The flare model will be con
sidered to be satisfactory only if all five
original flares function satisfactorily or in
the event of one failure in the original five,
if the second five function satisfactorily.
(2) Application. (i) Landing flares
complying with the specifications ap
pearing in this Technical Standard Or
der are hereby approved for use in all
aircraft. Landing flares already ap
§ 37.134
proved may continue to be installed in
aircraft.
(ii) If an installation change involv.
ing a new type or model landing flare is
made within nine months after the effec
tive date of this section, previously ap
proved types of landing flares may be
installed. However, in any such change
made after the nine-month period, new
types of landing flares installed in air
craft shall meet the specifications con
tained herein.
(c) Specific instructions—(1) Mark
ing. (i) In addition to the identification
information required in the referenced
Specification, except that the NAS 805
number is not required) each flare shall
be permanently marked with the Tech
nical Standard Order designation, FAA
TSO-C24, to identify the landing flare as
meeting the requirements of this section
in accordance with the manufacturers'
Statement of conformance outlined be
low. The Administrator accepts this
identification as evidence that the estab
lished minimum safety requirements for
landing flares have been met.
(2) Data requirements. (i) None.
(3) Effective date. (i) After October
10, 1950, Specifications contained in this
Section will constitute the basis for ap
proval of landing flares for use in civil
aircraft.
(4) Deviations. (1) Requests for de
Viation from, or waiver of, the require
ments of this section, which affect the
basic airworthiness of the component,
should be submitted for approval by the
Chief, Engineering and Manufacturing
Branch, Flight Standards Division, Fed
eral Aviation Administration, in the
region in which the manufacturer is
located.
(5) Conformance. (i) The manufac
turer shall furnish to the Chief, Engi
neering and Manufacturing Branch,
one
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avia
tion Administration, in the region in
which the manufacturer is located, a
Written statement of conformance signed
by a responsible official of his company,
setting forth that the landing flares to
be produced by him meet the minimum
Safety standards established in this sec
tion. Immediately thereafter distribution
of the landing flares conforming with the
terms of this section may be started and
continued.
(ii) The prescribed identification on
the landing flares does not relieve the
501
§ 37.135 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
aircraft manufacturer or owner of re
sponsibility for the proper installation
of the landing flares in his aircraft, nor
waive any of the requirements concern
ing type certification of the aircraft in
accordance with existing Federal Avia
tion Regulations.
(iii) If complaints of nonconformance
with the requirements of this section
are brought to the attention of the Ad
ministrator and investigation indicates
that such complaints are justified, the
Administrator takes appropriate action
to restrict the use of the product involved.
(iv) Copies of this Technical Stand
ard Order and other Technical Stand
ard Orders may be obtained from the
Library Services Division, HQ–630, Fed
eral Aviation Administration, Washing
ton, D.C. 20553.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 37–3, 30 F.R. 13210,
Oct 16, 1965; Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr 11, 1967]
§ 37.135 Aircraft seats and berths
(Type I transport, 6g forward
load)—TS0—C25a.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for aircraft seats and berths (Type
I transport, 6g forward load) which are
to be used in civil aircraft of the United
States. These standards apply to Type I
transport seats for use in transport cate
gory aircraft for which an application for
type certificate was made prior to March
5, 1952." New models of seats and berths
(Type I transport, 6g forward load)
manufactured for installation in civil
aircraft on or after January 15, 1957 shall
meet the standards of National Aircraft
Standard Specification 806, revised Janu
ary 1, 1956," with the changes and ex
ceptions listed in subparagraph (2) of
this paragraph. Seats and berths ap
proved by the Civil Aeronautics Admin
istration prior to January 15, 1957, may
continue to be manufactured under the
provisions of their original approval.
• Standards for Types II, III, IV, and I (for
installation in aircraft for which an applica
tion for type certificate was made after
March 5, 1952), are contained in § 37.136
(TSO-C39).
• Copies may be obtained from the National
Standards Association, 616 Washington Loan
and Trust Building, Washington 4, D. C.
502
(2) Eacceptions. (i) The ultimate loads
corresponding to the aircraft reduced
weight gust load factor or the airplane
designer's special requirements may ex
ceed the ultimate down loads for Type I
seats specified in SubSection 4.1.2 of NAS
806. For the purpose of this section,
in order to provide for such load
ing conditions, the ultimate down loads
specified in Table I of 4.1.2 for Type I
seats shall be 1,000 pounds (6g) instead
of 765 pounds.
(ii) To insure that pilot and copilot
Seats will provide for the rearward loads
resulting from the application of pilot
forces to the flight controls, such seats
shall withstand a rearward load of 450
pounds. The load shall be applied 8
inches above the intersection of the seat
back With the Seat bottom.
(iii) The weight of the seat or berth
times the appropriate “g” Value shall be
added to the design ultimate load speci
fied in subdivision (i) of this subpara
graph and in Subsection 4.1.2 of NAS 806.
(iv) For the purpose of this section,
4.3 (c) of NAS 806 should read: “that
the structure is capable of supporting
Without failure for at least 3 seconds the
ultimate loads specified in this order
when applied separately.”
(b) Marking. The weight required in
§ 37.7 need not be included.
§ 37.136 Aircraft seats and berths
TSO-C39a.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. (i) This technical
standard order prescribes the minimum
performance standards that aircraft
seats and berths of the following types
must meet in order to be identified With
the applicable TSO marking:
Type I—Transport (99 forward load).
Type II—Normal and utility.
Type III—Acrobatic.
Type IV—Rotorcraft.
(ii) New models of seats and berths
that are to be so identified, and that are
manufactured on or after May 1, 1972,
must meet the standards set forth in
National Aircraft Standard (NAS) Spec
ification 809, dated January 1, 1956, with
the exceptions covered in subparagraph
(2) of this paragraph. NAS 809 is incor
porated by reference herein in accord
ance with 5 U.S.C. 552(a)(1) and § 37.23
and is available as indicated in § 37.23.
Additionally, NAS 809 may be examined
at any FAA regional office of the Chief,
Engineering and Manufacturing Branch
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(or in the case of the Western Region,
the Chief, Aircraft Engineering Divi
sion), and may be obtained from the
National Standards ASSociation, 1321
14th Street NW., Washington, DC 20005,
at a cost of three (3) dollars.
(2) Eacceptions. (i) The sideward loads
as specified in 4.1.2. Table I need not
exceed the requirements of the applicable
Federal Aviation Regulations.
; (ii) In lieu of compliance with para
graphs 2.1, 3.12, and 4.32 of NAS 809,
materials in Type I seats and berths must
comply with the fire protection provi
sions of § 25.853(b) of this chapter.
(b) Marking. The weight required in
§ 37.7 need not be included.
(c) Previous approval. Seats
; berths approved prior to May 1, 1972,
may continue to be manufactured under
the provisions of their original approval.
[Amdt. 37–32, 37 F.R. 3973, Feb. 24, 1972.]
§ 37.137 Airborne Radio Marker Receiv
ing Equipment, TSO-C35d.
(a) Applicability: This technical
standard order prescribes the minimum
performance standards that airborne
radio marker receiving equipment must
meet in order to be identified with the ap
plicable TSO marking. New models of
equipment that are to be so identified,
and that are manufactured on or after
May 15, 1971, must meet the require
ments of Radio Technical Commission
for Aeronautics Document No. DO-143
entitled “Minimum Performance Stand
ards—Airborne Radio Marker Receiving
Equipment Operating on 75 Megahertz”
dated January 8, 1970, and Radio Tech
nical Commission for Aeronautics Docu
ment No. DO–138 entitled “Environ
mental Conditions and Test Procedures
for Airborne Electronic/Electrical Equip
ment and Instruments” dated June 27,
1968. RTCA Documents Nos. DO-143 and
DO–138 are incorporated herein in ac
cordance with 5 U.S.C. 552(a)(1) and
§ 37.23, and are available as indicated in
§ 37.23. Additionally, RTCA Documents
Nos. DO–143 and DO—138 may be exam
ined at any FAA regional office of the
Chief of Engineering and Manufacturing
Branch (or in the case of the Western
Region, the Chief, Aircraft Engineering
Division), and may be obtained from the
RTCA Secretariat, Suite 655, 1717 H
Street NW., Washington, DC 20006, at a
cost of $6 per copy for Document No.
§ 37.137
DO–143 and $8 per copy for Document
No. DO-138.
(b) Marking: In addition to the
markings specified in § 37.7 the equip
ment must be permanently and legibly
marked with the following information:
(1) The environmental categories over
Which the article has been designed to
Operate must be marked in accord
ance with RTCA Document DO-138,
Appendix B.
(2) The equipment must be marked to
indicate the class declared by the manu
facturer as follows:
Class A. Equipment designed for use where
marker beacon signals are required for both
en route and approach operations.
and Class B. Equipment designed for use where
marker beacon signals are required only for
approach operations.
Equipment which complies with both
Class A and Class B requirements need
only be marked as Class A equipment.
(3) Each separate component of
equipment (antenna, receiver, indicator,
etc.) must be identified with at least the
name of the manufacturer, the TSO
number, and the environmental cate
gories over which the component is de
signed to operate. Where an environ
mental test procedure is not applicable
to that component and the test is not
conducted, an X should be placed in the
Space assigned for that category.
(c) Data requirements: In accordance
With $ 37.5, the manufacturer must fur
nish to the Chief, Engineering and Man
ufacturing Branch, Flight Standards
Division (or in the case of the Western
Region, the Chief, Aircraft Engineering
Division), Federal Aviation Administra
tion, in the region in which the manu
facturer is located, the following tech
nical data:
(1) One copy of the operating instruc
tions and equipment limitations of the
manufacturer.
(2) One copy of the installation proce
dures with applicable schematic draw
ings, wiring diagrams, and specifications,
and a list of components (by part num
ber) or possible combination thereof,
which make up a system complying with
this TSO. The procedures must show all
limitations, restrictions, or other condi
tions pertinent to the installation.
(3) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
503
§ 37.138 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(d) One copy of the installation pro
cedures with the data identified in para
graph (c) (2) of this section, including
limitations, restrictions, or other condi
tions pertinent to the installation must
be furnished with each article manu
factured under this TSO.
(e) Previously approved equipment:
Airborne radio marker receiving equip
ment approved prior to May 15, 1971,
may continue to be manufactured un
der the provisions of its original appro
val.
[Amdt. 37–30, 36 F.R. 7127, Apr. 15, 1971]
§ 37.138 VOR radio receiving equip
ment operating within the radio
frequency range of 108–118 mega
cycles (for air carrier aircraft)—
TSO–C40a.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for airborne VOR radio receiving
equipment operating within the radio
frequency range of 108–118 megacycles
which is to be used on civil aircraft of the
United States engaged in air carrier op
erations. New models of airborne VOR
radio receiving equipment manufactured
for use on civil air carrier aircraft on or
after September 1, 1959, shall meet the
minimum performance standards as set
forth in Radio Technical Commission
for Aeronautics' Paper entitled “Mini
mum Performance Standards Airborne
VOR Receiving Equipment Operating
Within the Radio Frequency Range of
108–118 Megacycles,” as amended (Pa
per 225–55/DO–69 dated December 13,
1955, and amendment, Paper 253–58/EC
363 dated November 13, 1958)." Radio
Technical Commission for Aeronautics'
Paper 100–54/DO–60° which is incor
porated by reference in and thus is a
part of Paper 325–55/DO–69 has been
amended by Paper 256–58/EC–366 dated
November 13, 1958. This amendment is
also a part of the minimum performance
standards. An exception to these stand
ards is covered in subparagraph (2) of
this paragraph.
(2) Eacception. (i) Radio Technical
Commission for Aeronautics' Paper 100–
* Copies of these papers may be obtained
from the RTCA Secretariat, Suite 302, NADA
Building, 20th and K Streets NW., Washing
ton, D.C. 20006. Paper 225–55/DO–69, 30
cents per copy; Paper 100–54/DO–60, 20 cents
per copy.
504
54/DO–60, and amendment Paper 256–
58/EC–366 dated November 13, 1958,
outline environmental test procedures for
equipment designed to Operate under
three environmental test conditions as
specified therein under Procedures A, B,
and C. Only airborne VOR radio receiv
1ng equipment which meets the operating
requirements as Outlined under Proce
dure A or Procedure B of Paper 100–54/
DO–60, as amended, is eligible under this
Section. -
(ii) The vibration values Specified be
low may be used for equipment designed
exclusively for installation on the instru
ment panel of aircraft in lieu of those
Specified in Paper 100–54/DO–60 as
amended. No Shock mounting shall be
used during the conduct of this test if
the vibration values specified below are
used.
Amplitude: 0.01” (0.02” total excursion).
Frequency: Variable 5–50 cps.
Maximum Acceleration: 1.5 g.
(iii) Equipment which is designed ex
clusively for installation on the instru
ment panel of aircraft need not be sub
jected to the shock requirements outlined
in Paper 100–54/DO–60 as amended.
(iv) Indicating instruments which are
a part of the System, but which are not
designed exclusively for installation on
the instrument panel of aircraft, may
also be tested to the vibration require
ments specified in Subdivision (ii) of this
subparagraph and need not be subjected
to the shock requirements outlined in
Paper 100–54/DO–60 as amended.
(b) Marking. In addition to the in
formation required in § 37.7, equipment
which has been designed to operate over
the environmental conditions as outlined
in Procedure A of RTCA Paper 100–54/
DO–60, as amended, shall be marked as
Category A equipment. Equipment
which has been designed to operate over
the environmental conditions outlined in
Procedure B of this same paper shall be
marked as Category B equipment.
Equipment which has been designed ex
clusively for installation on the instru
ment panel of aircraft and which meets
only the amended Vibration requirements
outlined above shall be identified with
the letters I.P. following the category of
equipment, Such as CAT. A–I.P.
(c) Data requirements. With the
statement of conformance, one copy
each of the manufacturer's operating in
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
structions, schematic diagrams, and in
stallation procedures shall be furnished
the Chief, Engineering and Manufactur
ing Branch, Flight Standards Division,
Federal Aviation Administration, in the
region in which the manufacturer is
located.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Airborne VOR radio receiving equipment
approved prior to September 1, 1959,
may continue to be manufactured under
the provisions of its original approval.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 FIR. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.139 Airborne radio receiving and
§on lc.
finding equipment TSO
(a) Applicability. This technical
standard order prescribes the
mum performance standards that air
borne radio receiving and direction
finding equipment must meet in order
to be identified with the applicable
TSO marking. New models of equip
ment that are to be so identified, and
that are manufactured on or after
August 14, 1972, must meet the re
quirements of Radio Technical Com
mission for Aeronautics Document No.
DO–142 entitled “Minimum Perform
ance Standards—Airborne Radio Re
ceiving and Direction Finding Equip
ment Operating within the
Frequency Range of 200–850 Kilo
hertz” dated January 8, 1970, and
Radio Technical Commission for
Aeronautics Document No. DO—138 en
titled “Environmental Conditions and
Test Procedures for Airborne Elec
tronic/Electrical Equipment and
struments” dated June 27, 1968. RTCA
Documents NOS. DO-142 and DO–138
are incorporated herein in accordance
with 5 U.S.C. 552(a)(1) and
Additionally, RTCA Documents
DO–142 and DO-138 may be examined
at any FAA regional office of the Chief
of Engineering and Manufacturing
Branch (or in the case of the Western
Region, the Chief, Aircraft Engineering
Division), and may be obtained from
the RTCA Secretariat, Suite 655, 1717
H Street NW., Washington, DC 20006,
at a cost of $6 per copy for Document
No. DO–142 and $8 per copy for Docu
-
ment NO. DO–138.
.
39–059–75–33
§ 37.139
(b) Marking. In addition to the
markings specified in § 37.7 the equip
ment must be permanently and legibly
marked with the following:
(1) The equipment must be marked
to indicate the environmental cate
gories over which it has been designed
to operate in accordance with Appendix
B of RTCA Document DO-138.
(2) The equipment must be marked
to indicate its class as follows:
Class A. Equipment intended for operation
in the European-Mediterranean area (EUM)
and in other areas where the frequency sepa
ration and geographical separation of ground
facilities and their output powers are similar
to the EUM area.
Class B. Equipment intended for operation
in the United States of America and its pos
sessions, and in other areas where the fre
mini quency and geographical separation of
ground facilities and their output powers are
similar to the U.S.A. areas.
Equipment which complies with both
Class A and Class B requirements need
only be marked as Class A equipment.
(3) Each separate component of the
equipment (antenna, receiver, indicator,
etc.) must be identified with at least the
name of the manufacturer, the TSO
number, and the environmental cate
gories over which the component is de
signed to Operate. Where an environ
mental test procedure described in
Radio DO–138 is not applicable to that com
ponent and the test is not conducted.
an “X” should be placed in the space
assigned for that environmental cate
gory.
(c) Data requirements. In accordance
with $ 37.5, the manufacturer must fur
In nish to the Chief, Engineering and Man
ufacturing Branch, Flight Standards
Division (or in the case of the Western
Region, the Chief, Aircraft Engineering
§ 37.23. Division), Federal Aviation Administra
Nos. tion, in the region in which the manu
facturer is located, the following tech
nical data:
(1) One copy of the manufacturer's
operating instructions and equipment
limitations including a statement speci
fying the class of the equipment.
(2) One copy of the installation pro
cedures with applicable schematic draw
ings, wiring diagrams, and specifications,
and a list of components (by part num
ber) or possible combinations thereof,
which make up a system complying with
5 5
§ 37.140 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
this TSO. The procedures must show all
limitations, restrictions, or other condi
tions pertinent to the installation.
(3) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(d) One copy of the installation pro
cedures with the data identified in para
graph (c) (2) of this section, including
limitations, restrictions, or other condi
tions pertinent to the installation must
be furnished with each equipment manu
factured under this TSO.
(e) Previously approved equipment.
Airborne radio receiving and direction
finding equipment approved prior to the
effective date of this section may con
tinue to be manufactured under the pro
visions of its original approval.
[Amdt. 37–33, 37 F.R. 13974, July 15, 1972]
§ 37.140 Propeller feathering hose as
semblies (rubber and wire braid con
struction)—TS0—C42.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for propeller feathering hose
assemblies of the following types which
are to be used in civil aircraft of the
United States:
(i) Type 1 (pressure line) hose assem
blies which are intended to be used in the
line connecting the feathering pump
outlet to the propeller governor.
(ii) Type 2 (supply line “fire-resist
ant”) hose assemblies which are in
tended to be used in the line connecting
the oil supply to the feathering pump
where this entire line is located aft of
the firewall.
(iii) Type 3 (supply line “fireproof”)
hose assemblies which are intended to be
used in the line connecting the Oil Supply
to the feathering pump where this line
is located wholly or in part forward of
the firewall.
New models of propeller feathering hose
assemblies manufactured for use in civil
aircraft on or after March 1, 1957, shall
meet the “performance” section of Mil
itary Specification MIL–H–8795 (ASG)
dated January 6, 1956,” or MIL-H-8790
dated August 22, 1956, with the follow
ing exception and shall also meet the
1 copies of these specifications may be ob
tained by addressing a request to the Com
manding General. Air Materiel Command,
wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton,
Ohio.
506
appropriate fire test requirements listed
below.
(2) Earception. The hydraulic impulse
test requirements in MIL–H–8795 (ASG)
and MIL-H-3790 need not be met for
the purposes of this section.
(3) Pressure line (type 1) hose assem
bly fire test-(i) Test setup and flame
Tequirements. (a) For the purpose of
this test, a length of hose five times the
outside diameter or longer shall be sub
jected to a flame of the size and tempera
ture Specified in (d) and (e) of this sub
division while the hose is in a horizontal
position. The entire end fitting shall
also be subjected to this flame.
(b) The hose assembly shall be in
stalled horizontally in the test setup in
such a manner that it includes at least
one full 90° bend so that the pressure
existing inside the hose will exert an
axial force on the end fitting equal to
the inside area of the hose multiplied by
the internal pressure.
(c) During the test the end fitting
which is subjected to flame shall be vi
brated at the rate of 2,000 cycles per
minute through a total amplitude of not
less than 46 inch, i. e., a displacement of
416 inch on each side of the neutral
position.
(d) The flame temperature shall be
2,000° F., plus or minus 50° F. as meas
ured within 34 inch of the surface of the
hose and end fitting at the point nearest
the flame. Suitable shielded thermo
couples or equivalent temperature meas
uring devices shall be used for measuring
the flame temperature. A sufficient
number of these shall be used to assure
that the Specified temperature exists at
least along the entire end fitting and
along the hose for a distance of not less
than three times its outside diameter.
(e) The flame diameter Shall not be
less than three times the maximum
diameter of the hose or three times the
maximum diameter of the end fitting
(whichever is greater). The length of
the flame shall be such that it extends
beyond the end fitting and hose when
they are in place during the test, for
a distance of not less than three times
the maximum diameter of the hose or
three times the maximum diameter of
the end fitting, whichever is greater.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(f) During the test SAE 20 oil or equiv
alent shall be circulated through the hose
assembly, and the oil shall enter the hose
assembly at a temperature of not less
than 200° F.
NoTE: Items (d) and (e) of this subdivi
sion, concerning flame size and distribution,
Will be revised in accordance with agreements
reached with the SAE A-3 Flame Test Sub
committee, when its study of this problem is
completed.
(ii) Fire test procedure— (a) Part I.
Pressure: 150 psi (minimum).
Oil flow rate: 1.3 quarts/minute (maxi
Inurn).
Duration: 4 minutes, 30 seconds.
(b) Part II (which shall immediately
follow Part I).
Pressure: 1,650 psi (minimum).
Oil flow rate: 14 quarts/minute (maxi
mum; any lower flow rate ls acceptable).
Duration: 30 seconds.
(iii) Criteria for acceptability. The
hose assembly under test Shall be con
sidered acceptable if it complies with
these test conditions without evidence of
leakage.
(4) Supply line “fire-resistant” (type
2) hose assembly fire test—(i) Test set
up and flame requirements. Same as
Subparagraph (3) (i) of this paragraph.
(ii) Fire test procedure.
Pressure: 30 psi (minimum).
Oil flow rate: 14 quarts/minute (maxi
Inunn).
Duration: 5 minutes.
(iii) Criteria for acceptability. Same
as subparagraph (3) (iii) of this para
graph.
(5) Supply line “fireproof” (type 3)
hose assembly fire test—(1) —Test setup
and flame requirements. Same as sub
paragraph (3) (1) of this paragraph.
(ii) Fire test procedure. Test shall be
conducted as described in subparagraph
(4) (ii) of this paragraph except that
upon Completion thereof test shall be
extended for an additional 10 minutes,
making the total duration 15 minutes.
(iii) Criteria for acceptability. Same
as subparagraph (3) (iii) of this para
graph.
(b) Marking. The following marking
is required in lieu of that specified in
§ 37.7:
(1) Name or trademark of the manu
facturer responsible for compliance with
this TSO.
(2) Model designation.
507
§ 37.142
(3) Date of manufacture.
(4) Applicable TSO number, followed
immediately by “Type Number” (as
“Type 1", etc.). This identification must
be legibly stampled on a steel (or other
fireproof material) band securely affixed
to the hose assembly.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 37–3, 30 F.R. 13210,
Oct. 16, 1965)
§ 37.141 Aircraft position lights—TSO
C30
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for position lights which are to
be used in civil aircraft of the United
States.” New models of position lights
manufactured for Installation on civil
aircraft on or after March 31, 1957, shall
meet the standards set forth in SAE
Specification AS271, “Aircraft Position
Lights,” dated October 15, 1952," with the
exception listed in subparagraph (2) of
this paragraph. Position lights ap
proved by the Civil Aeronautics Admin
istration prior to March 31, 1957, may
continue to be manufactured under the
provisions of their original approval.
(2) Eacceptions. For the purpose of
this section only the standards set forth
in SubSection 3.3 and Section 4 (except
Subsection 4.3.2.3 and 4.7) need be com
plied with.
(b) Marking. In lieu of the marking
requirements of paragraph (d) (3) of
§ 37.7, the minimum lamp candle power
or lamp part number shall be shown.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 37–3, 30 F.R. 13210,
Oct. 16, 1965]
§ *:::: Temperature indicators—TSO
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for temperature indicators which
Specifically are required to be approved
for use in civil aircraft of the United
* The number and types of position lights
for each aircraft category are established in
Federal Aviation Regulations Parts 23, 25, 27
and 29 of this title. In general, air-carrier
aircraft use all five types listed in AS271, sec
tion 2, while other aircraft are equipped with
types I, II, and III only.
* Copies may be obtained from the society
of Automotive Engineers, 485 Lexington Ave
nue, New York, N.Y. 10017.
§ 37.143 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
States. New models of temperature in
dicators manufactured for installation in
civil aircraft on or after October 15,
1957, shall meet the standards set forth
in SAE Aeronautical Standard AS–413A,
“Temperature Indicator,” dated Decem
ber 15, 1954." Temperature indicators
approved by the Civil Aeronautics Ad
ministration prior to October 15, 1957,
may continue to be manufactured under
the provisions of their original approval.
(b) Marking. In lieu of the weight
specified in § 37.7 (d) (3), the rating shall
be ShoWn.
(c) Data requirements. With the
statement of conformance, one Copy
each of the manufacturer's operating in
structions, schematic diagrams, and in
stallation procedures shall be furnished
the Chief, Engineering and Manufactur
ing Branch, Flight Standards Division,
Federal Aviation Administration, in the
region in which the manufacturer is
located.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 37–3, 30 F.R. 13210,
Oct. 16, 1965; Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.143 Fuel Flowmeters—TS0—C44a.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for fuel flowmeters which specifl
cally are required to be approved for use
on civil aircraft of the United States.
New models of fuel flowmeters manufac
tured for installation on civil aircraft
on or after November 1, 1961, shall meet
the standards Set forth in SAE Aero
nautical Standard AS–407B, “Fuel Flow
meters”, revised March 1, 1960," with ex
ceptions and additions to the standards
listed in subparagraph (2) of this
paragraph.
(2) Eacceptions and additions. (1)
Correction to section 1. of AS–407B: As
referenced in this TSO, AS–407B Specifies
minimum requirements for fuel flow
meters for use on reciprocating engine
or turbine-powered civil aircraft. In
addition, the following Specifically num
bered subsections in AS–407B do not
concern minimum performance and,
therefore, are not essential to compliance
with this section: Subsections 3.1, 3.2,
and 4.2.1.
• Copies may be obtained from the Society
of Automotive Engineers, 485 Lexington Av
enue, New York, N.Y., 10017.
508
(ii) Terminal shock: This test shall
apply to any hermetically sealed com
ponents. The Component shall be Sub
jected to four cycles of exposure to water
at 85°-1–2° C. and 5°-E2° C. Without evi
dence of moisture penetration or dam
age to coating or enclosure. Each cycle
of the test shall consist of immersing the
component in Water at 85°-E2° C. for a
period of 30 minutes, and then within
5 seconds of removal from the bath, the
component shall be immersed for a pe
riod of 30 minutes in the other bath
maintained at 5°-t2° C. This cycle shall
be repeated continuously, one cycle fol
lowing the other until four cycles have
been completed. Following this test,
the component shall be subjected to the
Sealing test specified in (iii). No leak
age shall occur as a result of this test.
(iii) Sealing: This performance test
shall apply to any hermetically sealed
components. The component shall be
immersed in a suitable liquid, such as
Water. The absolute pressure of the air
above the liquid shall then be reduced to
approximately 1 inch of mercury (Hg)
and maintained for 1 minute, or until
air bubbles cease to be given off by the
liquid, whichever is longer. The abso
lute pressure shall then be increased by
2% inches Hg. Any bubbles coming
from within the indicator case shall be
considered as leakage and shall be cause
for rejection. Bubbles which are the
result of entrapped air in the various
exterior parts of the case shall not be
considered as leakage. Other test meth
ods which provide evidence equal to the
immersion test of the integrity of the
instrument's seals may be used. If the
component incorporates nonhermetically
Sealed appurtenances, such as a case ex
tension, these appurtenances may be re
moved prior to the Sealing test.
(iv) Correction to subsection 3.3.1:
Under column A, the temperature values
for unheated areas (Temperature Un
Controlled) shall be –55° to 70° C.
(b) Marking. In addition to the
marking requirements of FAR § 37.7,
range (transmitters only) and electrical
rating shall be shown.
(c) Data requirements. (1) The man
ufacturer shall maintain a current file
of complete design data.
(2) The manufacturer shall maintain
a current file of complete data describ
ing the inspection and test procedures
applicable to his product (see paragraph
(d), Quality Control, of this section).
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(3) Six copies each, except where
noted, of the following shall be furnished
to the Chief, Engineering and Manufac
turing Division, Flight Standards Serv
ice, Federal Aviation Administration,
Washington, D.C. 20553:
(i) Manufacturer's operating instruc
tions and instrument limitations.
(ii) Drawings of major components or
photographs showing exploded views of
instruments.
(iii) Installation procedures with ap
plicable schematic drawings, wiring di
agrams, and specifications. Indicate any
limitations, restrictions, or other condi
tions pertinent to installation with the
statement of conformance certifying that
the instrument conforms to this section.
(iv) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(d) Quality control. Each fuel flow
meter shall be produced under a quality
control system, established by the manu
facturer, which will assure that each
fuel flowmeter is in conformity with the
requirements of this section and is in
condition for safe operation. This Sys
tem shall be described in the data re
quired under paragraph (c) (2) of this
section. A representative of the Ad
ministrator shall be permitted to make
such inspections and tests at the manu
facturer's facility as may be necessary to
determine compliance with the require
ments of this section.
(e) Previously approved equipment.
Fuel flowmeters approved by the Admin
istrator prior to November 1, 1961, may
continue to be manufactured under the
provisions of their original approval.
(f) Effective date. November 1, 1961.
[Amdt. 37–3, 30 F.R. 13210, Oct. 16, 1965; as
amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.144. Manifold pressure indicating
instruments—TS0–C45.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for manifold pressure indicating
instruments which Specifically are re
quired to be approved for use in civil air
craft of the United States. New models
of manifold pressure indicating instru
ments manufactured for installation in
civil aircraft on or after October 15,
1957, Shall meet the standards set forth
in SAE Aeronautical Standard AS–411,
“Manifold Pressure Indicating Instru
509
§ 37.145
ments,” dated November 1, 1948.” Mani
fold pressure indicating instruments
approved by the Civil Aeronautics Ad
ministration prior to October 15, 1957,
may continue to be manufactured under
the provisions of their original approval.
(b) Marking. In lieu of the weight
Specified in § 37.7 (d) (3), the range shall
be shown.
(c) Data requirements. With the
Statement of conformance, one copy
each of the manufacturer's Operating
instructions, Schematic diagrams, and
installation procedures shall be fur
nished the Chief, Engineering and Manu
facturing Branch, Flight Standards Di
vision, Federal Aviation Administration,
in the region in Which the manufacturer
is located.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 37–3, 30 F.R. 13211,
Oct. 16, 1965; Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.145 Maximum allowable airspeed
indicator systems—TS0–C46a.
(a) Applicability. This technical
Standard order prescribes the minimum
performance Standards that maximum
allowable airspeed indicator systems
must meet in order to be identified With
the applicable TSO marking. New models
of the instrument that are to be so identi
fied, and that are manufactured on or
after the effective date of this TSO, must
meet the requirements of the “Federal
Aviation Administration Standard, Max
imum Allowable Airspeed Indicator Sys
tems”, set forth at the end of this section.
(b) Marking. In addition to the mark
ings required by § 37.7, the instrument
must be marked to indicate its range in
knots, and, if applicable, to identify the
calibration employed to control the
movement of the maximum allowable
airspeed pointer in the VMo and M Mo
ranges, or to identify the particular air
craft type design on which the instru
ment is intended to be used.
(c) Data requirements. In accordance
§ 37.5, the manufacturer must furnish
the Chief, Engineering and Manufactur
ing Branch, Flight Standards Division,
Federal Aviation Administration, in the
region in which the manufacturer is
located, the following technical data:
(1) Seven copies of the manufacturer's
operating instruction, equipment limita
tions, and installation procedures.
1 See footnote 1 page 506.
 § 37.145 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
. (2) One copy of the test report of the
manufacturer.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Maximum allowable airspeed indicator
models approved prior to the effective
date of this section may continue to be
manufactured under the provisions of
their original approval.
FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION STANDARD
MAxIMUM ALLOWABLE AIRSPEED INDICATOR
systEMs
1. Purpose. This document specifies min
imum performance standards for pitot-static
type, maximum allowable airspeed indicator
systems which indicate continuously both
indicated airspeed and maximum allowable
airspeed.
2. Performance requirements.
2.1 General.
(a) Materials. Materials must be of a
quality demonstrated to be suitable and
dependable for use in aircraft instruments.
(b) Environmental conditions. The instru
ment must be capable of performing its
intended function and not be adversely
affected during or following prolong d
exposure to the environmental conditions
stated under section 3. Where optional
environmental conditions are set forth, the
conditions selected must be declared as
equipment limitations.
2.2 Detail requirements.
(a) Indicating means. Indicated airspeed
and maximum allowable airspeed must be
displayed in such a manner that the
numerical values on the Scale increase in a
clockwise, left to right, or bottom to top
direction.
(b) Case markings. The outlets in the case
must be marked with “P” for the pitot
pressure connection, and with “S” for the
static pressure connection.
2.3 Design requirements.
(a) Adjustable settings.
(1) Marimum allowable airspeed pointer.
An adjustable stop may be provided in the in
strument for limiting the movement of the
maximum allowable airspeed pointer. If in
cluded, the design of this adjustment must
be such that it will not affect the indication
of the pointer when the altitude pressure
conditions and Mach Number setting are
such that the limiting speed will be lower
than that set by the adjustable stop.
(2) Mach Number. If a readily accessible
means is provided for setting the instrument
to any desired Mach Number, the value of the
setting must be visible from the front of the
instrument. When the instrument does not
contain an external Mach Number setting
adjustment, the value of the permanent
Mach Number setting need not be visible
from the front of the instrument.
(b) Visibility. The indicating means and
all markings must be visible from any point
51()
within the frustum of a cone, the side of
which makes an angle of at least 30° with the
perpendicular to the dial and the small di
ameter of which is the aperture of the in
strument case. The distance between the dial
and the cover glass must be a practical
Iminimum.
(c) Calibration.
(1) Indicated airspeed pointer. The in
dicated airspeed pointer must indicate air
speed in accordance with the values con
tained in Table I.
(2) Marimum allowable airspeed pointer.
The maximum allowable airspeed pointer
must indicate maximum allowable airspeed
values in the Vyo and Mwo limit ranges
which—
(i) Follow the standard fundamental re
lationships of subsonic compressible flow
gas dynamics which are stated in appendix
A; or
(ii) Are adjusted to account for design
factors that are characteristic of a particular
aircraft type design such as, but not limited
to, static source pressure error variations
and variable speed limitations with altitude.
(d) Scale error.
(1) Instrument 3 with permanent Mach
Number setting. The indicated airspeed scale
error and the maximum allowable airspeed
Scale error must not exceed the tolerances
specified in Tables I and II, respectively,
with the instrument set at its permanent
Mach Number.
(2) Instruments with means for erternal
Mach Number setting adjustment.
* (i) The indicated airspeed scale error
must not exceed the tolerances specified in
Table I with the instrument set at the low
est Mach Number.
(ii) The maximum allowable airspeed
scale error must not exceed the tolerances
specified in Table II with the instrument
Set at the lowest Mach Number and at in
creasing Mach Number setting of not more
than 0.10 to and including the maximum
Mach Number.
(e) Hysteresis. The reading of the maxi
mum allowable airspeed pointer first at
30,000 feet altitude and then at 10,000 feet
altitude must not differ by more than 2
to assure the instrument complies with the
scale error requirements of section 2.3(d) (2)
knots from the corresponding readings ob
tained for increasing altitudes during tests
(1i) of this TSO.
(f) After effect. To assure the instrument
complies with the scale error requirements
of section 2.3(d) (2) (ii) of this TSO, the
maximum allowable airspeed pointer must
return to its original readings, corrected for
any change in atmospheric pressure, within
3 knots, after not less than 1 or more than
5 minutes have elapsed following completion
of performance tests.
 Chapter l–Federal Aviation Administration § 37.145

(g) Friction. 3.4 Humidity. The instrument must per

(1) Marimum allowable airspeed pointer. form its intended function and must not be
The friction of the pointer must not produce adversely affected following exposure to the
an error exceeding 4 knots at each point in extreme condition of relative humidity in the
dicated by an asterisk in Table II. range from 0 to 95 percent at a temperature
(2) Indicated airspeci pointer. The fric of approximately 70° C for a period of 10
hours.
tion of the pointer must not produce an error
exceeding 3 knots at each point indicated 4. Compliance tests. As evidence of compli
ance With this standard, the manufacturer
by an asterisk in Table I.
(h) Leak. must perform evaluation tests on prototype
(1) Case leak. When subjected to a static instruments to demonstrate proper design,
pressure differential of 15 inches of mercury reliability in performance of its intended
between the inside and outside of the case, functions, and conformity with the perform
ance standards of section 2. Tests must also
the internal pressure must not increase be
cause of case leaks more than 0.05 inches of be performed to demonstrate compliance with
mercury at the end of 1 minute time follow the environmental condition requirements
specified in section 3.
ing first application of the differential pres
sure.
5. Individual performance tests. The man
(2) Airspeed diaphragm leak. There must ufacturer must conduct such tests as may be
necessary on each instrument to assure that
not be any apparent movement of the in
it will meet the minimum performance re
dicated airspeed pointer for 1 minute after
quirements of sections 2.3(b) through 2.3(h).
a sequence of events in which pressure suf
ficient to produce full scale deflection of the TABLE I
indicated airspeed pointer is applied to the
pitot connection (static pressure connection Speed knots Impact pressure º Tolerance knots
inches Hg at 25°
open to atmosphere), the pressure source is
stopped, and the connection tubing pinched. 50 0.1198 +4.0
3. Enrironmental conditions. •60 . 1727 2.0
80 .3075 2.0
3.1 Temperature. The instrument must *100 . 4814 2.0
perform its intended function over the range 120 . 6950 2.0
• 150 - 1. Cºl 2.5
of ambient temperature from –30° to 50° C. 180 1.580 3. ()
With the instrument temperature stabilized •2 1.959 3.0
at the limits of the range, the scale error 230 2. 610 3.0
*250 3. 100 3.0
must not exceed by more than 4.5 knots the 280 3.92 3.5
tolerances specified in Tables I and II at the *300 4. 534 3.5
320 5. 195 3.5
points marked with an asterisk. The instru *350 6. 286 4.0
ment must not be adversely affected by ex 370 7. 0.82 4.5
posure to the range of ambient temperature *400 8.385 5.0
430 9.826 5.5
from —65° to 70° C.
*450 10.87 6.0
3.2 Altitude. The instrument must per 480 12.56 7.0
form its intended function and must not *500 13.78 7.0
520 15. 07 7.0
be adversely affected when operating in the *550 17. 16 8.5
pressure range from – 1,000 feet and the 70 18.66 8.5
maximum altitude of intended operation. *600 21. 07 9.0
630 23.71 9.5
The instrument must withstand an external *650 25.59 10.0
case pressure of 50” Hg. absolute when in
stalled properly and vented to an atmos TABLE II
pheric pressure of approximately 29.92" Hg.
absolute. Altitude Pressure Maximum speed
3.3 Vibration. The instrument must per feet inches pointer tolerance
mercury +knots
form its intended function and must not be
adversely affected when subjected to vibra 0 29.9.21 **4
tions of the following characteristics: *5,000 24.896
10,000 20. 577
". 000 16.886
Instrument panel Fre- Maximum Maxi 20,000 13.750
mounted (vibration quency double mum ac •25,000 11. 104
isolated) cycles per amplitude celeration 30,000 8.885
second (inches)
‘ī;º
40, 5.
7. º;
*45,000 4. 355
Reciprocating engine 50,000 3.425 • *4
powered aircraft.------ 5-50 0.020 1.5g
Turbine engine
powered aircraft------ 5-55 0.020 ---------- “From indicated airspeed corresponding to maximum
55-1000 ------------ 0.25g equivalent airspeed or maximum mach whichever is
the limiting factor.
§ 37.146 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
APPENDIX A

RELATIONSHIPS FOR CALIBRATING MAXIMUM ALLOW - PLE AIRS.1°EED POINTER

(1) For altitudes from sea level to altitude where Viro–Mao,

vs. ...Nº .11%

"“Vºlºſ,#44)Fi-1]. F-1}
(2) For altitudes where Miro is limiting factor:

v.-c. VääI(*)*i-Jº
Where: region in which the manufacturer is
Wºo- Maximum allowable indicated air located.
speed in knots. [Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
Maro- Maximum allowable mach. as amended by Amdt. 37–3, 30 F.R. 13211,
k= Ratio of specific heats=1.40 for air. Oct. 16, 1965; Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Po-Pressure at sea level in inches of Hg.
Apr. 11, 1967]
P=Ambient static pressure in inches of
Hg. § 37.147 Carbon monoxide detector in
O,e-Speed of sound at sea level=661.48 struments—TS -

knots.
o- Density ratio at altitude.
Wºr– Maximum equivalent airspeed in
knotS.
[Amdt. 37–17, 83 F.R. 6235, Apr. 24, 1968;
33 F.R. 6812, May 4, 1968]
§ 37.146 Pressure instruments—fuel,
oil, and hydraulic—TSO–C47.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards, Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for pressure instruments—fuel,
oil, and hydraulic—which specifically
are required to be approved for use in
civil aircraft of the United States. New
models of pressure indicators—fuel, oil,
and hydraulic—manufactured for instal
lation in civil aircraft on or after Oc
tober 15, 1957, shall meet the standards
set forth in SAE Aeronautical Standard
AS–408A, “Pressure Instruments—Fuel,
Oil, and Hydraulic,” dated December 15,
1954. Pressure instruments—fuel, oil,
and hydraulic—approved by the Civil
Aeronautics Administration prior to OC
tober 15, 1957, may continue to be manu
factured under the provisions of their
original approval.
(b) Marking. In lieu of the weight
specified in § 37.7 (d) (3), the rating and
range shall be shown.
(c) Data requirements. With the
statement of conformance, one copy
each of the manufacturer's Operating in
structions, schematic diagrams, and in
stallation procedures shall be furnished
the Chief, Engineering and Manufactur
ing Branch, Flight Standards Division,
Federal Aviation Administration, in the
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for carbon monoxide detector
instruments which Specifically are re
quired to be approved for use in civil air
craft of the United States. New models
of carbon monoxide detector instruments
manufactured for installation in civil
aircraft on or after October 15, 1957,
shall meet the Standards Set forth in
SAE Aeronautical Standard AS–412A,
“Carbon Monoxide Detector Instru
ments,” dated December 15, 1956. Car
bon monoxide detector instruments ap
proved by the Civil Aeronautics Admin
istration prior to October 15, 1957, may
continue to be manufactured under the
provisions of their original approval.
(b) Marking. In lieu of the weight
specified in § 37.7 (d) (3), the rating shall
be shown.
(c) Data requirements. With the
Statement of Conformance, one copy
each of the manufacturer's operating in
Structions, Schematic diagrams, and in
stallation procedures shall be furnished
the Chief, Engineering and Manufactur
ing Branch, Flight Standards Division,
Federal Aviation Administration, in the
region in which the manufacturer is
located.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15817, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 37–3, 30 F.R. 13211,
Oct. 16, 1965; Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
1 Copies may be obtained from the Society
of Automotive Engineers, 485 Lexington
Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10017.

512
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 37.148 Electric tachometer: magnetic
drag (for air carrier aircraft)—
TS0—C49a.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for electric tachometers which
specifically are required to be approved
for use on civil aircraft of the United
States. New models of electric tachom
eters manufactured for installation on
civil aircraft on or after October 15, 1960,
shall meet the standards set forth in
SAE Aeronautical Standard AS–404B,
“Electric Tachometer: Magnetic Drag
(Indicator and Generator),” dated Feb
ruary 1, 1959 "with exceptions, additions,
and Substitutions to the standards listed
in subparagraph (2) of this paragraph.”
Electric tachometers approved prior to
October 15, 1960, may continue to be
manufactured under the provisions of
their original approval.
(2) Eacceptions. - (i) The following
specifically numbered parts in AS–404B
do not concern minimum performance
and therefore are not essential to com
pliance with this section: Parts 3.1, 3.1.1,
3.1.2, 3.2, 3.2 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f),
4.1.3.1, 4.1.3.2, 4.1.3.3, 4.1.3.4, and 4.1.3.5.
(ii) In lieu of part 7 in AS–404B, it is
a requirement that tachometers covered
by this section be capable of successfully
passing the tests in parts 7.1 through 7.8.
(b) Marking. In addition to the
markings specified in § 37.7, range and
rating Shall be shown.
(c) Data requirements. (1) The man
ufacturer shall maintain a current file
of complete design data.
(2) The manufacturer shall maintain
a current file of complete data describ
ing the inspection and test procedures
applicable to his product. (See para
graph (d) of this section.)
(3) Six copies each of the following
shall be furnished to the Chief, Engi
neering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avia
tion Administration, in the region in
which the manufacturer is located.
(i) Manufacturer's operating instruc
tions and instrument limitations.
(ii) Drawing or photograph showing
exploded view of instruments.
* See footnote 1 page 506.
* When electric tachometers are installed
on civil aircraft, the installation must comply
With the functional and installational re
quirements of Parts 23, 25, 27, or 29 of the
Federal Aviation Regulations as applicable.
513
§ 37.149
(iii) Installation procedures with ap
plicable schematic drawings, wiring dia
grams, and Specifications. Indicate any
limitations, restrictions, or other condi
tions pertinent to installation.
(d) Quality control. Each electric
tachometer shall be produced under a
quality control System, established by the
manufacturer, which will assure that
each tachometer is in conformity with
the requirements of this section and is
in condition for safe operation. This
System shall be described in the data re
quired under paragraph (c) (2) of this
section. The Administrator shall be per
mitted to make such inspections and tests
at the manufacturer's facility as may be
necessary to determine compliance with
the requirements of this section.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.149 Aircraft audio and interphone
amplifiers—TS0–C50b.
(a) Applicability. This technic a 1
Standard order prescribes the minimum
performance standards that aircraft
audio and interphone amplifiers must
meet in order to be identified with the
applicable TSO marking. New models
of the equipment that are to be so identi
fled, and that are manufactured on or
after the effective date of this section,
must meet the requirements of the “Fed
eral Aviation Administration Standard,
Aircraft Audio and Interphone Ampli
fiers” set forth at the end of this section
and the “Federal Aviation Administra
tion Document for Environmental Test
Procedures for Airborne Electronic
Equipment” set forth in TSO-C87, effec
tive February 1, 1966 (30 F.R. 15553,
Dec. 17, 1965).
(b) Marking. (1) In addition to the
markings specified in § 37.7, the equip
ment must be marked to indicate the
environmental extremes over Which it
has been designed to operate. There
are six environmental procedures out
lined in the FAA Document for Environ
mental Test Procedures for Airborne
Electronic Equipment that have cate
gories established. These must be
identified on the nameplate by the
words “Environmental Categories” or, as
abbreviated, “Env. Cat.” followed by six
letters that identify the categories desig
nated. Reading from left to right, the
category designations must appear on the
nameplate in the following order So that
they may be readily identified—
§ 37.149 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(i) Temperature-altitude category;
(ii) Vibration category;
(iii) Audio-frequency magnetic field
Susceptibility category;
(iv) Radio - frequency Susceptibility
category;
(v) Emission of spurious radiofre
quency energy category; and
(vi) Explosion category.
(2) A typical nameplate identification
is: EnV. Cat. DBAAAX.
(3) If a manufacturer desires to sub
stantiate his equipment under two cate
gories, he must mark the nameplate With
both categories in the space designated
for that category by placing one letter
above the other in the following manner:
EnV. Cat. ABAAAX
D
(c) Data requirements. In accord
ance with $ 37.5, the manufacturer must
furnish to the Chief, Engineering and
Manufacturing Branch, Flight Stand
ards Division, Federal Aviation Admin
istration, in the region in which the
manufacturer is located, the following
technical data:
(1) Manufacturer's operating instruc
tion and equipment limitations.
(2) Installation procedures with ap
plicable schematic drawings, wiring dia
grams, and specifications. Indicate any
limitations, restrictions, or other condi
tions pertinent to installation.
(3) Manufacturer's test report.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Aircraft audio and interphone amplifier
models approved prior to August 18, 1966,
may continue to be manufactured under
the provisions of their original approval.
FEDERAL AvLATION ADMINISTRATION STANDARD
AIRCRAFT AUDIO AND INTERPHONE AMPLIFTERS
1.0 GEneral, standards
1.1 Rating of Components. The equip
ment must incorporate in its design com
ponents of such rating that, when the equip
ment is operated throughout the range of
the specified environmental tests, the ratings
established by the manufacturers of the com
ponents are not exceeded. For electron
tubes, the continuous commercial service
rating of the tube manufacturer is applicable
except for the heaters and filaments. The
voltage applied to the heaters and filaments
of electron tubes must be within 5 percent
of the manufacturer's rating when the equip
ment is operated under standard test con
ditions.
1.2 Operation of Controls. The design of
the equipment must be such that the con
trols intended for use during flight cannot
be operated in any possible position com
bination or sequence that would result in a
condition whose presence or continuation
would be detrimental to the continued per
formance of the equipment.
1.3 Effect of Tests. Unless otherwise
stated, the design of the equipment must be
such that the application of the specified
tests produces no discernible condition that
would be detrimental to the reliability of
equipment manufactured in accordance with
Such design.
2.0 MINIMUM PERFORMANCE STANDARDs unIDEE
STANDARD TEST CONDITIONS
The electrical test procedures applicable
to a determination of the performance of the
equipment under standard test conditions
are set forth in Appendix A of this standard.
2.1 Audiofrequency Response. The audio
output must not vary more than 6 db when
the level of an audio input signal is held
constant and the frequency varied over the
frequency range of 350–3,000 c.p.s.
NoTE: The response of the audio amplifier
may be changed to effect an overall aircraft
receiving system response including the re
ceiver, headphones, etc., such that the audio
output does not vary more than 6 db when
the level and the percontage modulation is
held constant and the audiofrequency varied
over the range of 350 to 2,500 c.p.s.
2.2 Distortion. The combined noise and
-
distortion in the output of the amplifier
must not exceed (a) 20 percent at rated
power output, (b) 6 percent at 0.01 of rated
power output. This standard must be met
over the frequency range of 350–3,000 c.p.s.
2.3 Coupling Between Audio Circuits.
The coupling between the audio input cir
cuits of the amplifier must be down at least
40 db at all position combinations of the
audio selector Switches.
2.4 Audio Noise Level—Without Signal.
The level of the noise output of the ampll
fier, in the absence of an audio input signal,
must be at least 40 db below the rated output
of the amplifier. Equipment designed for
an a.c. power source must meet this require
ment at all power frequencies within the
range for which the equipment is designed.
2.5 Output Regulation. The change in
the voltage level of the output signal must
not exceed 3 db and the distortion in the
output signal must not exceed 25 percent,
when the output load impedance is changed
from that for which the amplifier is designed
to 50 percent and to 200 percent of that for
which the amplifier is designed.
2.6 Emission of Spurious Radiofrequency
Energy. The levels of conducted and radi
ated spurious radiofrequency energy emitted
by the equipment must not exceed those
levels specified in Appendix A to Federal
Aviation Administration Document for En
vironmental Test Procedures for Airborne
Electronic Equipment set forth in TSO-C87
(30 F.R. 15553, December 17, 1965), hereafter
referred to as FAA Environmental Test
Procedures.
514
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
3.0 MINIMUM PFRFor MANCE STANDARDs UNDER
Environmental, TEST CONDITIONS
Unless otherwise specified, the test proce
dures, applicable to a determination of the
performance of this equipment under envir
onmental test conditions are set forth in
the FAA Environmental Test Procedures.
The applicable electrical test procedures are
set forth in Appendix A of this standard.
3.1 Temperature—Altitude Test. a. Low
Temperature Test—When subjected to this
test, the manufacturer's rated power output
must be obtained and the requirements of
paragraphs 2.2 and 2.4 must be met.
b. High Temperature Test—
(1) When the equipment is operated at
the high shorttime operating temperature:
(a) The power output must not be more
than 6.0 db below the manufacturer's rated
Output.
(b) All mechanical devices must operate
satisfactortly.
(c) There must be no evidence of mate
rials, such as grease or potting and sealing
compounds, exuding or drippling from the
equipment components.
(2) When the equipment is operated at
the high operating temperature, the manu
facturer's rated power output must be ob
tained and the requirements of paragraphs
2.2 and 2.4 must be met.
c. Decompression Test (Applicable Only to
Category D Equipment of Temperature
Altitude Test)—When the equipment is sub
jected to this test, the power output must
not be more than 3.0 db below the manu
facturer's rated output.
d. Altitude Test—When the equipment is
subjected to this test, the manufacturer's
rated power output must be obtained and the
standards of paragraph 2.2 must be met.
3.2 Humidity Test. After subjection to
this test, and :
a. Immediately following the 15-minute
warmup period, the power output must not
be more than 3.0 db below the manufac
turer's rated output.
b. Within 4 hours from the time primary
power is applied, the manufacturer's rated
power output must be obtained.
3.3 Shock Test. a. Following the applica
tion of the operational shocks, the manufac
turer's rated power output must be obtained.
b. Following the application of the crash
safety shocks, the equipment must have
remained in its mounting, and no part of
the equipment or its mounting must have
become detached and free of the table or of
the equipment.
Nore: The application of these tests may
result in damage to the equipment under
test. Therefore, these tests may be con
ducted after the other tests are completed.
3.4 Vibration Test. When subjected to
the vibration test, the manufacturer's rated
power output must be obtained and the
standards of paragraph 2.4 must be met.
3.5 Temperature Variation. Test. Where
the equipment is subjected to this test, the
5 15
§ 37.149
manufacturer's rated power output must be
obtained.
3.6 Power Input Test. When subjected to
this test, the manufacturer's rated power
output must be obtained and the require
ments of paragraphs 2.2 and 2.4 must be met.
3.7 Low Voltage Test. a. When the pri
mary power voltage (s) of d.c. operated equip
ment is 80 percent and when that of a.c. oper
ated equipment is 87% percent of standard
test voltage(s), the standards of paragraph
2.2 must be met.
b. Direct current operated equipment must
operate satisfactorily within 2 minutes upon
returning the primary voltage (s) to normal
after the gradual reduction of the primary
power voltage (s) from 80 percent to 50 per
cent of standard test voltage(s).
c. The gradual reduction of the primary
power voltage(s) of d.c. operated equipment
from 50 percent to 0 percent of standard
test voltage (s) must produce no evidence of
fire or snoke.
Note: The application of these tests may
result in damage to the equipment under
test. Therefore, these tests may be con
ducted after the other tests are completed.
3.8 Conducted Voltage Transient Tests.
a. Following the intermittent transient test.
the manufacturer's rated power output must
be obtained.
b. During the repetitive transient test, the
standards of paragraph 2.4 must be met.
39 Conducted Audiofrequency Suscepti
bility. Test. When the equipment is subject
ed to this test, the standards of paragraph
2.4 must be met.
3.10 Audiofrequency Magnetic Field Sus
ceptibility Test. When the equipment is
subjected to this test, the standards of para
graph 2.4 must be met.
3.11 Radiofrequency Susceptibility Test
(Radiated and Conducted). When subject
ed to the conducted radiofrequency suscep
tibility test, the standards of paragraph 2.4
must be met.
NotE: In the case of amplifiers designed
for use with power source filters external to
the amplifier, filters having characteristics
for which the equipment is designed may be
used to meet this requirement.
3.12 Erplosion Test (When Required).
During the application of this test, the equip
ment must not cause detonation of the ex
plosive mixture, within the test chambers.
APPENDIx A
1.0 TEST CONDITIONs
The following definitions of terms and
conditions of test are applicable to the
equipment tests specified herein:
a. Power Input Voltage—Direct Current.
Unless otherwise specified, when the equip
ment is designed for operation from a direct
current power source, all measurements must
be conducted with the power input voltage
adjusted to 13.75 V, --2 percent for 12–14 W
equipment, or to 27.5 V, --2 percent for 24–28
§ 37.149 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
v equipment. The input voltage must be
measured at the equipment power input
terminals.
b. Power Input Voltage—Alternating Cur
rent. Unless otherwise specified, when the
equipment is designed for operation from an
alternating current power source, all tests
must be conducted with the power input
voltage adjusted to design voltage +2 per
cent. In the case of equipment designed
for operation from a power source of es
sentially constant frequency (e.g., 400 c.p.s.),
the input frequency must be adjusted to
design frequency +2 percent. In the case of
equipment designed for operation from a
power source of variable frequency (e.g.,
350 to 1,000 c.p.s.), tests must be conducted
with the input frequency adjusted to within
5 percent of a selected frequency within the
range for which the equipment is designed.
c. Adjustment of Equipment. The cir
cuits of the equipment must be properly
adjusted in accordance with the manufac
turer's recommended practices prior to the
application of the specified tests.
d. Test Instrument Precautions. Due pre
cautions must be taken to prevent the intro
duction of errors resulting from the connec
tion of headphones, voltmeters, oscilloscopes,
and other test instruments across the input
and output impedances of the equipment
during the conduct of the tests.
e. Ambient Conditions. Unless otherwise
specified, all tests must be conducted under
conditions of ambient room temperature,
pressure, and humidity. However, the room
temperature must not be lower than 10° C.
f. Warmup Period. Unless otherwise spec
ifled, all tests must be conducted after a
warmup period of not less than 15 minutes.
g. Connected Loads. Unless otherwise
specified, all tests must be conducted with
the equipment outputs connected to loads
having the impedance value for which the
equipment is designed.
2.0 TEST PROCEDUREs
The following test procedures are satis
factory for use in determining the perform
ance of aircraft audio and interphone ampli
fiers. Test procedures that provide equiva
lent information may be used.
2.1 Audiofrequency Response—a. Equip
ment Required. Audio Oscillator (Hewlett
Packard Model 205-A or equivalent) Output
Power Meter (General Radio Model 583—A or
equivalent).
b. Measurement Procedure. If the ann
plifier has a level control, set it to produce
rated amplifier output. Apply a 1,000 c.p.s.
signal to the amplifier input. Adjust the
input signal level to produce 10 percent of
rated output. Maintain the input signal
level constant and vary the frequency of the
audio signal through the range of 850 to
8,000 c.p.s. and determine the maximum and
minimum amplifier output level.
2.2 Distortion—a. Equipment Required.
Audio Oscillator (Hewlett-Packard Model
205—A or equivalent) Output Power Meter
516
(General Radio Model 584–A or equivalent)
Distortion and Noise Meter (RCA Model 69–B
or equivalent).
b. Measurement Procedure. If the ampli
fler has a level control, set it to produce rated
amplifier output, then—
(1) Apply a 1,000 c.p.s. signal to the ampli
fler input. Adjust the input signal level
to produce rated output. Maintain the in
put signal level at the value producing
rated output at 1,000 c.p.s. and determine
the percentage distortion plus noise in the
amplifier output signal at input signal fre
quencies of 350, 500, 1,000 and 3,000 c.p.s.;
and
(2) Repeat procedure in paragraph (1)
with an input slgnal level that produces
0.01 of rated output at 1,000 c.p.s.
2.3 Coupling Between Audio Circuits—
a. Equipment Required. Audio Oscillator
(Hewlett-Packard Model 205-A or equiva
lent) Distortion and Noise Meter (RCA
Model 69–B or equivalent).
b. Measurement Procedure. If the ampli
fler has a level control, set it to produce
rated amplifier output. Apply to one of
the amplifier input circuits a 1,000 c.p.s.
signal and adjust its level to produce rated
output from the amplifier. Determine the
output in db above or below the 1,000 c.p.s.
input signal level, at the terminals of the
other input circuits of the amplifier for all
possible ON-OFF combinations of the audio
selector switches and level control settings of
the amplifier.
2.4 Audio Noise Level—Without Signal—
a. Equipment Required. Distortion and
Noise Meter (RCA Model 69–B or equivalent).
b. Measurement Procedure. Apply to the
terminals of the amplifier input circuits,
resistors having a value equal to the im
pedance for which the input circuits are
designed. If the amplifier has a level con
trol, set it to produce rated amplifier output.
Determine the maximum amplifier output
for all possible ON-OFF position combina
tions of the audio selector switches. When
the equipment is designed for operation from
an a.c. power source, determine the maxi
mum amplifier output over the input power
source frequency range for which the equip
ment is designed for all possible ON-OFF
position combinations of the audio selector
Switches.
2.5 Output Regulation—a. Equipment Re
quired. Audio Oscillator (Hewlett-Packard
Model 205-A or equivalent) Output Power
Meter (General Radio Model 583–A or equiva
lent) Distortion and Noise Meter (RCA Model
69–B or equivalent).
b. Measurement Procedure. If the ampli
fler has a level control, set it to produce rated
amplifier output. Apply to the amplifier in
put a 1,000 c.p.s. signal and adjust its level to
produce 10 percent of rated output from the
amplifier. Determine the amplifier output
and the distortion plus noise in the output
signal with output load impedances of 50
percent, 100 percent, and 200 percent of that
for which the amplifier is designed. Repeat
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
the above procedure for audio signals of 350,
500, 1,800, and 3,000 c.p.s.
2.6 Emission of Spurious Radiofrequency
Energy. Testing need only be done on am
plifier equipment that is of such a design that
it will generate and emit spurious radio
frequency energy.
a. Equipment Required. Comply with
paragraphs 2.0 a. and b. of Appendix A of
FAA Environmental Test Procedures.
b. Measurement Procedure. Comply with
paragraph 2.0c. of Appendix A of FAA Envi
ronmental Test Procedures.
[Amdt. 37–7, 31 Fr. 9978, July 22, 1966; as
amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.150 Aircraft flight recorder—TS0—
C51 a.
(a) Applicability. This technical
standard order prescribes minimum per
formance standards that aircraft flight
recorders must meet in order to be
identified with the applicable TSO
marking. New models of flight record
ers that are to be identified and that
are manufactured on or after the effec
tive date of this section must meet the
Minimum Performance Standard for
Aircraft Flight Recorders set forth at
the end of this section.
(b) Marking. In addition to the
markings required by § 37.7, the rating
(nominal voltage and wattage) must
also be marked on the recorder.
(c) Data requirements. The manu
facturer must furnish the Chief, En
gineering and Manufacturing Branch
(in the case of the Western Region, the
Chief, Aircraft Engineering Division),
Flight Standards Division, Federal
Aviation Administration, in the region
where the manufacturer is located, the
following technical data:
(1) Six copies of the manufacturer's
operating instructions, equipment limi
tations, and installation procedures.
(2) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
MINIMUM PERFORMANCE STANDARD
Fort
AIRCRAFT FLIGHT RECORDER
1. Purpose. To establish minimum re
quirements for approved Aircraft Flight Re
corders to be used in aircraft primarily for
accident analysis, the operation of which
may subject the recorder to environmental
conditions specified in section 3.
2. Scope. This standard covers three basic
types of aircraft flight recorders for record
ing time, air speed, altitude, vertical acceler
ation, and heading. The intelligence re
ceived by the record medium can be from
direct and/or remote sensors.
517
§ 37.150
2.1 Definition of the types. Type I—Non
ejectable; Type II—Nonejectable, restricted
to any location more than one-half of the
wing root chord from the main wing struc
ture through the fuselage and from any fuel
tanks; Type III—Ejectable, unrestricted
location.
3. General requirements.
3.1 Environmental conditions. The fol
lowing conditions have been established as
design requirements only. Tests shall be
conducted as specified in sections 5, 6, and 7.
3.1.1 Temperature. When installed in
accordance With the instrument manufac
turer's instructions, the recorder shall func
tion over the range of ambient temperature
shown in Column A below and shall not be
adversely affected by exposure to the range
of temperature shown in column B below:
Instrument location A B
Heated areas (tempera
ture controlled)--------- -30 to 50C –65 to 700
Unheated areas (tempera
ture uncontrolled)------- –55 to 700 -65 to 700
3.1.2 Humidity. The recorder shall func
tion and shall not be adversely affected
when exposed to any relative humidity in
the range from 0 to 95 percent at a temper
ature of approximately 32° C.
3.1.3 Vibration. When installed in ac
COrdance With the instrument manufac
turer's instructions, the recorder shall
function properly and shall not be adversely
affected when subjected to vibrations of the
following characteristics:
Max. Max.
Recorder location | Cycles double accel
in airframe per Sec. amplitude eration
(inches)
Airframe structure
mounted.--------- 5–500 0.036 10g
3.1.4 Altitude. The recorder shall fund
tion and shall not be adversely affected when
subjected to a pressure and temperature
range equivalent to — 1,000 to 50,000 feet
standard altitude, per NACA Report No.
1235, except as limited by the application of
paragraph 3.1.1. The recorder shall not be
adversely affected following exposure to ex
tremes in ambient pressures of 50 and 3 in.
Hg. absolute.
3.1.5 Radio interference. The recorder
shall not be the source of objectionable in
terference, under operating conditions at
any frequencies used on aircraft, either by
radiation or feedback, in electronic equip
ment installed in the same aircraft as the
recorder.
3.1.6 Magnetic effect. The magnetic effect
of the recorder shall not adversely affect the
operation of the other instruments installed
in the same aircraft.
4. Detail requirements.
§ 37.150 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
4.1 Recording medium. The record me
dium shall conform to the following require
ments:
a. The recording medium of recorders em
ploying mechanical inscribed markings shall
advance at a rate of not less than 6 inches
per hour, and that of recorders employing
other means of recording shall advance at
a rate sufficient to permit resolution within
the accuracy prescribed in section 4.3.
b. The recording medium shall provide a
recording of the required data for at least
the total elapsed operating time of a flight
for which the aircraft might be used.
c. The recording medium shall not be sub
ject to deterioration or distortion of the re
corded data within the limits specified
herein.
4.2 Recording intervals and ranges.
a. Time: The time lapse shall be recorded
at intervals of not more than 1 minute.
b. Pressure altitude: –1,000 to 50,000 feet
of standard atmosphere pressures, and shall
be recorded at intervals of not more than
one second.
c. Vertical acceleration : +6 to —3g, and
shall be recorded at intervals of not more
than 1/10 of 1 second, or at intervals of 1
second in which peak accelerations are
recorded.
d. Air speed: 100 to 450 knots IAS, and
shall be recorded at intervals of not more
than one second.
e. Heading: 360 degrees azimuth, and shall
be recorded at intervals of not more than
one second.
4.3 Record resolution. The record reso
lution shall be such that the data can be
analyzed with the accuracy specified in
section 6.
44 Record protection. The recorder shall
be of such design that the recorded data will
be protected against damage by fire, impact,
and water within the limits specified herein.
4.5 Pressure altitude. The terms of pres
sure altitude shall conform to tables I and II.
4.6 Air speed. The terms of air speed
shall conform to table III.
4.7 Power variations. All units shall
properly function with _+10 percent to
—20 percent variation in DC voltage and/or
+10 percent variation in a.c. voltage and
+5 percent in frequency, provided the a.c.
voltage and frequency vary in the same
direction. The recorder shall not be dam
aged when subjected to lower voltages.
4.8 Power malfunction indication.
means shall be provided for indicating when
adequate power is not being received by the
recorder for proper operation.
4.9 Automatic ejection. The automatic
ejection provision of Type III recorders, in
cluding the structure holding the ejectable
portion, shall be capable of operating when
subjected to inertia loads corresponding to
an acceleration of 69's acting in any direc
tion.
5. Test conditions.
5.1 Atmospheric conditions. Unless
otherwise specified all tests required by this
standard shall be conducted at an atmos
pheric pressure of approximately 29.92 inches
of mercury and at an ambient temperature
of approximately 25° C. When tests are con
ducted with the atmospheric pressure or the
temperature substantially different from
these values, allowance shall be made for
the variation from the specified conditions.
5.2 Vibration (to minimize friction).
Unless otherwise specified all tests for per
formance may be made with the recorder
subjected to a vibration of 0.002 to 0.005
inch double amplitude at a frequency of
1.500 to 2,000 cycles per minute. The term
double amplitude as used herein indicates
total displacement from positive maximum
to negative maximum.
5.3 Vibration equipment. Vibration
equipment shall be used which will provide
frequencies and amplitudes consistent with
the requirements of section 3.1.3 with the
following characteristics:
5.3.1 Linear motion vibration. Vibration
equipment for testing airframe structure
mounted recorders of portions thereof shall
be such as to allow vibration to be applied
along each of three mutually perpendicular
axes of the test specimen.
5.3.2 Circular motion vibration. Vibra
tion equipment for testing shock-mounted
recorders of portions thereof shall be such
that a point on the case will describe, in a
plane inclined 45 degrees to the horizontal
plane, a circle, the diameter of which is equal
to the double amplitude.
5.4 Position. All tests shall be conducted
with the recorder mounted in its normal
operating position.
5.5 Test voltage. All tests for perform
ance shall be conducted at the voltage rating
recommended by the manufacturer.
5.6 Power conditions. All tests for per
formance shall be conducted at the power
rating recommended by the manufac;urer.
6. Allowable record errors.
6.1 Altitude record error. The recorder
shall be tested for allowable error at the test
points specified in table I on decreasing and
increasing pressure. The rate of change in
pressure during this test shall not t e less
than 3,000 feet per minute. On decreasing
pressure, the pressure shall be brought down
to, but shall not exceed, the specified test
point. On increasing pressure, the pressure
shall be brought up to, but shall not exceed,
the specified test point. Within 1 minute
A after applying the specified pressure, the
error in the record shall not exceed the
tolerance values indicated in table I for each
test point.
6.2. Acceleration record error. The accel
eration error shall not exceed plus or minus
0.2G in a Stabilized condition, and the total
error in following a single, triangular, ac
celeration pulse of one-half second duration
or greater, shall be no more than 10 percent
of the acceleration. (An analytical evalua
tion is considered acceptable.)
6.3 Time scale record cryor. The time
lapse error shall not exceed plus or minus
1.0 percent during an 8-hour period.
51S
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
6.4 Air speed record error. The recorder
shall be tested for allowable error at the test
points specified in table III on increasing
and decreasing speeds. The allowable error
shall not exceed the tolerance value specified
in table III.
6.5 Heading record error. The heading
record error shall not exceed plus or minus
2 degrees when measured at 15 degree in
tervals over 360 degrees in azimuth. This
error is the difference between the sensor and
the recorder.
7. Performance tests. The following tests,
in addition to any others deemed necessary
by the manufacturer, shall be the basis for
determining compliance with the perform
ance requirements of this standard.
7.1 Room temperature. The recorder
shall be tested at room temperature to de
termine compliance with the requirements
under section 6.
72 Low temperature. The recorder shall
be subjected to an ambient temperature of
minus 55° C. for 5 hours and while still ex
posed to this temperature it shall be tested
to determine compliance with the require
ments under section 6.
7.3 High temperature. The recorder shall
be subjected to an ambient temperature of
50° C. for 5 hours and while still exposed to
this temperature it shall be tested to deter
mine compliance with the room temperature
accuracies under section 6.
7.4 Eactreme temperature erposure. The
recorder, after exposure to an ambient tem
perature of 70° C. for 24 hours followed by
exposure to —65° C. for 24 hours followed
immediately by exposure to room tempera
ture for not more than 3 hours, shall meet
the requirements of section 7.1. There shall
be no evidence of damage as a result of ex
posure to the extreme temperatures.
7.5 Hysteresis. Not more than 15 min
utes after the altitude sensor has been first
subjected to the pressure corresponding to
standard altitude of 50,000 feet, the pres
sure shall be increased at a rate
sponding to a decrease in altitude of not
less than 3,000 feet per minute until the
pressure corresponding to 25,000 is reached.
Within 10 seconds the error shall not ex
ceed the room temperature error at this test
point by more than 100 feet. The altitude
sensor shall remain at this pressure for not
more than 15 minutes before the test to de
termine compliance with table II is made,
after which the pressure shall be further
increased at the above rate until the pres
sure corresponding to 20,000 feet is reached.
The altitude sensor shall remain at this pres
Sure for not more than 10 minutes before
the test to determine compliance with table
II is made. The pressure shall be further
increased at the above rate until atmospheric
pressure is reached.
7.6 After effect. Not more than 5 min
utes after the completion of the hysteresis
test, the altitude record shall have returned
to its original recording, corrected for any
§ 37 450
change in atmospheric pressure, within the
tolerance shown in table II.
7.7 vibration.
7.7.1 Resonance. The recorder, while op
erating, shall be subjected to a resonant fre
quency survey of the appropriate range speci
fied in section 3.1.3 in order to determine if
there exists any resonant frequencies of the
parts. The amplitude used may be any con
venient value that does not exceed the max
imum double amplitude and the maximum
acceleration specified in section 3.1.3.
The recorder shall then be subjected to
a vibration at the appropriate maximum
double amplitude or maximum acceleration
specified in section 3.1.3 at the resonant fre
quency for a period of 1 hour in each axis
or with circular motion vibration, whichever
is applicable. When more than one resonant
frequency is encountered with vibration ap
plied along any one axis, a test period may
be accomplished at the most severe reso
nance, or the period may be divided among
the resonant frequencies, whichever shall
be considered most likely to produce failure.
The test period shall not be less than one
half hour at any resonant mode. When
resonant frequencies are not apparent within
the specified frequency range, the recorder
shall be vibrated for 2 hours in accordance
with the vibration requirements of section
3.1.3 at the maximum double amplitude and
the frequency to provide the maximum
acceleration.
7.7.2 Cycling. The recorder, while op
erating, shall be tested with the frequency
cycled between limits specified in section
3.1.3 in 15-minute cycles for a period of 1
hour in each axis at an applied double am
plitude specified in section 3.1.3 or an accele
ration specified in section 3.1.3, whichever is
the limiting value. After the completion of
this vibration test, no damage shall be evi
dent and the recorder shall meet the require
Inents of Section 6.
7.8 Humidity, water, impact, penetration
resistance, static crush, and fire protection
corre tests. The humidity, impact, penetration
resistance, static crush, and fire protection
tests shall be made in the following sequence
on the same recorder without the need for
repairs.
7.8.1 Humidity. The recorder shall be
mounted in a chamber maintained at a tem
perature of 70+2° C. and a relative humidity
of 95+5 percent for a period of 6 hours.
After this period the heat should be shut off
and the recorder should be allowed to cool
for a period of 18 hours in this atmosphere
in which the humidity rises to 100 percent
as the temperature decreases to not more
than 38° C. This complete cycle should be
conducted fifteen (15) times. Immediately
after cycling, the recorder shall be subjected
to the Record Error Tests of section 6.
7.8.2 Impact. The intelligence on the
record medium shall be capable of being
analyzed after the recorder has been sub
jected to the following impact shock: Types
I and II–Half sine wave impact shocks ap
plied to each of the three main orthogonal
519
§ 37.150 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
axes and having a peak acceleration magni 7.11 Automatic effection means. The
tude of 1,000 g with a time duration of at automatic ejection means for Type III re
least 5 milliseconds. Type III—Acceleration corders shall be tested to demonstrate that
not less than the shocks developed on contact it is capable of ejecting the recorder from its
with a horizontal rock surface, considering mounting when subjected to forward acting
the direction of ejection and any provisions inertia loads of 5g's to 6g's.
for alleviation of shock. With regard to 8.0 Recorder color. The exterior surface
the former, the aircraft shall be assumed to
of the recorder must be finished in either a
be tilted at least 30 degrees from horizontal
in the most critical direction. bright orange or a bright yellow color.
7.8.3 Penetration resistance (Type I and II TABLE I—ALTITUDE RECORD ERROR TABLE
recorders only). The intelligence on the
record medium shall be capable of being
Equivalent Tolerance, feet
analyzed after the recorder has been sub pressure mercury plus or minus
jected to an impact force equal to a 500 Standard
pound steel bar which is dropped from a altitude
height of 10 feet to strike each side of the (ſeet) Room Low
MM In. HC temp. temp.
enclosure in the most critical plane. The sec. 6.1 Sec. 7.1
point of contact of the bar shall have an
area that is no greater than 0.05 square
inches. The longitudinal axis of the bar —1,000 787. 9 31.02 100
-500 773.8 30.47 100
shall be vertical at the time of impact. NoTE: 0 760. 0 29.92 100
The objective of this test is to achieve pro 500 746.4 29. 39 100
tection of the record medium from possible 1,000 732.9 28.86 100
1,500 719.7 28.33 100
damage caused by airframe structural mem 2,000 706.6 27.82 100
bers striking the recorder case during crash 3,000 681.1 26. 81 125
impact. 4,000 656.3 25.84 150
7.84 Static crush (Type I and II recorders 6,000 609. 0 23. 98 150
8,000 564. 4 22.22 150
only). The intelligence on the record me 10,000 522.6 20. 58 150
dium shall be capable of being analyzed after 12,000 483.3 19.03 180
the recorder has been subjected to a static 14,000 446.4 17. 57 210
crush force of 5,000 pounds applied continu 16,000 411.8 16.21 240
18,000 379. 4 14.94 270
ously, but not simultaneously to each of the 20,000 349. 1 13.75
three main orthogonal axes for a test period 22,000 320.8 12. 63 335
of 5 minutes. 25,000 281.9 11, 10 375
7.8.5 Fire protection. The record medium 30,000 225.6 8.88 450
35,000 178.7 7. 04 525
shall remain intact so that the intelligence 40,000 140.7 5. 54 600
can be analyzed after the recorder is exposed 50,000 87.3 3.44 700
to flames of 1100° C. enveloping at least 50
percent of the outside area of the case for the
TABLE II—ALTITUDE TEST TABLE
following periods of time: Type I—30 min
utes; Type II—15 minutes; Type III—1.5
minutes. Tests Reference Tolerance
7.8.6 Water protection. The intelligence Section in feet
on the record medium shall be capable of
remaining permanent and reproducible after Hysterests: 7.4 l------------
the record medium has been immersed in First test point 25,000-------|------------ *20
seawater for 36 hours. Second test point 20,000-----|------------ *90
7.9 Position error. The recorder shall meet After effect test--------------- 7.5 º

the following requirements when turned

from its normal operating position through *In excess of the room temperature error.
90° forward and back, and left and right TABLE III—AIRSPEED RECORD ERRoR TABLE
where applicable:
a. Time: Section 6.3.
b. Altitude: Section 6.1, except that the Tolerance, knots plus or minus
Standard airspeed
tolerance may be increased by 25 feet. (knots)
c. Acceleration: Section 6.2. Room temp. Low temp.
Sec. 6.1 Sec. 7.1
d. Air speed: Section 6.4.
e. Heading: Section 6.5.
7.10 Dielectric. The insulation shall be 100 10 12
150 10 12
subjected to a dielectric test with an RMS 200 10 12
voltage at a commercial frequency applied 250 10 12
for a period of 5 seconds, equivalent to five 300 10 12
times normal circuit operating voltage, ex 350 10 12
400 10 12
cept where circuits include components for 450 10 12
which such a test would be inappropriate, the
test voltage shall be 125 times normal circuit
operating voltage. The insulation resistance [Amdt. 37–5, 31 F.R. 127, Jan. 6, 1966, as
shall not be less than 20 megohms at that amended by Doc. No. 8084, 39 F.R. 5769,
voltage. Apr. 11, 1967]

520
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 37.151 Flight directors—TSO–C52a.
(a) Applicability—.(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for flight directors which
specifically are required to be approved
for use on civil aircraft of the United
States. New models of flight directors
manufactured for installation on civil
aircraft on or after the effective date of
this section shall meet the standards Set
forth in SAE Aeronautical Standard AS
420A, “Flight Directors,” revised No
vember 15, 1959,” with exceptions and
additions to the standards listed in sub
paragraph (2) of this paragraph.
(2) Eacceptions and additions. (i) The
following specifically numbered parts in
AS–420A do not concern minimum per
formance and therefore are not essential
to compliance with this section: parts:
3.1; 3.1.1; 3.1.2; 3.2 (a), (b), (c), (d), (e);
and 4.1.1.3.
(ii) In lieu of parts 7, it is a require
ment that flight directors covered by
this section be capable of successfully
passing the tests in parts 7.1 through
7.6.
(iii) Thermal shock: This test shall
apply to any hermetically sealed compo
nents. The component shall be sub
jected to four cycles of exposure to water
at 85°-i-2° C. and 5°-E2° C. without evi
dence of moisture penetration or damage
to coating or enclosure. Each cycle of
the test shall consist of immersing the
component in water at 85°-E2° C. for a
period of 30 minutes, and then within
5 seconds of removal from the bath, the
component shall be immersed for a
period of 30 minutes in the other bath
maintained at 5°-E2° C. This cycle
shall be repeated continuously, one cycle
following the other until four cycles
have been completed. Following this
test, the component shall be subjected
to the Sealing test specified in subdivi
sion (iv) of this subparagraph. No
leakage shall occur as a result of this
test.
(iv) Sealing: This performance test
shall apply to each hermetically sealed
instrument. The instrument shall
immersed in a suitable liquid, such as
water. The absolute pressure of the air
above the liquid shall then be reduced
to approximately one inch of mercury
(Hg) and maintained for one minute, or
* Copies may be obtained from the Society
of Automotive Engineers, 485 Lexington
Avenue, New York 17, N.Y.
89–059–75—34
§ 37.151
until air bubbles cease to be given off
by the liquid, whichever is longer. The
absolute pressure shall then be increased
by 2% inches Hg. Any bubbles coming
from within the indicator case shall be
considered as leakage and shall be cause
for rejection. Bubbles which are the re
sult of entrapped air in the various ex
terior parts of the case shall not be
considered as leakage. Other test meth
ods which provide evidence equal to the
immersion test of the integrity of the
instrument's seals may be used. If the
instrument incorporates nonhermeti
cally sealed appurtenances, such as a
case extension, these appurtenances may
be removed prior to the sealing test.
(v) In addition to paragraph 4.6.2, the
indicating means shall be readily dis
cernible under any lighting condition
normally encountered in aircraft.
(b) Marking. In addition to the mark
ings specified in § 37.7 range and rating
shall be shown.
(c) Data requirements. (1) The man
ufacturer shall maintain a current file of
complete design data.
(2) The manufacturer shall maintain
a current file of complete data describing
the inspection and test procedures ap
plicable to his product. (See paragraph
(d) Quality control of this section.)
(3) Six copies each, except where
noted, of the following shall be furnished
to the Chief, Engineering and Manufac
turing Branch, Flight Standards Divi
sion, Federal Aviation Administration, in
the region in which the manufacturer is
located:
(i) Manufacturer's operating instruc
tions and instrument limitations.
(ii) Drawings of major components
or photographs showing exploded views
of instruments.
(iii) Installation procedures with ap
plicable schematic drawings, wiring dia
grams, and specifications. Indicate any
limitations, restrictions, or other condi
tions pertinent to installation with the
statement of conformance certifying that
the instrument conforms to this Section.
(iv) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
be
(d) Quality control. Each flight di
rector shall be produced under a quality
control System, established by the manu
facturer, which will assure that each
flight director is in conformity with the
requirements of this section and is in
condition for safe operation. This sys
tem shall be described in the data re
quired under paragraph (c) (2) of this
521
§ 37.152 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
section. The Administrator shall be per
mitted to make such inspections and
tests at the manufacturer's facility as
may be necessary to determine compli
ance with the requirements of this
Section.
(e) Previously approved equipment.
Flight directors approved prior to the
effective date of this section may Con
tinue to be manufactured under the
provisions of their original approval.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.152. Fuel and engine oil system
hose assemblies (rubber or tetra
fluoroethylene tube and wire braid
construction)—TSO–C53a.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for new models of fuel and engine
oil system hose assemblies of the fol
lowing types manufactured on or after
the effective date of this section, which
are to be used on civil aircraft of the
United States. Fuel and engine oil Sys
tem hose assemblies of the following
types approved prior to the effective
date of this section may continue to be
manufactured under the provisions of
their original approval.
(i) Type A. Non-fire-resistant “nor
mal” temperature hose assemblies which
are intended to be used in locations out
side fire zones where the fluid and
ambient air temperatures do not exceed
250° F.
(ii) Type B. Non-fire-resistant “high”
temperature hose assemblies which are
intended to be used in locations outside
fire Zones where the fluid and ambient
air temperatures do not exceed 450° F.
(iii) Type C. Fire-resistant “normal”
temperature hose assemblies which are
intended to be used in locations within
fire Zones where the fluid and ambient
air temperatures do not exceed 250° F.
(iv) Type D. Fire-resistant “high”
temperature hose assemblies which are
intended to be used in locations within
fire zones where the fluid and ambient
air temperatures do not exceed 450° F.
(a) New models shall comply with the
following minimum requirements. Three
samples of each size shall be tested.
(1) Type A hose assemblies shall com
ply with the “3.3 Performance” section
requirements of Specification MIL–H–
1 Hose assemblies for use in propeller
feathering lines are covered in TSO-C42.
522 --
8795A, dated July 25, 1958,” except as
noted in subparagraph (2) of this para
graph. The hose incorporated therein
shall conform to “3.6 Performance” Sec
tion of Specification MIL–H–8794A,
dated July 25, 1958,” except as noted in
subparagraph (2) of this paragraph.
(2) Type B hose assemblies shall com
ply with the “3.6 Performance” section
of Specification MIL–H–25579 (USAF)
Amendment 2, dated March 19, 1959 “ex
cept as noted in Subparagraph (2) of this
paragraph.
(3) Type Chose assemblies shall com
ply with the above requirements for Type
A hose assemblies and in addition shall
pass the fire test described in subpara
graph (3) of this paragraph.
(4) Type D hose assemblies shall com
ply with the above requirements for Type
B hose assemblies and in addition shall
pass the fire test described in subpara
graph (3) of this paragraph.
(2) Eacceptions. (i) Type A hose as
semblies are not required to comply with
sections 3.6.1.2 and 3.6.2.7 of Specifica
tion MIL–H–8794A. The operating and
proof pressures referred to in Table 1 of
that Specification shall be those values
listed in the “Fuel" column thereof.
The burst pressures to be utilized shall
be twice the proof pressures listed in the
“Fuel” column in Table 1. The fore
going shall likewise apply in showing
compliance with Specification MIL-H-
8795A.
(ii) Type B hose assemblies are not
required to comply with sections 3.6.5,
3.6.7 and 3.6.10 of Specification MIL-H-
25579 (USAF). The burst pressures to
be utilized shall be twice the proof pres
Sures listed in Table 1 of that specifi
cation.
(3) Fire test procedure and require
7ments. A description of the standard
fire test apparatus and its use is in FAA
“Standard Fire Test Apparatus and
Procedure” (Power Plant Engineering
Report No. 3).” The use of a protective
sleeve over the hose and/or end fittings
is permitted to facilitate compliance with
the fire test requirements. Sleeves or
* Copies of these specifications may be ob
tained by addressing a request to: Com
mander, USAF, Administrative Services Of
fice, Attention EWBFE, Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base, Ohio.
• Copies of Power Plant Engineering Re
port No. 3 may be obtained by addressing
a request to Library Services Division,
HQ–630, Federal Aviation Administration
Washington, D.C. 20553.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
covers shall be secured to the hose as
sembly so that fire-resistant properties
will be maintained.
(i) Oil pressure during fire test: Type
C hose assemblies—the operating pres
sure specified in the “Fuel” column of
Table 1 in Specification MIL-H-8795A.
Type D hose assemblies—the operating
pressure specified in Table 1 of Specifi
cation MIL–H–25579 (USAF).
(ii) Oil flow rate: 5× (Hose assembly
actual ID in inches).” Example: Flow
rate for –16 size=5X (%) *=3.8 GPM).
(iii) Duration: b minutes.
(iv) Criteria for acceptability: The
hose assembly shall be considered ac
ceptable if it complies with these test
conditions without evidence of leakage.
(b) Marking. The markings required
are specified in § 37.7 with the follow
ing exceptions:
(1) Trademark may be used in lieu of
name, and manufacturer's address is not
required.
(2) In lieu of the weight specified in
paragraph (d) (3) of $ 37.7, the size of the
hose assembly shall be shown.
(3) The applicable TSO number shall
be followed immediately by the appro
priate type designation, as TSO–C53–
Type B. Where a protective sleeve is
employed, the information should be
legibly stamped on a steel (or other fire
proof) band securely affixed to the hose
assembly.
(c) Data requirements. The follow
ing information and data should be sub
mitted with the letter of conformance.
(1) One copy of drawing showing the
hose assembly construction, materials,
part numbers and the recommended
maximum and minimum fluid and ambi
ent temperatures for continuous Opera
tion. The following data should be
shown for each size: Proof and burst
pressure (minimum), Operating pres
sure (maximum), Bending radius
(minimum).
(2) One copy of any installation in
structions and/or other pertinent in
formation (may be shown on drawing).
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 37–3, 30 F.R. 13211,
Oct. 16, 1965; Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.153 Stall warning instruments—
TSO–C54.
(a) Applicability—(1) M in im u m
performance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
523
§ 37.153
lished for stall warning instruments
which specifically are required to be ap
proved for use on civil aircraft of the
United States. New models of stall
warning instruments manufactured for
installation on civil aircraft on or after
the effective diate of this section shall
meet the standards set forth in SAE
Aeronautical Standard AS 403A, “Stall
Warning Instrument,” revised July 15,
1958,' with exceptions, and additions to
the standards listed in subparagraph (2)
of this paragraph.
(2) Eacceptions and additions. (1) The
following specifically numbered parts in
AS 403A do not concern minimum per
formance and therefore are not essential
to compliance with this section: Parts
3.1; 3.1.1; 3.1.2; 3.2 (a), (b), (c), (d), (e),
and (f).
(ii) In lieu of Part 7 of AS 403A, it
is a requirement that stall warning in
struments covered by this section be
capable of successfully passing the tests
in Parts 7.1 through 7.7 of AS 403A.
(iii) Thermal shock: This test shall
apply to any hermetically sealed com
ponent. The component shall be sub
jected to four cycles of exposure to water
at 85°-t2° C. and 5°-2° C. without evi
dence of moisture penetration or damage
to coating or enclosure. Each cycle of the
test shall consist of immersing the com
ponent in water at 85°:2° C. for a pe
riod of 30 minutes, and then within 5
seconds of removal from the bath, the
component shall be immersed for a pe
riod of 30 minutes in the other bath
maintained at 5° 4-2° C. This cycle
shall be repeated continuously, one cycle
following the other until four cycles have
been completed. Following this test, the
indicator shall be subjected to the Seal
ing test Specified in Subdivision (iv) of
this subparagraph. No indicator leak
age Shall occur as a result of this test.
(iv) Sealing: This performance test
shall apply to each hermetically sealed
instrument. The instrument shall be
immersed in a suitable liquid, such as
water. The absolute pressure Of the air
above the liquid shall then be reduced
to approximately 1 inch of mercury
(Hg) and maintained for 1 minute, or
until air bubbles cease to be given Off
by the liquid, whichever is longer. The
absolute pressure shall then be increased
1 Copies may be obtained from the Society
of Automotive Engineers, 485 Lexington
Avenue, New York 17, N.Y.
§ 37.154 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
by 2% inches Hg. Any bubbles coming
from within the indicator case shall be
considered as leakage and shall be cause
for rejection. Bubbles which are the re
sult of entrapped air in the various ex
terior parts of the case shall not be con
sidered as leakage. Other test methods
which provide evidence equal to the im
mersion test of the integrity of the in
strument's seals may be used. If the
instrument incorporates nonhermetically
sealed appurtenances, Such as a case ex
tension, these appurtenances may be re
moved prior to the sealing test.
(v) Power malfunction indication:
Means shall be incorporated in the in
strument to indicate when adequate
power (voltage and/or current) is not
being made available to all phases re
quired for the proper operation of the
instrument. The indicating means shall
indicate a failure or a malfunction in a
positive manner, and be readily discern
ible under any lighting condition nor
mally encountered in aircraft.
(b) Marking. In addition to the
markings specified in § 37.7 range or
rating (voltage) shall be shown.
(c) Data requirements. (1) The
manufacturer shall maintain a current
file of complete design data.
(2) The manufacturer shall maintain
a current file of complete data describ
ing the inspection and test procedures
applicable to his product.
(3) Six copies each, except where
noted, of the following shall be furnished
to the Chief, Engineering and Manufac
turing Branch, Flight Standards Divi
sion, Federal Aviation Administration, in
the region in which the manufacturer is
located.
(i) Manufacturer's operating instruc
tions and instrument limitations.
(ii) Drawings of major components or
photographs showing exploded views of
instrumentS.
(iii) Installation procedures With ap
plicable schematic drawings, wiring
diagrams, and specifications, including
any limitations, restrictions, or other
conditions pertinent to installation.
(iv) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(d) Quality c on trol. Each stall
warning instrument shall be produced
under a quality control system, estab
lished by the manufacturer, which will
assure that each stall warning instru
ment is in conformity with the require
ments of this section and is in condition
for safe operation. This system shall be
524
described in the data required under
paragraph (c) (2) of this section. The
Administrator Shall be permitted to make
Such inspections and tests at the manu
facturer's facility as may be necessary to
determine compliance with the require
ments of this standard.
(e) Previously approped equipment.
Stall warning instruments approved
prior to the effective date of this section
may continue to be manufactured under
the provisions of their original approval.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964.
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 82 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.154 Fuel and oil quantity instru
ments (for reciprocating engine air
craft)—TS0–C55.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance Standards are he reby
established for fuel and oil quantity
instruments (for reciprocating engine
aircraft) which specifically are required
to be approved for use on civil aircraft
of the United States. New models of fuel
and oil quantity instruments (for recip
rocating engine aircraft) manufactured
for installation on civil aircraft on or
after April 1, 1959, shall meet the stand
ards set forth in SAE Aeronautical
Standard AS-405B, “Fuel and Oil Quan
tity Instruments,” dated July 15, 1958.”
with the exceptions listed in subpara
graph (2) of this paragraph. Fuel and
oil quantity instruments (for recipro
cating engine aircraft) approved prior to
April 1, 1959, may continue to be manu
factured under the provisions of their
original approval.
(2) Eacceptions. (i) Conformance
with the following sections is not re
quired: 3.1; 3.1.1; 3.1.2; 3.2; 4.2.1.
(ii) Substitute the following for sec
tion 7.: “Performance tests: The follow
ing tests, in addition to any others
deemed necessary by the manufacturer,
shall be the basis for determining com
pliance with the performance require
ments of this standard.”
(b) Marking. In lieu of the weight
specified in § 37.7 (d) (3), the following
shall be shown:
(1) Instrument type (I or II),
(2) Range,
(3) Rating if applicable, i.e., electrical,
Vacuum, etc.
1 Copies may be obtained from the Society
of Automotive Engineers, Inc., 485 Lexington
Avenue, New York 17, New York.
 Chapter l——Federal Aviation Administration
(c) Data requirements. With
statement of conformance, one copy
each of the manufacturer's operating
instructions, Schematic diagrams, and
installation procedures shall be
nished the Chief, Engineering and Manu
facturing Branch, Flight Standards Di
vision Federal Aviation Administration,
in the region in which the manufacturer
is located.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 37–3, 30 F.R. 13211,
Oct. 16, 1965; Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.155 Engine-driven direct current
generators for aircraft certificated
under Part 25–TS0–C56.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance Standards are hereby estab
lished for engine-driven direct current
generators which are to be used on civil
aircraft of the United States certificated
under Part 25. New models of engine
driven direct current generators manu
factured for use on civil aircraft on or
after April 1, 1959, shall meet the mini
mum performance standards as set forth
below.
(i) Test conditions. Unless otherwise
specified in this section, each test shall
be made under the following conditions:
(a) Mounting. The generator shall
be mounted on a suitable drive stand
capable of driving the generator contin
uously within the speed range. The
longitudinal axis of the generator shall
be horizontal.
(b) Eaccitation. The generator shall
be self-excited and controlled by a suit
able Variable resistance in series with the
shunt field. The shunt field current
shall not be considered as part of the
generator load current. -
(c) Ambient temperature. The am
bient temperature shall be 95°-1-9° F.
(d) Altitude. The tests shall be run
at approximately sea level altitude.
(e) Location of load. The load for
the generator shall be so located that it
will not appreciably affect the ambient
temperature or the blast-cooling air tem
perature (if blast cooling is used).
(f) Warm-up. Prior to the test, the
generator Shall be operated at continu
ous operating Speed delivering rated load
at rated Voltage for Sufficient time to
reach a substantially constant temper
ature.
§ 37.155
the (ii) Test methods— (a) Manufac
turer's declaration. The manufacturer
shall declare the following generator
ratings and characteristics. (These val
fur ues are the “rated” and “declared.”
quantities referred to in Subsequent par
agraphs describing test methods.)
(1) Rated terminal voltage.
(2) Rated load current.
(3) Minimum blast cooling require
ment (if blast cooling is to be used).
(4) Rated Speed range.
(5) Continuous operating speed.
(6) Minimum speed for regulation.
(7) Maximum speed for regulation.
(8) Maximum overspeed.
(9) Minimum and maximum external
field resistance in series with the shunt
field.
(10) Maximum operating altitude.
(11) Allowable brush and commutator
Wear.
(12) Maximum static torque.
(13) Equalizing voltage (if provided)
at rated load current.
(14) Overhang moment, with respect
to the drive pad.
(b) Marimum speed for regulation.
The generator shall not be given an
operational warm-up prior to this test.
The generator shall be operated at the
maximum speed for regulation and it
shall deliver the rated terminal voltage
at no load with no more than the de
clared maximum external field resist
ance in series with the shunt field.
(c) Heating, commutation, minimum
speed and equalizing voltage, Provision
shall be made for determining Speed,
terminal voltage, load current, field volt
age, field current and the resistance in
series with the shunt field. The de
clared minimum blast cooling require
ment shall be supplied to the generator
air inlet. The temperature of the cool
ing air shall be determined by means of
a suitable temperature indicating de
vice whose responsive element is located
Within the cooling air duct. While the
generator is cold, the resistance and
temperature of the shunt field shall be
determined for use in Calculating the
field temperature rise (average) during
continuous operation at the declared full
load current. The generator shall be
considered to have reached a continuous
operating condition when the rate of rise
of the shunt field temperature, above the
then existing ambient temperature, does
Inot exceed 2° F. in five minutes.
525
§ 37.155 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(1) Heating. The ability of the gen
erator to deliver the rated load current
at rated terminal voltage at the declared
continuous operating Speed shall be dem
onstrated. Immediately following the
above run, the ability of the generator
to deliver rated load current at rated
terminal voltage for both the minimum
speed for regulation and the maximum
rated speed shall be demonstrated. Fol
lowing this test, the generator shall dem
onstrate its ability to deliver rated load
current at minimum rated Speed, at a
terminal voltage not less than 85 percent
of the rated terminal voltage.
(2) Commutation. Inmediately
lowing the above heat runs, with the gen
erator hot, the commutation of the gen
erator shall be observed over the rated
speed range for no load, half load, and
rated load current. There shall be no
more than fine, pin-point Sparking of
the brushes during this test.
(3) Minimum speed. At no time dur
ing the above heat runs shall the re
quired resistance external to the shunt
field be less than the declared minimum
external field resistance.
(4) Equalizing voltage. Where an
equalizing Voltage is provided, it shall
be within 5 percent of the declared
equalizing voltage when the generator is
Stabilized in temperature and operating
at rated load current at the declared
continuous operating speed. The de
clared minimum blast cooling require
ment shall be supplied at the generator
air inlet.
(d) Overspeed. This test shall be
made while the generator is hot as a re
Sult of testing and shall be made at no
load with the field circuit open and at
the declared maximum overspeed. The
generator Shall demonstrate its ability
to operate under overspeed conditions for
five minutes without mechanical failure,
throwing of varnish, or impairing elec
trical performance.
(e) Dielectric strength. While the
generator is hot as a result of testing,
it shall withstand the following test
voltage at commercial frequency, ap
plied between windings, and between
each winding and frame, for the speci
fied time:
500 volts (rms) for one minute, or
600 volts (rms) for one second.
(f) Ripple voltage. Ripple voltage
shall be determined by Ineans of a peak
reading vacuum tube voltmeter in series
with a 4.0 microfarad capacitor. The
generator shall be operated at 120 per
cent of minimum rated Speed at 50 per
cent of rated load current, with a man
ually operated field rheostat, and with
out a battery in parallel. Peak voltage
readings shall be taken with the volt
meter successively connected for each of
the two polarities and the higher of the
two readings shall not exceed 1.5 volts.
(g) Humidity. The relative humidity
for this test shall be 95+5 percent. Sub
ject equipment to test condition at
160°–4° F. for six hours. The heat
fol source shall be turned off for 16 hours
without changing total moisture content
in the test space. During the 16-hour
period, the temperature shall drop to
100° F. Or less. The test shall be re
peated ten times, allowing a two-hour
period to stabilize to 160° F. Check for
corrosion, distortion, and general deteri
oration. At the end of this test, the
generator shall deliver rated load cur
rent at the declared continuous operat
ing Speed for two hours.
(h) Flea-ible drive. The flexible drive
test shall be conducted on a universal
joint torsional vibration machine which
has a fly-wheel of at least 20 times the
amount of inertia of the generator arma
ture being tested. Testing procedure
shall be as follows:
(1) 100 hours with +1 degree torsional
amplitude input to drive shaft at critical
frequencies. The flexible drive shall
limit the armature amplitude within +5
degrees.
(2) 50 hours with +2 degrees torsional
amplitude input to drive shaft at fre
quencies of 20 to 24 cps. The flexible
drive shall limit the armature amplitude
within +7 degrees. -
(3) 15 minutes with +2 degrees tor
sional amplitude input to drive shaft at
critical frequencies. The flexible drive
shall limit the armature amplitude with
in +7 degrees.
(i) Performance of commutator, bear
ings, and brushes. The generator shall
be operated under the following condi
tions. New brushes may be installed
for this test.
(1) 100 hours at the declared con
tinuous operating Speed, at rated load
current with the test conditions speci
fied in subdivision (i) of this subpara
graph.
5 26
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(2) Four continuous cycles consisting
of the following: 24 hours at the declared
continuous operating Speed and rated
load current, at altitude conditions ap
proximating 115 percent of the declared
maximum operating altitude. The ann
bient temperature (and cooling air tem
perature, if blast cooling is used) shall be
related to the test altitude by the for
Inula T= 104— (0.005) h (where T is the
temperature in degrees F. and h is the
test altitude in feet), except that the
lower temperature limit, regardless of
altitude, shall be —67° F. : at least one
hour at the declared continuous operat
ing speed and rated load current, with
the test conditions specified in subdivi
sion (i) of this subparagraph. The time
interval between Successive 24-hour runs
at aititude Shall not exceed two hours.
The rate of change of altitude need not
be controlled, but the temperature at
any transition altitude shall be within
18° F. of that obtained from the temper
ature-altitude formula above.
(3) Two continuous cycles consisting
of the following: Nine hours at the de
clared continuous operating speed and 75
percent, rated load current, at altitude
conditions approximating 115 percent of
the declared maximum operating alti
tude. The ambient temperature (and
cooling air temperature, if blast cooling
is used) shall be related to the test, alti
tude by the formula T=160— (0.004) h
(where T is the temperature in degrees
F. and h is the test altitude in feet) ; at
least one hour at the declared continu
ous Operating Speed and 75 percent rated
load current, with the test conditions
specified in subdivision (i) of this sub
paragraph. The time interval prior to
each nine-hour run at altitude shall not
exceed two hours. The rate of change
of altitude need not be controlled, but
the temperature at any transition alti
tude shall be within 18° F. of that ob
tained from the temperature-altitude
formula above.
(4) Evaluation of results of tests (1),
(2), and (3) above: Cumulative brush
or commutator wear Shall not exceed 20
percent of the declared allowable wear
after tests (1) and (2) and shall not ex
ceed 4 percent of the declared allowable
wear after test (3). No mechanical fail
ure or electrical malfunction shall occur
during this test.
(j) Drive shear section. Sufficient tor
Sional force shall be applied to the drive
shear Section (or to the armature shaft
itself, if no shear section is provided)
527
§ 37.156
to result in its failure. The necessary
torque indicating instrumentation shall
be provided. Failure shall occur at an
applied torque of less than the declared
maximurn Static torque.
(b) Marking. In addition to the mark
ing required in § 37.7, the nameplate
Shall contain the following information:
(1) Rated terminal voltage.
(2) Rated load current.
(3) Rated Speed range.
(c) Data requirements. The manu
facturer shall submit a tabulation of the
declared generator ratings and charac
teristics (called for in paragraph
(a) (1) (ii) (a) of this section to the Chief,
Engineering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avia
tion Administration, in the region in
which the manufacturer is located.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 3084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.156 Aircraft headsets and speakers
(for air carrier aircraft)—TS0–C57.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for aircraft headsets and Speakers
which are to be used on civil aircraft of
the United States engaged in air carrier
operations. New models of aircraft
headsets and speakers manufactured for
use on civil aircraft on or after August
14, 1959, shall meet the minimum per
formance standards as set forth in Radio
Technical Commission for Aeronautics'
Paper entitled “Minimum Performance
Standards—Aircraft Headsets and
Speakers” (Paper 257–58/DO–90 dated
November 18, 1958). Radio Technical
Commission for Aeronautics’ Paper
100–54/DO–60 which is incorporated by
reference in and thus is a part of Paper
257–58/DO–90 has been amended by
Paper 256–58/EC–366 dated November
13, 1958. This amendment is also a part
of the minimum performance standards.
Exceptions to these standards are coV
ered in subparagraph (2) of this para
graph.
(2) Eacceptions. (i) Radio Technical
Commission for Aeronautics' Paper
100–54/DO–60 and amendment Paper
256–58/EC–366 dated November 13, 1958,
1 Copies of these papers may be obtained
from the RTCA Secretariat, Suite 302, NADA
Building, 20th and K Streets NW., Washing
ton, D.C., 20006. Paper 257–58/DO–90, 25
cents per copy; Paper 100–54/DO–60, 20 cents
per copy.
§ 37.157 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
outline environmental test procedures
for equipment designed to operate under
three environmental test conditions as
specified therein under Procedures A,
B, and C. Only aircraft headsets and
speakers which meet the operating re
quirements as outlined under Procedure
A or Procedure B of Paper 100–54/DO-60,
as amended, are eligible under this
section.
(ii) Radio Technical Commission for
Aeronautics' Paper 257–58/DO–90 dated
November 18, 1958, paragraph 2.3, Pilot
Operated Gain Control. The provisions
of this paragraph are applicable Only to
attenuators which are a part of the
headset assembly.
(b) Marking. In addition to the in
formation required in § 37.7, equipment
which has been designed to operate over
the environmental conditions as outlined
in Procedure A of RTCA Paper 100–
54/DO–60, as amended, shall be marked
as Category A equipment. Equipment
which has been designed to operate over
the environmental conditions as out
lined in Procedure B of this same paper,
as amended, shall be marked as Category
B equipment.
(c) Data requirements. With the
statement of conformance, one copy
each of the manufacturer's operating in
structions, Schematic diagrams, and in
stallation procedures shall be furnished
the Chief, Engineering and Manufactur
ing Branch, Flight Standards Division,
Federal Aviation Administration, in the
region in which the manufacturer is
located.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Aircraft headsets and Speakers approved
prior to August 14, 1959, may continue to
be manufactured under the provisions
of their original approval.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.157 Aircraft microphones (for air
carrier aircraft)—TSO–C58.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance Standards are hereby estab
lished for aircraft microphones which
are to be used on civil aircraft of the
United States engaged in air carrier op
erations. New models of aircraft micro
phones manufactured for use on civil
aircraft on or after August 14, 1959, shall
meet the minimum performance stand
ards as set forth in Radio Technical
Commission for Aeronautics' Paper en
528
titled “Minimum Performance Stand
ards—Aircraft Microphones” (Paper
258–58/DO–91 dated November 18,
1958).” Radio Technical Commission for
Aeronautics’ Paper 100–54/DO–60”
which is incorporated by reference in
and thus is a part of Paper 258–58/DO
91 has been amended by Paper 256–58/
EC–366 dated November 13, 1958. This
amendment is also a part of the mini
mum performance standards. An ex
ception to these standards is covered in
Subparagraph (2) of this paragraph.
(2) Eacception. Radio Technical Com
mission for Aeronautics’ Paper 100–54/
DO–60, and amendment Paper 256–58/
EC–366 dated November 13, 1958, outline
environmental test procedures for equip
ment designed to operate under three
environmental test conditions as speci
fled therein under Procedure A, B, and
C. Only aircraft microphones which
meet the operating requirements as out
lined under Procedure A or Procedure B
of Paper 100–54/DO-60, as amended, are
eligible under this Section.
(b) Marking. In addition to the in
formation required in § 37.7, equipment
which has been designed to operate over
the environmental conditions as outlined
in Procedure A of RTCA Paper 100–54/
DO–60, as amended, Shall be marked as
Category A equipment. Equipment
which has been designed to operate over
the environmental conditions as out
lined in Procedure B of this same paper,
as amended, shall be marked as Category
B equipment.
(c) Data requirements. With the
statement of conformance, one copy
each of the manufacturer's operating
instructions, Schematic diagrams, and
installation procedures shall be furnished
the Chief, Engineering and Manufactur
ing Branch, Flight Standards Division,
Federal Aviation Administration, in the
region in Which the manufacturer is
located.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Aircraft microphones approved prior to
August 14, 1959, may continue to be
manufactured under the provisions of
their original approval.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 FR 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 FR 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
* Copies of these papers may be obtained
from the RTCA Secretariat, Suite 302, NADA
Building, 20th and K Streets NW., Washing
ton, D.C., 20006. Paper 258–58/DO–91. 25
cents per copy; Paper 100–54/DO–60, 20 cents
per copy.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 37.158 High Frequency (HF) radio
communication transmitting equip
ment operating within the radio fre
quency range of 1.5 to 30 megacycles
(TSO–C31c).
(a) Applicability. This tech nic a 1
standard order prescribes the minimum
performance standards that airborne
high frequency radio communication
transmitting equipment must meet in
order to be identified with the applicable
TSO marking. New models of equipment,
that are to be so identified and that are
manufactured on or after November 24,
1967, must meet the requirements of the
“Federal Aviation Administration Stand
ard, Airborne High Frequency Radio
Communication Transmitting Equip
ment Operating Within the Radio Fre
quency Range of 1.5 to 30 Megacycles”
set forth at the end of this section, and
the FAA Document for Environmental
Test Procedures for Airborne Electronic
Equipment, set forth in TSO-C87, effec
tive February 1, 1966 (30 F.R. 15553, Dec.
17, 1965).
(b) Marking. (1) In addition to the
markings specified in Section 37.7, the
equipment must be marked to indicate
the environmental extremes over which it
has been designed to operate. There are
six environmental procedures outlined
in the FAA document for Environmental
Test Procedures for Airborne Electronic
Equipment that have categories estab
lished. These must be identified on the
nameplate by the words “Environmental
Categories” or, as abbreviated, “Env.
Cat.” followed by six letters which iden
tify the categories designated. Reading
from left to right, the category desig
nations must appear on the nameplate
in the following order, so that they may
be readily identified:
(i) Temperature-altitude category.
(ii) Vibration category.
(iii) Audio frequency magnetic field
susceptibility category.
(iv) Radio frequency susceptibility
category.
(v) Emission of spurious radio fre
quency energy, and
(vi) Explosion category.
A typical nameplate identification fol
lows: “Env. Cat. DBAAAX,”
(2) Where a manufacturer desires to
substantiate his equipment in dual cate
gories for one environment, the name
plate must be marked with both cate
529
§ 37.158
gories in the space designated for that
category by placing one letter above the
Other in the following manner:
A
“EnV. Cat. DBAAAX.”
(3) Each separate component of
equipment (antenna, power supply, etc.)
must be identified with at least the name
of the manufacturer, the TSO number,
and the environmental categories over
which the equipment component is de
signed to operate.
(C) Data requirements. In accordance
with Section 37.5, the manufacturer must
furnish to the Chief, Engineering and
Manufacturing Branch, Flight Stand
ards Division, Federal Aviation Admin
istration in the region in which the
manufacturer is located, the following
technical data:
(1) Six copies of the operating in
structions and equipment limitations of
the manufacturer.
(2) Six copies of the installation pro
cedures with applicable schematic draw
ings, wiring diagrams, and specifications,
and a listing of components (by part
number) or possible combinations there
of, which make up a system complying
with this TSO. Indicate any limitations,
restrictions, or other conditions perti
nent to the installation, and
(3) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Airborne high frequency radio communi
cation transmitting equipment approved
prior to November 24, 1967, may continue
to be manufactured under the provisions
of its original approval.
MINIMUM PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR AIR
BORNE RADIO COMMUNICATION's TRANSMIT
TING EQUIPMENT OPERATING WITHIN THE
RADIO FREQUENCY RANGE of 1.5–30 MEGA
CYCLES
1.0 GENERAL standards
1.1 Operation of controls. The operation
of controls intended for use during flight, in
all possible position combinations and
sequences, must not result in a condition
that would be detrimental to the continued
performance of the equipment. Controls that
are not normally adjusted in flight must not
be readily accessible to flight personnel.
1.2 Effects of test. Unless otherwise pro
vided, the design of the equipment must be
such that, subsequent to the application of
the specified tests, no discernible condition
exists that would be detrimental to the con
tinued performance of the equipment.
§ 37.158 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
2.0 MINIMUM PERFORMANCE STANDARDS UNDER
STANDARD CONDITIONS
The test procedures applicable to a deter
mination of the performance of transmitting
equipment including coupling units and defi
nitions of terms, are set forth in Appendix
A of this standard.
2.1 Rated power output. a. For the ampli
tude modulation (AM) mode of operation,
the transmitter must be capable of deliver
ing an unmodulated radiofrequency power
output equal to or greater than the manu
facturer's railing.
b. If single sideband (SSB) mode of oper
ation is provided, one sideband and sup
pressed carrier, the transmitter must be ca
pable of delivering a peak envelope power
(PEP) equal to or greater than the manu
facturer's rating.
2.2 Residual radiation. When all sources
of primary power are connected to the trans
mitter but the microphone switch or the
carrier control key is in the “OPEN” position,
the rſ power output of the transmitter at
the carrier frequency must not exceed the
following values:
CW Telegraph
Break-in Operation 0.02 × 10-12 Watts.
SSB and AM Telephone
At least 40 dh less
than the rſ pow
Sººn
NO Break-in
er
the output
key in with
the
Operation “DOWN" posi
tion.
2.3 Modulation capability. The transmit
ter's output carrier must be capable of being
amplitude modulated at least 85 percent by
an audiofrequency input signal of 1,000 cps
over the audio input voltage range for which
the transmitter is designed.
2.4 Audiofrequency distortion. All noise
and distortion components in the output
nnust be at least 25 db below the carrier at
modulation frequencies of 400, 1,000 and
2,500 cps when the audio input is held con
stant at that value producing at least 85
percent modulation at 1,000 cps.
2.5 Audiofrequency response. a. If the AM
mode of operation is provided, the percent
age of modulation of the output carrier
must not vary more than 6 db when the
frequency of the audio input signal is varied
over the range of 350 to 2,500 cps and the
level of the audio input signal is held con
stant at that value which produces—
(1) 85 percent modulation at the fre
quency of maximum response; or
(2) More than 85 percent modulation at
the frequency of maximum response when
this value is immediately below that at
which clipping or limiting action occurs.
b. If SSB mode of operation is provided,
the output power of the transmitter must
not vary more than 6 db when the audio
input level is held constant at a level pro
ducing an output 6 db below rated PEP
at the frequency of maximum response and
the audio input frequency is varied from
350 to 2,500 cps.
c. If sidetone output is provided, its audio
frequency response must not vary more than
10 db over the range of 350 to 2,500 cps when
the level of the audio input to the transmilt
ter is held constant at that value producing—
(1) 85 percent modulation at the fre
quency of maximum response; or
(2) More than 85 percent modulation at
the frequency of maximum response, when
this value is immediately below that at which
clipping or limiting action occurs.
2.6 Carrier noise level. a. If the AM mode
of operation is provided, the demodulated
noise on the transmitter output must be
at least 30 db below the demodulated out
put obtained when the output signal is mod
ulated 85 percent at 1,000 cps.
b. If CW telegraphy mode of operation is
provided, the peak amplitude of the noise on
the transmitter output must not exceed 5
percent of the carrier amplitude.
c. If SSB mode of operation is provided,
the peak amplitude of the noise on the trans
mitter output must not exceed 5 percent of
the rſ amplitude of the output signal. when
an audio input signal of a frequency of 2.00%
cps and at a level producing an rſ output 6
db below rated PEP is applied.
2.7 Keying (CW telegraphy). When the
transmitter is designed to transmit cw sig
nals, the output amplitude (rſ voltage) must
change by at least 80 percent of its steady
State value within 1 to 10 milliseconds from
the beginning of the rise and decay portions
of each keying impulse. Any peaks and
troughs in each impulse must not diſſer in
amplitude by more than 30 percent of the
steady-state amplitude. This standard must
be met over the keying speed range of 200 to
500 dots per minute.
2.8 Channel selection time. The time re
quired to change from one channel to an
other must not exceed 30 seconds. In the case
of a transmitter designed to operate with an
antenna coupler, the time required for change
from one channel to another is the overall
transmitter/coupler time.
2.9 Antenna coupling circuits and units—
a. Efficiency. The rſ efficiency of antenna
coupling circuits and units must be equal to
or greater than the manufacturer's rated
efficiency.
b. Power rating. The rſ power capability of
antenna coupling circuits and units must be
equal to or greater than the manufacturer's
power rating.
c. Keying. When the circuits of antenna
couplers are designed to be keyed for cw
operation, they must be capable of being
keyed at keying speeds over the range of 200
to 500 dots per minute.
i
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
3.0 MINIMUM PERFORMANCE STANDARDS UNDER
ENVIron MEin Tal CONDITIONS
Unless otherwise specified, the test proce
dures applicable to a determination of the
performance of this equipment under en
vironmental conditions are set forth in the
Federal Aviation Administration Document,
º::it: Environmental Test Procedures for Airborne
: º ºx!
Electronic Equipment, set forth in TSO-C87.
:…
3.1 Temperature-altitude. These tests are
set forth in paragraph 4 of the FAA Environ
mental Test Procedures.
a. Low temperature. When the equipment
is subjected to this test as set forth in para
graph 4.1 of the FAA Environmental Test
Procedures—
(1) The rated power output must not de
crease by more than 1.5 db below that re
quired by paragraph 2.1 (rated power);
(2) The requirements of paragraphs 2.4
(distortion), 2.6 (carrier noise), 2.7 (keying)
and 2.9e (coupler keying) must be met; and
(3) All mechanicai devices must operate
satisfactorily. The maximum time required
to effect a change in operating frequency
must not exceed 30 seconds. In the case of
a transmitter designed to operate with an
antenna coupler, the time required to change
from one channel to another is the overall
transmitter/coupler change time.
b. High temperature. (1) When the equip
ment is operated at the high short-tirne
operating temperature as set forth in para
graph 4.2 of the FAA Environmental Test
Procedures—
(1) All mechanical devices must operate
satisfactorily; and
(11) There must be no evidence of materi
als, such as grease or potting and sealing
compounds, exuding or dripping from the
equipment components.
(2) When the equipment is operated at the
high operating temperature as set forth in
paragraph 4.2 of the FAA Environmental
Tests—
(1) The requirements of paragraphs 2.1
(rated power output), 2.4 (distortion), 2.6
(carrier noise), 2.7 (keying) and 2.9c (coupler
keying) must be met; and
(11) All mechanical devices must operate
satisfactorily. The maximum time required
to effect a change in operating frequency
must not exceed 30 seconds. In the case of a
transmitter designed to operate with an an
tenna coupler, the time required for a change
from one channel to another is the overall
transmitter/coupler change time.
C. Decompression (when required). When
the equipment is subjected to this test as
set forth in paragraph 4.3 of the FAA En
Vironmental Test Procedures—
(1) The rated power output must not de
crease by more than 1.5 db below that re
quired by paragraph 2.1 (rated power out
put):
(2) The requirements of paragraph 2.4
(distortion) must be met; and
(3) All mechanical devices must operate
satisfactorily.
531
§ 37.158
d. Altitude. When the equipment is sub
jected to this test as set forth in paragraph
4.3 of the FAA Environmental Test Pro
cedures—
(1) The requirements of paragraph 2.l
(rated power output) must be met;
(2) There must be no evidence of corona
or arcing when operated under the following
conditions:
(i) Amplitude modulation. Without mod
ulation and with the maximum level of
modulation for which the equipment is
designed.
(ii) Single sideband. With full rated Peak
Envelope Power.
(3) Following the altitude test, the
requirements of paragraph 2.7 (keying)
must be met.
3.2 Humidity. After subjection to this
test as set forth in paragraph 5.0 of the FAA
Environmental Test Procedures, and imme
diately following the 15-minute warm-up
period, the rſ power output must not have
decreased by more than 3 db below that spec
ified in paragraph 2.1 (rated power output).
The transmitter must be capable of being
modulated at least 50 percent by a 1,000 cps
audio signal. The requirements of paragraph
2.7 (keying) must be met, and all mechani
cal devices must perform their intended
functions. Within 4 hours from the time
primary power is applied, the requirements
of paragraph 2.1 (rated power output) and
paragraph 2.3 (modulation capability) must
be met. All mechanical devices must perform
their intended functions.
3.3 Shock. a. Following the application
of the operational shocks as set forth in
paragraph 6 of the FAA Environmental Test
Procedures, the requirements of paragraph
2.1 (rated power output) and 2.3 (modulation
capability) must be met.
b. Following the application of the crash
safety shocks, the equipment must have
remained in its mounting, and no part of the
equipment or its mounting must have
become detached and free of the shock test
equipment. Paragraph 1.2 (effects of test),
does not apply.
3.4 Vibration. When the equipment is
subjected to this test as set forth in para
graph 7 of the FAA Environmental Test
Procedures—
a. The frequency of the rſ output must
not vary by more than 100 cps for amplitude
modulation and cw operation, and by more
than 10 cps for single sideband operation;
and
b. The performance requirements of para
graph 2.4 (distortion), 2.6 (carrier noise),
2.7 (keying) and 2.9C must be met.
3.5 Temperature variation. When sub
jected to this test, as set forth in paragraph
8 of the FAA Environmental Test Procedures,
the frequency of the rſ carrier must be
within 0.01 percent of the assigned frequency
for AM, and within 20 cps of the specified
carrier frequency for SSB.
$37,158 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
8.6 Power input test—a. Power input
variation. When subjected to this test as set
forth in paragraph 9.1 of the FAA Environ
mental Test Procedures—
(1) The requirements of paragraph 2.4
(distortion), and paragraph 2.6 (carrier
noise), must be met; and
(2) The carrier power output must not be
more than 1.5 db below that required by
paragraph 2.1 (rated carrier power output).
b. Low voltage. (1) When the primary
power voltage(s) of DC operated equipment
is 80 percent and when that of AC operated
equipment is 87% percent of standard test
voltage(s) the equipment must start and
continue to operate electrically and mechan
ically. Degradation of performance is
permitted.
(2) The equipment must operate satisfac
torily within two (2) minutes upon return
ing the primary voltage(s) to normal after
the gradual reduction of the primary power
voltage(s) from 80 percent to 50 percent of
the standard test voltage(s); and
(3) The gradual reduction of the primary
voltage(s) of DC operated equipment from
50 percent to 0 percent of the standard test
voltage(s) must produce no evidence of the
presence of fire or smoke. Paragraph 1.2 does
not apply.
3.7 Conducted voltage transients. a. Fol
lowing the Intermittent Transient Test, as
set forth in paragraph 10.0 of the FAA En
vironmental Test Procedures, the perform
ance requirements of paragraph 2.1 (rated
carrier power output), 2.3 (modulation capa
bility), 2.4 (distortion), and 2.6 (carrier
noise level) must be met. Tests with negative
transients are not required.
b. During the Repetitive Transients Test,
the performance requirements of paragraph
2.6 (carrier noise level) must not be degraded
more than 6.0 db.
3.8 Conducted audiofrequency suscepti
bility. When the equipment is subjected to
this test, as set forth in paragraph 11 of the
FAA Environmental Test Procedures, the per
formance requirements of paragraph 2.6
(carrier noise level) must be met.
3.9 Audiofrequency magnetic field sus
ceptibility. When the equipment is subjected
to this test, as set forth in paragraph 12 of
the FAA Environmental Test Procedures, the
performance requirements of paragraph 2.6
(carrier noise level) must be met.
3.10 Radiofrequency susceptibility (radi
ated and conducted). a. When the equipment
is subjected to the radiated radiofrenguency
susceptibility test, as set forth in paragraph
13 of the FAA Environmental Test Proce
dures, the performance requirements of
paragraph 2.6 (carrier noise level) must not
be degraded by more than 5 db.
b. When the equipment is subjected to the
conducted radiofrequency susceptibility test,
the performance requirements of paragraph
2.6 (carrier noise level) must not be de
graded by more than 5 db.
532
3.11 Explosion (when required). During
the application of this test, as set forth in
paragraph 14 of the FAA Environmental Test
Procedures, the equipment must not cause
detonation of the explosive mixture within
the test chamber.
3.12 Emission of radiofrequency energy.
The levels of conducted and radiated
spurious radiofrequency energy emitted by
the equipment must not exceed those levels
specified in Appendix A of the FAA Environ
mental Test Procedures. Radiations may be
excluded from these requirements if they are
harmonically related to the selected channel
frequency or are within the band of frequen
cles +50 percent of the band of frequencies
between adjacent channels.
APPENDIX A
1.0 TEST Conſortions
The following definitions of terms and con
ditions of tests are applicable to the equip
ment tests specified herein:
1.1 Power input voltage. Unless otherwise
specified, all tests must be conducted with
the power input voltage adjusted to design
voltage +2 percent. The input voltage must
be measured at the equipment power input
terminals.
12 Power input frequency. In the case of
equipment designed for operation from an
AC power source of essentially constant fre
quency (e.g., 400 cps), the input frequency
must be adjusted to design frequency +2
percent. In the case of equipment designed
for operation from an AC power source of
variable frequency (e.g., 800 to 1,000 cps),
unless otherwise specified, test must be con
ducted with the input frequency adjusted
to within 5 percent of a selected frequency
and within the range for which the equip
ment is designed.
1.3 Adjustment of equipment. The cir
cuits of the equipment must be properly
aligned and otherwise adjusted for operation
on the specified frequency in accordance with
the manufacturer's recommended practice:
prior to the application of the specified tests.
1.4. Antenna accessories. Antenna imped
ance matching and coupling components
supplied or recommenedd for use with the
equipment must be used in all tests requir
ing such components. s
1.5 Ambient conditions. Unless otherwise
specified, all measurements must be con
ducted under conditions of ambient room
temperature, pressure, and humidity. How
ever, the ambient room temperature must not
be less than 10° C.
1.6 Warm-up period. Unless otherwise
specified, all tests must be conducted after
a period of operation at maximum duty cycle
of not less than fifteen (15) minutes. The
“ON” and the “OFF" periods of the maxi
mum duty cycle must be five (5) minutes
each.
1.7 Standard test antennas. Unless other
wise specified, the transmitter must be
loaded into a standard test antenna. The
 Chapter 1–Federal Aviation Administration
**
3 & 44; constants of the standard test antenna must
be as follows—
AA fºre
a. For output circuits designed for a load
Tºº! ---
impedance which varies with frequency; and
jºin
1. For frequencies of 3 me and below, use
two test antennas, one having an rſ resist
iſiºn ance of 3 ohms in series with a capacitance
lºº. . .
of 265 auf and the other having an rſ resist
c; tº: ance of 3 ohms in series with an inductance
x: *tº:-
Acºu! of 24 ah;
2. For frequencies from 3 me to and in
* Batº:
cluding 5 mc, use two test antennas, one
gºzºſ.
0 ºr tº:
having an rſ resistance of 300 ohms in series
with a capacitance of 18 auf and the other
tº:
having an rſ resistance of 300 ohms in series
* baſiſ:
with an inductance of 120 ah; and
1:5,
3. For frequencies of 5 mc and above, use
III. A a test antenna having an rſ resistance of
3,000 ohms.
ºxtrº
b. For output circuits designed for use
with an external coupler or an essentially
ſcrºfrº.
constant load, the test antenna must be an
icºts
impedance having a resistance within 10 per
cent and a reactance of not more than 10
percent of the load impedance for which the
tº sº; equipment is designed.
leſſºr The resistance, capacitance, and induct
ance specified for each test antenna are the
values presented to the transmitter antenna
terminals.
If the above test antennas do not corre
spond to a typical antenna for which the
transmitter is designed, suitable test an
tennas must be substituted and a descrip
tion of the test antenna included With the
pertinent data. -
1.8 Phantom microphone. In the conduct
of tests which require that an audiofre
quency signal be applied to the transmitter
audiofrequency input circuit, the signal
must be applied through a phantom micro
phone circuit having the impedance and di
rect current flow characteristic of the type
of microphone for which the transmitter is
designed.
1.9 Single sideband. The general term
single sideband as used in this standard, un
less otherwise specified, applies to transmis
slons with the carrier suppressed at least 26
db below peak envelope power.
1.10 Amplitude modulation. The general
term amplitude modulation as used in this
standard, unless otherwise specified, applies
to transmissions with the carrier trans
mitted at a level between 8 to 6 dB below
peak envelope power.
1.11 Standard two-tone test signal. The
term standard two-tone test signal as used
in this standard applies to two equal ampli
tude test tones so selected in frequency that
their difference frequency, and 3rd order
distortion products are within the audio pass
band.
2.0 TEST PRocedures
The test procedures set forth below are
satisfactory for use in determining the per
formance of airborne radio communication
transmitting equipment operating within the
533
§ 37.158
radiofrequency range of 1.5 to 30 mc. Test
procedures which provide equivalent infor
mation may be used.
2.1 Rated power output—a. Amplitude
modulation (AM). With the transmitter
operating, adjust the loading of the final rſ
amplifier stage so that the normal input
recommended by the manufacturer for this
stage is obtained. The carrier must be un
modulated throughout this test. Observe the
reading of the standard test antenna am
meter and compute the power output. The
power output must be determined at each of
the following frequencies within the range
for which the transmitter is designed: 1.5,
3, 5, 7, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 megacycles.
b. Single sideband (SSB). With the trans
mitter operating, apply a standard two-tone
test signal at a level as recommended by the
manufacturer. Adjust the transmitter con
trols as recommended by the manufacturer.
Observe the reading of the standard test an
tenna ammeter and compute the PEP out
put. The power output must be determined
at each of the following frequencies within
the range for which the transmitter is de
signed: 1.5, 3, 5, 7, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30
megacycles.
2.2 Residual radiation. With all sources
of primary power applied to the equipment
but with the microphone switch or the car
rier control key in the “OFF" position, meas
ure the rſ voltage across the transmitter out
put and compute the power output.
2.3 Modulation capability. Apply to the
transmitter audio input, through a phan
tom microphone circuit, an audio signal hav
ing a level at the transmitter input equal
to the minimum input rating of the trans
mitter. Couple the vertical plates of an oscil
loscope to a standard test antenna and ad
Just the oscilloscope so that the percentage
modulation may be measured on the indi
cated envelope of the rſ output.
If the transmitter has a modulation gain
control it should be adjusted to produce at
least 85 percent modulation with an audio
input signal having a frequency of 1,000
cps and a level, at the transmitter audio in
put, equal to the minimum input level rat
ing of the transmitter. Measure the per
centage modulation. Repeat the entire pro
cedure in this paragraph using an audio in
put signal level equal to the maximum input
rating. When provision is made for the use
of alternate types of microphones (i.e., car
bon, single and double button, moving coil,
crystal, etc.), having different values of in
ternal impedance and output level, conduct
this test with the proper phantom micro
phone circuits for each type.
2.4 Audiofrequency distortion. If the
transmitter has a modulation gain control,
it should be adjusted to produce at least 85
percent modulation with an audio input sig
nal having a frequency of 1,000 cps and a
level, at the transmitter audio Input, equal
to the maximum input rating of the trans
mitter.
§ 37.158 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
Apply to the input of the phantom micro
phone circuit a 1,000 cps signal of sufficient
amplitude to produce 85 percent modulation
and with a spectrum analyzer, determine the
annplitudes of distortion and noise compo
nents in the transmitter output. Repeat with
other audiofrequencies as required, Inaintain
ing the audiofrequency input voltage con
stant at that value established for 1,000 cps.
2.5 Audiofrequency response—a. Ampli
tude modulation. Couple the vertical plates
of an oscilloscope to a standard test antenna
and adjust the oscilloscope so that the per
centage of modulation may be measured on
the indicated envelope of the rſ output. Also,
couple a diode detector with its output con
nected to a vacuum tube voltmeter to the
test antenna. Connect an audio output meter
to the sidetone output, and the phantom
microphone circuit to the microphone input
circuit.
If the transmitter has a modulation gain
control, it should be adjusted to produce, in
the output signal, at least 85 percent modu
lation immediately below that at which
clipping or limiting takes place with an audio
input signal having a frequency of 1,000 cps
and a level, at the transmitter audio input,
equal to the minimum level rating of the
transmitter.
Apply to the microphone input circuit of
the transmitter, through a phantom micro
phone circuit, an audio signal having a level
at the transmitter input equal to the mini
mum input rating of the transmitter. Main
tain the audio input level constant through
out the test. Deterinine compliance with
paragraph 2.5a at the following frequencies:
350, 700, 1,000, 1,500, 2,000, and 2,500 cps.
Also, read the sidetone output on the audio
power meter.
Repeat this test using an audio level at the
transmitter audio input equal to the maxi
mum input rating of the transmitter. When
provision is made for the use of alternate
types of microphones (i.e., carbon, single
and double button, crystal, etc.), having
different values of Internal impedance and
output level, repeat this test for each type of
microphone, using equivalent phantom
microphone circuits.
b. Single sideband. Couple to the test
antenna a vacuum tube voltmeter. Connect
a phantom microphone circuit to the micro
phone input circuit. Apply to the phantom
microphone circuit input a 1,000 cps audio
signal having a level at the microphone input
equal to the minimum input rating of the
transmitter. Adjust the transmitter to pro
duce an output equal to 6 db below rated
PEP. Maintain the audio input level con
stant throughout the test. Determine the
peak envelope power at the following fre
quencies: 350, 700, 1,000, 1,500, 2,000, and
2,500 cps. Also, determine the sidetone output
from the output meter.
Repeat this test using an audio level at the
transmitter audio input equal to the maxi
534
mum input rating of the transmitter. When
provisions are made for the use of alternate
types of microphones (i.e., carbon, single and
double button, divnamic, crystal, etc.), having
different values of Internal impedance and
output level, repeat this test for each type of
microphone, using equivalent phantom
microphone circuits.
2.6 Carrier noise level—a. Amplitude
modulation. Couple the vertical plates of an
oscilloscope to a standard test antenna and
adjust the oscilloscope so that the percentage
of modulation may be measured on the
envelope of the rſ output. Also, couple to the
test antenna a diode detector with its output
Connected to a distortion meter.
If the transmitter nas a modulation gain
Control, it should be adjusted to produce at
least 85 percent modulation with an audio
input signal having a frequency of 1,000
CPs and a level, at the transmitter input,
equal to the minimum input rating of the
transmitter.
Apply to the input of a phantom micro
phone circuit a 1,000 cps signal of sumcient
amplitude to produce 85 percent modula
tion. Remove the audio signal and short cir.
cuit the input of the phantom microphone
circuit. Determine from readings of the
distortion meter, compliance with para
graph 2.6a.
b. CW telegraphy. Couple a diode detector
to the transmitter output. Connect an AC
voltmeter and a DC voltmeter in parallel
across the detector load resistor. With the
transmitter operating, read the AC and the
DC voltmeters. The carrier noise level in per
cent of carrier amplitude is:
Peak AC volts
x 100
DC volts
c. Single sideband. Apply to the input of
a phantom microphone circuit a single tone
at 2,000 cps of sufficient amplitude to create
a peak envelope power of 6 db below rated
output. Couple a diode detector to the trans
mitter output. Connect the AC voltmeter and
the DC voltmeter in parallel across the de
tector load resistor. With the transmitter
operating, read the AC and the DC volt
meters. Compute the noise level percent
age as in 2.6 db above.
2.7 Keying (CW telegraph). Couple the
vertical plates of the oscilloscope to a stand
ard test antenna and adjust the oscilloscope
so that the envelope of the rſ output is
indicated.
Over the keying speed range of 200 to 500
dots per minute, observe the wave shape of
the dots on the oscilloscope, measuring their
rise and fall characteristics and amplitudes
of any peaks and troughs that may be pres
ent. Also, determine whether any spurious
output is present during the spacing portion
of the keying cycle.
[Amdt. 37–16, 32 F.R. 14690, Oct. 24, 1967]
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 37.159 High Frequency (HF) radio
communication receiving equipment
operating within the radiofrequency
range of 1.5 to 30 megacycles (TS0—
C32c).
(a) Applicability. This technic a l
standard order prescribes the minimum
performance standards that airborne
high frequency radio communication re
ceiving equipment must meet in Order to
be identified With the applicable TSO
marking. New models of equipment,
which are to be so identified and that are
manufactured on Or after November 24,
1967, must meet the requirements of the
“Federal Aviation Administration Stand
ard, Airborne High Frequency Radio
Communication Receiving Equipment
Operating Within the Radio Frequency
Range of 1.5 to 30 Megacycles” Set forth
at the end of this Section, and the FAA
Document for Environmental Test Pro
cedures for Airborne Electronic Equip
ment, set forth in TSO-C87, effective
February 1, 1966 (30 F.R. 15553, Dec. 17,
1965).
(b) Marking. (1) In addition to the
markings specified in § 37.7, the equip
ment must be marked to indicate the en
vironmental extremes over which it has
been designed to operate. There are six
environmental procedures outlined in
the FAA document for environmental
test procedures for airborne electronic
equipment that have categories estab
lished. These must be identified on the
nameplate by the words “Environmental
Categories” or, as abbreviated, “Env.
Cat.” followed by six letters which iden
tify the categories designated. Reading
from left to right, the category designa
tions must appear on the nameplate
in the following order, so that they may
be readily identified:
(i) Temperature—altitude category.
(ii) Vibration category.
(iii) Audiofrequency magnetic field
susceptibility category.
(iv) Radiofrequency susceptibility cat
egory.
(v) Emission of spurious radiofre
quency energy category.
(vi) Explosion category.
A typical nameplate identification fol
lows: “Env. Cat. DBAAAX.”
(2) Where a manufacturer desires to
substantiate his equipment in dual cate
gories for one environment, the name
plate must be marked with both cate
gories in the space designated for that
category by placing one letter above the definition of terms, are set forth in Appendix
other in the following manner:
53 O
§ 37.159
A
“Env. Cat. DBAAAX”
(3) Each separate component of
equipment (antenna, power Supply, etc.),
must be identified with at least the name
of the manufacturer, the TSO number,
and the environmental categories over
Which the equipment component is de
Signed to operate.
(c) Data requirements. In accordance
with $ 37.5, the manufacturer must
furnish to the Chief, Engineering and
Manufacturing Branch, Flight Standards
Division, Federal Aviation Administra
tion, in the region in which the manu
facturer is located, the following tech
nical data:
(1) Six copies of the operating in
structions and equipment limitations of
the manufacturer;
(2) Six copies of the installation pro
cedures with applicable schematic draw
ings, Wiring diagrams, and specifications,
and a listing of components (by part
number) or possible combinations
thereof which make up a system comply
ing with this TSO. Indicate any limita
tions, restrictions, or other conditions
pertinent to the installation; and
(3) One copy of the test report of the
manufacturer.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Airborne high frequency radio commu
nications receiving equipment approved
prior to November 24, 1967, may con
tinue to be manufactured under the pro
visions of its original approval.
MINIMUM PERFORMANCE STANDARDs FOR AIR
BORNE HIGH FREQUENCY RADIO Comim UNICA
TIONS RECEIVING EQUIPMENT OPERATING
WITH IN THE RADIO FREQUENcy RANGE or
1.5–30 MEGACYCLEs
1.0 GENERAL STANDARDs
1.1 Operation of controls. The operation
of controls intended for use during flight, in
all possible combinations and sequences,
must not result in a condition whose pres
ence or continuation would be detrimental
to the performance of the equipment. Con
trols which are not normally adjusted in
flight must not be readily accessible to flight
personnel.
1.2 Effects of test. Unless otherwise
stated, the application of the specified tests
must produce no subsequently discernible
Condition which would be detrimental to the
continued performance of the equipment.
2.0 MINIMUM PERFORMANCE STANDARDS UNDER
STANDARD CONDITIONS
The test procedures applicable to a deter
mination of the performance of receiving
equipment, including coupling units and
A of this standard.
-
§ 37.159 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
2.1 Audiofrequency response. The receiver
audio output must not vary more than 8 db
when the level of a standard AM signal is
held constant at 50 uv and the modulation
frequency varied over the range of 350 to
2,500 cps.
2.2 AGC characteristics. Between the lim
its of 10 uv and 500,000 uv input, the audio
output must not vary more than 10 db.
2.3 Gain. A standard input signal (AM
and SSB) of not more than 50 uv must pro
duce a receiver output which is not less than
the manufacturer's published rated output.
2.4 Manual gain control. The output of
the receiver must be adjustable from rated
output to at least 20 db below rated output
over the rſ input signal level range of 50
to 500,000 av, modulated 85 percent at 1,000
cos.
*:: Distortion—a. Harmonic. (1) If ampli
tude modulation (AM) mode of operation is
provided, the combined noise and distortion
in the receiver output signal must not exceed
20 percent at rated output when the receiver
input signal is modulated 85 percent and
level varied over the range from 50 uv to
500,000 uv. This requirement must be met
over the frequency range of 350 to 2,500 cps.
(2) If single sideband (SSB) mode of op
eration is provided, the combined noise and
distortion in the receiver output must not
exceed 20 percent at rated output when the
receiver input signal level is varied over the
range from 50 av to 500,000 ºv. This require
ment must be met over the audiofrequency
range from 350 to 2,500 cps.
b. Intermodulation (SSB mode only).
With a standard two-tone test signal applied
at levels from 50 Av to 500,000 av, the 3d or
der products must be at least 25 db below
either of the two test tones in the output.
2.6 Noise level. With the receiver gain ad
justed to produce rated output when the in
put signal level is a 100 av standard AM sig
nal, the receiver output, without modula
tion of the input signal, must be at least 20
db below rated output. When the equipment
is designed for operation from an alternating
current power source, this standard must be
met over the range of power source frequen
cies for which the equipment is designed.
2.7 Sensitivity. The level of an input sig
nal required to produce a given signal-plus
noise to noise ratio Inust not exceed the
following:
Input signal
voltages
Operation mode (as - (S+N)/
applicable)
1.5 M C– 3 MC
3 MC 30 MC
CW telegraphy--------- 10 uv 5 uv
Amplitude modulation- 10 uv 5 uv
Single sideband--------- 5 uv 3 uv
2.8 Selectivity. a. If amplitude modula
tion (AM) mode of operation is provided–
(1) The level of an input signal required
to produce rated output must not vary more
than 6 db over the frequency range from cen
ter response frequency —2.5 kc to center
response frequency +2.5 kc (center response
frequency is defined in Appendix A); and
(2) At frequencies + 10 kc. from the center
response frequency the level of an input sig
nal required to produce rated output must
be at least 60 db greater than the level re
quired at the frequency of maximulu
response.
b. If single sideband (SSB) mode of opera
tion is provided—
(1) The level of an input signal required
to produce rated output must not vary more
than 6 db over the frequency range from
f.--350 cps to f.--2,500 cps *; and
(2) At frequencies fe—2,150 cps and fe-H
5,000 cps, the level of an input signal re
quired to produce rated output must be at
least 60 db greater than the level required at
the frequency of maximum response.
its 2.9 Spurious responses. a. If amplitude
modulation (AM) mode of operation is pro
vided, the level of a standard AM signal in
put required to produce an output signal
plus-noise to noise ratio of 6 db must be
at least 60 db greater than that required at
the frequency of maximum response when
the frequency of the input signal is varied
over the range of 0.190 to 150 mc excluding
the range within + 10 kc. of the center re
sponse frequency.
b. If single sideband (SSB) mode of opera
tion is provided, the level of an input signal
required to produce an output signal-plus
noise to noise ratio of 10 db must be at least
60 db greater than that required with a
standard SSB signal when the frequency of
the input signal is varied over the range of
0.190 to 150 mc, excluding the range from
fe—2,150 cps to f.--5,000 cps.
2.10 Cross modulation (AM only). With
the simultaneous application of an unmodu
lated carrier at the center response frequency
(desired signal) and a standard AM signal
+ 10 kc. from the center response frequency
(undesired signal), the receiver output must
be at least 10 db less than rated output under
the following conditions:
Level of Level of
desired signal &ndesired signal
20 AV-------------------------- 1, 000 aw
2,000 A.V------------------------ 100,000 Av
2.11 Desensitization (AM only). With a 10
av standard AM signal input, the output of
the receiver Imust Inot decrease more than
8 db in the presence of an unmodulated
N (db)
carrier having a level of 10,000 av and a
frequency varied between 1.5 mc and 30 mc,
but not including the frequencies within 10
10 kc of the carrier frequency.
6
10
* f.-Specified Carrier Frequency.
536
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
2.12 Channel selection time. The maxi
rnum time required to change from one chan
nel to another, including the time required
by an antenna coupler, must not exceed 30
seconds.
3.0 MINIMUM PERFORMANCE STANDARDS UNDE
ENVIRonmental, CONDITIONS
Unless otherwise specified, the test pro
cedures applicable to a determination of the
performance of the equipment under en
vironmental conditions are set forth in the
Federal Aviation Administration DOCument
for Environmental Test Procedures for Air
borne Electronic Equipment set forth in
TSO-C87.
3.1 Temperature altitude—a. Low tem
perature. When the equipment is subjected
to this test as set forth in paragraph 4.1 of
the FAA Environmental Test Procedures
(1) The output power, with an rſ input
signal level of 50 av, must not decrease by
more than 2.2 db from that specified in
paragraph 2.3 (gain);
(2) The receiver sensitivity must not de
crease by more than 6 db below that speci
fied in paragraph 2.7 (sensitivity); and
(3) All mechanical devices must perform
their intended functions. The maximum time
required to effect a change in operating fre
quency must not exceed 30 seconds. In the
case of equipment designed to operate with
an antenna coupler, the time required to
change from one channel to another is the
overall receiver coupler time
b. High temperature. (1) Short-time Op
erating Temperature.
When the equipment is subjected to this
test as set forth in paragraph 4.2 of FAA
Environmental Test Procedures—
(1) All mechanical devices must operate
satisfactorily; and
(ii) There must be no evidence of ma
terials, such as grease or potting and seal
ing compounds, exuding or dripping from
the equipment components.
(2) High Operating Temperature.
When the equipment is subjected to this
test as set forth in paragraph 4.2 of the FAA
Environmental Test Procedures, the require
ments of paragraphs 2.3 (gain) and 2.7
(sensitivity) must be met.
c. Altitude. When the equipment is sub
jected to this test as set forth in paragraph
4.3 of the FAA Environmental Test Proce
dures, the requirements of paragraphs 2.8
(gain) and 2.6 (noise) must be met.
d. Decompression (when required). When
the equipment is subjected to this test as
set forth in paragraph 4.3 of the FAA En
vironmental Test Procedures—
(1) The receiver output must not de
crease by more than 3 db from that specified
in paragraph 2.3 (gain); and
(2) The receiver sensitivity must not be
more than 6 db below that specified in para
graph 2.7 (sensitivity).
537
39–059–75–85
§ 37.159
3.2 Humidity. a. After being subjected to
this test as set forth in paragraph 5 of the
FAA Environmental Test Procedures, and
within 15 minutes after primary power is
applied—
(1) The receiver output and sensitivity
must be no more than 10 db below that speci
fied in paragraphs 2.3 (gain) and 2.7 (sensi
tivity) respectively; and
(2) All mechanical devices must perform
their intended functions.
b. Within 4 hours after primary power is
applied, the requirements of paragraphs 2.3
(gain) and 2.6 (noise) must be met.
3.3 Shock. a. Following the application of
the Operational Shocks, as indicated in para
graph 6 of the FAA Environmental Test Pro
cedures, the requirements of paragraphs 2.3
(gain) and 2.6 (noise) must be met.
b. Following the application of the Crash
Safety Shocks, the equipment under test
must have remained in its mounting and
no parts of the equipment or its mounting
must bave become detached and free of the
shock test equipment. Paragraph 1.2 does not
apply.
3.4 Vibration. When the equipment is sub
jected to this test as set forth in paragraph
7 of the FAA Environmental Test Procedures,
the requirements of paragraph 2.5 (distor
tion) must be met.
3.5 Temperature variation. When the
equipment is subjected to this test as set
forth in paragraph 8 of the FAA Environ
mental Test Procedures, the following apply:
(a) If amplitude modulation (AM) mode
of operation is provided, the center response
frequency of the receiver must not deviate
from the channel frequency by more than
500 cps plus 0.01 percent of the channel
frequency.
(b) If single sideband (SSB) mode of op
eration is provided, the frequency in the
audio output from a standard SSB signal
must not change by more than 25 cps.
3.6 Power input test—a. Power input
tariation. When subjected to this test as
found in paragraph 9.1 of the FAA Environ
mental Test Procedures, the requirements of
paragraphs 2.3 (gain) and 2.7 (sensitivity)
must be met.
b. Low voltage. (1) When the primary
power voltage(s) of DC operated equipment
is 80 percent and when that of AC operated
equipment is 87% percent of standard test
Voltage(s), the equipment must continue to
operate electrically and mechanically. Deg
radation of performance is tolerable.
(2) DC operated equipment must operate
satisfactorily within two (2) minutes upon
returning the primary power voltage(s) to
normal after the gradual reduction of the
primary power voltage(s) from 80 percent to
50 percent of standard test voltage(s).
(3) The gradual reduction of the primary
power voltage(s) of DC operated equipment
from 50 percent to 0 percent of standard
test voltage(s) must produce no evidence of
the presence of fire or smoke. Paragraph 1.2,
“Effects of Tests,” does not apply.
$37,159 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
8.7 Conducted voltage transient suscep
tibility. a. Following the Intermittent Tran
sient Test as set forth in paragraph 10 of
the FAA Environmental Test Procedures, the
requirements of paragraph 2.3 (gain) must
be met.
b. During the repetitive Transients Test
the output of the receiver must not be more
than 1.5 db below that specified in paragraph
2.3 (gain). The requirements of paragraph
2.6 (noise level) must be met within 6 db.
3.8 Conducted audiofrequency suscepti
bility. When the equipment is subjected to
this test as set forth in paragraph 11 of the
FAA Environmental Test Procedures, the re
quirements of paragraph 2.5 (distortion)
and 2.6 (noise level) must be met.
3.9 Audiofrequency magnetic field sus
ceptibility. When the equipment is subjected
to this test as set forth in paragraph 12 of
the FAA Environmental Test Procedures the
requirements of paragraph 2.5 (distortion)
must be met.
8.10 Radiofrequency susceptibility (radi
ated and conducted). Adjust the receiver
gain to produce rated output with a stand
ard AM input signal of 100/tv. Remove the
modulation. Under these conditions,
audio.output must be at least 14 db below
rated output when—
a. The radiated radiofrequency suscepti
bility test is applied, as set forth in para
graph 13 of the FAA Environmental Test
Procedures; and
b. The conducted radiofrequency suscepti
bility test is applied.
3.11 Erplosion test (when required).
When the equipment is subjected to this
test, as set forth in paragraph 14 of the FAA
Environmental Test Procedures, the equip
ment must not cause detonation of the ex
plosive mixture within the test chamber.
3.12 Emission of spurious radiofrequency
energy. The levels of conducted and radiated
spurious radiofrequency energy emitted by
the equipment must not exceed those levels
specified in Appendix A of the FAA Environ
mental Test Procedures.
APPENDIX A
1.0 TEST CONDITIONS
The following definitions of terms and con
ditions of tests are applicable to the equip
ment tests specified herein:
1.1 Power input voltage. Unless otherwise
specified, all tests must be conducted with
the power input voltage adjusted to design
voltage +2 percent. The input voltage must
be measured at the receiver input terminals.
1.2 Power input frequency. In the case
of receivers designed for operation from an
AC power source of essentially constant fre
quency (e.g., 400 cps), the input frequency
must be adjusted to design frequency + 2
percent. In the case of equipment designed
for operation from an AC power source of
variable frequency (e.g., 300 to 1,000 cps),
unless otherwise specified, tests must be con
ducted with the input frequency adjusted to
within 5 percent of a selected frequency and
within the range for which the equipment
is designed.
1.3 Adjustment of equipment. The cir
cuits of the equipment must be properly
aligned and otherwise adjusted in accordance
with the manufacturer's recommended prac
tices prior to the conduct of the specified
tests.
1.4 Atmbient conditions. Unless otherwise
Specified, all tests must be conducted under
conditions of ambient room temperature,
pressure, and humidity. However, the am
bient room temperature must not be less
than 10° C.
1.5 Warm-up period. Unless otherwise
specified, all tests must be conducted after a
Warm-up period of not less than fifteen (15)
minutes.
1.6 Connected load. Unless otherwise
specified, all tests must be performed with
the equipment output connected to a load
having the impedance value for which the
equipment is designed.
1.7 Signal source—a. Variable source im
pedance. When the receiver input circuit is
designed for a variable source impedance,
the the test antenna must consist of a capaci
tance of 250 uſuf-t- 10 percent in series with a
noninductive resistance of 50 ohms—t-10 per
cent. The output resistance of the signal
generator Inust be included in the resistance
specifled. The receiver input voltage levels
Specified herein are those equivalent to a
Voltage in series with the capacitance and
Tesistance.
b. Fized source impedance. When the re
celver input circuit is designed for a specific
source impedance, such as that provided by
a transmission line, the circuit connected to
the receiver input must be the equivalent
of an rſ input voltage in series with an
impedance having a resistance within 10 per
cent and a reactance of not more than 10 per
cent of the characteristic impedance of the
transmission line for which the receiver is
designed.
c. Input voltages. In the case of a receiver
designed for a transmission line having a
nominal characteristic impedance of other
than 52 ohms, the rſ input voltage values
must be computed according to the following
equation:
52
Where E, is the rſ input voltage to be used
in the case of a receiver designed for a trans
mission line having a nominal characteristic
impedance other than 52 ohms—
E, is the rſ input voltage specified herein.
R, is the nominal characteristic impedance
of the transmission line for which the re
ceiver is designed.
The rſ input voltage is defined as the open
circuit voltage of the circuit connected to the
receiver input. For two-tone inputs, the volt
age given is for each tone.
538
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
1.8 Standard Test Signals—a. Standard
AM signal. A standard AM signal is defined as
an rſ input signal modulated 30 percent at
1,000 cps.
b. Standard SSB signal. A standard SSB
signal is defined as an rſ input signal 1,000
cps displaced from the carrier frequencies
and within the bandpass of the receiver.
c. Standard two-tone test signal. A stand
ard two-tone test signal as used in this
standard consists of two rſ signals, within the
receiver passband, of equal amplitude, and
so selected in frequency that the 3d order
intermodulation products are within the
audio passband, and can be resolved.
1.9 Amplitude modulation. The general
term amplitude modulation as used in this
standard, unless otherwise specified, applies
to transmissions with the carrier transmitted
at a level between 3 to 6 db below peak
envelope power.
1.10 Single sideband. The general term
single sideband as used in this standard, un
less otherwise specified, applies to transmis
* sions with the carrier suppressed at least 26
db below peak power.
1.11 center response frequency. Center
response frequency as used in this stand
ard is defined as that frequency midway be
tween the two frequencies at which the
response is down 6 db from maximum re
sponse.
2.0 TEST PROCEDURES
The test procedures set forth below are
satisfactory for use in determining the per
formance of alrborne radio communica
tions receiving equipment operating within
the radiofrequency range of 1.5–30 mc. Test
procedures which provide equivalent infor
mation may be used.
2.1 Audiofrequency response. With a
radiofrequency input signal of sufficient
amplitude to produce an output signal-plus
noise to noise ratio of at least 25 db, adjust
the receiver gain for one-half of rated out
put at 1,000 cps. Then, holding the signal
level and the modulation percentage con
stant, vary the audiomodulation frequency
through the range of 200–3,000 cps and re
cord the output in db above and below one
half rated output at the following frequen
cles: 200, 350, 500, 700, 1,000, 1,500, 2,000, and
8,000 cps and the frequencies of maximum
and minimum response between 200 and
8,000 cps. This test must be made at an rſ
frequency within 15 percent of the lowest
carrier frequency for which the equipment
is designed.
2.2 AGO characteristic. Adjust the manual
gain control to obtain that condition wherein
varying the rſ input signal level over the
range from 10 Av to 500,000 Av produces a
maximum output equal to rated output. Vary
the rſ input signal level over the range from
10 av to 500,000 av observing the output
power at input signal levels of 10, 30, 100,
800, 1,000, 3,000, 10,000, 30,000, 100,000,
800.000. and 500,000 Av.
539
§ 37.159
2.3 Gain— (a) Amplitude modulation.
Apply a standard AM signal to the input,
and with the receiver gain control at maxi
mum, increase the rſ level of the input to the
point where rated power output is obtained.
(b) Single sideband. Apply a standard SSB
signal to the input, and, with the receiver
gain control at maximum, increase the rſ
level of the input to the point where rated
power output is obtained.
2.4 Manual gain control. Apply to the re
ceiver input a 50 av rſ signal modulated 85
percent at 1,000 cps. Adjust the manual gain
control to produce rated output. Then re
adjust the control to its “minimum” gain
position, increase the input to 500,000 av
and record the output in db below rated
output.
2.5 Distortion—a. Harmonic—(1) Ampli
tude modulation. Apply to the receiver input
a 50 uv rſ signal modulated 85 percent at
1,000 cps. Adjust the manual gain control
to produce rated output. With the receiver
gain control fixed, maintain the rſ signal in
put level at 50 ºv, the percentage modulation
at 85 percent, and determine the percentage
of distortion present in the receiver output at
modulation frequencies of 350, 1,000, and
2,500 cps.
Increase the rſ input signal level succes
sively to 100, 1,000, 10,000, 100,000, and 500,-
000 av. At each rſ input signal level, adjust
the receiver manual gain control to produce
rated output with the input signal modulated
85 percent at 1,000 cps. With the receiver gains
control fixed, maintain the rſ signal input
level constant, the percentage modulation at
85 percent, and determine the percentage of
distortion present in the receiver output at
naodulation frequencies of 350, 1,000, and
2,500 cps.
(2) Single Sideband. Apply to the receiver
input a 50 uv rſ standard single sideband sig
nal. Adjust the galn control to produce rated
output. Maintain the rſ level control con
stant at 50 av, and adjust the input signal
frequency to produce successively in the out
put 350, 1,000 and 2,500 cps. Determine the
percentage of distortion for each frequency.
b. Intermodulation (SSB mode). Connect
two signal generators to the receiver input
by means of a combining unit. Apply a
standard two-tone test signal successively
at 20 av, 1,000 Av, and 100,000 Av. In each case
determine the relative amplitude of the 3d
order distortion products.
2.6 Noise level. Apply to the receiver in
put a 100 av standard AM signal and adjust
the receiver gain for rated power output. Re
move the modulation from the input signal
and measure the receiver output in db be
low the rated power output level.
2.7 Sensitivity—a. CW telegraphy. Deter
mine the level of the input signal required
to produce a signal-plus-noise to noise ratio
of 10 db. Adjust the beat-frequency oscillator
so that the audio output frequency is ap
proximately 1,000 cps (800–1,200 cps).
$ 37.160 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
b. Amplitude modulation. Determine the
level of the rſ input signal required to pro
duce a signal-plus-noise to noise ratio of 6 db.
c. Single sideband. Determine the level of
a standard SSB input signal required to pro
duce a signal-plus-noise to noise ratio of
10 db.
2.8 Selectivity—a. Ampliture modulation.
Apply a standard AM signal to the receiver
input of such a level that the receiver op
erates below the knee of the AVC character
1stic and note the output at the frequency
of maximum response. Observe the frequen
cies on both sides of this frequency where
the signal generator level must be increased
6 db and 60 db to produce the same output.
b. Single sideband. Apply a standard SSB
signal to the receiver input of such a level
that the receiver operates below the knee of
the AVC characteristic and note the output
at the frequency of maximum response. Ob
serve the frequencies on both sides of this
frequency where the signal generator level
must be increased 6 db and 60 db to produce
the same output.
2.9 Spurious responses—a. Amplitude
modulation. Apply a standard AM signal to
the input, adjust the level of the input to
produce a signal-plus-noise to noise ratio of
6 db, and note the receiver output. Increase
the level of the input signal by 60 db, vary
the frequency of the input signal over the
range of 0.190 to 150 me, excluding the fre
quency band within +10 kc of the center
response frequency, and determine those fre
quencies at which the same receiver output
is obtained. Conduct this test with the re
ceiver tuned to within 10 percent of at least
the following frequencies within the range
or ranges for which the receiver is designed:
1.5, 3, 5, 10, 20, and 80 Inc.
b. Single sideband. Apply a standard SSB
signal to the input and adjust the level of the
input to produce a signal-plus-noise to noise
ratio of 10 db and note the receiver output.
Increase the level of the input signal by 60
db and vary the frequency of the input over
the range of 0.190 to 150 me excluding the
frequency band from carrier frequency—
2,150 cps to carrier frequency +5,000 cps
and determine those frequencies at which
the same or greater receiver output is
obtained. Adjust the signal generator to ob
tain 1,000 cps on each spurious response.
Check specifically on the image and IF
frequencies.
2.10 Cross modulation. Connect the two
signal generators and the receiver together
by means of a combining unit.
Set the rſ signal level of a standard AM
signal to produce an open-circuit voltage at
the output of the combining unit of 20 Av.
Tune the receiver to the desired signal. Adjust
the receiver gain to produce rated output or
to produce maximum output if rated output
cannot be obtained. Remove the modulation
from the desired signal.
Apply an undesired standard AM signal.
Set the rſ signal level of the undesired signal
to produce an open-circuit voltage at the
540
output of the combining unit of 1,000 m.
Set the rſ frequency successively 10 kc above
and 10 kc below that of the desired signal and
note the output of the receiver. Repeat the
above procedure using a level of 2,000 av for
the desired signal and 100,000 av for the un
desired signal.
2.11 DeSensitization. Connect the two
signal generators and the receiver by meani
of a combining unit. Set the level of a stand
ard AM desired signal to produce an open
circuit voltage of 20 uv at the output of the
combining unit. Tune the receiver to the de
sired signal. Adjust the gain of the receiver
to produce rated output or to produce mari.
mum output if rated output cannot be ob
tained. Set the rſ signal level of the undesired
signal to produce an open-circuit voltage at
the output of the combining unit of 10,000
Av. Remove the modulation from the un
desired signal.
Vary the frequency of the undesired signal
over the range of 1.5 to 80 mc, excluding the
frequencies within 10 kc. of the desired
signal. Observe the level of the output.
[Amdt. 37–15, 32 F.R. 14686, Oct. 24, 1967;
33 F.R. 4729, Mar. 20, 1968]
§ 37.160. Airborne ILS Glide Slope Re.
ceiving Equipment, TSO-C34c.
(a) Applicability. (1) This technical
Standard order prescribes the minimum
performance standards that airborne
ILS glide slope receiving equipment
must meet in order to be identified with
the applicable TSO marking. New models
of equipment that are to be so identified
and that are manufactured on or after
October 15, 1970, must meet the require
ments of Radio Technical Commission
for Aeronautics Document No. DO-132
entitled “Minimum Performance Stand
ards—Airborne ILS Glide slope Receiv
ing Equipment” dated March 15, 1966,
and Radio Technical Commission for
Aeronautics Document No. DO-138 en
titled “Environmental Conditions and
Test Procedures for Airborne Electronic/
Electrical Equipment and Instruments"
dated June 27, 1968, except as provided
in subparagraph (2) of this paragraph.
RTCA Documents Nos. DO-132 and
DO-138 are incorporated herein in ac
Cordance with 5 U.S.C. 552(a)(1) and
§ 37.23, and are available as indicated in
§ 37.23. Additionally, RTCA Documents
Nos. DO-132 and DO-138 may be ex
amined at any FAA regional office of the
Chief of Engineering and Manufactur
ing Branch (or in the case of the West
ern Region, the Chief, Aircraft Engineer
ing Division), and may be obtained from
the RTCA Secretariat, Suite 655, 1717
H Street NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.
at a cost of $2.50 per copy for Document
 Chapter l—Federal Aviction Administralion
No. DO-132 and $4 per copy for Docu
ment No. DO-138.
(2) Eacceptions. (i) RTCA Paper DO
108 referenced in RTCA Document
DO-132 has been superseded by RTCA
Document DO-138. Therefore, the envi
ronmental test conditions of RTCA
Document DO-138 are applicable to
equipment under this TSO.
(ii) RTCA Document DO-138 listS
environmental test conditions covering
equipment subjected to water, hydraulic
fluid, sand and dust, fungus and salt
spray, for which there are no correspond
ing equipment performance requirements
in RTCA Document DO-132. Therefore,
if the applicant elects to certify compli
ance with any of the aforementioned
environmental test conditions, the equip
ment performance requirements of para
graphs 2.1a, 2.7, and 2.16 of RTCA
Document DO-132 must be met after the
equipment has been exposed to those test
Conditions.
(b) Marking. In addition to the mark
ings specified in § 37.7, the article must
be permanently and legibly marked with
the following information:
(1) The environmental extremes over
which the article has been designed to
2: operate. There are 12 environmental test
procedures outlined in RTCA Document
DO–138 which have categories estab
3 lished. These must be identified on the
; :: nameplate by the words, “Environmental
: Categories” or, as abbreviated, “Env.
Cat.”, followed by 12 letters which iden
* tify the categories designated. Reading
from left to right, the category designa
tions must appear on the nameplate in
, the following order, so that they may be
readily identified:
(1) Temperature—altitude category;
(ii) Humidity category;
(iii) Vibration category;
(iv) Audiofrequency magnetic field
: Susceptibility category;
(v) Radiofrequency susceptibility
category:
(vi) Emission of spurious radiofre
quency energy category;
(vii) Explosion category;
(viii) Water proofness category;
(ix) Hydraulic fluid category;
(x) Sand and dust category;
(xi) Fungus resistance category; and
(xii) Salt spray category.
(2) The article must be marked to in
dicate the class of centering accuracy
$3 (Class A, B, C, or D) for which it has
been designed to operate.
541
§ 37.16.1
(3) Each separate component of the
article (antenna, receiver, indicators,
etc.) must be identified with at least the
name of the manufacturer, the TSO
number, and the environmental cate
gories over which the article component
is designed to operate. Where an envi
ronmental test procedure is not applica
ble to that component and the test is
not conducted, an X should be placed
in the space assigned for that category.
(4) Where a manufacturer desires to
substantiate his article in dual categories
for a specific environmental test proce
dure, the nameplate must be marked
with both categories in the Space desig
nated for that category, by placing one
letter above the other. A typical name
plate identification would be as follows:
Env. Cat. §AJAAAXWHDFS Class A
(c) Data requirements. In accordance
with $ 37.5, the manufacturer must fur
nish to the Chief, Engineering and Man
ufacturing Branch, Flight Standards
Division (or in the case of the Western
Region, the Chief, Aircraft Engineering
Division), Federal Aviation Administra
tion, in the region in which the manu
facturer is located, the following tech
nical data:
(1) One copy of the operating instruc
tions and equipment limitations of the
manufacturer.
(2) One copy of the installation pro
cedures with applicable schematic draw
ings, wiring diagrams, and specifications,
and a listing of components (by part
number) or possible combinations
thereof, which make up a system com
plying with this TSO. The procedures
must show all limitations, restrictions,
or other conditions pertinent to the
installation.
(3) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Airborne ILS glide slope receiving equip
ment approved prior to October 15, 1970,
may continue to be manufactured under
the provisions of its original approval.
[35 F.R. 14447, Sept. 15, 1970)
§ 37.161 Airborne ILS localizer receiv
ing equipment, TS0—C36c.
(a) Amplicability. (1) This technical
standard order prescribes the minimum
performance standards that airborne
ILS localizer receiving equipment must
meet in order to be identified with the
applicable TSO marking. New models of
$37,161 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
£quipment that are to be so identified,
and that are manufactured on or after
October 15, 1970, must meet the require
ments of Radio Technical Commission
for Aeronautics Document No. DO-131
entitled “Minimum Performance Stand
ards—Airborne ILS Localizer Receiving
Equipment” dated December 15, 1965,
and Radio Technical Commission for
Aeronautics Document No. DO–138 en
titled “Environmental Conditions and
Test Procedures for Airborne Electronic/
Electrical Equipment and Instruments”
dated June 27, 1968, except as provided
in Subparagraph (2) of this paragraph.
RTCA Documents Nos. DO-131 and DO
138 are incorporated herein in accord
ance with 5 U.S.C. 552 (a) (1)
$ 37.23, and are available as indicated
in § 37.23. Additionally, RTCA Docu
ments Nos. DO–131 and DO–138 may
be examined at any FAA regional office
of the Chief of Engineering and Manu
facturing Branch (or in the case of the
Western Region, the Chief, Aircraft En
gineering Division) and may be ob
tained from the RTCA Secretariat, Suite
655, 1717 H Street NW., Washingion,
T}.C. 20006, at a cost of $2.50 per copy
for Document No. DO—131 and $4 per
Copy for Document No. DO—138.
{2) Eacceptions. (1) RTCA Paper DO
108, referenced in RTCA Document DO
131 has been superseded by RTCA
Document DO-138. Therefore, the en
vironmental test conditions of RTCA
Document DO-138 are applicable
equipment under this Technical Stand
ard Order.
(ii) RTCA Document No. DO–138 lists
environmental test conditions covering
equipment Subjected to water, hydraulic
fluid, sand and dust, fungus and salt
spray, for which there are no corre
sponding equipment performance re
quirements in RTCA Document DO-131.
“Therefore, if the applicant elects to cer
tify compliance with any of the afore
mentioned environmental test condi
tions, the equipment performance re
quirements of paragraphs 2.1a, 2.7, and
2.20 of RTCA DO–131 must be met after
the equipment has been exposed to these
test conditions.
(b) Marking. In addition to the
markings Specified in § 37.7, the article
must be permanently and legibly marked
with the following information:
(1) The environmental extremes over
which the article has been designed to
operate. There are 12 environmental test
procedures outlined in RTCA Document
DO–138 which have categories estab
lished. These must be identified on the
nameplate by the words, “Environmen
tal Categories” or, as abbreviated, "Eny,
Cat.”, followed by 12 letters which iden
tify the categories designated. Reading
from left to right the category designa
tions must appear on the nameplate in
the following order, so that they may be
readily identified: º
(1) Temperature-altitude category;
(ii) Humidity category;
(iii) Vibration category;
(iv) Audiofrequency magnetic field
susceptibility category;
and
(v) Radiofrequency Susceptibility
Category;
(vi) Emission of spurious radiofre
quency energy category;
(vii) Explosion category;
(viii) Waterproofness category;
(ix) Hydraulic fluid category;
(x) Sand and dust category;
(xi) Fungus resistance category;
(xii) Salt spray category.
(2) The article must be marked to in
dicate the class of centering accuracy
(Class A, B, C, or D) for which it has
been designed to operate.
(3) Each separate component of the
article (antenna, receiver, indicator,
etc.) must be identified with at least the
name of the manufacturer, the TS0
to number, and the environmental cate
gories over which the article COmpOnent
is designed to operate. Where an en
vironmental test procedure is not appl
cable to that component and the test is
not conducted, an X should be placed in
the Space assigned for that category.
(4) Where a manufacturer desires to
substantiate his article in dual categoria
for a specific environmental test proce:
dure, the nameplate must be marked
º
with both categories in the space desig"
nated for that category, by placing Onº
letter above the other. A typical name"
plate identification would be as follows:
Env. Cat. §AJAAAXWEIDFS Class A
(c) Data requirements. In accordanº
with $ 37.5, the manufacturer must
furnish to the Chief, Engineering and
Manufacturing Branch, Flight Standard
Division (or in the case of the Western
Region, the Chief, Aircraft Engineering
Division), Federal Aviation Administra"
tion, in the region in which the man"
542
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
facturer is located, the following tech
Tºrr. nical data:
* (i) one copy of the operating instruc
º tions and equipment limitations of the
º manufacturer.
*: (2) One copy of the installation pro
* cedures with applicable schematic draw
* Ings, wiring diagrams, and specifications,
** and a listing of components (by part
tº number) or possible combinations there
** of, which make up a system complying
tº with this TSO. The procedures must
show all limitations, restrictions, or other
tº Conditions pertinent to the installation.
r; (3) One copy of the manufacturer's
tº test report.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Airborne ILS localizer receiving equip
, sº ment approved prior to October 15, 1970,
may continue to be manufactured under
the provisions of its original approval.
... .
(Secs. 313(a) and 601, Federal Aviation Act of
r
... 1958, 49 U.S.C. 1854(a) and 1421, sec. 6(c)
* Department of Transportation Act, 40 U.S.d.
sº 1655(c))
3: [35 F.R. 14446, Sept. 15, 1970)
º
tº º
§ 37.162 VHF radio communications
transmitting equipment operating
º: ** within the radio-frequency range of
sº 118–136 megacycles—TS0–C37b.
º:
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
... lished for airborne VHF radio
Communications transmitting equipment
operating within the radio-frequency
range of 118–136 megacycles which is to
be used on civil aircraft of the United
States engaged in air carrier operations.
* New models of airborne VHF radio com
munications transmitting equipment
*** manufactured for use on air carrier air
`ſ Craft on or after the effective date of
- this section shall meet the standards as
tº set forth in Radio Technical Commis
sion for Aeronautics Papers 134–61/DO
110° dated July 13, 1961, and 120
61/DO-108' dated July 13, 1961, with the
eXCeptions to these standards listed in
subparagraph (2) of this paragraph.
* (2) Eacceptions. (1) Only VHF trans
** mitters which are designed for selection
of frequency channels on discrete fre
quencies spaced 50 kc. apart or closer
are eligible under this Section.
º:
ſº * Copies of these papers may be obtained
from the RTCA Secretariat, Suite 302, NADA
º Building, 20th and K Streets NW., Washing
ton, D.C., 20006. Paper 134–61/DO-110, 40
cents per copy; Paper 120–61/DO–108, 75
cents per copy.
543
§ 37.162
(ii) Radio Technical Commission for
Aeronautics Paper 120–61/DO–108 out
lines various test procedures which de
fine the environmental extremes over
which the equipment shall be designed
to operate. Some test procedures have
categories established and some do not.
Where categories are established, only
equipment which qualifies under the fol
lowing categories, as specified in RTCA
Paper 120–61/DO–108, is eligible under
this section:
(a) Temperature-Altitude Test—Cat
egories A, B, C, or D:
(b) Humidity Test—Categories A or
B; -
(c) Vibration Test—Categories A, B,
C, D, E, or F;
(d) Audio-Frequency Magnetic Field
Susceptibility Test—Categories A or B;
(e) Radio-Frequency Susceptibility
Test—Category A; and
(f) Emission of Spurious Radio-Fre
quency Energy Test—Category A.
(b) Marking. (1) In addition to the
tmarkings specified in § 37.7 the equip
ment shall be marked to indicate the
environmental extremes over which it
has been designed to operate. There are
seven environmental test procedures out
lined in RTCA Paper 120–61/DO-108
which have categories established.
These shall be identifled on the name
plate by the words “environmental cate
gories” or, as abbreviated, “Env. Cat.”
followed by seven letters which identify
the categories designated in RTCA Paper
120–61/DO–108. Reading from left to
right, the category designations shall
appear on the nameplate in the follow
ing order, so that they may be readily
identified:
(i) Temperature-Altitude Test Cate
gory:
(ii) Humidity Test Category;
(iii) Vibration Test Category:
(iv) Audio-Frequency Magnetic Field
Susceptibility Test Category:
(v) Radio-Frequency Susceptibility
Test Category;
(vi) Emission of Spurious Radio-Fre
quency Energy Test Category; and
(vii) Explosion Test.
Equipment which meets the explosion
test requirement shall be identified by
the letter “E”. Equipment which does
not meet the explosion test requirements
shall be identified by the letter “X”.
(2) Each major component of equip
ment (antenna, power supply, etc.) shall
be identified with at least the manufac
§ 37,163 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
turer's name, TSO number, and the en
vironmental categories over which the
equipment component is designed to
operate.
(3) The equipment shall be marked to
indicate the distance range over which
it is designed to operate. Three classes
of equipment have been established in
RTCA Paper 134–61/DO–110 based upon
maximum radio line-of-Sight distances
as follows:
Class I: 200 nautical miles—Not less than
16 watts output.
Class II: 100 nautical miles——Not less than
4 watts output.
Class III: 50 nautical miles—Not less than
1 watt output.
Note: A typical nameplate identification
would be as follows: Env. Cat. DABAAAX
Class I.
(4) In some cases such as under the
Temperature-Altitude Test Category, a
manufacturer may wish to substantiate
his equipment under two categories. In
this case, the nameplate shall be marked
with both categories in the space desig
nated for that category by placing one
letter above the other in the following
manner: Env. Cat. à ABAAAX Class I.
(c) Data requirements. Six copies
each of the following, except where
noted, shall be furnished to the Chief,
Engineering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avia
tion Administration, in the region in
which the manufacturer is located:
(1) Manufacturer's operating instruc
tions and equipment limitations.
(2) Installation procedures with ap
plicable schematic drawings, wiring di
agrams, and specifications. Indicate
any limitations, restrictions, or Other
conditions pertinent to installation.
(3) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.163 VHF radio communications re
ceiving equipment operating within
the radio-frequency range of 118–
136 megacycles—TS0—C38b.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for VHF radio communications re
ceiving equipment operating within the
radio-frequency range of 118–136 mega
cycles which is to be used on civil aircraft
544
of the United States engaged in air car
rier operations. New models of airborne
VHF radio comunications receiving
equipment manufactured for use on air
carrier aircraft on or after the effective
date of this section shall meet the Stand
ards as set forth in Radio Technical
Commission for Aeronautics Papers 130–
61/DO–108 ° dated July 13, 1961, and 120–
61/DO–108 ° dated July 13, 1961, with the
exceptions to these standards listed in
subparagraph (2) of this paragraph.
(2) Eacceptions. (i) Radio Technical
Commission for Aeronautics Paper 130–
61/DO–109, Paragraph 2.8, Selectivity,
outlines selectivity requirements for re
ceivers designed for selection of fre
quency channels in discrete increments
of 50 kc. or 100 kc. Only VHF receivers
which are designed for selection of fre
quency channels on discrete frequencies
Spaced 50 kc. apart or closer are eligible
under this section.
(ii) Radio Technical Commission for
Aeronautics Paper 120–61/DO–108 out
lines various test procedures which define
the environmental extremes over which
the equipment shall be designed to
operate. Some test procedures have
Categories established and some do not.
Where categories are established. only
equipment which qualifies under the fol
lowing categories, as specified in RTCA
Paper 120–61/DO–108, is eligible under
this order:
(a) Temperature-Altitude Test—Cat
egories A, B, C, or D;
(b) Humidity Test—Categories A or
(c) Vibration Test—Categories A, B,
C, D, E, or F:
(d) Audio-Frequency Magnetic Field
Susceptibility Test—Categories A or B;
(e) Radio-Frequency Susceptibility
Test—Category:A;
(f) Emission of Spurious Radio-Fre
quency Energy Test—Category A.
(b) Marking. (1) In addition to the
markings specified in § 37.7, the equip
ment shall be marked to indicate the en
Vironmental extremes over which it has
been designed to operate. There are
Seven environmental test procedures out
lined in RTCA Paper 120–61/DO-108
which have categories established.
* Copies of these papers may be obtained
from the RTCA Secretariat, Suite 302. NADA
Building, 20th and K Streets NW., washing
ton, D.C., 20006. Paper 130–61/DO-109. 45
cents per copy; Paper 120–61/DO-108. Tº
cents per copy.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
These shall be identified on the name
plate by the words “environmental cate
gories” or, as abbreviated, “Env. Cat.”
followed by seven letters which identify
the categories designated in RTCA Paper
120–61/DO–108. Reading from left to
right the category designations shall ap
pear on the nameplate in the following
order, so that they may be readily
identified:
(i) Temperature-Altitude Test Cate
gory:
(ii) Humidity Test Category:
(iii) Vibration Test Category;
(iv) Audio-Frequency Magnetic Field
Susceptibility Test Category;
(v) Radio-Frequency Susceptibility
Test Category;
(vi) Emission of Spurious Radio-Fre
quency Energy Test Category, and
(vii) Explosion Test.
Equipment which meets the explosion
test requirement shall be identified by
the letter “E”. Equipment, which does
not meet the explosion test requirement
shall be identified by the letter “X”.
(2) Each major component of equip
ment (antenna, power supply, etc.) shall
be identified with at least the manufac
turer's name, TSO number, and tile en
Vironmental categories over which the
equipment component is designed to
operate.
Note: A typical nameplate identification
would be as follows: Env. Cat. DABAAAX.
(3) In Some cases such as under the
Temperature-Altitude Test Category, a
manufacturer may wish to substantiate
his equipment under two categories. In
this case, the nameplate shall be marked
with both categories in the Space desig
nated for that category by placing one
letter above the other in the following
manner: Env. Cat. #ABAAAx.
(c) Data requirements. Six copies
each of the following, except where
noted, shall be furnished to the Chief,
Engineering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal
Aviation Administration, in the region in
which the manufacturer is located:
(1) Manufacturer's operating instruc
tions and equipment limitations.
(2) Installation procedures with ap
plicable schematic drawings, wiring dia
grams, and specifications. Indicate any
limitations, restrictions, or other condi
tions pertinent to installation.
545
§ 37.164
(3) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.164 Airborne selective calling
equipment (for air carrier air
craft)—TS0–C59.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for airborne selective calling
equipment which is to be used on civil
aircraft of the United States engaged in
air carrier operations. New models of
airborne selective calling equipment
manufactured for use on civil air car
rier aircraft on or after July 31, 1959,
shall meet the minimum perform
ance standards as set forth in Radio
Technical Commission for Aeronautics'
Paper entitled “Minimum Perform
ance Standards—Airborne Selective
Calling Equipment,” Paper 25–59/DO-93
dated February 10, 1959." Radio Tech
nical Commission for Aeronautics’ Paper
100–54/DO–60 " which is incorporated by
reference in and thus is a part of Paper
25–59/DO–93 has been amended by Paper
256–58/EC–366 dated November 13, 1958.
This amendment is also a part of the
minimum performance standards. An
exception to these standards is covered
in subparagraph (2) of this paragraph.
(2) Eacception. Radio Technical Com
mission for Aeronautics' Paper 100-54/
DO–60, and amendment Paper 256–58/
EC–366 dated November 13, 1958, outline
environmental test procedures for equip
ment designed to operate under three
environmental test conditions as speci
fled therein under Procedures A, B, and
C. Only airborne selective calling equip
ment which meets the operating require
ments as outlined under Procedure A or
Procedure B of Paper 100–54/DO–60, as
amended, is eligible under this section.
(b) Marking. In addition to the in
formation required in § 37.7, equipment
which has been designed to operate over
the environmental conditions as outlined
in Procedure A of RTCA Paper 100–54/
DO–60, as amended, shall be marked as
1 Copies of these papers may be obtained
from the RTCA Secretariat, Suite 302, NADA
Building, 20th and K Streets NW., Washing
ton, D.C., 20006. Paper 25–59/DO–93, 80
cents per copy; Paper 100–54/DO–60, 20 cents
per copy.
§ 37.165 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
Category A equipment. Equipment
which has been designed to Operate OVer
the environmental conditions outlined in
Procedure B of this same paper shall be
marked as Category B equipment.
(c) Data requirements. With the
statement of conformance, one copy
each of the manufacturer's operating in
structions, schematic diagrams, and in
stallation procedures shall be furnished
the Chief, Engineering and Manufac
turing Branch, Flight Standards Divi
sion, Federal Aviation Administration, in
the region in which the manufacturer is
located.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Airborne selective calling equipment ap
proved prior to July 31, 1959, may con
tinue to be manufactured under the
provisions of its original approval.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.165 Airborne Loran A receiving
equipment operating within the
radio-frequency range of 1800–2000
kilocycles (for air carrier aircraft)–
TSO-C60.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for airborne Loran A receiving
equipment operating within the radio
frequency range of 1800–2000 kilocycles
which is to be used on civil aircraft of
the United States engaged in air carrier
operations. New models of airborne
Loran A receiving equipment manufac
tured for use on civil air carrier
aircraft on or after July 31, 1959,
shall meet the minimum perform
ance standards as set forth in Radio
Technical Commission for Aeronautics'
Paper entitled “Minimum Performance
Standards—Airborne Loran A Receiving
Equipment Operating Within the Radio
Frequency Range of 1800–2000 Kilo
cycles” (Paper 226–58/DO–92 * dated
November 18, 1958). Radio Technical
Commission for Aeronautics' Paper
100–54/DO–60 * which is incorporated by
reference in and thus is a part of Paper
226–58/DO-92 has been amended by
Paper 256–58/EC–366 dated November 13,
• Copies of these papers may be obtained
from the RTCA Secretariat, Suite 302, NADA
Building. 20th and K Streets NW., Washing
ton, D.C., 20006. Paper 226–58/DO–92, 80
cents per copy; Paper 100–54/DO–60, 20 cents
per copy.
546
1958. This amendment is also a part
of the minimum performance standards.
An exception to these standards is cow
ered in subparagraph (2) of this
paragraph.
(2) Eacceptions. (i) Radio Technical
Commission for Aeronautics' Paper
100–54/DO–60, and amendment Paper
256–58/EC–366 dated November 13, 1958,
outline environmental test procedures for
equipment designed to operate under
three environmental test conditions as
speciſied therein under Procedures A, B,
and C. Only airborne Loran A receiving
equipment which meets the operating re
quirements as outlined under Procedure
A or Procedure B of Paper 100–54/DO–60,
as amended, is eligible under this Section.
(ii) The vibration values specified
below may be used for equipment de
signed exclusively for installation on the
instrument panel of aircraft in lieu of
those specified in Paper 100–54/DO-60
as amended. No shock mounting shall
be used during the conduct of this test
if the vibration Values Specified below are
used.
Amplitude: 0.01” (0.02” total excursion).
Frequency: Variable 5–50 cps.
Maximum acceleration: 1.5 g.
(iii) Equipment which is designed ex
clusively for installation on the instru
ment panel of aircraft need not be sub
jected to the shock requirements outlined
in Paper 100–54/DO-60 as amended.
(iv) Indicating instruments which are
a part of the System, but which are not
designed exclusively for installation on
the instrument panel of aircraft, may
also be tested to the vibration require
ments specified in subdivision (ii) of this
subparagraph, and need not be subjected
to the shock requirements outlined in
Paper 100–54/DO-60 as amended.
(b) Marking. In addition to the in
formation required in § 37.7, equipment
which has been designed to operate over
the environmental conditions as outlined
in Pro c e du re A of RTCA P a per
100–54/DO–60, as amended, shall be
marked as Category A equipment. Equip
ment which has been designed to operate
over the environmental conditions out
lined in Procedure B of this same paper
shall be marked as Category B equip
ment. Equipment which has been de
signed exclusively for installation on the
instrument panel of aircraft and which
meets only the amended vibration re
quirements outlined above shall be
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
identified with the letters I.P. following
the category of equipment, such as CAT.
A—I.P.
(c) Data requirements. With the
statement of conformance, one copy
each of the manufacturer's operating
instructions, schematic diagrams, and in
stallation procedures shall be furnished
the Chief, Engineering and Manufactur
ing Branch, Flight Standards Division,
Federal Aviation Administration, in the
region in which the manufacturer is
located.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Airborne Loran A receiving equipment
approved prior to July 31, 1959, may con
tinue to be manufactured under the
provisions of its original approval.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as an ended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.166 Portable aircraft emergency
communications equipment (for air
carrier aircraft)—TS0—C6la.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for portable aircraft emergency
communications equipment which Spe
cifically is required to be carried on civil
aircraft of the United States engaged in
particular air carrier operations. The
radio frequencies to be utilized by Such
equipment shall be selected from 500
kc., 8.364 kc., or 121.5 m.c. A single
frequency or a combination of the above
frequencies may be used. New models
of portable aircraft emergency Com
munications equipment manufactured
for use on air carrier aircraft on or after
the effective date of this section shall
meet the Standards in the following
Radio Technical Commission for Aero
nautics Papers:
49–59/DO–951 dated March 10, 1959, for
500 or 8364 kc. equipment; 26–59/DO–941
dated February 10, 1959, for 121.5 m.c. equip
ment; 100–54/DO—60 * dated April 13, 1954,
Environmental Test Procedures; 256–58/EC
866 dated November 13, 1958, Amendment
to 100–54/DO—60.
1 Copies of these papers may be obtained
from the RTCA Secretariat, Suite 302, NADA
Building, 20th and K Streets NW., Washing
ton, D.C., 20006. Paper 49–59/DO–95, 30
cents per copy; Paper 26–59/DO–94, 30 cents
per copy; Paper 100–54/DO–60, with Amend
ment Paper 256–58/EC-366, 20 cents per
copy.
547
§ 37.166
Fxceptions, additions, and substitutions
to these standards are listed in sub
paragraph (2) of this paragraph.
(2) Eacceptions. (i) Radio Technical
Commission, for Aeronautics Paper 100
54/DC)–60, and Amendment Paper 256–
58/EC-366 dated November 13, 1958, out
line environmental test procedures for
equipment designed to operate under
three environmental test conditions as
Specified therein under Procedures A,
B, and C. Only equipment which meets
the operating requirements as outlined
under Procedure A or Procedure B of
Paper 100–54/DO-60, as amended, is
eligible under this section.
(ii) (a) The vibration values specified
below may be used in lieu of those speci
fied in Paper 100–54/DO–60, as amended.
If these values are used, no external
shock mounting shall be used during the
conduct of the test.
(b) Constant total excursion of
0.020" from 10 to 55 c.p.s. with a max
imum acceleration of 3g.
(iii) Paper 26–59/DO–94, Paragraph
2.1, Operating Life. The capacity of the
power supply shall be sufficient to pro
vide continuous operation for at least
24 hours under the condition of maxi
mum power consumption. At the end
of the 24-hour period, the radiated
power output shall not have deteriorated
by more than 3 db from that specified
in paragraph 2.2.1, as amended by sub
division (iv) of this subparagraph.
These values also apply to the test pro
cedures contained in Paragraph T-1,
Appendix A.
(iv) Paper 26–59/DO–94, Paragraph.
2.2.1, Radiated Power. The effective
radiated power (ERP) from the antenna
shall be at least 225 milliwatts. This
Value also applies to the test procedures
contained in Paragraph T–2, Appendix A
(v) Paper 26–59/DO–94, Paragraph
2.2.2, Modulation Capability. The trans
mitter output carrier shall be capable
of being tone amplitude modulated a
minimum of 90 percent downward and
10 percent upward by an audiofrequency
signal between 900 and 1600 c.p.s. and
by a 1000 c.p.s. signal applied to the
microphone, if voice modulation is
provided.
(vi) Paper 49–59/DO–95, Paragraph
2.1, Operating Life. The capacity of the
power supply shall be sufficient to pro
vide continuous operation for at least
24 hours under the condition of maxi
§ 37.167 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
mum power consumption. At the end
of the 24-hour period, the radiated power
output shall not have deteriorated by
more than 3 db from that specified in
paragraph 2.2.1. These values also apply
to the test procedures contained in Para
graph T–1, Appendix A.
(b) Marking. In addition to the
markings specified in § 37.7, equipment
which has been designed to Operate Over
the environmental conditions outlined
in Procedure A of RTCA Paper 100–
54/DC-60, as amended, shall be marked
as Category A equipment. Equipment
which has been designed to Operate Over
the environmental conditions outlined in
Procedure B of this same paper shall be
marked as Category B equipment.
(c) Data requirements. (1) The
manufacturer shall maintain a current
file of complete design data.
(2) The manufacturer shall maintain
a current file of complete data describ
ing the inspection and test procedures
applicable to his product. (See para
graph (d) of this section.)
(3) Six copies each, except where
noted, of the following shall be furnished
to the Chief, Engineering and Manufac
turing Branch, Flight Standards Divi
sion, Federal Aviation Administration, in
the region in which the manufacturer is
located.
(i) Manufacturer's operating instruc
tions and equipment limitations.
(ii) Installation procedures with ap
plicable schematic drawings, wiring dia
grams, and specifications. Indicate any
limitations, restrictions, or other condi
tions pertinent to installation.
(iii) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(d) Quality control. Portable aircraft
emergency communications equipment
shall be produced under a quality con
trol system, established by the manufac
turer, which will assure that each equip
ment is in conformity with the require
ments of this Section and is in a condition
for safe operation. This system shall be
described in the data required under
paragraph (c) (2) of this section. The
Administrator shall be permitted to make
such inspections and tests at the manu
facturer's facility as may be necessary
to determine compliance with the re
quirements of this section.
54S
(e) Previously approved equipment.
Portable aircraft emergency communi
cations equipment approved prior to the
effective date of this Section may COn
tinue to be manufactured under the pro
visions of its original approval.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15817, Nov. 17, 1964.
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 FIR. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.167 Aircraft tires—TS0—C62b.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for aircraft, tires, excluding tail
wheel tires, which are to be used on
civil aircraft of the United States. New
design tires, manufactured on or after
the effective date of this section, which
are to be used on civil aircraft of the
United States shall meet the standards
Specified in Federal Aviation Adminis
tration Standard “Aircraft Tires” dated
August 1, 1962."
(b) Marking. In lieu of the marking
requirements of § 37.7(d), aircraft tires
Shall be legibly and permanently marked
with the following information:
(1) Brand name or name of the man
ufacturer responsible for compliance and
the country of manufacture if outside
the United States.
(2) The size, ply rating, and serial
Ilumber.
(3) The qualification test speed and
skid depth when the test speed is greater
than 160 m.p.h., also, the word “rein
forced” if applicable.
(4) Applicable Technical Standard
Order (TSO) number.
(c) Data requirements. Six copies
each of the following shall be furnished
the Chief, Engineering and Manufactur
ing Branch, Flight Standards Division,
Federal Aviation Administration, in the
region in which the manufacturer is lo
cated: tire size, static and dynamic load
rating, ply rating, rated inflation pres
sure, outside diameter, skid depth, static
unbalance, tire weight and a summary
of the load-speed-time parameters used
in the high Speed dynamometer tests.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 FR 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 FR 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
* Copies may be obtained upon request
addressed to Library Services Division,
HQ–630, Federal Aviation Administration,
Washington, D.C. 20553.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 37.168 Airborne weather radar equip
ment, TSO-C63b.
(a) Applicability. (1) This technical
standard order prescribes the minimum
performance standards that airborne
weather radar equipment must meet in
order to be identified with the applicable
TSO marking. New models of equipment
that are to be so identified, and that are
manufacturered on or after August 18,
1972, must meet the requirements of
Radio Technical Commission for Aero
nautics Document No. DO-134 entitled
“Minimum Performance Standards—
Airborne Weather and Ground Mapping
Pulsed Radars,” dated February 16, 1967,
and Radio Technical Commission for
Aeronautics Document No. DO-138 en
titled “Environmental Conditions and
Test Procedures for Airborne Electronic/
Electrical Equipment and Instruments”
dated June 27, 1968, except as provided
in subparagraph (2) of this paragraph.
RTCA Documents Nos. DO–134 and DO—
138 are incorporated herein in accord
ance with 5 U.S.C. 552(a)(1) and $ 37.23
of the Federal Aviation Regulations, and
are available as indicated in § 37.23. Ad
ditionally, RTCA Documents Nos. DO
134 and DO—138 may be examined at any
FAA regional office of the Chief of Engi
neering and Manufacturing Branch (or
in the case of the Western Region, the
Chief, Aircraft Engineering IDivision),
and may be obtained from the RTCA
Secretariat, Suite 655, 1717 H Street NW.,
Washington, DC 20006, at a cost of $6
per copy for Document No. DO-134 and
$8 per copy for Document No. DO–138.
(2) Exceptions:
(i) RTCA Paper DO–108, referenced
in RTCA Document No. DO—134, has
been superseded by RTCA Document No.
DO–138, and the requirements of RTCA
Document No. DO–134 must be met
using the environmental test condition
of RTCA Document No. DO–138. The
exception provided in paragraph 2.14.1
of RTCA Document No. DO-134 is ap
plicable after substituting the words
“Figure 2 on page 13 of DO-138 Appen
dix A” in place of the words “Figure 4–A
on page 9 of the DO-108 Appendix A.”
(ii) RTCA Document No. DO–138
lists environmental test conditions cov
… ering equipment subjected to water, hy
draulic fluid, sand and dust, fungus and
salt spray, for which there are no cor
responding equipment performance re
quirements in RTCA Document No.
DO-134, and compliance with these en
549
§ 37.168
vironmental test conditions is not re
quired. If the applicant elects to certify
compliance with any of those environ
mental test conditions, the equipment
performance requirements of paragraph
2.7 of RTCA Document No. DO-134 must
be met after the equipment has been
exposed to those test conditions.
(b) Marking. In addition to the mark
ings specified in § 37.7, the article must
be permanently and legibly marked with
the following information:
(1) The environmental categories
over which the article has been designed
to operate must be marked in accordance
With RTCA Document DO–138,
Appendix B.
(2) The maximum system range in
nautical miles, declared by the article
manufacturer. This must be identified
on the name plate, following the envi
ronmental category designations, by the
word “class” and the following class
number which identifies the maximum
System range:
Marim 1177,
system
range in
7tautical
tniles
25
50
75
100
125
150
over 150
(3) Each separate component of the
article (antenna, transmitter-receiver,
indicator, etc.) must be identified with
at least the name of the manufacturer,
the TSO number, and the environmental
categories over which the article com
ponent is designed to operate. Where an
environmental test procedure is not ap
plicable to that component and the test
is not conducted, and X should be placed
in the space assigned for that category.
(c) Data requirements. (1) In ac
cordance with $ 37.5, the manufacturer
must furnish to the Chief, Engineering
and Manufacturing Branch, Flight
Standards Division (or in the case of the
Western Region, the Chief, Aircraft En
gineering Division), Federal Aviation
Administration, in the region in which
the manufacturer is located, the follow
ing technical data:
(i) One copy of the operating instruc
tions and equipment limitations of the
manufacturer.
(ii) One copy of the installation pro
cedures with applicable schematic draw
$ 37.169 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
ings, wiring diagrams, and specifications,
and a list of components (by part num
ber) or possible combinations thereof,
which make up a system complying with
this TSO. The procedures must set forth
all limitations, restrictions, or other
conditions pertinent to the installation.
(iii) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(2) One copy of the technical data
specified in subparagraph (1) (ii) of this
paragraph must be furnished with each
article manufactured.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Airborne weather radar equipment ap
proved prior to the effective date of this
section may continue to be manufactured
under the provisions of its original
approval.
[Amdt. 37–34, 37 F.R. 14290, June 19, 1972]
§ 37.169 Oxygen mask assembly, con
tinuous flow, passenger (for air car
rier aircraft)—TSO–C64.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for passenger oxygen mask assem
blies which are to be approved for use
on civil aircraft of the United States.
New models of passenger oxygen mask
assemblies manufactured for installa
tion on civil aircraft on or after the
effective date of this section shall meet
the standards Set forth in National Air
craft Standard, NAS 1179, “Oxygen
Mask Assembly. Passenger”, Revision 2,
dated March 31, 1961, with exceptions
to the standard listed in subparagraph
(2) of this paragraph.
(2) Erceptions. (i) The following
specifically numbered subparagraphs in
NAS 1179 are not concerned with mini
mum performance and, therefore, are
Inot essential to compliance with this
section: 2.0 in its entirety, 3.1.1, 3.1.2
8.1.3.7, 3.1.12, 3.3.11 in its entirety, 4.2,
4.3.5, 5.3, 5.6, 5.7, and 5.8.
(ii) Conformance to “NAS Standard
Part Number” and “NAS Standard
Drawing” referred to throughout NAS
1179 is not required.
(iii) Paragraph 1.4 of NAS 1179 shall
be revised and made a part of this stand
ard, as follows:
1.4 Coding of performance classification.
An eight digit performance classification
1 Copies of this standard may be obtained
from the National Standards Association,
Inc., 1315 14th Street NW., Washington, D.C.
20005.
550
number shall be assigned to each class of
masks. This number shall correspond to
the number assigned to the minimum per
formance curve established in paragraph
4.1.7.2.2 and shall appear in the part callout
as the first dash number following specifica
tion No. NAS 1179. Each pair of digits, start
ing with the first pair to the left, shall
represent the required minimum oxygen flow
rates (NTPD) to the mask shown on curve
“C” of Figure 2 at cabin pressure altitudes of
15,000, 25,000, 30,000 feet and the maximum
approved altitude, respectively. Flow rates
shall be to one decimal.
Typical ea ample. NAS 1179–08233248–XX*
0.8—required minimum oxygen flow, LPM,
NTPD, at 15,000 ft.
2.3—required minimum oxygen flow, LPM,
NTPD, at 25,000 ft.
8.2—required minimum oxygen flow, LPM.
NTPD, at 30,000 ft.
4.8—required minimum oxygen flow, LPM.
NTPD, at maximum approved altitude.
(b) Marking. Each oxygen mask as
sembly shall be marked in accordance
with $ 37.7 except that the weight speci
fied in § 37.7 may be omitted, and the
following additional information shall be
Shown:
(1) The performance classification
number.
(c) Data requirements. (1) The
manufacturer shall maintain a current
file of complete design data.
(2) The manufacturer shall maintain
a current file of complete data describing
the inspection and test procedures appli
cable to his products. (See paragraph
(d) of this section.)
(3) Six copies each, except where
noted, of the following, shall be furnished
the Chief, Engineering and Manufactur
ing Branch, Flight Standards Division,
Federal Aviation Administration, in the
region in which the manufacturer is
located.
(i) Manufacturer's operating instruc
tions and equipment limitations.
(ii) Installation procedures with ap
plicable drawings and specifications,
limitations, restrictions, or other condi
tions pertinent to installation. These
limitations shall include the regulators
which are capable of providing an oxygen
partial pressure specified in the appli
cable Federal Aviation Regulations.
(iii) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(iv) Manufacturer's cleaning and ster
ilizing procedures.
* XX—Additional coding which the mask
manufacturer may desire to add.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(d) Quality control. Passenger oxy
gen masks shall be produced under a
quality control system, established by
the manufacturer, which will assure that
each mask assembly is in conformity with
the requirements of this section and is
in a condition for safe operation. This
system shall be described in the data re
quired under paragraph (c) (2) of this
section. The Administrator shall be per
mitted to make such inspections and pro
duction tests at the manufacturer's fa
cility as may be necessary to determine
compliance with the requirements of this
Section.
(e) Previously approved equipment.
Passenger oxygen Inasks approved prior
to the effective date of this Section may
continue to be manufactured under the
provisions of its original approval.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.170 Airborne doppler radar ground
speed and/or drift angie measuring
equipment (for air carrier air
crafi)—TS0–C65.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for airborne doppler radar ground
speed and/or drift angle measuring
equipment which is to be used on civil
aircraft of the United States engaged in
air carrier operations. New models of
airborne doppler radar ground speed
and/or drift angle measuring equipment
manufactured for use on civil air carrier
aircraft on or after April 20, 1960,
shall meet the minimum perform
ance standards as set forth in Radio
Technical Commission for Aeronautics’
Paper entitled “Minimum Performance
Standards—Airborne Doppler Radar
Ground Speed and/or Drift Angle Meas
uring Equipment” (Paper 166–59/DO
98 dated September 8, 1959). Radio
Technical Commission for Aeronautics'
Paper 100–54/DO–60° which is incor
porated by reference in and thus is a
part of Paper 166–59/DO–98 has been
amended by Paper 256–58/EC–366 dated
November 13, 1958. This amendment is
also a part of the minimum performance
standards. An exception to these stand
1 Coples of these papers may be obtained
from the RTCA Secretariat, Suite 302, NADA
Building, 20th and K Streets NW., Washing
ton, D.C., 20006. Paper 166–59/DO–98, 40
cents per copy; Paper 100–54/DO–60, 20 cents
per copy.
* 551
§ 37.170
ards is covered in subparagraph (2) of
this paragraph.”
(2) Eacceptions. (1) Radio Technical
Commission for Aeronautics’ Paper 100–
54/DO–60, and amendment Paper 256–
58/EC–366 dated November 13, 1958, out
line environmental test procedures for
equipment designed to operate under
three environmental test conditions as
specified therein under Procedures A, B,
and C. Only airborne doppler radar
ground speed and/or drift angle measur
ing equipment which meets the operating
requirements as outlined under Pro
cedure A or Procedure B of Paper 100–
54/L)O–60, as amended, is eligible under
this section.
(ii) The vibration values specified be
low may be used for equipment designed
exclusively for installation on the in
strument panel of aircraft in lieu of
those specified in Paper 100–54/DO–60 as
amended. No shock mounting shall be
used during the conduct of this test if
the vibration values specified below are
used.
Amplitude: 0.01” (0.02” total excursion).
Frequency: Variable 10–55 cps.
Maximum Acceleration: 1.5 g.
(iii) Equipment which is designed ex
clusively for installation on the instru
ment panel of aircraft need riot be
subjected to the shock requirements
outlined in Paper 100–54/DO–60 as
amended.
(iv) Indicating instruments which are
a part of the system, but which are not
designed exclusively for installation on
the instrument panel of aircraft may
also be tested to the Vibration require
ments specified in subdivision (ii) of this
subparagraph, and need not be subjected
to the shock requirements outlined in
Paper 100–54/DO–60 as amended.
(b) Marking. In addition to the in
formation required in § 37.7, equipment
which has been designed to Operate
over the environmental conditions as
outlined in Procedure A of RTCA Paper
100–54/DO–60, as amended, shall be
marked as Category A equipment.
Equipment which has been designed to
operate over the environmental condi
• In addition to the performance standards
herein, airborne doppler radar ground speed
and/or drift angle measuring equipment
when installed in aircraft must meet in
stallation requirements as well as functional
and reliability flight tests of the pertinent
airworthtness sections of the Federal Aviation
Regulations.
§ 37.171 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
tions outlined in Procedure B of this
same paper shall be marked as Category
B equipment. Equipment which has
been designed exclusively for installa
tion on the instrument panel of aircraft
and which meets only the amended
vibration requirements outlined above
shall be identified With the letters I.P.
following the category of equipment,
Such as CAT. A–I.P.
(c) Data requirements. With the
statement of conformance, one copy
each of the manufacturer's operating in
structions, schematic diagrams, and in
stallation procedures shall be furnished
the Chief, Engineering and Manufactur
ing Branch, Flight Standards Division,
Federal Aviation Administration, in the
region in which the manufacturer is
located.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Airborne doppler radar ground speed
and/or drift angle measuring equipment
approved prior to April 20, 1960, may
continue to be manufactured under the
provisions of its original approval.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.171 Airborne distance measuring
equipment (air carrier aircraft)—
TSO–C66a.
(a) Applicability. This Tech n 1 c a l
Standard Order prescribes the minimum
performance standards which airborne
distance measuring equipment, to be used
on U.S. civil aircraft engaged in air car
r1er operations, must meet in order to
be identified with the applicable TSO
marking. New models of such equipment
which are to be so identified and which
are manufactured on or after the effec
tive date of this section shall meet the
requirements set forth in the Federal
Aviation Administration standard en
titled “Minimum Performance Standards
for Airborne Distance Measuring Equip
ment Operating Within the Radio Fre
quency Range 960–1215 Megacycles”’
dated February 15, 1965, and Federal
Aviation Administration document “En
vironmental Test Procedures for Air
borne Electronic Equipment” dated Au
gust 31, 1962."
(b) Marking. (1) In addition to the
marking specified in § 37.7, the equip
ment must be marked to indicate the en
1 Coples may be obtained upon request ad
dressed to: The Library Services Division,
HQ–600. Federal Aviation Administration,
Washington, D.C. 20553.
552
vironmental extremes over which it has
been designed to operate. There are six
environmental procedures outlined in the
FAA document “Environmental Test
Procedures for Airborne Electronic
Equipment” which have categories es
tablished. These shall be identified on
the nameplate by the words “Environ
mental Categories” or, as abbreviated,
“Env. Cat.”, followed by six letters which
identify the categories designated in the
FAA document. Reading from left to ,
right, the category designations shall ap
pear On the nameplate in the following
Order so that they may be readily
identified—
(i) Temperature-Altitude Test Cate
gory;
(ii) Vibration Test Category;
(iii) Audio-Frequency Magnetic Field
Susceptibility Category;
(iv) Radio - Frequency Susceptibility
Category;
(v) Emission of Spurious Radio-Fre
quency Energy Test Category; and
(vi) Explosion Test Category.
(2) In some cases, such as under the
temperature-altitude test category, a
manufacturer may wish to substantiate
his equipment under two categories. In
this case, the nameplate must be marked
with both categories in the Space desig
nated for that category by placing one
letter above the other in the following
manner: Env. Cat. § BAAAX
(3) Each separate component of
equipment (antenna, indicator, etc.)
shall be identified with at least the man
unfacturer's name, TSO number, and the
environmental categories over which the
equipment component is designed to
operate.
(c) Data requirements. In accord
ance with $ 37.5, the manufacturer must
furnish to the Chief, Engineering and
Manufacturing Branch, Flight Stand
ards Division, Federal Aviation Admin
istration, in the region in which the
manufacturer is located, the following
technical data:
(1) Manufacturer's operating instruc
tions and equipment limitations.
(2) Installation procedures with ap
plicable schematic drawings, wiring dia
grams, and specifications. Indicate any
limitations, restrictions, or other condi
tions pertinent to installation.
(3) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Airborne distance measuring equipment
{}
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administraticn
approved prior to the effective date of
º maintenance instructions.
this section may continue to be manufac
tured and identified with the applicable
TSO marking under the provisions of its
original approval.
[Amdt. 37–1, 30 F.R. 7637, June 12, 1965, as
amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769, Apr.
11, 1967]
§ 37.172 Aircraft wheels and brakes—
TS0-C26b.
(a) Applicability. The TSO prescribes
º the minimum performance standards
º that aircraft landing wheels and brakes
must meet in order to be identified with
k *.
the applicable TSO marking. New models
's I of such equipment which are to be so
identified and which are manufactured
on or after the effective date of this
standard must meet the requirement of
the Federal Aviation Administration
Standard for Aircraft. Wheels and Brakes
set forth at the end of this section.
(b) Marking. In lieu of the marking
requirements of § 37.7, the aircraft
wheels and brakes must be legibly and
permanently marked with the following
information:
(1) Name of the manufacturer re
sponsible for compliance.
(2) Serial number and part number.
(3) Applicable technical Standard
order (TSO) number.
(4) Size (this marking applies
wheels Only).
All stamped, etched, or embossed mark
ings must be located in noncritical areas.
(c) Data requirements. In addition to
the data specified in § 37.5, the manu
facturer must furnish to the Chief, Engl
neering and Manufacturing Division,
Federal Aviation Administration, in the
region in which the manufacturer is lo
cated (or, in the case of the Western
Region, the Chief, Aircraft Engineering
Division), the following technical data:
(1) One copy of the applicable limita
tions pertaining to installation of wheels
and brakes on aircraft, including the
weight of the brake assembly, maximum
static load rating, maximum limit load
rating, maximum rejected takeoff kinetic
energy in foot-pounds (KERT), design
landing kinetic energy in foot-pounds
(KEDL), applicable Speed as Specified in
paragraph 4.1(a)(1) of the FAA Stand
ard for Aircraft. Wheels and Brakes, type
of hydraulic fluid used, and the weight of
the wheel.
(2) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
39–059–75 36
§ 37.172
(3) One copy of the manufacturer's
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Wheels and brakes approved prior to the
effective date of this section may Con
tinue to be manufactured under the pro
visions of their original approval.
FEDERAL AvLATION ADMINISTRATION STANDARD
For AIRCRAFT WHEELS AND BRAKES
1. Purpose. This document contains mini
mum performance standards for aircraft
landing wheels and brakes.
2. Design and Construction— (a) Design—
(1) Lubricant retainers. Lubricant retainers
must retain lubricant under all maximum
operating conditions, prevent lubricant from
reaching braking surfaces, and prevent for
eign matter from entering the bearings.
(2) Removable flanges. All removable
flanges must be assembled onto the wheel in
a manner that will prevent the removable
flange and its retaining device from leaving
the wheel if a tire should deflate While the
wheel is rolling.
(3) Adjustment. When necessary to insure
safe performance, the brake mechanism must
be equipped with suitable adjustment
devices.
(4) Water seal. Wheels intended for use
on amphibious aircraft must be sealed to
prevent entrance of water into the wheel
bearings or other portions of the wheel or
brake, unless the design is such that brake
action and service life will not be impaired
by the presence of sea water or fresh water.
to (5) Erplosion prevention. Unless deter
mined to be unnecessary, means must be
provided to minimize the probability of
wheel and tire explosions which result from
elevated brake temperatures.
(b) Construction—(1) Castings. Castings
must be of high quality, clean, Sound, and
free from blowholes, porosity, or surface de
fects caused by inclusions, except that loose
sand or entrapped gasses may be allowed
when the serviceability of the casting has
not been impaired.
(2) Forgings. Forgings must be of uniform
condition, free from blisters, fins, folds,
seams, laps, Cracks, segregation, and other
defects. If strength and serviceability are not
impaired, imperſections may be removed.
(3) Rim surfaces. The surface of the rim
between bead Seats must be free from defects
which will be injurious to the inner tube
Holes which extend through a rim must be
drilled out and filled with a flush plug. Other
depressions in rim or bead seats which might
injure the tube or casing must be filled with
a hard surface permanent filler before apply
ing the primer coat.
(4) Rim joints. Joints in the rim surface
and joints between rim surfaces and de
mountable flanges must be smooth, close
fitting, and noninjurious to the inner tube
while mounting the tire, or while in service.
(5) Rivets and bolts. When rivets are
used, they must be well headed over, and
- - -
O Jº
§ 37.172 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
rivets or bolts coming in contact with the
casing or tube must be smooth enough not
to damage the tube or casing during normal
operation.
(6) Bolts and studs. When bolts and studs
are used for fastening together sections of a
wheel, the length of the threads for the nut
extending into and bearing against the sec
tions must be held to a minimum; and there
must be sufficient unthreaded bearing area
to carry the required load.
(7) Steel parts. Wherever possible all steel
parts, except braking surfaces and those
parts fabricated from corrosion resistant
steel, must be cadmium plated or zinc plated.
Where cadmium or zinc plating cannot be
applied, the surface must be thoroughly
cleaned and suitably protected from cor
rCS10n.
8) Aluminum parts. All aluminum alloy
parts must be anodized or have equivalent
protection from corrosion.
(9) Magnesium parts. All magnesium alloy
parts must receive a suitable dichromate
treatment or have equivalent protection from
corrosion.
(10) Bearing and braking surfaces. The
bearings and braking surfaces must be pro
tected during the application of finish to the
wheels and brakes.
3. Rating. (a) Each wheel design and
wheel-brake system design must be rated
for the following:
(1) S = Maximum static load in pounds
(ref. §§ 23.731 (b), 25.731 (b), 27.731 (b), aud
29.731 (b) of this chapter).
(2) L = Maximum limit load in pounds
(ref. §§ 23.731 (c), 25.731 (c), 27.731 (c), and
29.731 (c) of this chapter).
(b) Each wheel-brake system design must
also be rated for the following:
(1) KEdl – Kinetic energy capacity in foot
pounds per wheel-brake system at the design
land 1ng rate of absorption.
(2) KERT-Kinetic energy capacity in foot
pound per wheel-brake system at the re
jected takeoff rate of absorption for wheel
brake systems of airplanes certificated under
Part 25 of this chapter only.
4. Qualification tests—4.1. Wheel tests. To
establish the S and L. ratings for a wheel,
test a standard sample in accordance with
the following radial, combined and static
load test:
(a) Marimum radial load test. Test the
wheel for the yield and ultimate loads as
follows:
(1) Test method. Mount the wheel with
tire installed on its axle, and position it
against a flat nondeflecting surface. The
wheel axle must have the same angular
orientation to the nondeflecting surface that
it will have to the runway when it is mounted
on the aircraft and is under the maximum
limit load. Inflate the tire to the pressure
recommended for the S load with air or
Water. If water inflation is used, the water
must be bled off during loading to approxi
mate the same tire deflection that would
result 11 air inflation were used. Water pres
554
sure may not exceed the pressure which
would develop if air inflation were used and
the tire Was deflected to its maximum ex
tent. Load the wheel through its axle per
pendicular to the flat nondefecting surface.
Deflection readings must be taken at suitable
points to indicate defiection and permanent
Set of the wheel rim at the bead seat.
(2) Yield load. Apply to the wheel a load,
not less than 1.15 times the maximum radial
limit load, determined under §§ 23.471
through 23.511, or §§ 25.471 through 25.511,
or $$ 27.471 through 27.505, or ; ; 29.471
through 29.511 of this chapter, as appropri
ate. Apply the load with the wheel posi
tioned against the nondeflecting surface,
and the valve hole positioned at 0° with
respect to the line between the center of
the wheel and the point of contact, then
with the valve hole positioned 90°, 180°, and
270° from the nondeflecting surface, and
finally twice again with the valve hole po
sitioned at 0°. The 90° increments must be
altered to other positions if the other posi
tions are more critical. The successive load
1ngs at the 0° position must not cause per
manent set increments of increasing mag
nitude. The permanent set increment caused
by the last loading at the 0" position may
not exceed 5 percent of the deflection caused
by that loading. The bearing cups, cones,
and rollers used in operation must be used
for these loadings. There must be no yield
ing of the wheel such as would result in
loose bearing cups, air leakage through the
wheel or past the wheel seal, or interference
in any critical areas.
(3) Ultimate load. Apply to the wheel a
load, not less than 2 times the maximum ra
dial limit load, for castings and 1.5 times
the maximum radial limit load for forgings,
determined under §§ 23.471 through 23.511,
or §§ 25.471 through 25.511, or §§ 27.471
through 27.505, or $$ 39.471 through 39.511
of this chapter, as appropriate. Apply the
load with the same wheel positioned against
the nondeflecting surface and the valve
hole positioned at 0° with respect to the line
between the center of the wheel and the
point of contact. The load must be sustained
for 10 seconds. The bearing cones may be
replaced with conical bushings, but the cups
used in Operation must be used for this
loading. A tubeless tire may be replaced
With a tire and tube.
(4) If the radial limit load in subpara
graph (b) is equal to or greater than the
maximum radial limit in subparagraphs (a)
(2) and (3), the tests specified in subpara
graphs (a) (2) and (3) may be omitted.
(b) Combined radial and side load test.
Test the wheel for the yield and ultimate
loads as follows:
(1) Test method. Mount the wheel with
tire installed on its axle, and position it
against a flat nondefiecting surface. The
wheel axle must have the same angular
orientation to the nondeflecting surface that
it will have to the runway when it is
mounted on the aircraft and is under the
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
lirnit radial load. Inflate the tire to the
pressure recommended for the maximum
static load with air or water. If
inflation is used, the water must be bled
off during loading to approximate the same
tire deflection that would result if air infla
tion were used. Water pressure may not ex
ceed the pressure which would develop if
air inflation were used and the tire were de
flected to its maximum extent. For the ra
dial load component, load the wheel through
its axle perpendicular to the flat nonde
flecting surface. For the side load compo
nent, load the wheel through its axle parallel
to the flat nondeflecting surface. The side
load reaction must arise from the friction
of the tire on the nondeflecting surface. Ap
ply the two loads simultaneously, increasing
them either continuously or in increments
no larger than 10 percent of the loads to be
applied. Alternatively a resultant load equiv
alent to the radial and side loads may be
applied to the axle. Deflection readings
must be taken at suitable points to indicate
deflection and permanent set of the wheel
rim at the bead seat.
(2) Yield load. Apply to the wheel radial
and side loads not less than 1.15 times the
respective ground loads determined under
§ 23.485, or $ 25.485, or $ 27.485, or $ 29.485
of this chapter, as appropriate. Apply these
loads with wheel positioned against the non
deflecting surface and the valve hole posi
tioned at 0° with respect to the center of
the wheel and the point of contact, then
with the valve hole positioned 90°, 180°, and
270° from the nondeflecting surface, and
finally twice again with the valve hole posi
tioned at 0°. The 90° increments must be
altered to other positions if the other posi
tions are more critical. The successive load
ings at the 0° position must not cause per
manent set increments of increasing magni
tude. The permanent set increment caused
by the last loading at the 0° position may
not exceed 5 percent of the deflection caused
by that loading. The bearing cups, cones, and
rollers used in operation must be used in
this test. There must be no yielding of the
wheel such as would result in loose bearing
cups, air leakage through the wheel or past
the wheel seal, or interference in any critical
areas. A tire and tube may be used when
testing a tubeless wheel only when it has
been demonstrated that pressure will be lost
- due to the inability of a tire bead to remain
properly positioned under the load. The
wheel must be tested for the most critical
1nboard and outboard side loads.
(3) Ultimate load. Apply to the wheel
radial and Bide loads not less than 2 times
for castings and 1.5 times for forgings the
respective ground loads determined under
$ 23.485, or $ 25.485, or ; 27.485, or $ 29.485
of this chapter, as appropriate. Apply these
loads with the same wheel positioned
against the nondeflecting surface and the
valve hole positioned at 0° with respect to
the center of the wheel and the point of
contact. The load must be sustained for 10
§ 37.172
seconds. The bearing cones may be replaced
with conical bushings, but the cups used in
water operation must be used for this loading. A
tubeless tire may be replaced with a tire and
tube. The wheel must be tested for the most
critical inboard and outboard side loads.
(c) Macinum static load test. Test the
wheel for the maximum static load test as
follows:
(1) Test method. Mount the wheel with
the tire installed on its axle, and position
it against a flat nondeflecting surface. The
wheel axle must have the same angular ori
entation to the nondeflecting surface that it
will have to the runway when it is mounted
on the aircraft and is under the maximum
limit load. Inflate the tire to the pressure
recommended for the maximum 11mit load
“S” with air. Load the wheel through its axle
perpendicular to the flat nondeflecting
surface.
(2) Roll test. Apply to the wheel a load
not less than the maximum static load de
termined under §§ 23.471 through 23.511, or
§§ 25.471 through 25.511, or §§ 27.471 through
27.505, or $$ 29.471 through 29.511 of this
chapter, as appropriate. While loaded, roll
the wheel 1,000 miles for alrplanes and 250
miles for rotorcraft. At the end of the test
the wheel shall be free of cracks and other
types of failures.
(d) Pressure test. Pressure test the wheel
in accordance with the following:
(1) Burst test. The wheel shall be hydro
statically tested, without failure, to a burst
pressure that is not less than the inflation
pressure at rated load “S” times a factor of
3.5 for airplanes and 3 for rotorcraft.
(2) Static test. The wheel and tubeless tire
assembly shall be inflated to a pressure of
1.5 times the inflation pressure at rated load
“S” and, when immersed in water, must show
no signs of leakage as evidenced by bubbles.
(3) Diffusion test. The tubeless tire and
wheel assembly must hold the normal de
flection pressure for 24 hours with no greater
pressure drop than 5 percent. This test must
be performed after the tire growth has
Stabilized.
4.2 Wheel brake system test. A sample of
a wheel-brake system design must meet the
following tests to qualify the design for its
kinetic energy ratings. The wheel of a wheel
brake assembly must be separately tested
under paragraph 4.1. The wheel-brake sys
tem must be tested with the recommended
operating medium (e.g., air, or an oil meet
ing recommended specifications).
(a) Dynamic torque tests. Test the wheel
brake system on a suitable inertia brake
testing machine in accordance with the
following:
(1) Speed and weight values. For airplanes,
select either Method I or Method II below
to calculate the kinetic energy level which
a single wheel and brake system will be re
quired to absorb. For rotorcraft, use Method
I. Do not consider the decelerating effects of
propeller reverse pltch, drag parachutes, and
engine thrust reversers.
555
$ 37.172 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(1) Method I. Calculate the kinetic energy
level to be used in the brake testing machine
by using the equation:
RE = 0.0444WVº
Where:
KE=Kinetic energy per wheel-brake sys
tem in ft.-lbs. For the design land
ing test, KE will be subdesignated
KEDL, and for the rejected takeoff
test, KERT.
W=Airplane weight per wheel-brake sys
tem in pounds. For the design land
ing test the design landing weight
will be used.
V= Airplane speed in knots. For the de
design landing test the speed will
be Vso, the power-off stalling speed
of the airplane at sea level at the
design landing weight and in the
landing configuration. For the re
jected takeoff test, applicable only to
airplanes certificated under Part 25
of this Chapter, the manufacturer
must determine the most critical
combination of takeoff weight and
W1 speed.
For rotorcraft, the manufacturer
must calculate the most critical
combination of takeoff weight and
brake application speed to be used
in the above equation.
(ii) Method II. The speed and weight
values may be determined by other equations
based on a rational analysis of the sequence
of events expected to occur during opera
tional landing at maximum landing weight.
The analysis must include rational or con
servative values for braking coefficients of
friction between tire and runway, aerody
namic drag, propeller drag, powerplant for
ward thrust, and, if critical, loss of drag
credit for the most adverse single engine or
propeller due to malfunction.
(2) The wheel-brake assembly must bring
the inertia testing machine to a stop at the
average deceleration rate, and for the num
ber of repetitions, specified in the following
table without failure, impairment of opera
tion or replacement of parts except as per
mitted in subparagraph (3) below:
Category of the aircraft on which wheel
brake assembly will be used—
Tests
Federal Aviation Reg- KEdd: 100 design
ulations Part 25. landing stops at
10 ft./sec.”
KEnr: 1 rejected
takeoff stop at 6
ft./sec.”
Federal Aviation Reg- KEdl: 35 design
ulations Part 23. landing stops at
10 ft./sec.”
Federal Aviation Reg- KEdl: 20 design
ulations Parts 27 landing stops at 6
and 29. ſt./Sec.?
(3) General conditions. (1) During land
ing stop tests (KEdl), one change of brake
556
lining and attached discs is permissible. The
remainder of the brake assembly parts must
withstand the 100 KED1 stops without failure
or impairment of operation.
(ii) During the accelerate-stop tests
(KEar) brake lining and bare discs may be
new or used. No less than two landing stop
tests must have been completed on the brake
prior to this test. The brakes must be usable
to taxi the aircraft off the runway after the
accelerate-stop test to KERr.
(iii) As used in this subparagraph, “brake
lining” is either individual blocks of wear
1ng material or discs which have wearing
material integrally bonded to them. “Bare
discs” are plates or drums which do not bave
wearing material integrally bonded to them.
(b) Brake structural torque test. Apply
the radial load S and a torque load specified
in subparagraph (1) of (2) of this para
graph, as applicable, for at least 3 seconds.
Rotation of the wheel must be resisted by a
reaction force transmitted through the brake
or brakes by an application of at least maxi
mum brake line pressure or brake cable
tension in the case of a nonhydraulic brake.
If such pressure or tension is insufficient to
prevent rotation, the friction surfaces may
be clamped, bolted, or otherwise restrained,
while applying the above pressure or tension.
(1) For landing gears with only one wheel
per landing gear strut, the torque load is
1.2 SR where R is the normal rolling radius
Df the tire under load S.
(2) For landing gears with multiple wheels
per landing gear strut, the torque load is
1.44 SR where R is the normal rolling radius
of the tire under load S.
NOTE: The 1.44 factor contains an addi
tional factor of 1.2 to account for occasions
When the load of a wheel truck is distributed
as much as 10 percent above its design
distribution.
(c) Burst pressure-hydraulic brakes. The
brake with actuator piston extended to simu
late a maximum worn condition must with
stand hydraulic pressure equal to the
greatest of the following:
(1) For brake systems capable of develop
ing only a limited pressure as in power
operated brake systems, 2 times the maxi
mum brake line pressure available to the
brakes.
(2) Two times the highest pressure used
in the tests required by paragraph 4.2(a)(2).
(3) For airplanes, 2 times the pressure
required to resist a static torque of 0.55 SR
with the brake at 70° where S is defined in
paragraph (b) above.
(4) For rotorcraft, 2 times the pressure
required to hold the rotorcraft on a 20°
slope at design takeoff weight.
(d) Endurance tests—hydraulic brakes.
The hydraulic brake-wheel assembly must
be subjected to an endurance test during
which the total leakage may not exceed
5 cc. and no malfunction may occur during
or upon completion of the test. Minimum
piston travel during the test may not be less
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
than the maximum allowable platon travel
in operation. The tests must be conducted
by subjecting the hydraulic brake-wheel
assembly to—
(1) 100,000 cycles for airplanes, and
50,000 cycles for rotorcraft, of application
and release of the average hydraulic pressure
needed in the KEdl tests specified in section
4.2(a)(2) except that manufacturers using
Method II in conducting the tests specified
In paragraph 4.2(a)(2) must subject the
wheelbrake assembly to the average of the
maximum pressures needed in those tests.
The piston may be adjusted so that 25,000
cycles for airplanes, and 12,500 cycles for
rotorcraft, are performed at each of the four
positions where the piston would be at rest
when adjusted for 25 percent, 50 percent, 75
percent, and 100 percent wear in the friction
pads; and
(2) 5,000 cycles for airplanes, and 2,500
cycles for rotorcraft, of application and re
lease of the greater of the following:
(i) The hydraulic pressure that is required
to hold a static torque of 0.55 SR at 70° F.
where R is the normal rolling radius;
(ii) The maximum hydraulic pressure
used in conducting the dynamic brake tests
of paragraph 4.2(a)(2); or
(iii) For brake systems capable of devel
oping only a limited pressure, the maximum
brake line pressure available to the brakes.
(NotE that subparagraphs (c) and (d) of
this paragraph require fluid pressure obser
wat!ons to be made during the dynamic
torque tests.)
4.3 Tari and parking test. Simulate on
the inertia brake testing machine a landing
at the maximum weight followed by a realis
tic roll, taxi stop and park, in accordance
with the taxi speed and distance specified
by the manufacturer.
(secs. 313(a). 601, 603, Federal Aviation Act
of 1958, 49 U.S.C. 1354(a), 1421, 1423; sec.
6 (c), Department of Transportation Act, 49
U.S.C. 1655(c)) [Amdt. 37–28, 35 F.R. 19344,
Dec. 22, 1970)
§ 37.173 Airborne radar altimeter equip
ment (for air carrier aircraft)—
TSO)—C67.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimium per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for airborne radar altimeter
equipment which is to be used on civil
aircraft of the United States engaged
in air carrier operations. New models
of airborne radar altimeter equipment
manufactured for use on civil air carrier
aircraft on or after November 15, 1960,
Shall meet the minimum performance
standards as set forth in Radio Tech
nical Commission for Aeronautics' Paper
entitled “Minimum Performance Stand
ards for Airborne Radar Altimeter Equip
ment Intended for Determining Pressure
- - -
..),) i
§ 37.173
Gradients and Operating Within the
Radio Frequency Band of 420–460 Mega
cycles,” (Paper 73–60/DO–103) * dated
April 12, 1960. Radio Technical Com
mission for Aeronautics' Paper 100
54/DO–60' which is incorporated by
reference in and thus is a part of Paper
73–60/DO–103 has been amended by
Paper 256–58/EC–366. This amendment
is also a part of the minimum perform
ance standards. Exceptions, additions,
and substitutions to these standards are
covered in subparagraph (2) of this
paragraph.”
(2) Erceptions. (i) Radio Technical
Commission for Aeronautics’ Paper 100
54/DO–60, and amendment Paper 256
58/EC–360 dated November 13, 1958, out
line environmental test procedures for
equipment designed to operate under
three environmental test conditions as
specified therein under Procedures A, B,
and C. Only airborne radar altimeter
equipment which meets the operating
requirements as outlined under Pro
cedure A or Procedure B of Paper 100–
54/DO–60, as amended, is eligible under
this section.
(ii) The vibration values specified
below may be used for equipment de
signed exclusively for installation on the
instrument panel of aircraft in lieu of
those specified in Paper 100–54/DO–60
as amended. No Shock mounting shall
be used during the conduct of this test
if the vibration Values specified below
are used,
Amplitude: 0.01” (0.02” total excursion).
Frequency: Variable 10–55 c.p.s.
Maximum Acceleration: 1.5 g.
(iii) Equipment which is designed
exclusively for installation on the instru
ment panel of aircraft need not be
Subjected to the shock requirements
outlined in Paper 100–54/DO–60 as
amended.
(iv) Indicating instruments which are
a part of the system, but which are not
designed exclusively for installation on
1 Coples of these papers may be obtained
from the RTCA Secretariat, Suite 302, NADA
Building, 20th and K Streets NW., Washing
ton, D.C., 20006. Paper 73–60/DO-103, 40
cents per copy; Paper 100–54/DO–60 with
Amendment Paper 256–58/EC-366, 20 cents
per copy.
• When airborne radar altimeter equipment
is installed on civil aircraft, the installation
must comply with the functional and instal
lation requirements of Parts 23, 25, 27 or 29
of the Federal Aviation Regulations as ap
plicable.
§ 37.174 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
the instrument panel of aircraft, may
also be tested to the vibration require
ments specified in subdivision (ii) Of this
subparagraph, and need not be subjected
to the shock requirements outlined in
Paper 100–54/DO–60 as amended.
(b) Marking. (1) In addition to the
markings specified in § 37.7, equipment
which has been designed to Operate Over
the environmental conditions outlined in
Procedure A of FTCA Paper 100–54/DO—
60, as amended, shall be marked as
Category A equipment. Equipment
Which has been designed to Operate OVer
the environmental conditions outlined in
Procedure B of this same paper shall be
marked as Category B equipment.
Equipment which has been designed ex
clusively for installation on the instru
ment panel of aircraft and which meets
only the amended vibration requirements
outlined above shall be identified with
the letters I.P. following the category of
equipment, such at CAT. A-I.P.
(2) Each major component of air
borne radar altimeter equipment
(antenna, power supply, etc.) shall be
identified with at least the manufac
turer's name and TSO number.
(c) Data requirements. (1) The
manufacturer shall maintain a current
file of complete design data.
(2) The manufacturer shall maintain
a current file of complete data describing
the inspection and test procedures appli
cable to his product. (See paragraph
(d) of this Section.)
(3) Six copies each, except where
noted, of the following, shall be furnished
to the Chief, Engineering and Manufac
turing Branch, Flight Standards Divl
sion, Federal Aviation Administration, in
the region in which the manufacturer
is located.
(i) Manufacturer's operating instruc
tions and equipment limitations.
(ii) Installation procedures with ap
plicable schematic drawings, wiring
diagrams, and specifications. Indicate
any limitations, restrictions, or other
conditions pertinent to installation.
(iii) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(d) Quality control. Airborne radar
altimeter equipment shall be produced
under a quality control system, estab
lished by the manufacturer, which will
assure that each equipment is in Con
formity with the requirements of this
section and is in a condition for safe
operation. This system shall be de
scribed in the data required under para
558
graph (c) (2) of this section. The Ad
ministrator shall be permitted to make
Such inspections and tests at the manu
facturer's facility as may be necessary to
determine compliance with the require
ments of this Section.
(e) Previously approved equipment.
Airborne radar altimeter equipment ap
proved prior to November 15, 1960. may
continue to be manufactured under the
provisions of its original approval.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.174 Airborne automatic dead reck
oning computer equipment utilizing
aircraft heading and doppler
obtained ground speed and drift
angle data (for air carrier air
craft)—TS0–C68.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for airborne automatic dead
reckoning computer equipment utilizing
aircraft heading and doppler-obtained
ground speed and drift angle data which
is to be used on civil aircraft of the
United States engaged in air carrier op
erations. New models of airborne auto
matic dead reckoning Computer equip
ment utilizing aircraft heading and dop
pler-obtained ground speed and drift
angle data manufactured for use on civil
air carrier aircraft. On Or after January
16, 1961, shall meet the standards in
Radio Technical Commission for Aero
nautics Papers 101–60/DO–104 dated
June 8, 1960; 100–54/DO–60 * dated April
13, 1954; and 256–58/EC–366 dated No
vember 13, 1958. Exceptions, additions,
and Substitutions to these standards are
listed in subparagraph (2) of this
paragraph.
(2) Eacceptions. (i) Radio Technical
Commission for Aeronautics Paper 100–
54/DO–60, and amendment Paper 256–
58/EC-366 dated November 13, 1958, out
line environmental test procedures for
equipment designed to operate under
three environmental test conditions as
specified therein under Procedures A, B,
and C. Only airborne automatic dead
reckoning computer equipment utilizing
1 Coples of these papers may be obtained
from the RTCA Secretariat, Suite 302, NADA
Building, 20th and K Streets NW., Washing
ton, D.C., 20006. Paper 101-60/DO–104. 45
cents per copy; Paper 100–54/DO–60 with
Amendment Paper 256–58/EC-366, 20 cents
per copy.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviction Administration
aircraft heading and doppler-obtained
ground Speed and drift angle data which
Ineets the operating requirements as out
lined under Procedure A or Procedure B
of Paper 100–54/DO–60, as amended, is
eligible under this section.
(ii) The vibration values specified be
low may be used for equipment, designed
exclusively for installation on the instru
ment panel of aircraft in lieu of those
specified in Paper 100–54/DO-60 as
atnended. No shock mounting shall be
used during the conduct of this test if
the vibration values specified below are
uSed.
Amplitude: 0.01” (0.02” total excursion).
Frequency: Variable 10–55 c.p.s.
Maximum Acceleration: 1.5 g.
(iii) Equipment which is designed ex
clusively for installation on the instru
ment panel of aircraft need not
subjected to the shock requirements
outlined in Paper 100–54/DO–60 as
anended.
(iv) Indicating instruments which are
a part of the system, but which are not
designed exclusively for installation on
the instrument panel of aircraft, may
also be tested to the vibration require
ments Specified in subdivision (ii) of this
subparagraph, and need not be sub
jected to the shock requirements out
lined in Paper 100–54/DO–60 as
amended.
(b) Marking. (1) In addition to the
markings specified in § 37.7, equipment
which has been designed to operate over
the environmental conditions outlined
in Procedure A of RTCA Paper 100–54/
DO–60, as amended, shall be marked
as Category A equipment. Equipment
which has been designed to operate over
the environmental conditions outlined
in Procedure B of this same paper shall
be marked as Category B equipment.
Equipment which has been designed
exclusively for installation on the in
Strument panel of aircraft and which
meets only the amended vibration re
quirements outlined above shall be iden
tified with the letters I.P. following the
category of equipment, such as CAT.
A—I.P.
(2) Each major component of equip
ment (antenna, power supply, etc.) shall
be identified with at least the manufac
turer's name and TSO number.
(c) Data requirements. (1) The
manufacturer Shall maintain a current
file of complete design data.
§ 37.175
(2) The manufacturer Shall maintain
a current file of complete data describing
the inspection and test procedures ap
plicable to his product. (See paragraph
(d) of this section.)
(3) Six copies each, except where
noted, of the following shall be fur
nished to the Chief, Engineering and
Manufacturing Branch, Flight Stand
ards Division, Federal Aviation Admin
1stration, in the region in which the
manufacturer is located.
(1) Manufacturer's operating instruc
tions and equipment limitations.
(ii) Installation procedures with ap
plicable schematic drawings, wiring dia
grams, and Specifications. Indicate any
limitations, restrictions, or other condi
tions pertinent to installation.
(iii) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
be
(d) Quality control. Airborne auto
matic dead reckoning computer equip
ment utilizing aircraft heading and dop
pler-obtained ground speed and drift
angle data shall be produced under a
quality control system, established by the
manufacturer, which will assure that
each equipment is in conformity witn
the requirements of this section and is
in a condition for safe operation. This
System Shall be described in the data
required under paragraph (c) (2) of this
Section. The Administrator shall be
permitted to make such inspections and
tests at the manufacturer's facility as
may be necessary to determine compli
ance with the requirements of this
Section.
(e) Previously approved equipment.
Airborne automatic dead reckoning com
puter equipment utilizing aircraft head
ing and doppler-obtained ground Speed
and drift angle data approved prior to
January 16, 1961, may continue to be
manufactured under the provisions of
its original approval.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.175 Emergency evacuation slides—
TSO–069.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for emergency evacuation slides
which are required to be of an approved
type to be eligible for use on civil aircraft
Of the United States. New models of
emergency evacuation slides manufac
559
§ 37.176 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
tured on or after August 15, 1961,
shall meet the standards set forth in
FAA standard “Emergency Evacuation
Slides”.” However, new models manufac
tured on or after October 24, 1967, are
required to be designed so as to be fully
inflated in not more than 10 seconds
after actuation of the inflation means.
Emergency evacuation slides approved
prior to August 15, 1961, may continue
to be manufactured under the provisions
of their original approval.
(b) Marking. The slide shall be
permanently marked in accordance with
the marking provisions of § 37.7 except
that (1) a part number which shall Vary
witn length or any other change in the
slide, (2) serial number, and (3) date
of manufacture shall be included.
(c) Data requirements. (1) One copy
each of the following shall be furnished
to the Chief, Engineering and Manu
facturing Branch, Flight, Standards Di
vision, Federal Aviation Administration,
in the region in which the manufacturer
is located.
(i) Packing instructions.
(ii) Operation instructions.
(iii) Assembly drawing.
(iv) Applicable limitations pertaining
to installation of Slides on aircraft.
These limitations shall include the min
imum and maximum stowage area tem
peratures and any other limitations
which will prevent the slide from per
forming its intended function and from
complying with the minimum perform
ance standards under all reasonable
foreseeable emergency conditions. The
slide manufacturer shall also provide the
purchaser with such limitations.
(2) The manufacturer shall maintain
a current file of complete design data.
(3) The manufacturer shall maintain
a current file of complete data describ
ing the inspection and test procedures
applicable to his evacuation slide. (See
paragraph (d) of this section.)
(d) Quality control. Emergency evac
uation slides shall be produced under
a quality control system, established by
the manufacturer, which will assure that
each slide is in conformity with the re
quirements of this section and is in a
condition for safe operation. This Sys
tem shall be described in the data re
1 Coples of the FAA Standard may be ob
tained upon request addressed to: Library
Services Division, HQ–630, Federal Aviation
Administration, Washington, D.C. 20553.
5 60
quired under paragraph (c) (3) of this
Section. The Administrator Shall be per
mitted to make Such inspections and tests
at the manufacturer's facility as may be
necessary to determine compliance with
the requirements of this section.
(Secs. 603, 604, 72 Stat. 776, 778, 49 U.S.C.
1423 and 1424) [Docket No. 5065, 29 F.R.
15317, Nov. 17, 1964, as amended by Doc. No.
8084, 32 F.R. 5769, Apr. 11, 1967; Amdt. 37–14,
32 F.R. 13266, Sept. 20, 1967]
§ 37.176 Life rafts (nonreversible)—
TSO–070.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for liferaftS (nonreversible) which
are required to be of an approved type
to be eligible for use on civil aircraft
of the United States. Nonreversible life
raft models manufactured on or after
the effective date of this section shall
meet the standards set forth in FAA
Standard “Nonreversible Liferafts” ”
dated March 1, 1961.
(b) Marking. The raft shall be per
manently marked in accordance with the
marking provisions of § 37.7 except for
the following:
(1) The serial number of the raft
need not be included.
(2) Include the rated and the overload
capacity of the raft.
(3) Include the type of raft, i.e., Type
I or Type II.
(c) Data requirements. (1) One copy
each of the following shall be furnished
to the Chief, Engineering and Manu
facturing Branch, Flight Standards Di
Vision, Federal Aviation Administration,
in the region in which the manufacturer
is located:
(i) Packing instructions.
(ii) Operation instructions.
(iii) Assembly drawing.
(iv) Applicable limitations pertaining
to installation of rafts on aircraft.
These limitations shall include the min
imum and maximum stowage area tem
peratures and any other limitations
which will prevent the raft from per
forming its intended function and from
complying with the minimum perform
ance standards under all reasonably
foreseeable emergency conditions. The
* Copies may be obtained upon request ad
dressed to Library Services Division, HQ–630,
Federal Aviation Administration, Washing
ton, D.C. 20553.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
raft manufacturer shall also provide
the purchaser with such limitations.
(2) The manufacturer shall maintain
a current file of complete design data.
(3) The manufacturer shall maintain
a current file of complete data describ
ing the inspection and test procedures
applicable to his liferafts. (See para
graph (d) of this section.)
(d) Quality control. Liferafts shall
be produced under a quality control sys
tem, established by the manufacturer,
which will assure that each raft is in
conformity with the requirements of this
Section and is in a condition for safe
operation. This system shall be de
scribed in the data required under par
agraph (c) (3) of this section. The Ad
ministrator shall be permitted to make
such inspections and production tests at
the manufacturer's facility as may be
necessary to determine compliance with
the requirements of this section.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.177 Airborne static (“DC to DC”)
electrical power converter (for air
carrier aircraft)—TSO–C71.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for airborne static (“DC to DC”)
electrical power converter equipment
which is to be used on civil aircraft of
the United States engaged in air carrier
operations. New models of such equip
ment manufactured for use on civil air
carrier aircraft on or after the effective
date of this section shall meet the stand
ards set forth in FAA Standard, “Air
borne Static (“DC to DC’) Electrical
Power Converter (For Air Carrier Air
craft)" dated April 15, 1961,” and Radio
Technical Commission for Aeronautics
Paper 100–54/DO–60 as amended by
Paper 256–58/EC–366 dated November 13,
1958.” Manufacturers of such equip
ment shall also comply with the require
ments of paragraphs (b), (c), and (d)
* Copies of the FAA Standard may be ob
tained upon request addressed to: Library
Services Division, HQ–630, Federal Aviation
Administration, Washington, D.C. 20553.
Coples of RTCA Paper 100–54/DO–60 may be
obtained from the RTCA Secretariat, Suite
302, NADA Building, 20th and K Streets NW.
Washington, D.C. 20006, for 20 cents per
copy.
...(31
§ 37.177
of this section for acceptance of their
equipment under this section.
(b) Marking. In addition to the
markings specified in § 37.7, equipment
which has been designed to Operate over
the environmental conditions outlined in
Procedure A of RTCA Paper 100–54/DO
60, as amended shall be marked as Cate
gory A equipment. Equipment which
has been designed to operate over the
environmental conditions outlined in
Procedure B of this same paper shall
be marked as Category B equipment.
(c) Data requirements. (1) The man
ufacturer shall maintain a current file
of complete design data.
(2) The manufacturer shall maintain
a current file of complete data describ
ing the inspection and test procedures
applicable to his product. (See para
graph (d) of this section.)
(3) Six copies each, except where
noted, of the following shall be furnished
to the Chief Engineering and Manufac
turing Branch, Flight Standards Divi
sion, Federal Aviation Administration, in
the region in which the manufacturer
is located.
(i) Manufacturer's Operating instruc
tions and equipment limitations.
(ii) Installation procedures with ap
plicable schematic drawings, wiring dia
grams, and specifications. Indicate any
limitations, restrictions, or other condi
tions pertinent to installation.
(iii) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(d) Quality control. Airborne Static
(“DC to DC”) electrical power converter
equipment shall be produced under a
quality control system, established by
the manufacturer, which will assure that
each equipment is in conformity with
the requirements of this section and is
in a condition for safe operation. This
system shall be described in the data re
quired under paragraph (c) (2) of this
Section. The Administrator shall be per
mitted to make such inspections and tests
at the manufacturer's facility as may be
necessary to determine compliance with
the requirements of this section.
(e) Previously approved equipment.
Airborne Static (“DC to DC”) electrical
power converter equipment approved
prior to the effective date of this section
may continue to be manufactured under
the provisions of its original approval.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
$ 37.178 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 37.178 Individual flotation devices—
TSO-C72b.
(a) Applicability. This technical
Standard order (TSO) prescribes the
minimum performance standards that
individual flotation devices must meet in
order to be identified with the applicable
TSO marking. New models of the devices
that are to be so identified, and that are
manufactured on or after May 1, 1972,
must meet the requirements of the “Fed
eral Aviation Administration Standard,
Individual Flotation Devices”, amended
effective May 1, 1972, set forth at the
end of this section.
(b) Marking. The marking specified
in § 37.7 (d) must be shown except that
the Weight need not be included.
(c) Data requirements. In addition to
the data specified in § 37.5, the manufac
turer must furnish to the Chief, Engi
neering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avia
tion Administration, in the region in
which the manufacturer is located, the
following technical data:
(1) Six copies of the descriptive infor
mation on the device.
(2) Six copies of the manufacturers’
equipment operating instructions and
limitations.
(3) Six copies of the applicable instal
lation instructions indicating any re
strictions or other conditions pertinent
to installation.
(4) One copy of the manufacturers'
test report.
(5) One copy of the manufacturers'
special cleaning and maintenance in
structions.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Flotation device models approved prior to
November 4, 1966, may continue to be
manufactured under the provisions of
their original approval.
FEDERAL AviaTION ADMINISTRATION STANDARD
INDIvidual FLOTATION DEVICES
1.0 Purpose. To specify minimum per
formance standards for individual flotation
devices other than life preservers defined in
the TSO–C13 Series.
2.0 Types and description of devices.
This standard provides for the following two
categories of individual flotation devices:
a. Inflatable types (compressed gas infla
tion).
b. Noninflatable types.
2.0.1 Description of inflatable types.
Inflation must be accomplished by release
of a compressed gas contained in a cartridge
into the inflation chamber. The cartridge
must be activated by a means readily ac
569
4-w
cessible and clearly marked for its intended
purpose. The flotation chamber must also
be capable of oral inflation in the event of
failure of the gas cartridge.
2.0.2. Description of noninflatable types.
Seat cushions, head rests, arm rests, pillows
or similar aircraft equipment are eligible
as flotation devices under this standard pro
vided they fulfill minimum requirements for
safety and performance. Compression
through extended service use, perspiration
and periodic cleaning must not reduce the
buoyancy characteristics of these devices be
low the minimum level prescribed in this
standard.
2.1 Instructions for use. Where the de
sign features of the device relative to its
purpose and proper use are not obvious to
the user, clearly worded instructions must be
provided. These instructions must be visible
under conditions of emergency lighting.
3.0 Definitions. The following are defini
tions of terms used throughout the standard:
a. Buoyancy. The amount of welght a
device can support in fresh water at 85° F.
b. Flame resistant. Not susceptible to
combustion to the point of propagating a
flame beyond safe limits after the ignition
source is removed.
c. Corrosion resistant. Not subject to de
terioration or loss of strength as a result of
prolonged exposure to a humid atmosphere.
4.0 General requirements—4.0.1 M a t e -
rials and processes. Materials used in the
finished product must be of the quality
which experience and tests have demon
strated to be suitable for the use intended
throughout the service life of the device.
The materials and processes must conform to
specifications selected or prepared by the
manufacturer which will insure that the
performance, strength and durability incor
porated in the prototype are continued or
exceeded in subsequently produced articles.
4.0.2 Fungus protection. Materials used
in the finished product must contain no nu
trient which will support fungus growth
unless such materials are suitably treated
to prevent such growth.
4.0.3 Corrosion protection. Metallic parts
exposed to the atmosphere must be corrosion
resistant or protected against corrosion.
4.0.4 Fire protection. If the device is not
used as part of a seat or berth, materials used
in the device, including any covering, must
meet paragraph 6.0.2 of this standard. If the
device is to be used as part of a seat or berth,
all materials used in the device must meet
paragraph 7.0.3 of this standard.
4.0.5 Temperature range. Materials used
in the construction of the device must be
suitable for the intended purpose following
extended exposures through a range of op
erating temperatures from — 40° F. to
+ 140° F.
4.1 Design and construction—4.1.1 Gen
eral. The design of the device, the inflation
means if provided, and straps or other acces
sories provided for the purpose of donning by
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
the user must be simple and obvious thereby
making its purpose and actual use immedi
ately evident to the user.
4.1.2 Miscellaneous design features. The
devices must be adaptable for children as
well as adults. They must have features
which enable the users to retain them when
jumping into the water from a height of at
least 5 feet. Attachment straps must not
pass between the user's legs for retention or
restrict breathing or blood circulation.
5.0 Performance characteristics—5.0.1
Buoyance standard. The device must be
shown by the tests specified in paragraph
7.0.1 to be capable of providing not less than
14 pounds of buoyancy in fresh water at 85°
F. for a period of 8 hours.
5.0.2 Utilization. The devices must be
capable of being utilized by the intended
user With ease.
5.0.3 Function under temperature limits.
The device must be functional within the
tenniperature limitations of —40° F. to
+ 140° F.
6.0 Standard test procedures—6.0.1 Salt
spray test solution. The salt used must be
sodium chloride or eqivalent containing on
the dry basis not more than 0.1 percent of
sodium iodide and not more than 0.2 percent
of impurities. The solution must be pre
pared by dissolving 20+2 parts by weight of
salt in 80 parts by weight of distilled or other
water containing not more than 200 parts per
million of total Solids. The solution must be
kept free from solids by filtration, decanta
tion, or any other suitable means. The solu
tion must be adjusted to be maintained at a
specific gravity of from 1.126 to 1.157 and a
PH of between 6.5 and 7.2 when measured at
a temperature in the exposure zone main
tained at 95° F.
6.0.2 Flame resistance. Three specimens
approximately 4 inches wide and 14 inches
long must be tested. Each specimen must be
clamped in a metal frame so that the two
long edges and one end are held securely.
The frame must be such that the exposed
area of the specimen is at least 2 inches wide
and 13 inches long with the free end at least
one-half inch from the end of the frame for
ignition purposes. In the case of fabrics, the
direction of the weave corresponding to the
most critical burn rate must be parallel to the
14-inch dimension. A minimum of 10 inches
of the specimen must be used for timing
purposes, and approximately 1% inches must
burn before the burning front reaches the
timing zone. The specimen must be long
enough so that the timing is stopped at least
1 inch before the burning front reaches the
end of the exposed area.
The specimens must be supported hori
zontally and tested in draft free conditions.
The surface that will be exposed when in
stalled in the aircraft must face down for the
test. The specimens must be ignited by a
Bunsen or Tirrell burner. To be acceptable,
the average burn rate of the three specimens
must not exceed 4 inches per minute. Al
563
§ 37.178
ternatively, if the specimens must not sup
port combustion after the ignition flame is
applied for 15 seconds or if the flame extin
guishes itself and subsequent burning with
Out a flame does not extend into the
undamaged areas, the material is also
acceptable.
7.0 Test requirements—7.0.1 Buoyancy
testing. The flotation device, including all
dress covers, and straps that would normally
be used by a survivor in an emergency, must
be tested in accordance with either subpara
graph (a) or (b) of this paragraph, as appli
cable, or an equivalent test procedure. The
test may be conducted using non-fresh water,
or at a temperature other than 85° F., or
both, provided the result can be converted to
the standard water condition specified in
paragraph 5.0.1. The test may be conducted
in open (ocean or lake) or restricted (swim
ming pool) water. The test specimen of non
inflatable devices, such as pillows or seat
cushions, must either be preconditioned to
simulate any detrimental effects on buoy
ancy resulting from extended service use or
an increment must be added to the buoyancy
standard in paragraph 5.0.1 sufficient to offset
any reduction in buoyancy which would re
sult from extended service use.
a. Test procedure applicable to inflatable
devices and to nominflatable devices made
from closed cell material. The device must
be tested by submerging it in water so that
no part of it is less than 24 inches below the
surface. It must be shown that the buoy
ancy of the device is at least equal to the
value specified 1n paragraph 5.0.1 after sub
mersion for at least 8 hours, except that the
test may be discontinued in less than 8 hours
if buoyancy measurements taken at 4 succes
sive 30-minute intervals show that the buoy
ancy of the device has stabilized at a value at
least equal to the value specified in paragraph
5.0.1.
b. Test procedures applicable to moninflat
able devices made from open cell material.
The device must be completely submerged
and either supporting a human subject or
attached to a mechanical apparatus that
simulates the movements characteristic of a
nonswimmer. During the test, the device
must be subjected to a squeezing action com
parable to that caused by the movements
characteristic of a nonswimmer. It must be
shown that the buoyancy of the device is at
least equal to the value specified in paragraph
5.0.1 after testing for at least 8 hours, except
that the test may be discontinued in less than
8 hours if the buoyancy measurements taken
at 4. Successive 30-minute intervals show that
the buoyancy of the device has stabilized at a
value at least equal to the value specified in
paragraph 5.0.1.
7.02 Salt spray testing. All metallic
operating parts must be placed in an en
closed chamber and sprayed with an atom
ized salt solution for a period of 24 hours.
The solution must be atomized in the
chamber at a rate of three quarts per 10
§ 37.179 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
cubic feet of chamber volume per 24-hour
period. At the end of the test period, it
must be demonstrated that the parts Operate
properly.
7.0.3 Test for fire protection of materials.
Materials used in flotation devices that are to
be used as part of an aircraft seat or berth
must comply with the self-extinguishing fire
protection provisions of $25,853(b) of Part
25 of this chapter. In all other applications,
the materials in the flotation devices must be
tested in accordance with paragraph 6.0.2 of
this standard to substantiate adequate flame
resistant properties.
7.0.4 Eactreme temperature testing. Tests
must be performed to demonstrate that the
device is operable throughout the tempera
ture range specified in paragraph 5.0.3. In
performing these tests, preconditioning of
test specimens must be accomplished to
simulate conditions of immediate use of the
device following an aircraft takeoff.
Note: An acceptable procedure for pre
conditioning may involve storage of the de
vice for 8 hours at the extreme temperatures
specified, followed by exposure to room tem
perature conditions for a period of time not
to exceed 10 minutes.
[Amdt. 37–8, 31 F.R. 12942, Oct. 5, 1966, as
amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967; Amdt. 37–25, 37 F.R. 3974,
Feb. 24, 1972.]
§ 37.179 Static electrical power in
verter—TSO–C73.
(a) Applicability. Minimum perform
ance standards are hereby established
for airborne static electrical power in
verter equipment which is to be used
on United States civil aircraft, engaged
in air carrier operations. New models
of airborne static electrical power in
verter equipment manufactured on or
after the effective date of this Section
shall meet the standards specified in
Federal Aviation Agency Standard, “Air
borne Static Electrical Power Inverter”,
dated July 25, 1963.”
(b) Marking. In addition to the
marking requirements of § 37.7(d), each
static inverter shall be marked with the
following:
(1) Rated terminal voltage, frequency,
and the number of phases;
(2) Rated power in volt amperes;
(3) Output load power factor: and
(4) Maximum operating altitude.
(c) Data requirements. In addition
to the data required by § 37.5, the man
1 Copies may be obtained upon request
addressed to Library Services Division,
HQ–630, Federal Aviation Administration,
Washington, D.C. 20553.
564
ufacturer shall furnish to the Chief,
Engineeering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal
Aviation Administration, in the region
in which the manufacturer is located, the
following technical data:
(1) Six copies of the manufacturer's
operating instruction and the equipment
limitations. Installation pro c e du res
With applicable schematic drawings, wir
ing diagrams, and specifications. Indi
cate any restrictions or conditions pe:-
tinent to installation, and
(2) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964.
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.180 Airborne ATC transponder
equipment—TS0—C74c.
(a) Applicability. This technical
standard order prescribes the minimum
performance standards which airborne
ATC transponder equipment must meet
in order to be identified with the appli
cable TSO marking. New models of such
equipment that are to be so identified
and that are manufactured on or after
January 26, 1973, must meet the fol
lowing performance and environmental
Standards:
(1) Performance standards. (i) Equip
ment marked as Class 1A must be equip
ment intended for installation in aircraft
that operate at altitudes above 15,000
feet and must meet the minimum per
formance standards of “Federal Avia
tion Standard, Airborne ATC Trans
ponder Equipment,” set forth at the end
of this section, as applicable.
(ii) Equipment marked as Class 1B
must be equipment intended for instal
lation in aircraft that operate at alti
tudes not exceeding 15,000 feet and must
meet the minimum performance stand
ards of “Federal Aviation Standard, Air
borne ATC Transponder Equipment," set
forth at the end of this section, as
applicable. -
(iii) Equipment marked as Class 2A
must be equipment intended for instal
lation in aircraft that operate at alti
tudes above 15,000 feet and must meet
the minimum performance standards set
forth in Section II of Part Two in Radio
Technical Commission for Aeronautics
Document No. DO–144 entitled “Mini
mum Operational Characteristics—Air
borne ATC Transponder Systems,” dated
March 12, 1970, and Change No. 1 to
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
DO-144, Paper 232–70/EC–643, dated
November 5, 1970, as applicable, except
as provided in subparagraph (2) of this
paragraph.
(iv) Equipment marked as Class 2B
must be equipment intended for instal
lation in aircraft that operate at alti
tudes not exceeding 15,000 feet and must
meet the minimum performance stand
ards set forth in Section II of Part TWO
in Radio Technical Commission for Aero
nautics Document No. DO-144 entitled,
“Minimum Operational Characteristics—
Airborne ATC Transponder Systems,”
dated March 12, 1970, and Change No. 1
to DO–144, Paper 232–70/EC–643, dated
November 5, 1970, as applicable, except
as provided in subparagraph (2) of this
paragraph.
(2) Erceptions. (i) In lieu of the re
quirements in subparagraph II A.8.c. of
Fart Two in RTCA Document DO-144,
the reply characteristics apply over a re
ceived signal amplitude range between
minimum triggering level and a level
of —21 dbm.
(ii) The requirement specified in sub
paragraph II A.9.a. of Part Two in RTCA
Document DO-144 need not be complied
with.
(iii) The requirements of subpara
graph H. A.16.b. (2) and (3) of Part Two
of RTCA Document DO-144, in so far
as, they pertain to pressure altitude in
formation pulses, must be complied with
only if complete altitude reporting capa
bility is provided.
(iv) The requirements of subpara
graph II A.16.b. (4), (5), and (6) of
Part TWO of RCTA Document, DO–144
must be complied with only if complete
altitude reporting capability is provided.
(3) Environmental Standards. RTCA
Document No. DO-138 entitled “Envi
ronmental Conditions and Test Proce
dures for Airborne Electronic/Electrical
Equipment and Instruments,” dated
June 27, 1968, must be used in determin
ing the environmental conditions over
which the equipment has been designed
to operate. Classes 2A and 2B equipment
need only be tested for the environ
mental conditions of temperature and
altitude, humidity, shock, vibration, and
power input voltage set forth in para
graphs 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, and 9.0 of
DO–138.
(b) Availability of documents. RTCA
Document Nos. DO–138, dated June 27,
1968, and DO–144, dated March 12, 1970,
as amended by Change No. 1 (Paper
232–70/EC–643), dated November 5,
565
§ 37.180
1970, are incorporated herein in ac
cordance with 5 U.S.C. 552(a)(1) and
§ 37.23 of the Federal Aviation Regula
tions and are available as indicated in
§ 37.23. Additionally, RTCA Documents
Nos. DO–138 and DO-144, as amended,
may be examined at any FAA regional
office of the Chief of Engineering and
Manufacturing Branch (or in the case
of the Western Region, the Chief, Air
craft Engineering Division) and may be
obtained from the RTCA Secretariat,
Suite 655, 1717 H Street NW., Washing
ton, DC 20006, at a cost of $8 per copy
for Document No. DO-138 and $6 per
copy for Document No. DO-144.
(c) Marking. In addition to the mark
ings specified in § 37.7, the equipment
must meet the following requirements:
(1) The environmental categories over
which it has been designed to operate as
Set forth in Appendix B of RTCA Docu
ment No. DO-138 must be permanently
and legibly marked on the equipment.
Where an environmental test procedure
is not applicable and the test is not con
ducted, an “X” should be placed in the
Space assigned for that category.
(2) The class which the equipment
meets must be permanently and legibly
marked on the equipment. Equipment
which meets the requirements of more
than one class need only be marked with
the class which contains the more severe
requirements. When listed in order of
severity of requirements, highest first,
the classes are: 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B.
(3) Each separate component of
equipment (antenna, receiver-transmit
ter, etc.) must be permanently and
legibly marked with at least the name
of the manufacturer, the TSO number,
and the environmental categories over
which it is designed to operate.
(d) Data requirements. (1) In accord
ance with $ 37.5, the manufacturer must
furnish to the Chief, Engineering and
Manufacturing Branch, Flight Stand
ards Division (or in the case of the West
ern Region, the Chief, Aircraft Engineer
ing Division), Federal Aviation Admin
istration, in the region in which the
manufacturer is located, one copy of the
following technical data:
(i) Manufacturer's operating instruc
tions and equipment limitations.
(ii) Installation procedures with ap
plicable schematic diagrams, wiring
diagrams, and specifications. Indicate
any limitations, restrictions, or other
conditions pertinent to the installation.
§ 37.180 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(iii) Manufacturer's test report(s).
(iv) Equipment data sheets Specifying,
within the prescribed range of environ
mental conditions, the actual perform
ance of equipment of that type with
respect to each performance factor pre
scribed in the applicable standard. Per
formance data for abnormal environ
mental conditions may also be included.
(2) One copy of the technical data
specified in subdivisions (i), (ii), and
(iv) of subparagraph (1) of this para
graph must be furnished with each
article.
(e) Previously approved equipment.
Airborne ATC Transponder Equipment
approved prior to the effective date of
this section may continue to be manu
factured under the provisions of its
original approval.
[Doc. No. 10955, 37 FR 28498, Dec. 27, 1972:
38 FR 3587, Feb. 8, 1973; 38 FR 4660, Feb. 20,
1973]
FEDERAL AvLATION STANDARD
AIRBorn E ATc TRANSPONDER EQUIPMENT
1.0 General standards—1.1 Operation of
controls. The design of the equipment must
be such that the controls intended for use
during flight cannot be operated in any pos
sible position combination, or sequence that
would result in a condition detramental to
to the continued performance of the equip
ment. Controls that are not normally ad
justed in flight must not be readily accessible
in flight.
1.2 operating controls. In addition to
such other operating controls as are neces
sary, controls must be provided to accom
plish the following functions:
a. Selection of reply codes.
b. Selection of “standby" condition.
c. Selection of Modes 3/A and C combined.
d. Activation of identification feature.
e. Removal of all information pulses on
the Mode C reply.
1.3 Effects of test. Unless otherwise
stated, the design of the equipment must be
such that the application of the specified
tests produces no discernible condition that
would be detrimental to the continued per
formance of equipment manufactured in
accordance with such design.
2.0 Minimum performance standards un
der standard conditions. The test condi
tions and definitions of terms applicable to
a determination of the performance of air
borne ATC transponder equipment are set
forth in Appendix A.
2.1 Receiver operating frequency and
bandwidth. a. The receiver nominal center
frequency must be 1030 MHz.
b. With an input signal level 3 db above
the minimum triggering level, the receiver
bandwidth must be such that the receiver
accepts pulses as outlined in Appendix A with
566
an interrogation center frequency drift of
+ 0.2 MHz.
c. The skirt bandwidth must be such that
the sensitivity of the receiver is at least
60 db down at +25 Mc and beyond.
2.2 Receiver sensitivity and dynamic
range. a. The minimum triggering level
(MTL) of the transponder must be such that
replies are generated to 90 percent of the
interrogation signals when—
1. The two pulses P, and P, constituting an
interrogation are of equal amplitude and P.
is not detected; and
2. The amplitude of these signals received
at the antenna end of the transmission line
of the transponder is nominally 71 db below
1 milli Watt with limits between 69 and 77.1b
below 1 milliwatt.
b. With the transponder adjusted to com
ply with paragraph a, the random triggering
rate (squitter) must not be greater than five
reply pulse groups or suppressions per second
averaged over a period of at least 30 seconds.
c. The variation of the minimum trigger
ing level between modes must not exceed 1
db for nominal pulse spacings and pulse
Widths.
d. The reply characteristics apply over a
received signal amplitude range between
minimum triggering level and 50 db above
that level.
e. The standards of this section assume a
transmission line loss of 3 db and an antenna
performance equivalent to that of a simple
quarter wave antenna. In toe event that these
assumed conditions do not apply, the equip
ment must be adjusted as necessary to pro
vide a sensitivity equivalent to that
specified.
2.3 Spurious responses. All spurious re
sponses, including response to image fre
quencies, must be such that the response to
such signals is at least 60 db down from the
normal sensitivity of the receiver.
2.4 Interrogation. The equipment must
accept and reply to interrogations on at
least Modes 3/A and C.
Note: Interrogation Modes B and D as de
fined in Figure 1 have been agreed upon
internationally and their use may be speci
fled for certain flight operations. These
modes may be provided as optional features
on transponder equipment.
2.5 Side-lobe suppression. The equip
ment must provide side-lobe suppression.
2.6 Decoding performance. a. Conditions
under which transponder must reply. When
selected to reply to a particular interrogation
mode, and with a signal amplitude range
from the minimum triggering level to 50 db
above that level, the transponder must reply
to at least 90 percent of the interrogations
when all of the following conditions are met:
(1) Either the received amplitude of P, is
in excess of a level of 9 db above the received
amplitude of Ps, or no pulse is received
2 + 0.7 microsecond following P.
(2) The received amplitude of P, is in ex
cess of a level 1 db below the received ampli
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
tude of P, but no greater than 3 db above
the received amplitude of Pi.
(3) The received amplitude of a proper
interrogation is more than 10 db above the
received amplitude of random pulses where
the latter are not recognized by the trans
ponder as P1, Pa, or Pa.
b. Conditions under which transponder
must not reply. Over the signal amplitude
from the minimum triggering level to 50 db
above this level, the transponder must not
reply to more than 10 percent of the inter
rogations under either of the following
conditions:
(1) The interval between interrogation
pulse P, and P, differs from the specified
spacing for the particular mode setting by
more than + 1.0 microsecond.
(2) The interrogations consist of single
pulses. However, this does not apply to
those combinations of single pulses that
occur at the selected interrogation spacing
or to single pulses that have amplitude
variations approximating a normal inter
rogation condition.
c. Side-lobe suppression. The transponder
must be suppressed for a period of 35+ 10
microseconds following receipt of a pulse pair
of proper spacing and amplitude indicative
of side-lobe interrogation. This suppression
action must be capable of being reinitiated
for the full duration within 2 mlcroseconds
after the end of any suppression period.
The transponder must be suppressed with a
99 percent efficiency over a received signal
amplitude range between 3 db above mini
mum triggering level and 50 db above that
level and upon receipt of properly spaced
interrogations when the received amplitude
of P, is equal to or in excess of the received
amplitude of P, and spaced 2.0+0.15 micro
second from P.
2.7 Transponder discrimination and de
sensitization—a. Pulse width discrimination.
Received signals of amplitude between mini
mum triggering level and at least 6 db above
this level, and of a duration less than 0.3
microsecond, must not cause the transponder
to initiate more than 10 percent reply or
suppression action. With the exception of
pulses having amplitude variations approxi
mating a normal interrogation or suppression
pulse pair condition, any pulse of a duration
Inore than 1.5 microseconds must not cause
the transponder to initiate reply or suppres
sion action over the signal amplitude range
from the minimum triggering level to 50 db
above that level.
b. Echo suppression and recovery—(1)
Echo suppression desensitization. Upon re
ceipt of any pulse more than 0.7 microsecond
in duration (desensitization pulse), the re
ceiver must be desensitized by an amount
that is within at least 9 db of the amplitude
of the desensitizing pulse but must at no
time exceed the amplitude of the desensitiz
ing pulse except for overshoot during the
first microsecond following the desensitizing
pulse.
567
§ 37.180.
(2) Recovery. Following desensitization,
the receiver must recover sensitivity (within
3 db of minimum triggering level) within
15 microseconds after reception of a de
sensitizing pulse having a signal strength
up to 50 db above minimum triggering level.
Recovery must be nominally linear at an
average rate not exceeding 3.5 db per micro
second.
(3) Narrow pulses. Single pulses of dura
tion less than 0.7 microsecond must not cause
desensitization of duration or amount greater
than that permitted in subparagraphs (1)
or (2).
c. Dead time. (1) After reception of a
proper interrogation, the transponder must
reply to no other interrogation for the dura
tion of the reply pulse train. This dead time
must end no later than 125 microseconds.
after the transmission of the last reply
pulse of the group.
(2) The dead time of the transponder
created by means other than normal inter
rogations shall not exceed a period of more
than 2,500 miscroseconds duration at a maxi
mum duty cycle of 4.5 percent.
d. Reply rate control. A sensitivity-reduc
tion type reply rate control must be provided.
The range of this control must permit ad
justment of the reply rate to any value be
tween 500 replies per second and the maxi
mum rate of which the transponder is capa
ble, or 2,000 replies per second, whichever
is the lesser, without regard to the number
of pulses in each reply. Sensitivity reduction
in excess of 3 db must not take effect until
90 percent of the selected reply rate is ex
ceeded. The sensitivity must be reduced by
at least 30 db when the rate exceeds the
selected value by 50 percent. The reply rate
limit must be set at 1,200 replies per second,
or the maximum value below 1,200 replies
per second of which the transponder is
capable.
2.8 Transponder reply rate capability.
a. For equipment intended for installation in
aircraft that operate at altitudes above 15,000
feet, the reply rate capability must be at
least 1,200 reply groups per second for a 15
pulse coded reply.
b. For equipment intended for installation
in aircraft that operate at altitudes not ex
ceeding 15,000 feet, the reply rate capability
must be at least 1,000 reply groups per second
for a 15 pulse coded reply.
2.9 Transponder reply code capability.
Transponders must provide the following
code capability:
a. Framing pulses (see par. 2.13a.).
b. Information pulses in all combinations
of the A, B, C, and D subscript groups, to
create 4096 codes (see par. 2.13b.).
c. Special position identification pulse
(SPI) (see par. 2.13c.).
2.10 Reply transmission frequency. The
center frequency of the reply transmission
must be 1090–1–3 MHz.
2.11 Transmitter power output. a. For
equipment intended for installation in air
§ 37.180 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
craft which operate at altitudes above 15,000
feet, the peak pulse power available at the
antenna end of the transmission line of the
transponder must be at least 21 db and not
more than 27 db above 1 watt at any reply
rate up to 1,200 per second for a 15-pulse
coded reply.
b. For equipment intended for installation
in aircraft which operate at altitudes not ex
ceeding 15,000 feet, the peak pulse power
available at the antenna end of the transmis
sion line of the transponder must be at least
18.5 db and not more than 27 db above 1 watt
at any reply rate up to 1,200 per second for a
15-pulse coded reply.
c. The Standards of this section assume a
transmission line loss of 3 db and an an
tenna performance equivalent to that of a
simple quarter wave antenna. In the event
that these assumed conditions do not apply,
the equipment must be adjusted as neces
sary to provide a transmitter power output
equivalent to that specified.
2.12 Reply delay and fitter. a. The time
delay between the arrival, at the transponder
input, of the leading edge of P., and the
transmission of the leading edge of the
first pulse of the reply must be 3+0.5 micro
seconds.
b. The jitter of the reply pulse code group
with respect to P, must not exceed --0.1
microsecond for receiver input levels between
3 and 50 db above the minimum triggering
level.
c. Delay variations between modes on
which the transponder is capable of reply
ing must not exceed 0.2 microsecond.
2.13 Reply transmission pulse character
istics—a. Framing pulses. The reply func
tion must employ a signal comprising two
framing pulses spaced 20.8 microseconds
measured leading-edge to leading-edge at
half-voltage points, as the most elementary
code.
b. Information pulses. Information pulses
spaced at intervals of 1.45 microseconds
measured leading-edge to leading-edge at the
half-voltage points with the first pulse post
tioned 1.45 microseconds after the first fram
ing pulse must be provided. The designa
tion of these pulses and their position with
respect to the first framing pulse is as fol
lows:
Position (microseconds)
C. --------------------- 1.45
1 The X pulse is referenced here for possible
future use.
568
NoTE: Details and nomenclature of the
transponder reply pulse codes are set forth
in Appendix A.
c. Special position identification pulse
(SP1). In addition to the information
pulses provided, a special position identifica
tion pulse, which may be used with any of
the other information pulses upon request,
must be provided at a spacing 4.35 microsec
onds following the last framing pulse. When
replying to any mode of interrogation to
which the transponder is capable, except
Mode C, the selection of the SPI pulse must
be initiated by an IDENT switch. Upon ac
tivation of the IDENT switch, the SPI pulse
must be transmitted for a period between 15
and 30 seconds and must be repeatable at any
time.
d. Reply pulse shape. All reply pulses and
SPI pulses must be 0.45+ 0.10 microsecond in
duration and have rise times of from 0.05 to
0.1 microsecond and decay times of from 0.05
to 0.2 microsecond. The pulse amplitude
variation of one pulse with respect to any
other pulse in a reply train must not exceed
1 db. The rise and decay time may be less
providing the sideband radiation is no great
er than that which would be produced the
oretically by a trapezoidal wave having the
stated rise and decay time.
e. Reply pulse spacing tolerances. The
pulse spacing tolerances for each pulse (in
cluding the last framing pulse) with respect
to the first framing pulse of the reply group
must be + 0.10 microsecond. The pulse spac
ing tolerance of the special position identifi
cation pulse with respect to the last framing
pulse of the reply group must be + 0.10 mi
crosecond. The pulse spacing tolerance of
any pulse in the reply group with respect to
any other pulse (except the first framing
pulse) must be no more than +0.15 micro
Second.
2.14 Pressure-altitude transmission. The
equipment must have the capability for au
tomatic pressure-altitude transmission in
100-foot thcrements on Mode C when oper
ated in conjunction with a pressure-altitude
encoder (digitizer). The equipment must be
capable of automatic reply to Mode C inter
rogations with combinations of information
pulses coded in blnary form in 100-foot in
crements necessary for the equipment to
operate up to design maximum altitude. The
transponder must be provided with a means
to remove the information pulses from the
Mode C reply when requested by Air Traffic
Control. The transponder must continue
transmitting the framing pulses on Mode C
when the information pulses have been re
moved or are not provided. Automatic pres
sure altitude transmission codes pulse posi
tion assignment are set forth in figure 2.
2.15 Self test and monitor. If a self test
feature or monitor is provided, the devices
that radiate test interrogation signals, or
prevent transponder reply to proper inter
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
rogation during the test period, must be
limited to intermittent use which is no
longer than that required to determine the
transponder status. The test interrogation
rate must not exceed 450 per second and the
interrogation signal level at the antenna end
of the transmission line must not exceed a
level of -40 dbm.
2.16 Antenna. The equipment antenna
radiation pattern must be predominantly
vertically polarized and be essentially omni
directional in the horizontal plane with a
nominal vertical beamwidth of at least +30°
from the horizontal plane. The voltage stand
ing wave ratio (VSWR) produced on the an
tenna transmission line by the antenna must
not exceed 1.5:1 when operating on the
radiofrequencies of 1030 and 1090 MHz.
2.17 Interference suppression pulse re
sponse. If the equipment is designed to ac
cept and respond to suppression pulses from
: other electronic equipment in the aircraft
(to disable it while the other equipment is
transmitting), the equipment must regain
normal sensitivity, within 3 db, not later
than 15 microseconds after the end of the
applied suppression pulse.
2.18 Emission of spurious radiofrequency
: energy. The levels of conducted and radiated
spurious radiofrequency energy emitted by
the equipment must not exceed those levels
specified in Appendix A of RTCA Document
No. DO-188 entitled “Environmental Condi
tions and Test Procedures for Airborne Elec
tronic/Electrical Equipment and Instru
ments,” dated June 27, 1968.
8.0 Minimum performance standards
under entrironmental oonditions. Unless
otherwise specified, the test procedures ap
plicable to a determination of the perform
ance of airborne ATC transponder equip
Inent under environmental conditions are
set forth in RTCA Document No. DO-138
entitled “Environmental Conditions and
Test Procedures for Airborne Electronic/
Electrical Equipment and Instruments,”
dated June 27, 1968.
3.1 Temperature-Altitude—a. Low tem
perature. (1) When the equipment is sub
jected to this test, the standards of the
following paragraphs must be met: 2.1a; 2.2,
except that at temperatures below -15° C.,
the sensitivity must not be less than —69
dbrm and the variation of sensitivity of the
receiver between any mode on which it is
capable of operating must be less than 2 db;
2.6a (1); 2.6b (1); 2.6c; 2.7b; 2.7c; 2.10; 2.11;
2.12, except that at temperatures below
—15° C., the delay variation between modes
on which the transponder is capable of reply
ing must be less than 0.4 microsecond; 2.13c;
2.13d; and 2.13e.
(2) Following the low temperature test,
the requirements of paragraph 2.16 must be
met.
b. High temperature. (1) When the equip
ment is subjected to the high short-time op
erating temperature test, the equipment
must operate electrically and mechanically.
569
89–059–75–87
§ 37.180
(2) When the equipment is subjected to
the high operating temperature test, the
standards of the following paragraphs must
be met: 2.1a; 2.2, except that at temperatures
above +40° C., the sensitivity must not be
less than —69 db.m. and the variation of
sensitivity of the receiver between any mode
on which it is capable of operating must be
less than 2 db; 2.6a (1); 2.6b (1); 2.6c;
2.7b; 2.7c; 2.10; 2.11; 2.12, except that at
temperatures above +40° C. the delay varia
tion between modes on which the trans
ponder is capable of replying must be less
3.
.13e.
0.4 microsecond; 2.13c; 2.13d; and
(3) Following the high temperature test,
the requirements of paragraph 2.16 must be
met.
c. Altitude. (1) When the equipment is
subjected to this test, the standards of the
following paragraphs must be met: 2.1 a and
b; 2.10; 2.11; and 2.13d.
(2) Following the altitude test, the re
quirements of paragraph 2.16 must be met.
d. Decompression (when required). When
the equipment is subjected to this test, the
standards of paragraphs 2.1 a and b; 2.10;
2.11; and 2.13a must be met.
e. Overpressure (when required). When
the equipment is subjected to this test, the
standards of paragraphs 2.1 a and b; 2.10;
2.11; and 2.13a must be met.
3.2 Humidity. After being subjected to
this test, the equipment must meet the
following:
a. Within 15 minutes from the time pri
mary power is applied, the receiver sensi
tivity must be within 3 db of that specified
in paragraph 2.2, the transmitter power
output must be within 3 db of that speci
fled in paragraph 2.11, and the requirements
of 2.1a; 2.1b; and 2.10 must be met.
b. Within 4 hours from the time primary
power is applied, the standards of paragraphs
2.1 a. and b; 2.2; 2.10; 2.11; and 2.16 must be
Inet.
8.8 Shock. a. Following the application ef
the 6G shocks, the standards of the follow
ing paragraphs must be met: 2.1a; 2.2; 2.6
a(1); 2.6c; 2.7b; 2.7c; 2.10; 2.11; 2.12; 2.13c;
2.13d; 2.13e; and 2.16.
b. Following the application of the 15G
shocks, the equipment must have remained
in its mounting and no parts of the equip
ment or its mounting become detached and
free of the shock test equipment. The ap
plication of the 15G shock test may result
in damage to the equipment. Therefore, this
test may be conducted after the other tests
are completed.
3.4 Vibration. a. When the equipment is
subjected to this test, the standards of the
following paragraphs must be met: 2.1a; 2.2;
2.6a (1); 2.6b (1); 2.6c; 2.7b; 2.7c; 2.10; 2.11;
2.13c; 2.13d; and 2.13e.
b. Following the vibration test, the re
quirements of paragraph 2.16 must be met.
 $37,180 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
3.5 Temperature variation. a. When the
equipment is subjected to this test, the
standards of the following paragraphs must
be met: 2.1a; 2.2, except that at temperatures
below –15° C. and above +40° C., the sensi
tivity must be not less than —69 db.m. and
the variation of sensitivity of the receiver
between any mode on which it is capable
of operating must be less than 2 db; 2.6a (1);
2.6b (1); 2.6c; 2.7b; 2.7c; 2.10; 2.11; 2.12, ex
cept that at temperatures below -15° C. and
above +40° C., the delay variation between
modes on which the transponder is capable
of replying must be less than 0.4 microsec
ond: 2.13c; 2.13d; and 2.13e.
b. Following the temperature variation
test, the requirement of paragraph 2.16 must
be met.
3.6 Power input variation. When the
equipment is subjected to this test, the
standards of the following paragraphs must
be met: 2.1a; 2.2; 2.6a (1): 2.6b (1): 2.6c; 2.7b;
2.76; 2.10; 2.11; 2.12; 2.13c; 2.18.1; and 2.13e.
8.7 Low voltage. a. When the primary
power voltage(s) rif d.c. operated equipment
is 80 percent and when that of a.c. operated
equipment is 87% percent of design volt
age(s), the equipment must operate elec
trically and mechanically.
b. D.c. operated equipment must meet
the standards of paragraphs 2.1 a and b;
2.2; 2.10; and 2.11 within two (2) minutes
upon returning the primary power volt
age(s) to design voltage, after the gradual
reduction of the primary voltage(s) from 80
percent to 50 percent of design voltage(s).
c. The gradual reduction of the primary
power voltage(s) of d.c. operated equipment
from 50 percent to 0 percent of design volt
age(s) must produce no evidence of the
presence of fire or smoke. Paragraph 1.2
does not apply.
3.8 Conducted voltage transient. When
the equipment is subjected to this test, the
standards of paragraphs 2.1 a and b; 2.2;
2.10; and 2.11 must be met.
3.9 Conducted audiofrequency suscep
tibility. When the equipment is subjected to
this test, the standards of paragraphs 2.1 a
and b; 2.2; 2.10; and 2.11 must be met.
3.10 Audiofrequency magnetic field sus
ceptibility. When the equipment is subjected
to this test, the standards of paragraphs 2.1
a and b; 2.2; 2.10; and 2.11 must be met.
3.11 Radiofrequency susceptibility (radi
sted and conducted). When the equipment
is subjected to this test, the standards of
paragraphs 2.1 a and b; 2.2b; 2.10; and 2.11
Inust be met.
3.12 Ezplosion (when required). When
the equipment is subjected to this test, the
equipment must cause no detonation of the
explosive mixture within the test chamber.
3.13 Waterproofness (drip proof) test
(when required). After subjection to this
test, the standards of paragraphs 2.1; 2.2:
2.10; 2.11; and 2.13a must be met.
570
3.14 Hydraulic fluid test (when required).
After subjection to this test, the standards
of paragraphs 2.1; 2.2; 2.10; 2.11; and 2.13a
Inust be met.
3.15 Sand and dust test (when required).
After subjection to this test, the standards
of paragraphs 2.1, 2.2; 2.10; 2.11; and 2.13a
must be met.
3.16 Fungus resistance test (when re
quired). After subjection to this test, the
standards of paragraphs 2.1; 2.2; 2.10; 2.11;
and 2.13a must be met.
3.17 Salt spray test (when required).
After subjection to this test, the standards
of paragraphs 2.1; 2.2; 2.10; 2.11; and 2.13a
Imust be met.
APPEntour. A
1.9 Test conditions. The following def
initions of terms and conditions of test
are applicable to the ATC transponder equip
ment.
a. Potoer trºput doltage—Direct current.
Unless otherwise specified, when the equip
ment is designed for operation from a direct
current power source, all measurements
must be conducted with the power input
voltage adjusted to 18.75 volts, +2 percent
for 12-14 volt equipment, or to 27.5 volts,
+2 percent for 24–28 volt equipment. The
input voltage must be measured at the
equipment power input terminals.
b. Power input voltage—Alternating our
fent. Unless otherwise specified, when the
equipment is designed for operation from
an alternating current power source, all
tests must be conducted with the power in
put voltage adjusted to design voltage +2
percent. In the case of equipment designed
for operation from a power source of es
sentially constant frequency (e.g., 400 Hs),
the input frequency must be adjusted to de
sign +2 percent. In the case of equipment
designed for operation from a power source
of variable frequency (e.g., 850 to 1000 Hz),
tests must be conducted with the input
frequency adjusted to within 5 percent of a
selected, frequency within the range for
which the equipment is designed.
c. 4d/ustment of equipment. The circuits
of the equipment under test must be prop
erly aligned and otherwise adjusted in so
Cordance with the manufacturer's recom
mended practices prior to the application of
the specified tests.
d.Test instrument precautions. Due pre
cautions must be taken during the conduct of
the tests to prevent the introduction of er
rors resulting from the improper connection
of headphones, voltmeters, oscilloscopes, and
other test instruments across the input and
output impedances of the equipment under
test.
e. Ambient conditions. Unless otherwise
specified, all tests must be conducted under
conditions of ambient room temperature,
pressure and humidity. However, the room
temperature must not be lower than 10° C.
 Chapter l–Federal Aviation Administration $37,180
f. Warm-tºp period. Unless otherwise
specified, all tests must be conducted after (1) Pulse rise time. The time required for
a warm-up period of not less than fifteen the leading edge of pulses P, P, and P, to
rise from 10 to 90 percent of its maximum
(15) minutes. voltage amplitude must be between 0.05 and
g. Connected load. Unless otherwise spec 0.1 microsecond.
ified, all tests must be performed with the
(2) Pulse fall time. The time for
equipment connected to loads having the im
pedance value for which it is designed. the trailing edge of pulses Pl,
fall from 90 to
tºº,
10 percent of its maximum
to
h. Interrogation test signal. The charac
teristics of the interrogation test signal are: voltage amplitude must be between 0.05 and
Radiofrequency. The frequency of the 0.2 microsecond.
signal generator oscillator must be 1030 MHz (8) Pulse duration. The duration of pulse
+0.01 percent. Pi, P, and P. must be 0.8+0.1 microsecond
OW output. CW output between pulses measured at the half-voltage points.
must be at least 60 db below the peak level 1. Code nomenclature. The code designa
of the pulses. tions consist of four digits each of which lies
Interrogation. The interrogation must between 0 and 7, inclusive, and consist of the
consist of two transmitted pulses designated
P, and P. When providing side-lobe sup sum of the numerical subscripts of the pulse
employed as follows:
pression the basic interrogation is supple
mented by pulse P, transmitted after P. Pulse
The amplitude of P. must not be more than Digit group
First ----------- A
1 do below the radiated amplitude of P.
Pulse coding. The interval, measured Second ----- ------- B
leading-edge, to leading-edge at half voltage Third ----------------- C
points, between P, and P, is as follows: Fourth ---------------- D

Mode 8/A------------ 8+0.2 microseconds. Examples.

Mode B-------------- 17:0.2 microseconds. 1. Code 8600 consists of information pulses
Mode C-------------- 21+0.2 microseconds. A1. As B. B.
Mode D------------- 25+0.2 Inicroseconds.
2. Code 2057 consists of A, C, C, D, D,
The interval between P, and P, when P, is D.
used, must be 2.0+0.15 microseconds. J. Minimum triggering level (MTL).
Pulse shape. The pulse envelope as deteo Means the lowest level of signal to which the
ted by a linear detector must have a shape transponder will reply to 90 percent of the
falling within the following limits: received interrogations.

ATCRBS INTERROGATION MODES

MODE APPLICATION CHARACTERISTIC
- 8psec --
3/A COMMON (ATC)
:
-

tnor REQUIREo -—H 7psee —-

B CIVIL (ATC) for us.
operation)
Jlh—ſl
---
21psec —-
C CIVIL (ALTITUDE)

D CIVIL (UNASSIGNED)

TRANSPONDER REPLY CODES

Mode 3/A

-T
spacING Uſº)
Leading Edge to o 1.45 29 4.35 58 7.25 ºz. olò II.6 m306 M.5 15.93 m.4 1885 20.3 24.63
leading EDGE

rºomerict Arunz or pulses r c - C

r
As
-
ºn A
I

FIGURE 1. ATCRBS, INTERROGATION MoDES AND REPLY Copes.

571
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$37,180
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 37.181 Hydraulic hose assemblies—
TSO-C75.
(a) Applicability. Minimum perform
ance standards are hereby established
for hydraulic hose assemblies which are
to be used on U.S. civil transport category
aircraft. New models of hydraulic hose
aSSemblies, manufactured on or after the
effective date of this section, which are
to be used on U.S. civil transport cate
gory aircraft shall meet the standards
Specified in Federal Aviation Adminis
tration Standard, “Hydraulic Hose As
semblies”, dated December 15, 1962.*
Hydraulic hose assemblies approved
prior to the effective date of this section
may continue to be manufactured under
the provisions of their prior approval.
Articles shall be marked
(b) AMarking.
in accordance with the requirements of
§ 37.7 (d) with the following exceptions:
(1) Trademark may be used in lieu of
name, and manufacturer's address is not
required;
(2) Size, type, and maximum operating
pressure of the hose assembly shall be
shown in lieu of the weight in paragraph
(d) (3) of § 37.7;
(3) Part numbershall be shown:
(4) Date of manufacture in terms of
month and year is to be shown and serial
number omitted;
(5) In lieu of paragraph (d) (2) of
§ 37.7 hose assemblies suitable for use
with Synthetic base fluids shall be marked
with the letter “S” immediately follow
ing the type designation. Assemblies
suitable for use with petroleum base
fluids shall be marked With the letter
“P”. Assemblies suitable for use with
both synthetic and petroleum base fluids
shall be marked with “S/P”, i.e., Type
II–B–S, Type II–B–P, or Type II–B–S/P;
and
(6) Hose assemblies complying with
the fire resistant requirements shall be
identified by the letter “F” immediately
following the type and fluid designation,
i.e., Type II–B–S/P–F.
(c) Data requirements. In accord
ance with the provisions of § 37.5, the
manufacturer shall furnish to the Chief,
Engineering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avia
tion Administration, in the region in
Which the manufacturer is located, six
copies of the following technical data:
* Copies may be obtained upon request
addressed to Library Services Division,
HQ–630, Federal Aviation Administration,
Washington, D.C. 20558.
573
$ 37.183
(1) Type:
(2) Size:
(3) Maximum operating pressure;
(4) Part number; and
(5) Installation instructions and lim
itations, if any.
(d) Effective date. September 4, 1963.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 82 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.182 Fuel drain valves—TSO–C76.
(a) Applicability. Minimum perform
ance standards are hereby established
for fuel drain valves to be used in civil
aircraft of the United States. New
models of fuel drain valves manufac
tured on Or after the effective date of
this section shall meet the standards
Specified in the Federal Aviation Admin
1stration Standards, “Fuel Drain Valves”,
dated October 1, 1962."
(b) Marking. Articles shall be
marked in accordance with the require
ments of § 37.7 (d) except that:
(1) The size shall be shown in lieu of
the weight required by § 37.7 (d) (3); and
(2) Parts too small to contain all the
required information shall be marked
with the TSO number and the manufac
turer's name or identifying mark. For
such parts, the other marking data re
quired by § 37.7 (d) shall be placed on
the shipping container of the part.
(c) Data requirements. In addition
to the data specified in § 37.5 the man
ufacturer shall furnish to the Chief,
Engineering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avi
ation Administration, in the region in
which the manufacturer is located, the
following technical data:
(1) Six copies of an instruction man
ual describing the product and supply
ing information on maintenance, over
haul, and installation.
(2) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report. -
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8034, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967] -:
§ 37.183 Gas turbine auxiliary power
units—TS0–C77.
(a) Applicability. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for gas turbine auxiliary power
units for use on civil aircraft' of the
United States. New models of gastur
bine auxiliary power units manufactured
for use on civil aircraft on or after the
effective date of this section shall meet
$ 37.184 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
the standards Specified in the Federal
Aviation Administration Standard, “Gas
Turbine Auxiliary Power Units”, dated
January 3, 1963.”
(b) Marking. Articles shall
marked in accordance with the require
ments of $ 37.7(d) except that the weight
need only be shown to the nearest pound.
In addition, the following shall also be
shown:
(1) Maximum rated Speeds and tem
perature;
(2) Maximum allowable Speeds and
temperature;
(3) Maximum rated output;
(4) Category and class of service;
(5) Fuel grade and Specification; and
(6) Lubricating oil grade and speci
floation.
(c) Data requirements. In accord
ance with the provisions of $37.5, the
manufacturer shall furnish to the Chief,
Engineering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avia
tion Administration, in the region in
which the manufacturer is located, the
following technical data:
(1) Instruction manual containing in
structions for the installation, operation,
Servicing maintenance, repair, and over
haul of the unit.
(2) Model Specification.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15817, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 82 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.184 Crewmember demand oxygen
masks—TS0—C78.
(a) Applicability. This TSO pre
scribes the minimum performance stand
ards that aircraft crewmember demand
Oxygen masks must meet in order to be
identified with the applicable TSO mark
ing. New models of demand oxygen
masks that are to be so identifled and
that are manufactured on or after Feb
ruary 10, 1967, must meet the require
ments of the following “Federal Aviation
Administration Standard, Crewmember
Demand Oxygen Masks.”
(b) Marking. Each oxygen mask
manufactured in accordance with the
provisions of this section must
marked—
(1) To indicate whether it is a “non
pressure demand” or a “pressure de
mand” mask;
(2) To indicate the maximum envi
ronmental (cabin) altitude for which it
is qualified; and
See footnote on page 573.
(3) As specified in § 37.7, except that
the markings need not include the serial
number, the weight, or the date of man
ufacture.
be (c) Data requirements. In accord
ance with $ 37.5, the manufacturer must
furnish to the Chief, Engineering and
Manufacturing Branch, Flight Standards
Division, Federal Aviation Administra
tion, in the region in which the manu
facturer is located, the following tech
nical data:
(1) Seven sets of manufacturer's op
erating instructions and equipment lim
itations.
(2) Seven sets of installation proce
dures with applicable drawings and
Specifications, limitations, restrictions,
and other conditions pertinent to instal
lation.
(3) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(4) One copy of the manufacturer's
maintenance instructions, including
cleaning and sterilizing procedures.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Crewmember demand oxygen masks ap
proved prior to February 10, 1967, may
continue to be manufactured under the
provisions of the original approval.
FEDERAI, AVIATION ADMINISTRATION STANDARE
CREWMEMBER DEMAND oxygen Masrs
1.0 Purpose. This Standard contains
minimum performance standards for the
manufacture of demand type oxygen masks
for use with nonpressure demand (straight
demand and diluter-demand) and pressure
demand oxygen systems.
2.0 Design and construction of mask. To
be eligible for approval under a Technical
Standard Order authorization, the oxygen
mask must possess the following design and
construction characteristics.
2.1 Masks designed for use with a re
motely located oxygen flow regulator must
include a flexible oxygen supply tube fixed or
detachable at the mask or at the regulator
or at both. Oxygen supply tubes used in
conjunction with mask-mounted oxygen
flow regulators are not subject to this para
graph.
22 The mask must be designed for res
piration through the nose and mouth (oro
be nasal). The mask may also include inte
gral goggles designed to protect the eyes from
smoke and harmful gases (fullface).
2.3 The mask must be constructed of
materials that
(a) Do not contaminate air or oxygen;
(b) Are not adversely affected by continu
ous contact with oxygen; and
(c) Are at least flame resistant.
2.4 The mask must be designed to pre
vent the accumulation of hazardous quanti
574
 Chapter 1–Federal Aviation Administration
ties of expiratory gases within the facepiece
chamber.
2.5 The mask must be designed to pre
vent the formation or accumulation of frost
which would interfere with the function of
the exhalation valve, unless it can be shown
that the frost can be removed by external
manipulation without removing the mask
from the face of the user.
2.6 The fullface mask must be designed
to include means for the prevention or the
removal of condensation from the inside sur
faces of the goggle lenses.
2.7 Masks equipped with oxygen supply
tubes designed for quick disconnection at
the mask or at the regulator must incorpo
rate means to alert the user when his oxygen
supply tube has become disconnected. Such
:
E.
means must not restrict the flow of ambient
air through the oxygen supply tube by an
amount exceeding 25 percent. This section
does not apply if the quick disconnect de
vice incorporates means to prevent inad
vertent separation.
3.0 Performance. Five masks of each
kind for which approval is sought must be
º shown to comply with the minimum per
formance standards set forth in paragraphs
8.1 through 3.12, except that only one mask
of each kind is required to comply with the
provisions of paragraphs 3.6, 3.8, 3.9, and
s
*re
8.11. Tests must be conducted at ambient
atmospheric conditions of approximately
30” hg. and 70° F., except as otherwise speci
fled. Gas flow rates and pressures must be
corrected to STPD.
3.1. Quick-disconnect coup 1 in g. The
force required to separate quick-disconnect
oouplings not designed to prevent inad
Vertent separation must not be less than 10
pounds exerted along the axis of symmetry of
the oxygen supply tube.
8.2 Strength. (a) The mask must be
capable of sustaining a pull force on the
suspension device attachment fittings of
not less than 35 pounds in any direction
for a period of not less than 3 seconds.
(b) The oxygen supply tube assembly must
be capable of sustaining a pull force of not
less than 30 pounds exerted along the axis
of symmetry of the tube for a period of not
less than 3 seconds.
(c) The oxygen supply tube assembly must
be capable of sustaining an internal pres
sure of 1.5 p.s.l.g.
3.3 Leakage. (a) The total inward leak
age rate, with the complete mask positioned
on the face or on a suitable test stand in a
manner which simulates normal use, must
not exceed 0.10 LPM, STPD, at any negative
differential pressure within the range of from
Eero to 6.0 inches of Water.
(b) Inhalation valves installed in pres
Bure-demand masks must not backleak more
than 0.015 LPM, STPD, when subjected to a
suction pressure differential of 0.1” H2O and
not more than 0.15 LPM, STPD, when sub
jected to a suction pressure differential of
12.0" H, O.
575
§ 37.184
(c) The oxygen supply tube assembly must
not leak when subjected to an internal pres
sure of 1.5 p.s.l.g.
3.4 Flow resistance. (a) The inspira
tory resistance of the mask and oxygen sup
ply tube including the oxygen supply con
nector when inserted in an appropriate mat
ing fitting must not exceed the following
negative differential pressures at the cor
responding oxygen flow rates:
Differential pressure Flow rate
(inches H.O.) (LPM)
0.6 20
1.5 70
2.5 100
(b) The expiratory resistance of the mask
must not exceed the following positive dif
ferential pressures at the corresponding
oxygen flow rates:
Differential pressure
(inches H.O.)
Floto rate
(LPM)
1.0 20
2.0 70
3.0
3.5 Pressure-demand eachalation
performance. The exhalation valve installed
in a pressure-demand mask must open when
100
walve
the pressure within the facepiece is 20 mm.
Hg. and the pressure in the supply tube is 15
to 19.9 mm. Hg.
3.6 Vibration. The flow of gases during
the respiratory process must not cause vibra
tion, flutter, or chatter which would inter
fere with the satisfactory operation of the
Inask.
3.7 Acceleration load. The exhalation
valve must not inadvertently operate under
a 3g. load applied in any direction.
3.8 Ertreme temperature. The mask
must comply with paragraphs 3.3 through
8.5 in an ambient temperature of 70° F. with
in 15 minutes after being stored at a tempera
ture of 160° F. for 12 hours, and within 15
minutes after being stored at 0° F. for 2
hours. The relative humidity during storage
must vary from 5 to 95 percent. The mask
facepiece must not be gummy or sticky and
must provide a normal seal after the high
temperature exposure.
3.9 Low temperature test delay. (a) The
mask must function properly, without ap
parent delay, at a temperature of 70° P.
after being stored at a temperature of 20°
F. for not less than 2 hours.
(b) The mask must function properly,
without apparent delay, and continue for a
period of not less than 15 minutes when
tested at a temperature of 20° F. after being
stored at a temperature of 70° F. for not
less than 12 hours.
3.10 Decompression. (a) A mask not
equipped with a pressure relief valve must
not suffer damage and must comply with
paragraphs 3.3 through 3.5 after being sub
jected to a decrease in ambient pressure from
12 p.s.l.a. to not less than 2.7 p.s.i.a. for a
straight or diluter-demand kind, or to not
§ 37.185 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
less than 2.1 p.s.l.a. for a pressure-demand
kind, within a period of not more than 1
second. This decompression test must sim
ulate the condition that would be imposed
on a mask being worn by a crewmember
during the specified decompression.
(b) A mask equipped with a pressure relief
valve must be subjected to the decompres
sion specified in subparagraph (a) of this
section during which the pressure relief valve
must open at a differential pressure of 17’’
H.O and must relieve the differential pressure
to a value not exceeding 16” H.O within
5 seconds. During the 5-second interval, the
pressure differential must not exceed a value
of 20’’ H.O. The pressure relief value must
close at a differential pressure of 14” H.O.
3.11 Cycling. The mask must comply
with paragraphs 3.3 through 3.5 after being
subjected to the following simulated breath
ing schedule for a total of 50,000 cycles:
Respiratory Minute flow rate | Volume, tidal
cycles LPM, STPD liters
20,000 20 1. 0
25,000 30 1.5
5,000 70 2.0
A constant time interval must be maintained
between respiratory cycles.
3.12 Microphone. If the mask is designed
to include a microphone, the installation of
the microphone must not interfere with the
operation of the mask.
4.0 Q u a lit y control—4.1 Production
tests. Each mask must be shown to comply
with the provisions of paragraph 3.3(a), total
leakage.
4.2 Random tests. One mask must be
selected at random from each lot and must
be shown to comply with paragraphs 3.1
through 3.12. The lot size must be selected
by the applicant subject to the approval of
the Federal Aviation Agency (see FAR § 37.5),
on the basis of evaluation of the applicant's
quality control systems (see $ 37.5(a)(3)).
5.0 Marimum environmental (cabin) al
titude. The minimum pressure to which the
mask has been shown to decompress satis
factorily in accordance with paragraph 3.10
(a) or (b) of this standard determines the
maximum environmental altitude of
mask, except that it shall not exceed the
value shown in the following table:
Marimun entriron
mental (cabin)
altitude Kind of mask
40,000 feet----------- Straight or Diluter
Demand.
45,000 feet----------- Pressure Demand.
6.0 Abbreviations and definitions.
LPM: Liters per minute.
STPD: Standard temperature and pressure,
dry (0° C. 760 mm. Hg.).
p.s.l.g.: Pounds per square inch, gage.
p.s.i.a.: Pounds per square inch, absolute.
g.: Acceleration of gravity, 32.2 feet/second.”
Tidal volume: Volume of air inspired per
breath.
[Amdt. 37–9, 82 FIR. 129, Jan. 7, 1967, as
amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769, Apr.
11, 1967]
§ 37.185 Fire detectors (radiation sens
ing type)—TS0–C79.
(a) Applicability. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for radiation sensing type fire
detectors which are for use on both pis
ton and turbine engine-powered civil
aircraft of the United States. New mod
els of fire detectors (radiation sensing
type) manufactured on or after the ef
fective date of this section, which are
to be used on civil aircraft of the United
States, shall meet the standards speci
fled in Federal Aviation Administration
Standard, “Fire Detectors (Radiation
Sensing Type)”, dated May 15, 1963."
(b) Marking. In lieu of the weight
required in § 37.7 (d) (3), the operating
voltage for the detector shall be shown.
Compliance of the detector with the pis
ton or turbine engine requirements, or
both, shall be designated by –P, —T, or
—PT, respectively, as a suffix following
the technical standard order designa
tion as TSO-C79–P.
(c) Data requirements. (1) In ac
cordance with the provisions of § 37.5,
the manufacturer shall furnish to the
Chief, Engineering and Manufacturing
Branch, Flight Standards Division, Fed
eral Aviation Administration, in the
region in which the manufacturer is lo
cated, the following technical data:
(1) Six copies of the manufacturer's
operating instructions and equipment
limitations;
(ii) Six copies of the installation pro
cedures with applicable schematic draw
ings, wiring diagrams, and Specifications,
indicating any limitations, restrictions,
or other conditions pertinent to instal
the lation; and
(iii) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(2) The data required under subpara
graph (1) (i) and (ii) of this paragraph
shall include the following:
(i) Cone of Vision expressed in de
grees (apex of the cone is to be at the
center of the sensor and the axis of the
cone is to be at right angles to the face
of the Sensor).
(ii) Maximum effective range at field
extremities;
See footnote next page.
576
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(iii) Maximum allowable normal am
bient temperature at the point of de
tector location:
(iv) Maximum and minimum allow
able rate of temperature rise at point
of detector location as a result of normal
Operation;
(v) Operating voltage;
(vi) Mounting or support method;
(vii) Maximum or minimum number
of units which can be used in one circuit
or one fire zone without adversely affect
ing sensitivity or causing false indica
tions due to temperature;
(viii) Maximum allowable vibration at
point of detector location;
(ix) Installation limitations (mini
mum distance) because of magnetic
effect;
(x) Peak RF voltage and correspond
ing frequency;
(xi). Whether instrument is for pres
surized area, nonpressurized area or
both;
(xii) Which of the conditions in para
graphs 7.3.3, 7.3.4, 7.3.5 and 7.3.6 ad
versely affect the detector; and
(xiii) Whether detector meets the fire
resistance requirements of paragraph
7.14.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.186 Flexible fuel and oil cell ma
terial—TS0–C80.
(a) Applicability. Minimum perform
ance Standards are hereby established
for flexible fuel and oil cell liner ma
terial. New types of flexible fuel and
oil cell material manufactured after the
effective date of this section for use in
civil aircraft of the United States shall
meet the standards specified in Federal
A v i a ti on Administration Standard,
“Flexible Fuel and Oil Cell Material”,
dated August 1, 1963."
(b) Marking. In lieu of the marking
requirements of § 37.7 (d), flexible fuel
and oil cell material shall be legibly and
permanently marked with the following
information:
(1) Name and address of the manu
facturer;
(2) Type of fluid for which approved,
i.e. fuel, or MIL-L-6082 oil, or MIL-L-
7808 oil;
(3) For oil cell material, the minimum
and maximum temperature limit;
(4) For oil cell material, the oil-dilu
tion suitability;
- **
d{ {
$37,190
(5) Month and year manufactured;
and
(6) Applicable Technical Standard
Order (TSO) number.
(c) Data requirements. In accord
ance with the provisions of $ 37.5, the
manufacturer shall furnish to the Chief,
Engineering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avia
tion Administration, in the region in
Which the manufacturer is located, the
following technical data:
(1) Six copies of the manufacturer’s
end product typical assembly instruc
tions and limitations;
(2) Six copies of the recommended
installation procedures, limitations, re
strictions, or other conditions pertinent
to a Satisfactory installation;
(3) Six copies of the instructions for
the inspection, repair and storage of ma
terial and/or cells including age limits
On material, i.e. shelf life and service
time;
(4) Six copies of the following descrip
tive information:
(i) construction number and descrip
tion (ply by ply) of the construction
buildup complete with weight and gage
of each ply,
(ii) support means (type of fastener
and locations),
(iii) total weight per square foot of
Cell constructions, and
(iv) total thickness of cell construc
tion; and
(5) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(d) Effective date. May 26, 1964.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.190 Cockpit voice recorder—TSO
C8
(a) Applicability. (1) Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for cockpit voice recorders for use
on United States civil aircraft. New
models of cockpit voice recorders manu
factured for use on civil aircraft on or
after September 2, 1964, shall meet the
standards specified in Federal Aviation
Administration Standard, “Minimum
Performance Standards for Cockpit
Voice Recorders,” dated November 1,
1963,” and Federal Aviation Administra
* Copies may be obtained upon request ad
dressed to the Federal Aviation Administra
tion, Attention HQ–630, Washington, D.C.
20553.
$37.191 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
tion document entitled, “Environmental
Test Procedures for Airborne Electronic
Equipment,” August 31, 1962, except as
provided in subparagraph (2) of this
paragraph.
(2) Federal Aviation Administration
document, “Environmental Test Proce
dures for Airborne Electronic Equip
ment,” outlines various test procedures
which define the environmental extremes
over which the equipment shall be de
signed to operate. Some test procedures
have categories established and some do
not. Where categories are established,
only equipment which qualifles under one
Or more of the following categories, as
specified in the FAA document, is eligible
for approval under this order:
(i) Temperature-Altitude Test—Cate
gories A, B, C, or D;
(ii) Vibration Test—Categories A, B,
C, D, E, or F:
(iii) Audio-Frequency Magnetic Field
Susceptibility Test—Categories A or B;
(iv) Radio-Frequency Susceptibility
Test—Category A; and
(V) Emission of Spurious Radio-Fre
quency Energy Test—Category A.
(b) Marking. (1) In addition to the
markings specifled in § 37.7(d), the
equipment shall be marked to indicate
the environmental extremes over which
it has been designed to operate. There
are six environmental test procedures
outlined in the FAA document, “En
Vironmental Test Procedures for Air
borne Electronic Equipment,” which have
categories established. These shall be
identified on the nameplate by the words
“environmental categories” or, as ab
breviated, “Env. Cat.” followed by six let
ters which identify the categories under
which the equipment is qualified. Read
ing from left to right, the category des
ignations shall appear on the name
plate in the following order so that they
may be readily identified:
(i) Temperature-Altitude Category;
(ii) Vibration Test Category;
(iii) Audio-Frequency Magnetic Field
Susceptibility Test Category;
(iv) Radio-Frequency Susceptibility
Test Category;
(V) Emission of Spurious Radio-Fre
quency Energy Test Category; and
(vi) Explosion Test.
* Coples may be obtained upon request ad
dressed to the Federal Aviation Administra
tion, Attention HQ–630, Washington, D.C.
20553.
578
(2) Equipment which meets the ex
plosion test requirement shall be identi
fled by the letter “E”. Equipment which
does not meet the explosion test require
ment shall be identified by the letter
“X”. A typical nameplate identification
would be as follows: Eny. Cat. DBAAAX.
(3) In SOme Cases such as under the
Temperature-Altitude Test Category, a
manufacturer may wish to substantiate
his equipment under two categories. In
this case, the nameplate shall be marked
With both Categories in the space desig
nated for that category by placing one
letter above the other in the following
manner: Env, cat. § BAAAx.
(C) Data requirements. In accord
ance with the provisions of $ 37.5, the
manufacturer shall furnish to the Chief,
Engineering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avia
tion Administration, in the region in
which the manufacturer is located the
following technical data:
(1) Six copies of the manufacturer’s
Operating instructions and equipment
limitations;
(2) Six copies of the installation pro
Cedures With applicable schematic draw
ings, wiring diagrams, and specifications,
indicating any limitations, restrictions,
or other conditions pertinent to instal
lation; and
(3) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 82 FIR. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.191 Survivor locator lights—TSO
(a) Applicability. Minimum per
formance standards are hereby estab
lished for survivor locator lights intended
for installation on life preservers (adult
and child) and life rafts for use in civil
aircraft of the United States. New
models of Survivor locator lights manu
factured on or after the effective date of
this section shall meet the requirements
Specified in Federal Aviation Adminis
tration Standard, “Survivor Locator
Lights”, dated April 22, 1964."
(b) Marking. The survivor locator
light shall be permanently marked in ac
cordance with the provisions of $ 37.7(d),
* Copies may be obtained upon request
addressed to Library Services Division, HQ
630, Federal Aviation Administration, Wash
ington, D.C. 20553.
 Chapter l–Federal Aviation Administration
except that the weight of the light as
sembly may be omitted.
(c) Data requirements. In accord
ance with the provisions of $ 37.5, as
applicable, manufacturers of Survivor lo
cator lights shall furnish to the Chief,
Engineering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avia
tion Administration, in the region in
which the manufacturer is located, the
following technical data:
Six copies of an instruction manual
containing descriptive information of the
device, information for its maintenance
and overhaul, instruction Concerning the
proper mounting of the light on the life
preservers or life rafts to ensure con
tinued compliance with prescribed mini
mum performance standards and
pertinent operating instructions and
limitations for the device.
(d) Effective date. July 6, 1964.
[Doc. No. 5065, 29 F.R. 15317, Nov. 17, 1964,
as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 82 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ *g: Twin Seaplane Floats—TS0
(a) Introduction. This Technical
Standard Order is intended to serve as
a criterion by which the product manu
facturer may produce floats which will
meet standards acceptable to the Federal
Aviation Administration. In lieu of the
above procedure, floats may be approved
as part of the aircraft design, in which
case the aircraft manufacturer should
submit the pertinent float drawings and
include them on the aircraft drawing list.
Such floats shall comply with the
strength and performance requirements
for floats as stated in this Order, and the
approval thereof will be recognized by all
Federal Aviation Administration repre
sentatives.
(b) Directive.-(1) Provision. The
strength and performance requirements
for Seaplane floats as set forth in Sec
tions 3 and 4 of National Aircraft Stand
ards Specification NAS 807 dated June 1,
1951,” with the exceptions hereinafter
noted, are hereby established as mini
mum safety standards for seaplane floats
intended for use on all civil aircraft."
* Copies may be obtained from the Ameri
can Aeronautical Forum, 527 Washington
Loan and Trust Building, Washington 4, D.C.
*The strength requirements contained
herein are conservative for rotorcraft twin
float installation.
579
§ 37.192
(2) Erceptions. (1) Section 4.3.3.4.
Unsymmetrical Landing. Two-Float
Landing with Drift. Third sentence,
“The side load shall be *.* times the
step landing load of 4.3.3.1.”
(ii) Section 4.3.3. Limit Load Factors
for General Structure Design. Definition
of symbols following subpart (b).
vs.-airplane design stalling speed at design
landing weight with Eero thrust and
landing flaps or other high lift de
vices in position for landing (miles
per hour, EAS).
W=one half the airplane design landing
weight.
NoTE: For single-engine aircraft, the de
sign landing weight is the design maximum
weight for which approval is desired. For
multiengine aircraft which meet the re
quirements of FAR 23.473 the landing weight
may be less than the maximum design
weight.
(3) Application. (i) Seaplane floats
complying with the specifications ap
pearing in this Order are hereby ac
ceptable for use on civil aircraft. Floats
already approved by the Administrator
may continue to be installed—
(a) By the aircraft manufacturer on
production aircraft; or
(b) By an individual or agency
making—
(1) An alteration or replacement in
Wolving a change in type or model of
floats; or
(2) An original installation on an
individual airplane.
(ii) For amphibious type float design,
the provisions of NAS 807 in addition to
the current ground loads and landing
gear design and construction require
ment of Part 23 or Part 25 of the Federal
Aviation Regulations, whichever is ap
plicable, shall apply.
(c) Specific instructions.—(1) Mark
ing.
(i) In addition to the identification
information required in Section 3.5 of
Specification NAS 807 (except that “NAS
Specification No. 807” is not required),
each Seaplane float shall be permanently
marked with the Technical Standard
Order designation FAA-TSO-C27 to
identify the seaplane float as meeting
the requirements of this Order in ac
cordance with the manufacturer's state
ment of conformance described below.
This identification will be accepted by
the Federal Aviation Administration as
evidence that the established mini
 $37,193 Title 14–Aeronautics and Space
mum safety requirements for seaplane
floats have been met. For floats approved
as part of the aircraft design, no iden
tification other than the aircraft manu
a facturer's part or drawing number is
required. --
(ii) For amphibious float design, the
word “amphibious” shall also be included
in the float identification marking.
(2) Data requirements. None.
(3) Effective date. After March 15,
1952, Specifications contained
Order will constitute the basis for ap
• proval of seaplane floats for use on cer
tificated aircraft.
(4) Deviations. Requests for devia
tion from, or waiver of, the require
ments of this Order, which affect the
basic airworthiness of the component,
should be submitted for the approval of
the Chief, Engineering and Manufactur
ing Branch, Flight Standards Division,
Federal Aviation Administration, in the
region in which the manufacturer is
located.
(5) Conformance. - (i) The m a nu -
facturer shall furnish to the FAA (ad
dress as noted under “Deviations”
above), a written statement of conform
ance signed by a responsible official of his
Company, setting forth that the desig
nated seaplane float model to be pro
duced by him meets the minimum safety
standards established in this
Immediately thereafter, distribution of
the Seaplane floats conforming with the
terms of this Order may be started and
continued. A statement of conformance
is not required for floats approved as part
of the aircraft design.
(ii) The prescribed identification on
the seaplane floats does not relieve the
aircraft manufacturer or owner of re
sponsibility for the proper installation
of the seaplane floats on his aircraft, nor
waive any of the requirements concern
ing type certification of the aircraft in
accordance with existing Federal, Avi
ation Regulations.
(iii) If complaints of nonconformance
with the requirements of this Order are
brought to the attention of the Federal
Aviation Administration, and investiga
*tion indicates that such complaints are
justified, the Administrator will take ap
propriate action to restrict the use of
the product involved. ...,
(iv) Copies of this Technical Stand
ard Order and other Technical Standard
Orders may be obtained from the Dis
-: tº . . . . . ..* * *' ',
tribution Section, HQ–436, Federal Avi
.0553.
Administration, Washington, D.C.
[Amdt. 87–8, 30 F.R. 13211, Oct. 16, 1965, as
amended by Doc. No. 8084, 82 FIR. 5769.
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.193 Aircraft Skis—TSO_C28.
(a) Introduction. This Technical
Standard Order is intended to serve as a
Criterion by which the product manu
in this facturer may produce skis which will
meet standards acceptable to the Federal
Aviation Administration. In lieu of the
above procedure, skis may be approved as
part of the aircraft design, in which case
the aircraft manufacturer should submit
the pertinent ski drawings and include
them on the aircraft drawing list. Such
skis shall comply with the strength and
performance requirements for skis as
Stated in this Order, and the approval
thereof will be recognized by all Federal
Aviation Administration representatives.
(b) Directive. (1) Provisions. The
strength and performance requirements
for skis as set forth in sections 4 and 5
of National Aircraft Standards Specifi
cation NAS 808 dated December 15, 1951,
are hereby established as minimum
Safety standards for skis intended for
use on civil aircraft."
(2) Application. Skis complying with
Order. the specifications appearing in this order
are hereby acceptable for use on civil
aircraft. Aircraft skis already approved
by the Administrator may continue to be
installed by the aircraft manufacturer
on production aircraft—
(1) For which an application for
ºriginal type certificate is made prior to
the effective date of this Order;
(11) The prototype of which is flown
Within one year after the effective date
of this Order; and
(iii) The prototype of which is not
flown within one year after the effective
date of this Order if due to causes be
-
yond the applicant's control.
If an alteration or replacement in
volving a change in type or model of air
craft skis is made, or if an original in
* Coples may be obtained from the Amer
1can Aeronautical Forum, 527 washington
Loan and Trust Bldg., Washington, D.C.
20004.
– "The strength requirements contained
here!n are conservative for rotorcraft ski
installation.
º, . we
580
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
stallation on an individual airplane is
made, previously type certificated skis
may be installed.
(c) Specific instructions.—(1) Mark
ing. In addition to the identification
information required in Section 3.8 of
Specification NAS 808 (except that “NAS
Specification No. 808” and “For Installa
tion Geometry, see Ski Installation
Drawing No. ------” are not required),
... each ski shall be permanently marked
With the Technical Standard Order des
ignation FAA—TSO–C28 to identify the
ski as meeting the requirements of this
Order in accordance with the manufac
turer's statement of conformance de
scribed below. This identification will
be accepted by the Federal Aviation
Administration as evidence that the es
tablished minimum safety requirements
for skis have been met. For skis approved
as part of the aircraft design, no identifl
cation other than the aircraft manu
facturer's part or drawing number is re
(2) Data requirements. None.
(3) Effective date. After March 15,
1952, specifications contained in this Or
der will constitute the basis for approval
of skis for use on certificated aircraft.
(4) Deviations. Requests for devia
tion from, or waiver of, the requirements
of this Order, which affect the basic air
worthiness of the component, should be
submitted for the approval of the Chief,
Engineering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avia
tion Administration, in the region in
which the manufacturer is located.
(5) Conformance. (i) The manufac
turer shall furnish to the FAA (address
as noted under “Deviations” above), a
written statement of conformance signed
by a responsible official of his company,
setting forth that the designated ski to
be produced by him meets the minimum
safety standards established in this Or
der. Immediately thereafter, distribu
tion of the skis conforming with the
terms of this Order may be started and
continued. A statement of conformance
is not required for skis approved as part
of the aircraft design.
(ii) The prescribed identification on
the skis does not relieve the aircraft
manufacturer or owner of responsibility
for the proper installation of the skis on
his aircraft, nor waive any of the require
ments concerning type certification of
581
§ 37.194
the aircraft in accordance with existing
Federal Aviation Regulations.
(iii) If complaints of nonconformance
with the requirements of this Order are
brought to the attention of the Federal
Aviation Administration, and investiga
tion indicates that such complaints are "
justified, the Administrator will take ap
propriate action to restrict the use of the
product involved.
(iv) Copies of this Technical Standard
Order and other Technical Standard Or
ders may be obtained from the Distribu
tion Section, HQ–436, Federal Aviation
Administration, Washington, D.C. 20553.
[Amdt. 87–8, 80 FR 13211, Oct. 16, 1965, as
amended by Doc. No. 8084, sa Fr. 5769, Apr.
11, 1967]
§ 37.194 Position light flashers, single
circuit (for non-air-carrier air
craft)—TSO-C33.
(a) 'Introduction. This Technical
Standard Order is intended to serve as
a criterion by which the product manu
facturer may obtain Federal Aviation
Administration approval of single-circuit
position light flashers for installation on
non-air-carrier aircraft. Aircraft manu
facturers may also obtain approval of
single-circuit position light flashers as
part of their aircraft design and should
include them on the aircraft drawings.
Such position light flashers shall comply
with minimum requirements for single
circuit position light flashers stated here
in, and approval thereof will be recog
nized by all Federal Aviation Adminis
tration representatives.
(b) Directive.—C1) Provision. The
performance requirements as set forth in
Subsection 3.3 and Section 4 of SAE
Specification AS–273 “Position Light
Flashers: Single-Circuit (Personal Air
craft Types)” dated October 15, 1953."
are hereby established as minimum
safety standards for single-circuit posi
tion light flashers intended for use in all
non-air-carrier civil aircraft, except that
the time ratio of the “on” interval to the
“off” interval specified in Subsection 4.2
shall be between 2.5:1 and 1:1, within
each flashing cycle.
* Copies may be obtained from the Society
of Automotive Engineers, 486 Lexington Ave.,
New York, N.Y. 10017.
$ 37.195 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(2) Application. Single-circuit posi
tion light flashers complying with the
specifications appearing in this Order are
hereby approved for all non-air-carrier
aircraft. Single-circuit position light
flashers already approved by the Admin
instrator prior to the effective date of
this Order may continue to be installed
in aircraft for which they were approved,
and may be installed in aircraft:
(i) For which an application for Orig
inal type certificate is made prior to the
effective date of this Order,
(ii) The prototype of which is flown
within one year after the effective date
of this Order, and
(iii) The prototype of which is not
flown within one year after the effective
date of this Order, if due to causes be
yond the applicant's control.
(c) Specific instructions.—(1) Mark
ing. In addition to the identification re
quired in Subsection 3.2 of SAE Specifl
cation AS–273, except that the number
AS–273 is not required, single-circuit po
sition light flashers shall be permanently
marked with the Technical Standard
order designation FAA-TSO-C33, to .
identify the position light flasher as
meeting the requirements of this Order
in accordance with the manufacturer's
statement of conformance outlined be
low. This identification will be accepted
by the Federal Aviation Administration
as evidence that the established mini
mum safety requirements for single-cir
cuit position light flashers have been met.
(2) Data requirements. None.
(3) Effective date. After May 17, 1954,
specifications contained in this Order
will constitute the basis for approval of
single-circuit position light flashers for
use in non-air-carrier aircraft.
(4) Deviations. Requests for devia
tion from, or waiver of, the requirements
of this Order, which affect the basic air
worthiness of the component, should be
submitted for the approval of the Chief,
Engineering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avi
ation Administration, in the region in
Which the manufacturer is located.
(5) Conformance. (i) The manufac
turer shall furnish to the FAA (address
as noted under “Deviations” above), a
-
- - -
582
Written statement of conformance signed
by a responsible official of his company,
setting forth that the position light
flasher to be produced by him meets the
minimum safety standards established
in this Order. Immediately thereafter,
distribution of the single-circuit posi
tion light flasher conforming with the
terms of this Order may be started and
continued.
(ii) The prescribed identification on
the position light flasher does not re
lieve the aircraft manufacturer or owner
of responsibility for the proper installa
tion of the position light flashers in his
aircraft, nor waive any of the require
ments concerning type certification of
the aircraft in accordance with existing
Federal Aviation Regulations.
(iii) If complaints of nonconformance
with the requirements of this Order are
brought to the attention of the Federal
Aviation Administration, and investiga
tion indicates that such complaints are
justifled, the Administrator will take ap
propriate action to restrict the use of the
product involved.
(iv) Copies of this Technical Standard
Order and other Technical Standard
Orders may be obtained from the Dis
tribution Section, HQ–436, Federal Avia
tion Administration, Washington, D.C.
20553.
[Amdt. 87–3, 30 F.R. 18212, Oct. 16, 1965, as
amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.195 Airborne Low-Range Radio Al
timeter TSO-C87.
(a) Applicability. This Technical
Standard Order prescribes the minimum
performance Standards which airborne
low-range radio altimeter equipment
must meet in order to be identified with
the applicable TSO marking. New
models of the equipment which are to
be so identified and which are manu
factured on Or after the effective date of
this section must meet the Minimum
Performance Standards for Airborne
Low-Range Radio Altimeters set forth at
the end of this Section.
(b) Markings. (1) In addition to the
markings required by § 37.7, the equip
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
ment must be marked to indicate the
trº.
environmental extremes over which it
--
has been designed to Operate. There are
six environmental procedures outlined in
the “Environmental Test Procedures for
Airborne Electronic Equipment” which
have categories established. These must
be identified on the nameplate by the
words “Env. Cat.” followed by six letters
which identify the categories designated
in the document. Reading from left to
right, the category designations must
appear on the nameplate in the follow
ing order so that they may be readily
identified—
(i) Temperature-altitude Category;
(ii) Vibration category;
(iii) Audio-frequency magnetic field
susceptibility category;
(iv) Radio-frequency susceptibility
Category;
(v) Emission of Spurious radio-fre
quency energy category; and
(vi) Explosion Category.
(2) A typical nameplate identification
might be as follows: Env. Cat. DBAAAX.
:* (3) If a manufacturer desires to sub
stantiate his equipment under two cate
gories, he must mark the nameplate with
both categories in the Space designated
for that category by placing one letter
above the other in the following manner:
AB
Env. Cat. D
(c) Data requirement. In accordance
with $ 37.5, the manufacturer must fur
nish to the Chief, Engineering and
1: Manufacturing Branch, Flight Stand
ards Division, Federal Aviation Admin
istration in the region in which the
manufacturer is located, the following
ſ: º
technical data:
(1) Manufacturer's operating instruc
tions and equipment limitations.
(2) Installation procedures with ap
plicable schematic drawings, wiring dia
grams, and specifications. Any limita
tions, restrictions, or other conditions
pertinent to installation must be indi
cated.
: (3) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Airborne low-range radio altimeter
. models approved prior to the effective
date of this section may continue to be
manufactured under the provisions of
their original approval.
:
583
§ 37.195
MINIMUM PERFORMANCE STANDARDs roº Ara
BORNE LOW-RANGE RADIO ALTIMETERs
1.0 General Standards.
1.1 Rating of Components. The equip
ment shall not incorporate any component
of such rating that, when the equipment is
operated throughout the range of the spec
ified environmental tests, the rating estab
lished by the manufacturer of the compo
nent is exceeded. For electron tubes and
transistors, either the tube or transistor
manufacturer's continuous commercial serv
ice rating, his established pulse rating, or his
approved rating as applied to the particular
application, whichever is appropriate, shall
apply, except for the heaters and filaments.
The voltage applied to the heaters and fila
ments of electron tubes shall be within 5
percent of the manufacturer's rating, or at a
value approved by the tube manufacturer
for the particular service, when the equip
ment is operated under standard operating
conditions. When the heaters and filaments
are connected in series, the 5 percent toler
ance shall apply to the sum of their voltage
ratings.
1.2 Operation of Controls. The operation
of controls intended for use during flight, at
all possible position combinations and se
quences, shall not result in a condition whose
presence or continuation would be detri
mental to the continued performance of the
equipment.
1.3 Accessibility of Controls. Controls
which are not normally adjusted in flight
shall not be readily accessible to flight per
sonnel.
1.4 Effects of Tests. Unless otherwise
stated, the application of the specified tests
shall produce no subsequently discernible
condition which would be detrimental to the
continued performance of the equipment.
2.0 Minimum Performance Standards Un
der Standard Conditions
The test procedures applicable to the de
termination of the performance of airborne
low-range radio altimeter equipment under
standard conditions are set forth in Appendix
A of this standard. Test procedures which
provide equivalent information may be used.
Compliance with the performance require
ments may be shown by an appropriate com
bination of data obtained from the labora
tory and/or flight measurements. Calcula
tions and extrapolations employing the basic
test data may be used to make a direct de
termination of equipment performance by
means of these basic test procedures.
2.1. Accuracy of Pilot’s Display. The alti
tude information displayed for the pilot's use
shall not exhibit errors in excess Of those set
forth in Column 1 of Table I for 95 percent
of all observations conducted under any
§ 37.195 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
combination of the measurement conditions
listed with the table.
Nors: The above measurement conditions
need not be applied simultaneously but may
be combined by analytical methods.
TARLE. I.-AccuRACY REQUIREMENTS AND
MEASUREMENT CONDITIONS
Column 8
Vertical Column Precision
altitude" velocity 1–Pilot's equipment
(ft) (ft./sec.) display output (ft.)
8 to 100------------ 0 to 15---- +5 ſt. +3 ft.
100 to 500---------- 0 to 20---- +5% +3%
500 to that altitude
for *. tº:
equipment is
designed--------- 0 to 20---- +7% +5%
•That “one-way” distance measured from the antenna
to the terrain. The altitude may be offset by a distance
equal to the vertical distance between the antennas and
the terrain at touchdown.
Measurement Conditions:
(1) Lateral velocities from 0 to 50 feet per
second.
(2) Longitudinal velocities from 0 to 300
feet per second.
(3) Pitch angle range of 0 to +15 degrees.
(4) Roll angle range of 0 to +20 degrees.
(5) vertical velocity from 0 to 15 feet per
second up to 100 feet and 0–20 feet per seo
ond above 100 feet.
Nors: Conditions 1 through 5 above in
clude all associated doppler shift and step
errors.
Further, the equipment shall continue to
function and provide altitude information
which exhibits no errors in excess of +20
percent of the indicated altitude for 95 per
cent of all observations at bank angles from
20 to 30 degrees.
2.2 accuracy of the Precision Equipment
output. The equipment need not provide
as a condition of compliance with this mini
mum performance standard a precision
equipment output for use in conjunction
with autopilots, flight directors, or similar
might control computing devices. However,
the altitude data supplied by such outputs,
where provided, shall not exhibit errors in
excess of those set forth in Column 2 of Table
I for 95 percent of all observations conducted
under any combination of the measurement
conditions listed in 2.1.
23 Precision Equipment Output Noise.
The rims. noise content of the data provided
by the precision equipment output shall be
less than 0.25 foot at all altitudes up to 100
feet.
2.4 Time constant. When the equipment
is abruptly subjected to an altitude change
of not more than 10 percent of the indicated
altitude or 20 feet whichever is smaller the
transfer function time constant of the pre
cision equipment output shall not exceed 0.1
second. Further, for transients of 20 feet or
less at altitudes of 200 feet or less the system
shall not lose lock. If the equipment should
lose lock due to loss of signal at altitudes
above 200 feet and up to the maximum alti
584
tude for which it is designed, it shall recap
ture the signal in less than one second.
2.5 Rate Data. The equipment need not
provide a rate data output as a condition of
compliance with this minimum performance
standard. However, those altimeters which
do have rate outputs shall comply with the
following requirements regarding range and
accuracy for at least 95 percent of all ob
servations for heights from the terrain to the
antenna in the range from:
RATE DATA
Altitude Range
(ft.) (ft./sec.) Accuracy (ft./sec.)
3–100 0–15 +(1.5 ft.-HO.01h-HO.1/r/)
wº.” 0–20 +(2.0 ft.-H0.01.h-H0.1/r/)
h=altitude in feet.
/r/=absolute value of rate (feet/sec.).
2.6 Failure Warning System.
(a) Warning conditions. A failure warn
ing system shall be incorporated in the
equipment to indicate to the pilot, and to
any systems which may be utilizing the
altimeter data, the existence of the following
conditions:
(1) Loss of power. -
(2) Loss of signal or altitude sensing capa
bility when within the manufacturer’s
stated operating altitude range.
(b) Warning indication characteristics.
An indication plainly discernible under all
normal flight conditions shall be provided.
If a flag is used, it shall be as large as prac
ticable commensurate with the display.
2.7 Self Test Feature. If a self test
feature is provided, any probable malfunc
tion of the self-test feature shall not de
*; #: º;” of the radio altimeter.
ransmitting
The transmitter shall be
Operati
ºtedFrequency.
Within a
frequency band available for the operation
of airborne radio altimeters in the Aero
nautical Radio Navigation Service and in ac
cordance with applicable Federal Aviation
Agency and Federal Communications Com
mission Rules and Regulations.
2.9 Mazimum. Altitude Range. To satis
factorily perform its intended function, the
maximum range shall be at least 500 feet.
3.0 Minimum Performance Standards
Under Environmental Conditions.
Unless otherwise specified, the test proce
dures applicable to a determination of per
formance of radio altimeter equipment under
environmental conditions are set forth in the
FAA DOCument for “Environmental Test
Procedures for Airborne Electronic Equip
ment”, dated August 31, 1962.
8.1 Temperature-Attitude.
(a) Low Temperature—When subjected to
this test:
(1) The requirements of paragraphs 2.8
and 2.6 shall be met.
(2) The requirements of paragraphs 2.1
and 2.2 shall be met using the procedure set
forth in 2.2 of Appendix A.
(3) All mechanical devices shall perform
their intended functions.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(b) High Temperature—
(1) When the equipment is operated at
the High Short-Time Operating Tempera
ture:
(a) The requirements of paragraphs 2.1
and 2.2 shall not be degraded by more than
a factor of 2 from the values set forth using
the procedures set forth in 22 and 2.3 re
spectively, of Appendix A.
(b) The requirements of paragraph 2.6
shall be met.
(c) All mechanical devices shall operate
satisfactorily.
(2) When the equipment is operated at the
High Operating Temperature:
(a) The requirements of paragraphs 2.8
and 2.6 shall be met.
(b) The requirements of paragraphs 2.1
and 2.2 shall be met using the procedures
set forth in 2.2 of Appendix A.
(c) Decompression (Applicable only to
Category D equipment of Temperature
Altitude Test)—When the equipment is sub
ject to this test:
(1) The requirements of paragraphs 2.1
and 2.8 shall be met using the procedures
set forth in 2.2 and 2.3, respectively, of
Appendix A.
(2) All mechanical devices shall perform
their intended functions.
(d) Altitude—When the equipment is
subjected to this test:
(1) The requirements of paragraphs 2.8
and 2.6 shall be met.
(2) The requirements of paragraphs 2.1
and 2.2 shall be met using the procedures
set forth in 2.2 of Appendix A.
3.2 Humidity. After subjection to this
test and:
(a) Within 15 minutes from the time that
primary power is applied:
(1) The requirements of paragraph 2.6
shall be met.
(2) All mechanical devices shall operate
satisfactorily.
(b) Within 4 hours from the time that
primary power is applied:
(1) The requirements of paragraphs 2.8
and 2.6 shall be met.
(2) The requirements of paragraphs 2.1
and 2.2 shall be met using the procedures set
forth in 2.2 of Appendix A.
33 Shock.
(a) Following the application of the Op
erational Shocks.
(1) The requirements of paragraphs 2.8
and 2.6 shall be met.
(2) The requirements of paragraphs 2.1
and 2.2 shall be met using the procedures
set forth in 2.2 of Appendix A.
(b) Following the application of the Crash
Safety Shocks, the equipment shall have
remained in its mounting and no part of the
equipment or its mounting shall have be
corne detached and free of the shock test
table or the equipment under test.*
3.4 Vibration. When subjected to this
test:
(a) The requirements of paragraphs 2.8
and 2.6 shall be met.
89–059–75–38
585
§ 37.195
(b) The requirements of paragraphs 2.1
and 2.2 shall be met using the procedures set
forth in 2.2 of Appendix A.
3.5 Temperature Variation. When sub
jected to this test:
(a) The requirements of paragraphs 2.3
and 2.6 shall be met.
(b) All mechanical devices shall perform
their intended functions.
8.6 Power Input Variation. When sub
jected to this test:
(a) The requirements of paragraphs 2.8
and 2.6 shall be met.
(b) All mechanical devices shall perform
their intended functions.
3.7 Low Voltage.
(a) When the equipment is subjected to
the first part of the low voltage test proce
dure set forth in 9.2a, of Environmental Test
Procedures for Airborne Electronic Equip
Inent document.
(1) The equipment shall operate electri
cally and mechanically.
(2) The requirements of paragraph 2.6
shall be met.
(b) When the equipment is subjected to
the second part of the low voltage test proce
dure set forth in 9.2b (1), of Environmental
Test Procedures for Airborne Electronic
Equipment document.
(1) The requirements of paragraphs 2.8
and 2.6 shall be met.
(2) The requirements of paragraphs 2.1
and 2.2 shall be met using the procedures set
forth in 2.2 of Appendix A.
(c) When the equipment is subjected to
the third part of the low voltage test proce
dure set forth in 9.2b (2), of Environmental
Test Procedures for Airborne Electronic
Equipment document, there shall be no evi
dence external to the equipment of the
presence of fire or smoke."
3.8 Conducted Voltage Transient.
(a) Subsequent to the subjection of the
intermittent transient test, the requirements
of paragraphs 2.1 and 2.8 shall be met using
the procedures set forth in 22 of Appendix
A
(b) When being subjected to the repeti
tive transient test the requirements of para
graphs 2.8 and 2.6 shall be met.
8.9 Conducted Audio-Frequency Suscep
tibility. When Gubjected to this test:
(a) The requirements of paragraphs 2.8
and 2.6 shall be met.
(b) The requirements of paragraphs 2.1
and 2.2 shall be met using the procedures
set forth in 2.2 of Appendix A.
3.10 Audio-Frequency Magnetic Field Sus
ceptibility.
When subjected to this test:
(a) The requirements of paragraphs 2.8
and 2.6 shall be met.
(b) The requirements of paragraphs 2.1
and 2.2 shall be met using the procedures
set forth in 2.2 of Appendix A.
*The application of this test may result
in damage to the equipment under test.
Therefore, it may be conducted after the
other tests are completed.
§ 37.195 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
8.11 Radio-Frequency Susceptibility (Ra
diated and Conducted). When subjected to
this test:
(a) The requirements of paragraphs 2.8
and 2.6 shall be met.
(b) The requirements of paragraphs 2.1
and 2.2 shall be met using the procedures set
forth in 2.2 of Appendix A.
3.12 Explosion (When Required). During
the application of this test the equipment
shall not cause detonation of the explosive
mixture within the test chamber.
3.13 Emission of Radio-Frequency Energy.
The levels of conducted and radiated spuri
ous radio-frequency energy emitted by the
equipment shall not exceed those levels
specified in Appendix A to the Federal Avia
tion Administration document, “Environ
mental Test Procedures for Airborne Elec
tronic Equipment”, dated August 31, 1962,
for the aircraft category for which the equip
ment is designed.
APPENDIX A
1.0 Test Conditions.
The following definitions of terms and
conditions of test are applicable to the test
procedures specified herein.
1.1 Power Input Voltage-Direct Current.
Unless otherwise specified, when the equip
ment is designed for operation from a direct
current power source, all measurements shall
be conducted with the power input voltage
adjusted to 13.75 volts, +2 percent for 12–14
volt equipment, or to 27.5 volts, +2 percent
for 24–28 volt equipment. The input voltage
shall be measured at the receiver power input
terminals.
12 Power Input Voltage-Alternating Cur
rent. Unless otherwise specified, when the
equipment is designed for operation from an
alternating current power source all tests
shall be conducted with the power input
voltage adjusted to design voltage +2 per
cent. In the case of equipment designed for
operation from a power source of essentially
constant frequency (e.g., 400 c.p.s.), the in
put frequency shall be adjusted to design
frequency +2 percent. In the case of equip
ment designed for operation from a power
source of variable frequency (e.g., 850 to
1,000 c.p.s.), tests shall be conducted with
the input frequency adjusted to within 5
percent of a selected frequency within the
range for which the equipment is designed.
1.3 Adjustment of Equipment. The cir
cuits of the equipment under test shall be
properly alined and otherwise adjusted in
accordance with the manufacturer's recom
mended practices prior to the application of
the specified tests.
1.4 Atmbient Conditions. Unless otherwise
specified, all tests shall be conducted under
conditions of ambient room temperature,
pressure, and humidity. However, the room
temperature shall be not lower than 10° C.
1.5 Warmup Period. Unless otherwise
specified, all tests shall be conducted after a
warmup period of not less than fifteen (15)
minutes.
586
1.6 Description of Test Equipment.
(a) Altitude Simulator. The altitude sim
ulator consists of Variable and fixed RF
attenuators, and coaxial cables or other suit
able delays to simulate the various altitudes.
The simulator must accept the altimeter
energy, attenuate and delay this RF energy
and present the delayed signal of the altim
eter receiver. The test equipment must
also include provisions to simulate the cross
coupling which exists between separate
transmitter and receiver antennas. The sim
ulator should be calibrated to provide the
desired altitude of an accuracy of better
than 1 percent and the appropriate attenu
ation to within + 2.5 db. The variable
attenuator shall be calibrated in radar cross
section [oo (o) 1" between the values of 0.008
and 1.0.
(b) Digital Voltmeter.
(c) AC VTVM.
(d) Demodulator. The Demodulator con
sists of a synchronous detector excited by an
a.c. reference voltage. The bandwidth of the
Demodulator should exceed 5 c.p.s. Ripple
rejection should exceed 60 db. Means to set
the Demodulator gain to unity should be
provided. Means to balance the Demodulator
output to zero should be provided.
(e) Filter. See Figure 2 or 3.
(f) Alarm Signal Monitor. The Alarm
Signal Monitor consists of a simple indicator
such as a pilot lamp.
(g) Remodulator. The Remodulator is an
electronic or electromechanical switch ex
cited by an a.c. reference voltage. It converts
low frequencies to suppressed carrier modu
lation where the carrier frequency is the a.o.
reference voltage. Means to set the Remodu
lator gain to unity should be provided.
2.0 Test Procedures.
The test procedures set forth herein are
satisfactory for use in determining the per
formance of airborne low-range radio al
timeters. Test procedures which provide
equivalent information may be used.
2.1 Accuracy (In-Flight).
(a) Altitude Information. With the equip
ment installed in an aircraft, operate the
equipment in flight over a runway or other
Smooth surface at altitudes and descent
rates in accordance with paragraph 2.1. De
termine the true altitude of the aircraft by
theodolite or other means and compute the
accuracy of the altitude information from
the altimeter. Extrapolation of the test data
by theoretical means, from the results so ob
tained, is permissible in order to demonstrate
compliance with the standards in paragraphs
2.1 and 2.2.
(b) Altitude Rate Information. With the
equipment installed in an aircraft, operate
the equipment in flight over a runway or
other Smooth surface at altitudes and de
scent rates in accordance with paragraph 2.5.
Determine the true descent rate of the air
craft and compute the accuracy of the alti
tude rate information from the altimeter.
* Defined in Appendix B.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration $37,195

Extrapolation of test data by theoretical lator, Digital Woltmeter, Remodulator, AO

means, from the results so obtained, is per WTVM, Filter.
* * missible in order to demonstrate compliance If the altitude output is an a.c. voltage
:::::
with the standards in paragraph 2.5. the following additional equipment is
3 required:
2.2 Altitude Accuracy and Loop Gatn.
(a) Equipment Required: Altitude Simu Demodulator
1 Fºg lator, Digital Woltmeter or AC WTVM, Flag (b) Measurement Procedure. Connect the
!º. Monitor. equipment as shown in Figure 2 or 8. Set
-º-, i. The choice of voltmeters depends on the the altitude simulator to a specified altitude
reº
voltage output of the altimeter which could and a scattering radar cross section oorre
tº a be a.c. or d.c. sponding to [go (o) I of 0.01. Read the rims.
ºf (b) Measurement Procedures. Connect voltage indicated by the a.o. WTVM. Con
ºrs vert to altitude noise in feet. The measure
the equipment as shown in Figure 1. Set
† :I the altitude simulator to a specified altitude ment should be repeated at one other simu
rºº. and a radar cross section [so(o) I of 0.1. lated altitude.
ſº º Monitor the altitude output with the volt 2.4 Time Constant.
meter and verify altimeter calibration. (a) Equipment Required: Altitude Simu
Läf Monitor pilots indicator and warning signal. lator
Vary radar cross section [se (o) I over the (b) Test Procedure. Couple the radio
range of 1.0 to 0.01. Altitude indication altimeter to the altitude simulator. Set the
should remain within the limits specified. altitude simulator to an equivalent altitude
Yº!’ Altimeter can lose track and indicate fall of 100 to 200 feet. Insert a change in the
trº" for [so (o) I below 0.01. delay equivalent to 10 percent of the indi
Adjust the altitude simulator to another cated altitude. The analog output of the
º: altitude and repeat the above measurements. altimeter shall be observed and shall reach
yº Note in Appendix B a different total attenu 68 percent of the ultimate change in 0.1 seo
** ation is required to permit the radar cross ond or less with less than 5 percent over
ſº section [we (o) I dial to remain in calibration. shoot. Consideration must be given to the
º: 2. Altitude Noise. time required for switching the delay in
(a) Equipment Required: Altitude Simu and/or out in the above Ineºsurement.
ºf
22
*:::: Pilots
ºr
t ºf Indicator
arº;

dc
Woltmeter or
Radar ac

Altimeter

Warning Signal

Monitor

Receiver Altitude

Transmitter Simulator

D
FIGURE 1

587
§ 37,195 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space

AC reference
|

l
| | I
10 MFD 100 K. Remodulator
-

AC

Radar -

Digital Filter. WTVM

Altimeter
Voltmeter

Altitude
Simulator

FIGURE 2–DC altitude output.

AC reference

|- 1 [
TI I
Radar Demodu- 10 MFD OOK Remodulator AC

Altimeter lator Digital Filter WTVM

Woltmeter

Altitude

Simulator

FIGURE 3—AC altitude output.

588
 Chapter 1–Federal Aviation Administration
APPENDIX B
DETERMINATION or Eºrºnal, LOOP LO&
(DERIVATIon)
1.0 Definition of External Loop Loss.
In the useful signal path, i.e., transmit
ting antenna to ground to receiving antenna,
the External Loop Loss is defined for average
power in c-w systems and peak power in
pulse systems.
The external loop loss is the ratio of the
available power entering the receiving an
tenna aperture to the power leaving the
transmitter antenna aperture.
2.0 Characteristics of External Loop Loss.
The loss defined above is independent of
antenna and transmission line losses,
efficiencies, and mismatches. It deals only
with the geometric power gain, (G), the
beam patterns of the antennas, and the
characteristics of the ground. Further, it
is independent of the signal processing char
acteristics of the altimeter and may be meas
ured, essentially, with an attenuator only.
8.0 External Loop Loss, Beam Limited
Case.
The basic formulation for external loop
loss depicts a beam limited case in which it
is assumed that transmitting and receiving
apertures are identical. The analytical ex
pressions for this case is:
_GA*oo(O) F_Ago (o) F.
L==###-==#
where G is the power gain of either antenna
(defined in terms of the actual beam pat
tern), A is the wavelength, H is the altitude,
wo(O) is the vertical incidence unit scatter
ing radar cross section of the ground, and F
is a normalized function of H.
on roll and pitch under 100 feet of altitude
and the effect of finite separation of trans
mitting and receiving antennas is accounted
- adjustment, maintenance and calibration of
for by F. A is defined as º:
4.0 Ezternal Loop Loss, Pulse Limited
Case.
In the pulsed altimeter, the external loop
loss is described by Eq. (3.1) below the
critical altitude, 1.e., that altitude
which the performance is pulse limited.
Defining the critical altitude, He, as
crg.
He=+
where c is the velocity of light and r is the
pulse length. The external loop loss is de
fined above He by extending the loss.
GA*so (o) F
I6 - H.T
according to a 1/H" law.
$37,195
5.0 Essentials of F or F(H).
F(H) =M(H) We (H) 5.1
5.1 M (H)
The function M(H) takes care of the fact
that pitch and roll maneuvering becomes
progressively limited for altitudes below 100
feet. The choice for o, 0) includes margin
for pitch and roll to the 3 db limits of the
beamwidth for altitudes above 100 feet. It
is expected that at 3 feet of altitude, how
ever, pitch and roll will be very limited and
Well Within the 3 db beam limits. Accord
ingly, it is proposed to decrease the required
loop loss by 0 db at 100 feet and 6 db at 3
feet, the variation between 3 feet and 100
in feet to be linear in db, i.e.,
6 18
10 log McH)=–gh-eg 5.2
52 V" (H)
This quantity takes care of the effects of
antenna spacing.
_2[cos- a--a V1–a'lo. •ct
T 7 (1-Faºtanº.) #30-a <1, 5*
where,
- D
º 5.4,
T2H tan W.”
D is the antenna spacing, and
260 is the beamwidth.
3.1
6.0 Curves of Ezternal Loop Loss.
All that remains is to make a choice for
co(0) such that the resulting external loop
loss calculated is just sufficient to insure
reliable operation over all terrain even for
pitch and roll maneuvers out to the 8 db
beamwidths. A considerable amount of
Limitations data accumulated for both pulse and FM/
CW altimeters in the 4200–4400 mc region
involving many flight tests over a wide
variety of terrain and practical problems of
radio altimeters indicates a choice Of
co(0) =6)×10+ 6.1
With respect to making a choice for the
1600–1660 mc range, it cannot be done on the
basis of extensive flight data. Accordingly,
above it will be necessary to extrapolate from the
4200–4400 m.c data. The trend of change of
co(0) with frequency is slow; so(0) tending
to decrease with frequency but go (0) tending
to vary more slowly with 8 as the frequency
4.1 decreases. The first effect definitely in
creases loop loss; the second effect tends to
decrease loop loss. In the absence of data
to the contrary, the two effects can be as
sumed to cancel each other and that one
may then choose the same value of co(0) for
both frequency ranges. The curves which
follow are based on this assumption.
589
$37,195 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space

= 1630 mc Bn a
140

120

--~~~

: d = spacING

ri in FT

FIGURE 1–External loop loss.

= 1630 mc Bw = 60° Gº

* - 10 100
h in Ft

FIGURE 2—External loop loss.

590
 Chapter –Federal Aviation Administration § 37.195

* 1630 mc Bn a 90° G =

H. In FT

FIGURE 3–External loop loss.

-43oo ac sw-45°-G =

H. In Ft.

FIGURE 4–External loop loss.

591
§ 37.195 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space -

= 4300 mc |BW::= - 60° Gº- 12.

º
º
º
:
º
Dr. º
&
–
-
º

3
- n
º

|-
:

h in Ft

FIGURE 5—External loop loss.

= 4300 mc BW = 90° G = 6

He = 50
PULSE. He = 100
He = 200

i d = spacING

2*
3*

º
**

1 10 100 1000 10,000 th

h in Ft !
*

FIGURE 6—External loop loss.

s

592
 Chapter –Federal Aviation Administration
FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINTETRATION DOCUMENT
POR ENVIRONMENTAL TEST PROCEDUREs roº
AIRBORNE ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
1.0 Purpose. This report gets forth En
vironmental Test Procedures applicable to
airborne electronic equipment. The purpose
of these tests is to provide a laboratory
means of determining the performance char
acteristics of the equipment under condi
tions representative of those which may be
encountered in actual aeronautical opera
tions.
-
2.0 Definition of Terms.
2.1 Equipment Temperature Stabiliza
tion. Equipment temperature stabilization
is that condition wherein (1) the temper
-
ature of the largest internal mass is within
+3° C. of the specified value when the equip
ment is not operating, or (2) the crest tem
peratures of the largest internal mass do not
differ by more than 5° C. when the equip
ment is operating.
2.2 Marimum Duty Cycle. Maximum
duty cycle is the relationship between the
maximum length of time for which an equip
ment is designed to deliver its rated output
power and the length of time during which
“standby” power only may be applied when
such “ON-OFF" operation is periodic.
2.3 Not Operating. Not operating is that
condition wherein no power is applied to the
equipment.
2.4 Controlled Temperature Location.
Controlled temperature location is a space
within an aircraft in which the temperature
of the air is maintained, either manually or
automatically, within the limits specified in
the appropriate category of Table 1 of para
graph 4.0, Temperature-Altitude Test.
8.0 Conditions of Test.
8.1 Connection of Equipment. Connect
the equipment mechanically and electrically
as recommended by the manufacturer, in
cluding any cooling provisions, to the extent
necessary to make such tests and measure
ments as are required to determine compli
ance with the applicable standards of para
graph 3.0, “Minimum Performance Stand
ards under Environmental Test Conditions,”
of the appropriate FAA airborne electronic
equipment Minimum Performance Stand
ards.
3.2 Order of Tests. The tests may be con
ducted in any desired order, with the ex
ception that the humidity test shall not be
conducted prior to the temperature-altitude
and the vibration tests. The purpose of this
exception is to determine whether materials
used to protect circuit elements from
moisture have lost their protective function
due to deterioration from exposure to either
extreme temperatures or to vibration.
3.3 Measurement of Temperature of Air
in Test Chamber.
a. The temperature of the air in the test
chamber shall be measured at such a loca
tion within the test chamber that the tem
O 93
§ 37.195
perature of the air so measured is represent
ative of that immediately surrounding the
equipment. Measurement of chamber wall
temperature is not suitable, due to temper
ature lag and heat transfer through the
chamber wall.
b. Means of circulating the air in the test
chamber may be employed to approximate
a uniform air temperature condition
throughout the chamber. Whe n such
means are employed, the air blast shall not
be directed upon the equipment under test.
3.4 Ambient Room Temperature. When
tests are conducted under “ambient room
temperature,” the ambient room air tem
perature shall be between +10° C. and
+40° C.
3.5 Power Input Voltage. Unless specified
Otherwise, all tests shall be conducted with
the power input voltage adjusted to design
voltage:E2 percent. The input voltage shall
be measured at the equipment power input
terminals.
3.6 Power Input Frequency.
a. In the case of equipment designed for
operation from an a.c. power source of
essentially constant frequency (e.g., 400
c.p.s.), the input frequency shall be adjusted
to design frequency +2 percent, unless
otherwise specified.
b. In the case of equipment designed for
operation from an a.c. power source of vari
able frequency (e.g., 300 to 1,000 c.p.s.), tests
shall be conducted with the input frequency
adjusted to within 5 percent of a selected
frequency and within the input power fre
quency range for which the equipment is
designed, unless otherwise specified.
4.0 Temperature-Altitude Test. Several
temperature-altitude test procedures are
specified, according to the category for
which the equipment is designed to be used,
as follows:
Category A—Equipment intended for in
stallation in nonpressurized and noncon
trolled temperature locations in aircraft
which operate at altitudes up to 45,000 feet
m.s.l.
Category B–Equipment intended for in
stallation in nonpressurized and noncon
trolled temperature locations in aircraft
which operate at altitudes up to 30,000 feet
m.s.l.
Category C–Equipment intended for in
stallation in nonpressurized and noncon
trolled temperature locations in aircraft
which operate at altitudes up to 20,000 feet
m.s.l.
1 The temperature-altitude test and the
temperature variation test may be combined,
if desired. See paragraph 8.1, Alternate Test
Procedure.
§ 37.195 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
Category D–Equipment intended for in
stallation in controlled temperature and
pressurized locations in aircraft in which
the pressures are no lower than that which
is equivalent to an altitude of 15,000 feet
Im.s.l.
Category E-Equipment intended for in
stallation in nonpressurized but controlled
temperature locations in aircraft which
operate at altitudes up to 20,000 feet m.s.l.
Category F-Equipment intended for in
stallation in nonpressurized but controlled
temperature locations in aircraft which
operate at altitudes up to 12,000 feet m.s.l.
4.1 Test Procedure (Low Temperature).
Stabilize the equipment temperature at the
appropriate (depending upon category used)
Low Not Operating Temperature specified in
Table 1 at ambient room atmospheric pres
sure, with equipment not operating.” Main
tain this stabilized temperature for 30
minutes; then stabilize the equipment tem
perature at the appropriate Low Operating
Temperature specified in Table 1 at ambient
room atmospheric pressure, with the equip
ment not operating. Then operate the
equipment at maximum duty cycle for a
period of 15 minutes, beginning with the
“ON” cycle in the case of equipment de
signed for intermittent duty service. Main
tain the temperature of the air in the test
chamber within 3° C. of the Low Operating
Temperature of Table 1. Determine the
compliance with the applicable standards of
paragraph 3.0 “Minimum Performance
Standards under Environmental Test Condi
tions” of the appropriate FAA airborne elec
tronic equipment Minimum Performance
Standards.”
4.2 Test Procedure (High Temperature).
a. At ambient room pressure, with the
equipment not operating, stabilize the equip
ment temperature to within 3° C. of the ap
propriate High Not Operating Temperature
of Table 1. After 30 minutes, adjust the test
chamber air temperature to within 3° C. of
the High Short-time Operating Temperature
specified in Table 1. Operate the equipment
at maximum duty cycle for 30 minutes. De
termine compliance with the applicable
standards of paragraph 3.0, “Minimum Per
formance Standards under Environmental
Test Conditions,” of the appropriate FAA
airborne electronic equipment Minimum
*This is not intended to be a temperature
shock test. The rate at which the tempera
ture of the equipment under test is reduced
from ambient to the appropriate Low Not
Operating Temperature specified in Table 1
is optional.
* Optionally, the tests specified in this
paragraph (4.1.) may be commenced with
the initial temperature of the equipment at
any value between the appropriate Operat
ing and Low Not Operating Temperatures
specified in Table 1.
594
Performance Standards during this 80
minute period.
NoTE: The purpose of this test is to simu
late temperature conditions which may be
encountered in aircraft while on the ground
in certain geographical areas.
b. With the equipment operating, adjust
the test chamber air temperature to within
3° C. of the appropriate High Operating Tern
perature specified in Table 1 at ambient
room pressure. After the equipment tem
perature has become stabilized, operate the
equipment for two (2) hours and determine
compliance with the applicable standards of
Paragraph 3.0, “Minimum Performance
Standards under Environmental Test Colº
ditions,” of the appropriate FAA airborne
electronic equipment Minimum Performance
Standards.
4.3 Test Procedure (Altitude).
a. Operate the equipment at maximum
duty cycle. Decrease the atmospheric pres
sure to within 5 percent of the appropriate
Test Altitude specified in Table 1. Conduct
this test at ambient room temperature. De
termine compliance with the applicable
standards of Paragraph 8.0, “Minimum Per
formance Standards under Environmental
Test Conditions,” of the appropriate FAA
airborne electronic equipment Minimum Per
formance Standards.
b. This test is intended for application
only to Category D equipment. With the
equipment operating at the Test Altitude
specified in Table 1, reduce the atmospheris
pressure to that equivalent to the Decom
pression Test Altitude specified in Table 1.
This reduction in pressure shall be effected
within a time period not to exceed 15 seconds.
Maintain this reduced pressure for at least
10 minutes, then increase the pressure to that
equivalent to the Test Altitude specified in
Table 1. Conduct this test at ambient rooºl
temperature. Determine compliance with
the applicable standards of paragraph 3.0,
*Minimum Performance Standards undºf
Environmental Test Conditions,”
appropriate FAA airborne electronic equip
ment Minimum Performance Standards.
5.0 Humidity Test. Subject the equip
ment to an atmosphere having a relative
humidity of between 95 percent and 100
percent and an ambient temperature of 80."
C.--8° C. for a period of 48 hours. During
this 48-hour period, no electrical or mechan
ical power shall be applied to the equipment.
At least once each hour, the relative humidity
shall be 100 percent with condensation on
the equipment. At the end of the 48-hour
exposure period, remove the equipment from
the test chamber and drain off (do not wipe)
any condensed moisture. Within 5 minutes
after removal of the equipment from the test
chamber, apply standard primary test volt
age(s) to the equipment. Allow 15 minutes
following the application of primary power
 Chapter –Federal Aviation Administration $37,195
TABLE 1.-ALTTTUDE-TEMPERATURE CRITERIA

Condition Cat. A Cat. B Cat. C Cat. D Cat. E Cat. F

Maximum operating altitude 45,000' 30,000' 20,000' *16,000 20,000' 12,000'

Test altitude 55,000' 35,000' 25,000' *20,000 25,000' 15,000'

Decompression test altitude || -------- || -------- || -------- 40,000' -------- I --------

Not operating Low -62°C -50° C. -50° C. -50° C. –40°C -40°C
temperature.
High +71°C +71°C +71°C +71° C. +71°C +71°C

Short-time operating high

temperature. +71°C +71°C +71° C. +60° C. +50°C +45° C.
Operation Low -54°C -46°C –40°C -15° C. -15°C -15° C.
tern
High +55°C +55°C +55° C. +55° C. +40°C +40° C.

* The maximum operating altitude and test altitude of Cat. D equipment represent atmospheres established by
pressurization.

for the equipment to warmup. Immediately
following the warmup period, determine
compliance with the applicable standards of
paragraph 3.0, “Minimum Performance
Standards under Environmental Test Con
ditions” of the appropriate FAA airborne
electronic equipment Minimum Perform
ance Standards.
6.0 Shock Test.
6.1 Operational Shocks.
a. Secure the equipment to a shock table
by the mounting means intended for use in
service installations. Apply to the shock
table, with the equipment mounted in each
of the following six positions, three shocks
each having a peak acceleration of at least
6G and a time duration of at least 10 milli
Seconds.
(1) Normal upright.
(2) Suspended upside down.
(3) At positions such that the longitudinal
axis of the equipment successively forms
angles of plus 90° and minus 90° (two posi
tions) with the plane of the table.
(4) At positions such that the lateral axis
of the equipment successively forms angles
of plus 90° and minus 90° (two positions)
with the plane of the table.
b. After application of the shocks, deter
mine compliance with the applicable stand
ards of paragraph 3.0, “Minimum Perform
ance Standards under Environmental Test
Conditions” of the appropriate FAA airborne
electronic equipment Minimum Performance
Standards.
62 Crash Safety Shocks. Apply, in each
of the six equipment positions listed in
paragraph 6.1, one shock having a peak ac
celeration of a; least 15G and a time dura
tion of at least 10 milliseconds. After ap
plication of the six shocks, determine com
pliance with the applicable standards of
paragraph 8.0, “Minimum Performance
standards under Environmental Test Con
ditions” of the appropriate FAA airborne
electronic equipment Minimum Performance
Standards.
Norr: During this test, an equivalent
weight may be substituted for the electrical
and mechanical components normally
mounted within or on the equipment case.
Such equivalent weight shall approximate
the weight of the components which it re
places and shall be so located that the center
of gravity of the equipment is essentially
unchanged. The equivalent weight shall not
contribute to the strength of the equipment
case or its mounting fastenings to a greater
extent than the components it replaces.
7.0 Vibration Test.
7.1 Test Procedure.
a. So secure the equipment under test to
a vibration table that sinusoidal vibratory
motion is exerted parallel to the longitu
dinal * axis of the equipment. The equip
ment shall be affixed to the vibration table
by the means specified by the equipment
manufacturer for service installations. Con
nect the equipment for proper operation.
Start it operating in its principal mode.
(Multipurpose equipments, such as trans
ceivers, shall be tested in all modes.)
b. With the equipment operating, vary the
vibration frequency from 10 to 55 to 10 C.P.E.
in a time period of from 1 to 8 minutes s at
an amplitude appropriate to the category of
equipment under test. (Refer to Table 2).
Continue vibrating the equipment in this
manner for a period of at least ninety (90)
minutes.
c. Determine compliance with the appli
cable standards of paragraph 3.0 “Minimum
Performance Standards under Environmental
Test Conditions" of the appropriate FAA
airborne electronic equipment Minimum
Performance Standards.
* Optionally, vibratory motion may be first
applied to any axis of the equipment, i.e.,
lateral, vertical or longitudinal. Any se
quence thereafter is permissible.
"Either a linear or logarithmic sweep
(scan) may be used.

595
§ 37.195 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
d. Repeat the procedures specified in para Category D–Constant total excursion of
graphs 7.1 a., b., and c., with the vibratory 0.030” from 10 to 55 c.p.s. with a maximum
motion applied in a direction parallel to acceleration of 56.
the lateral axis of the equipment. Category E–Constant total excursion of
e. Repeat the procedures specified in para 0.020” from 10 to 55 c.p.s. with a maximum
graphs 7.1 a., b., and c., with the vibratory acceleration of 3G.
motion applied in a direction parallel to the Category F.—Constant total excursion of
vertical axis of the equipment. 0.010” from 10 to 55 c.p.s. with a maximum
f. If the equipment is to be tested under acceleration of 1.5G.
a vibration category which requires vibra 8.0 Temperature Variation Test. Stabl.
tion tests in the 55 to 500 cycle frequency lize the equipment temperature at the ap
range, repeat all of the above test procedures, propriate Operating Low Temperature speci
but starting at 55 cycles and running to 500 fled in Table 1, at ambient room atmospheric
cycles, and returning to 55 cycles with the pressure with the equipment not operating."
excursion so adjusted for each frequency as Operate the equipment at maximum duty
to produce the constant acceleration figure cycle for a period of 15 minutes, beginning
specified in Table 2.* with “ON” cycle in the case of equipment
designed for intermittent duty service, with
TARLE 2.-CATEGORIZATION or AIRCRAFT VIRRATION
CHARActERISTIcs by AIRCRAFT TYPEs AND Locations the voltage and frequency of the primary
THEREIN power source adjusted to standard values.
Increase the temperature of the air in the
test chamber to the Operating High Tem
Instrument
panels perature specified in Table 1, at a rate" not
(vibration Any exceeding 1° C. per minute. In the interval
Aircraft descrip- Fuselage protected | location between the time that the equipment tem
tion or other- In ot
perature stabilizes at the appropriate Oper
wise) and specified
isolated ating Low Temperature and the time it
racks stabilizes at the appropriate Operating High
Temperature, determine compliance with the
Rotary wing
applicable standards of paragraph 3.0, “Min
aircraft.------- A. F A. imum Performance Standards under Envi
Turbo engine ronmental Test Conditions” of the appro
fixed wing priate FAA Airborne Electronic Equipment
aircraft------- B C A
Minimum Performance Standards.
Piston engine
fixed wing 8.1 Alternate Test Procedure. It is per
aircraft, missible to combine the temperature varia
heavy multi tion test and the temperature-altitude test.
engine type
(over 12,500 In this case, proceed as follows:
lbs.)--------- E F D (1) Conduct that portion of the tempera
Piston engine ture-altitude test specified in paragraph 4.1.
fixed wing
aircraft, light (2) Increase the temperature of the air
in the test Chamber to the High. Operating
º:
type (under
12,500 lbs.)--- F F E
Temperature specified in the applicable cate
Piston engine gory of Table 1 at a rate • not exceeding 1"
fixed wing C. per minute. In the interval between the
aircraft, light time that the equipment temperature sta
single engine bilizes at the appropriate Low Operating
type (under
12,500 lbs.)--- F F F Temperature and the time it stabilizes at
the appropriate High Extended-time Opera
tion Temperature, determine compliance
72 Vibration Characteristics of Cate with the applicable standards of paragraph
3.0, “Minimum Performance Standards under
Category A—Constant total excursion of Environmental Test Conditions,” of the ap
0.030” from 10 to 55 c.p.s. with a maximum propriate FAA Airborne Electronic Equip
acceleration of 5G; and Constant accelera ment Minimum Performance Standards.
tion of 5G from 55 to 500 c.p.s.
Category B–Constant total excursion of
0.020” from 10 to 55 c.p.s. with a maximum
* The purpose of this test is to determins
certain performance characteristics of the
acceleration of 3G; and Constant accelera
equipment at various temperatures between
tion of 1.5G from 55 to 500 c.p.s.
Category C–Constant total excursion of
the Operating Low Temperature and the Ex
tended-time Operation High Temperature
0.010” from 10 to 55 c.p.s. with a maximum
acceleration of 1.5G; and Constant accelera specified in the applicable Category of
Table 1.
tion of 0.25G from 55 to 500 c.p.s.
• If desired, this rate may, if necessary, be
reduced to zero to permit measurements to
• Optionally, the tests specified in para
be taken.
graphs 7.1 a., b., c., d., e., and f., may be com
bined, if desired, with a total sweep time of • If desired, this rate may, if necessary, be
from 2 to 6 minutes and a total time of 180 reduced to zero to permit measurements to
minutes. be taken.

596
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
-
!-
(8) Conduct those portions of the Tem
perature-Altitude Test specified in para
graphs 4.2a. through 4.3b.
9.0 Power Input Test.
9.1 Power Input Variation Test.
a. Adjust the primary power input as
follows:
(1) In the case of equipment designed to
operate from a d.c. power source, adjust the
primary power voltage to 110 percent of the
design voltage.
(2) In the case of equipment designed to
operate from a.c. primary power sources of
essentially constant frequency, such as 400
c.p.s. adjust the primary power voltage to
110 percent of the design voltage and the
frequency to 105 percent of design frequency.
The crest factor shall be 1.4, +10 percent.
(3) In the case of equipment designed to
operate from a.c. primary power sources of
variable frequency, such as 800 to 1,000 c.p.s.,
adjust the primary power voltage to 110 per
cent of design voltage and the frequency to
the highest for which the equipment is de
signed. The crest factor shall be 1.4, it 10
percent.
Nore: For the purposes of this test, equip
ment which derives a.c. power from an in
verter provided exclusively for the equipment
shall be considered as d.o. operated.
b. Operate the equipment at maximum
duty cycle for 30 minutes, with the primary
power adjusted as specified in paragraph
9.1a. Determine compliance with the appli
cable standards of paragraph 3.0, “Minimum
Performance Standards under Environmental
Test Conditions,” of the appropriate FAA
airborne electronic equipment Minimum
Performance Standards during this 80
minute period.
c. Adjust the primary power input as
follows:
(1) In the case of equipment designed to
operate from a d.c. power source, adjust the
primary power voltage to 90 percent of the
design voltage.
(2) In the case of equipment designed to
operate from a.c. primary power sources of
essentially constant frequency, such as 400
c.p.s., adjust the primary power voltage to 90
percent of the design voltage and the fre
quency to no higher than 95 percent of
design frequency. The crest factor shall be
14 +10 percent.
(3) In the case of equipment designed
to operate from a.c. primary power sources
of variable frequency, such as 300 to 1,000
c.p.s., adjust the primary power voltage to
90 percent of design voltage and the fre
quency to the lowest for which the equipment
is designed. The crest factor shall be 1.4
+10 percent.
. Nors: For the purposes of this test, equip
ment which derives a.c. power from an in
verter provided exclusively for the equipment
shall be considered as d.c. operated.
4. Operate the equipment at maximum
2 duty cycle for a period of 80 minutes with
597
§ 37.195
the primary power adjusted as specified in
paragraph 9.1c. Determine compliance with
the applicable standards of paragraph 3.0
“Minimum Performance Standards under
Environmental Test Conditions” of the ap
propriate FAA airborne electronic equipment
Minimum Performance Standards during
this 30-minute period.
9.2 Low Voltage Test.
a. A.C. and D.C. Equipments. Operate the
equipment at maximum duty cycle for a pe
riod of at least 30 minutes at an input power
voltage(s) 80 percent of standard test volt
age(s) in the cast of d.c. equipment, or 87%
percent of standard test voltage(s) in the
age(s) in the case of d.c. equipment, or 87%
determine compliance with the applicable
standards of paragraph 3.0, “Minimum Per
formance Standards under Environmental
Test Conditions,” of the appropriate FAA
Airborne Electronic Minimum Performance
Standards.
b. D.C. Equipments.
(1) With the equipment operating, de
crease the input power voltage(s) from 80
percent of standard test voltage(s) to 50 per
cent of standard test voltage(s) at a rate not
greater than 2 percent of the standard test
voltage(s) per minute and continue operat
ing the equipment for a period of at least 10
minutes at the 50 percent input power level.
With the equipment still operating, adjust
the input power voltage(s) to 100 percent of
standard test voltage(s) and determine com
pliance with the applicable standards of
paragraph 3.0, “Minimum Performance
Standards under Environmental Test Condi
tions,” of the appropriate FAA Airborne
Electronic Minimum Performance stand
ards.”
(2) With the equipment operating, reduce
the input power voltage(s) from 100 percent
to 50 percent of standard test voltage(s) and
continue the reduction of the input power
voltage(s) from the 50 percent level to zero
input voltage(s) at a rate not greater than
2 percent of the standard test voltage(s) per
minute. Determine compliance with the ap
plicable standards of paragraph 3.0, “Mini
mum Performance Standards under Environ
mental Test Conditions,” of the appropriate
FAA Airborne Electronic Minimum Perform
ance Standards.”
Note: For the purposes of this test, equip
ment which derives a.c. power from an in
verter provided exclusively for the equipment
shall be considered as d.c. operated.
* The purpose of this test is to determine
those conditions resulting from decreased
voltage(s) (such as relay chatter), the
presence or continuation of which would con
tribute to malfunctioning of the equipment
at standard test voltage(s).
* The purpose of this test is to determine
whether the reduction of the input power
voltage(s) from standard test voltage(s) to
zero input voltage(s) produces evidence, ex
ternal to the equipment, of smoke or fire.
$37,195 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
10.0 Conducted Wottage Transient Test.
10.1 Intermittent Transients. With the
equipment operating at its normal input
voltage(s), apply to each of the d.c. primary
input power leads a series of positive and
negative voltage transients having the char
acteristics (amplitude and wave form) ap
propriate to the applicable normal d.c. input
voltages specified in Figure 1, for a period of
at least ten (10) seconds and at a rate of
not less than two (2) transients per second.
Immediately after the 10-second period,
determine compliance with the applicable
standards of paragraph 3.0, "Minimum Per
formance Standards under Environmental
Test Conditions,” of the appropriate FAA
Airborne Electronic Equipment Minimum
Performance Standards. The positive and
negative transients should be developed,
applied and monitored in a manner similar
to that shown in Figures 2 and 8.
102 Repetitive Transients. With the
equipment operating at its normal input vol
tage(s), apply to each of the d.c. primary
input power leads a series of positive voltage
transients having the characteristics (ampli
tude and wave form) appropriate to the ap
plicable normal d.c. input voltages specified
in Figure 1 at a rate of not less than two (2)
transients per second and, simultaneously,
determine compliance with the applicable
standards of paragraph 3.0, “Minimum Per
formance Standards under Environmental
Test Conditions” of the appropriate FAA
Airborne Electronic Equipment Minimum
Performance Standards. The positive voltage
transients should be developed, applied and
monitored in a manner similar to that shown
in Figure 2.” -
11.0 Conducted 4tudio-Frequency Suscep
tibility Test.
11.1 D.C. Input Power Leads. Apply a
sine wave audio frequency signal in series
with each ungrounded d.c. input power lead.
While varying the audio frequency of the ap
plied signal between 200 and 20,000 cycles
per second, maintain the rim.s. amplitude of
this signal at not less than 5 percent of the
nominal d.c. input voltage and determine
compliance with the applicable standards of
paragraph 3.0, “Minimum Performance
Standards Under Environmental Test Condi
tions” of the appropriate FAA Airborne Elec
tronic Equipment Minimum Performance
Standards. When conducting this test, all
equipment interconnecting cables and RF
transmission lines shall be in accordance
with the manufacturer's installation Wiring
diagram and shall use shielded or twisted
wires only where specified. Where no length
in This test applies to equipment designed
to utilize d.c. primary power which is fur
nished by the aircraft's electrical system.
Equipment designed to operate solely on a.c.
primary power need not be subjected to
this test.
598
of interconnecting cables is specified, the
cables shall be at least five (5) feet long. Any
inputs or outputs from or to other equip
ment(s) normally associated with the equip
: under test shall be adequately simu
11.2 A.C. Input Power Leads. Apply a
sine wave audio frequency signal in series
with each ungrounded a.c. input power lead.
With the frequency of this signal successive
ly adjusted to the second harmonic of the
a.c. power frequency and to each next higher
order harmonic up to 9,000 cycles, maintain
the rim.s. amplitude of this signal at not less
than 5 percent of the nominal a.c. input volt
age and determine compliance with the ap
plicable standards of paragraph 3.0 “Mini
mum Performance Standards Under Environ
mental Test Conditions” of the appropriate
FAA Airborne Electronic Equipment Mini
mum Performance Standards. When con
ducting this test, all equipment intercon
necting cables and RF transmission lines
shall be in accordance with the manufac
turer's installation wiring diagram and shall
use shielded or twisted wires only where
specified. Where no length of interconnect
ing cables is specified, the cables shall be
at least five (5) feet long. Any inputs or
outputs from or to other equipment(s) nor
mally associated with the equipment under
test shall be adequately simulated.
12.0 Audio Frequency Magnetic Field
Susceptibility Test.
12.1 Categories of Equipment. For the
Purpose
rized of this
as follows: test, equip
equipment is catego
Category A-Equipment which is intended
for installation in an aircraft which has an
*c., power source having a rating of 250 VA
(volt-amperes) or greater.
Category B-Equipment which is intended
for installation in an aircraft which has an
a.º. power source having a rating of less than
250 VA, or which has no a.c. power source
Whatever.
12.2 Test Procedure.
Category A—Expose the equipment under
test to an audio frequency magnetic field
which is generated by a 400 c-pa. current
of at least 20 amperes (r.m.s.) flowing in a
straight wire radiator, which is within 12
inches of the periphery of the unit of equip
ment under test, and determine compliance
with the applicable standards of
3.0 “Minimum Performance Standards Under
Environmental Test Conditions” of the ap
propriate FAA Airborne Electronic Equip
ment Minimum Performance Standards.
During this test, the radiator shall be so
oriented with respect to each external surface
of each unit as to cause maximum inter
ference. The length of the radiator shall be
such that it extends a distance of at least
2 feet (laterally) beyond the exposed surface
of the unit under test. The leads supplying
current to the radiator shall be routed at
least 2 feet away from any part of the unit
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration

100 user—-
i
(RISE TIME
OPTIONAL)

Bus Voltage

i
ormal
}; Intermittent Transient Repetitive Transient
Woltage Test Woltage Test Voltage
Point A Point B Point. A Point B

28 +78 +46 +48 +35

14 +39 +23 *24 +17

Foint C Point D

28 -22 +10

14 -11 +5

FIGURE 1–Transient voltage characteristics.

599
§ 37.195 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
under test and from the radiator itself. All
units of the equipment under test shall be
individually tested.
Category B–No test of Category B equip
ment is required.
13.0 Radio Frequency Susceptibility Test
(Radiated and Conducted). For the pur
poses of this test,” equipment is categorized
as follows:
Category A—Equipment which is intended
for installation in aircraft having a Maxi
mum Weight of more than 12,500 pounds.
Category B–Equipment which is intended
for installation in aircraft having a Maxi
mum Weight of 12,500 pounds, or less.
13.1 General Requirements.
(a) The equipment under test shall be set
up on a ground plane and operated in ac
cordance with the following criteria:
(1) Ground Plane.—A copper or brass
ground plane, 0.01 inch thick minimum for
copper, 0.025 inch thick minimum for brass,
12-square feet or more in area with a mini
mum width of 30 inches, shall be used. In
all cases where a shielded room is employed,
the ground plane shall be bonded to the
shielded room at intervals no greater than
3 feet, and at both ends of the ground plane.
(2) Shock and Vibration Isolators.-The
equipment under test shall be secured to
mounting bases incorporating shock or vi
bration isolators, if such mounting bases are
specified by the equipment manufacturer.
The bonding straps furnished with the
mounting base shall be connected to the
ground plane. Where mounting bases do
not incorporate bonding straps, bonding
straps shall not be used in the test setup.
(3) Bonding.—Only the provisions includ
ed in the design of the equipment and speci
fled in the installation instructions shall be
used to bond units, such as equipment case
and mount, together or to the ground plane.
Where bonding straps are required to com
plete the test setup they shall have a length
not greater than 5 times the width, shall
have a minimum thickness of 0.025 inch, and
shall be copper or brass metal straps, not
braid. Connections made With such bond
straps shall have clean metal-to-metal
contact.
(4) External Ground Terminal.—When an
external terminal is available for a ground
connection on the equipment under test, this
terminal shall be connected to the ground
plane if the terminal is normally grounded
in the installation. If the installation con
ditions are unknown, the terminal shall not
be grounded.
(5) Interconnecting Cables.—All equip
ment interconnecting cables and RF trans
* See “Introduction" of Appendix A for
information on the relationship between the
emission of spurious radio frequency energy
from electrical and electronic equipment
installed in an aircraft and the levels of
radio frequency susceptibility signals used in
this test procedure
600
mission lines shall be in accordance with the
manufacturer's installation wiring diagram
and shall use shielded or twisted wires only
where specified. Where no length of inter
connecting cables is specified, the cables
shall be at least five (5) feet long. Any in
puts or outputs from or to other equipment
associated with the equipment under test
shall be adequately simulated.
(6) Dummy Antennas.-The dummy an
tenna shall have electrical characteristics
which closely simulate those of the normal
antenna, and should be shielded. It shall
contain electrical components which are used
in the normal antenna (such as filters, crys
tal diodes, synchros, motors, etc.).
b. Test instruments shall be set up and
operated in accordance with the following
criteria:
(1) Bonding.—Interference meters used for
measurement during the “conducted” test
shall not be bonded to tho ground plane ex
cept through the interconnecting coaxial
cable. The counterpoise on rod antennas
shall be bonded to the ground plane with a
strap of such length that the rod antenna
can be positioned correctly. The strap shall
be as wide as the counterpoise.
(2). Powerline Stabilization Network.-One
stabilization network shall be inserted in
each ungrounded primary input power lead
of the equipment under test. The network
enclosure shall be bonded to the ground
plane. The network shall be constructed in
accordance with Figure 4. The input im
pedance characteristics of the stabilization
network are shown in Figure 5.
(3) Antenna Orientation and Positioning
in Shielded Enclosures.—The rod or dipole
antenna shall be located as shown in Figures
6 or 7. The rod antenna shall be so placed
that the antenna is in a vertical position.
The rod antenna shall be located at the point
where maximum radiation plckup is obtained
when it is moved along a line parallel with
the edge of the ground plane. Those meas
urements which use a resonate dipole anten
na shall have the dipole positioned parallel
with the edge of the ground plane. The dy
pole antenna shall be centered 12 inches +1
inch above the level of the ground plane. The
rod or the dipole antenna shall be located at
the distance from the equipment under test
specified in Figures 6 and 7. When the di
mensions of the dipole antenna become
smaller than the test layout, the antenna
shall be moved parallel to the edge of the
ground plane to keep its sensitive elements
adjacent to the point of maximum radiation.
At frequencies from 25 up to and including 85
megacycles, the measurements shall be taken
with the dipole antenna adjusted to res
onance at 85 megacycles. The dipole an
tenna shall be adjusted to resonance at all
frequencies above 35 megacycles. In screen
room tests, the antennas shall be at least
1 foot away from any wall.
13.2 Conducted Radio Frequency Suscep
tibility Test. With the equipment under test
arranged in a manner similar to that shown
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration $37,195
lºquip-ent
gºrº Under Test

rtrºxt
:: *f;
ſº a
:::::::.
ºº::
*O- ºv ++
Fu
...tº a
-ºl
-ºf
Input
Power
(28w or 14 v Dºc) Pulse Shaping—-
\;
>

º Resistor 3.
: tº:
ºf-at -O- -

sixts:
ºr tº:
tº wº.
100 ohas

0 -100
W.D.c.
Oscilloscope

FIGURE 2–Positive pulse generating network.

Pulse shaping Equipment
Resistor Under T---
(1 ohm)

* O.
Fuse
-> l l L awa
\ Aw -

Input
Power
III
(28w or 14v. Dc)

100 ohms
-O-

!
-
o
-

0 - 100
W. D.C.

Oscilloscope.

FIGURE 3–Negative pulse generating network.

In Figure 8 apply through the powerline
stabllization network an RF signal modu
lated 30 percent at 1,000 c.p.s. between each
ungrounded primary input power lead and
ground. Determine compliance with the ap
plicable standards of paragraph 3.0 “Mini
Inum Performance Standards under Environ
mental Test Conditions” of the appropriate
FAA Airborne Electronic Equipment Mini
mum Performance Standards when the signal
level is varied (versus frequency) over the
range specified in Figure 9 or Figure 10 for
Category A and Category B installations, re
spectively. The output impedance of the
signal generator shall be 50 ohms. The volt
ages specified shall be those which exist
across the 50 ohm signal generator output
when no load is connected to the signal
generator. All equipment interconnecting
cables shall have 4 feet of their length
bundled together and supported 2 inches
above the ground plane, as shown in Figure 8.
13.3 Radiated Radio Frequency Suscepti
bility Test. Expose the equipment under test
to a radio frequency field, the levels of which
(versus frequency) are specified in Figures
11 and 12 for Catagory A and Catagory B in
stallations, respectively. The voltages spec

39–059–75 39
601
§ 37.195 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
ified in Figures 11 and 12 are those existing Care should be taken to use matching net
across the radiating antenna terminals. The works when required. The equipment under
test signal shall be modulated 30 percent at test, the radiating antenna and the line sta
1,000 c.p.s. The type of radiating antenna bilization networks shall be arranged in ac
to be employed is related to the frequency of cordance with Figure 6, when using the rod
the test signal as follows: antenna, and Figure 7, when using the dipole
antenna. During this test, determine com
Frequency Type of antenna
90 kc. to 25 mc----- 41 inch rod antenna. pliance with the applicable standards of
25 me. to 35 m.c.---- Dipole antenna adjusted paragraph 3.0 “Minimum Performance Stand
to resonance at 35 Inc. ards under Environmental Test Conditions”
35 m.c. to 1,000 mc-- Dipole antenna adjusted of the appropriate FAA Airborne Electronic
to resonance at test Equipment Minimum Performance Stand
frequency. ards.

EQUIPMENT L1

UNDER TEST POWER SOURCE

C1 C2
COAXIAL
TERMINAL
FOR
SIGNAL
GENERATOR X
R1

GROUND IEE GROUND

III
Figt RE 4.—Powerline stabilization network schematic diagram.

ENCLOSURE DATA: 14 GAGE (B & S) ALUMINUM SUGGESTED SIZE 03, IN. BY 4 BY 4 IN.
FORM DATA: 5}. IN. LENGTH, 3 IN. DIA (OD), . 125 IN. WALL DRILL 3; IN. HOLE 2 is IN. FROM
EACH EN ID.
COIL DATA: L1 – 5 MICROHENRIES, 13 TURNS SINGLE LAYER, 4 IN. WINDING LENGTH.
WIRE DATA: AWG 6, 600 VOLT, .310 IN. DIA (OD). (FOR 50 AMPERE NETWORK.)
CAPACITOR: C1 Sh ALL BE MOUNTED ON 1 IN. INSU LATING BioCiv ABOVE GROUN lo.
CAPACITOR DATA: C1 = 1 UF, 600-VOLT DC, BATHTU B.
C2 = 1 UF, 600-VOLT DC, BATHTUB, SINGLE TERMINAL CASE MOUNTED ON
GROUND.
RESISTOR DATA: R1 = 5,000-OHM, 5-WATT CARBON.
l . The values given for the component parts of the network are nominal. : Regardless of the construction or deviation
from nominal values, the network must have an impedance within 20 percent of that given in Figure 5.
2. Connecting leads to condensers and resistors should be as nearly as possible to zero length.
3. Networks may also be constructed having a 1-ohm series resistor between the line and capacitor C2. This 1-chin
resistor shall be made up from ten 10-ohm, 1-watt composition resistors.
4. The data given in this figure is suitable for the construction of 50-ampere networks. Other current-carrying net
works may be constructed by changing the wire size given for the coil and the size of the over-all enclosure.
5. The 50-ohm transmission line should be extended within the enclosure right up to the location where it connects
with capacitor Cl.

14.0 Explosion Test. where an explosive atmosphere may exist in

14.1 Application and Conditions of Test.
a. Application and Categories of Equip
ment.
(1) It is recognized that installation prac
tices in civil aircraft and in many noncivil
transport aircraft normally do not require
the installation of equipment in locations
where an explosive atmosphere may exist in
the course of normal aircraft operations.
For such installations, the Explosion Test is
not applicable and the equipment is desig
nated as Category “X” equipment.
(2) It is also recognized that, in special
applications and in special purpose aircraft,
equipment may be installed in locations
the course of normal aircraft operations
For these installations, the Explosion Test
is applicable and the equipment is designated
as Category “E” equipment.
b. Apparatus. The test chamber shall be
a type capable of providing the test environ
ment. A suitable test chamber is described
in Military Specification MIL–C–9435.
c. Fuel. The fuel used shall be 100/130
octane gasoline.
d. Failure Criteria. If the equipment
causes explosion at any of the test altitudes,
it shall be considered to have failed to pass
the test and no further trials need be at
tempted.

602
 Chapter l–Federal Aviation Administration § 37.195

5 F-GL-E 5

Input impedance at -equipment

under test-terminal of
stabilization network with the
*coaxial terminal for signal
generator" terminated in 50 ohms,
"power source" terminal open.

-1. -2 -5 l -
-
FREQUENCY IN MEGAcycles

Units of Equip-ºnt. Under test

Line
stabilization
Networks

—l Q Q.
*

#=||
50 ohm
Terainations
Bonded –
Cable to
signal
Generator
_-
ºf
*Interconnecting cables to be bundled 41" Rod Antenna
tor at least four (4) feet and
supported not less-than 2" above the 20" square counterpoise
around plane at same level of, or not
more than 6" below,
ground plane
FIGURE 6–Location of rod antenna and arrangement of equipment.

e. Applicability Exceptions. Bealed equip
ment, connecting wires, and cables shall be
considered explosion-proof and require no
test.
f. General Conditions.
(1) When necesary, large items of elec
trical equipment, such as motors, large relays,
etc., shall be prepared for explosion-proof
testing by drilling and tapping openings in
the case for inlet and outlet connections to
the fuel vapor air mixture circulating system
and for mounting a spark plug. The spark
plug is used only for igniting the vapor air
mixture in the equipment to insure the
presence of an explosive mixture inside the
equipment on test. Small items of equip
ment such as switches, circuit breakers, etc.,

603
§ 37.195 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
units of Equipment Under Test

Line 222 `s
st-bilization _^ `-
networks

TETROLEº

7. Elliſ
–44 \ .

º-W ZZ |
- ſ round P
- Interconnecting cables to be bundled for
at least four (4) feet and supported not
less than 2" above the ground plane T-cable to signal Generator

- Dipole to be 12(+1)-above
| the -round plane

|
FIGURE 7–Location of dipole antenna and arrangement of equipment.

Units of Equipment Under Test

4 Feet” —
Fa º Zº -** wara-º-º-º-ºw.my.*.*.*.*

* Interconnecting Cables to be bundled for

at least four (4) feet and supported not
less than 2" above ground plane

Power
Leads
-,Line Stabilization Networks

—sº Generator

50 ohm Coax Ground Plan

FIGURE 8—Arrangement of equipment for conducted RF susceptibility test.

604
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration § 37.195

FIGURE 9

Conducted Radio Frequency

Susceptibility Test Signal
Levels, Using Stabilization
network

.05 •1 .2 •5 1 2 5. 10 20 30

FREQUENCY IN MEGAcycles

| | | ---

| | | ||
FIGURE 10
7o Conducted Radio Frequency
Susceptibility Test Signal
levels, Using Stabl lization
65 | Networ
t k ---

60 |

55 ----- -

50

.05 •1 •2 .5 1. 2 5 10 20 32

FREQUENCY IN MEGACYCLES

605
§ 37.195 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space

FIGURE 11

Radiated Radio Frequency

susceptibility Test
Signal Levels.

41-inch Rod Antenna

Re-on
Dipole Antenna

sonant Dipole Antenna

justed to 35 ºn

FREQUENCY IN MEGAcycles

FIGURE 1 :
Radiated Radio Frequency
Susceptibility Test Signa
Levels.

80

75

70.
41-inch Rod Antenna

65
| | Resonant
|
Dipole Antenna
60

55
Non-Resonant Dipole Antenna
Adjusted to 35 Mc.

.05 - 1 •2 .5 l 2 5 10 20 50 1OO 200 500 loo

rRecogncy in Mºscºwcroles

shall not be drilled and tapped for mounting
a spark plug when it is not practicable.
(2) When the explosion-proof test of para
graph 14.2a.(2) is being performed, dust or
other auxiliary covers not intended to be
explosion-proof may be removed or loosened
to facilitate penetration of the explosive
mixture.
14.2 Test Procedures.
a. Procedure I. This procedure is designed
to determine the explosion producing char
acteristics of equipment not provided with
cases designed to prevent flame or explosion
propagation.”
“See additional test procedure under para
graph 14.2b.
(1) Preparation for Test.
(a) The equipment shall be installed in
the test chamber in such a manner that
normal electrical operation is possible anºt
that mechanical controls may be operater
through the pressure seals from the exterior
of the chamber. All external covers of the
equipment shall be removed or opened to
insure adequate circulation of the explosive
mixture. Large equipment, comprising mul
tiple units, may be tested one or more units
at a time by extending electrical connections
through the cable port to units located ex
ternally.
(b) The equipment shall be operated to
determine that it is functioning properly and

606
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
to observe the location of any sparking or
high temperature components which may
constitute potential explosion hazards.
(c) Mechanical loads on drive assemblies
and servomechanical and electrical loads on
switches and relays may be simulated when
necessary, if proper precaution is given to
duplicating the normal load in respect to
torque, voltage, current, inductive reactance,
etc. In all instances, it is preferable to op
erate the equipment as it normally functions
in the system during service use.
(2) Test Procedure. The test shall be
conducted at test altitudes of ground level
to 5,000 feet, 20,000 feet, and 40,000 feet,
except that the highest test altitude shall
not exceed the design requirement of the
equipment.
(a) The test chamber shall be sealed and
the ambient temperature within shall be
raised to +71+3° C., or to the maximum
temperature for which the equipment is de
signed to operate (if lower than 71° C.). The
temperature of the test item and the cham
ber walls shall be permitted to rise to within
11 * C. of that of the chamber ambient alr,
prior to introduction of the explosive mix
ture.
(b) The internal test chamber pressure
shall be reduced sufficiently to simulate an
altitude approximately 10,000 feet above the
desired test altitude. The quantity of fuel,
as determined from Figure 13 shall be in
troduced into the chamber. A time of 3 + 1
minutes shall be allowed for the introduc
tion and vaporization of the fuel. Air shall
be admitted into the chamber until a simu
lated altitude of 5,000 feet above the test
altitude is attained.
(c) Operation of the equipment shall then
be commenced, all making and breaking elec
trical contacts being actuated. If high tem
perature components are present, a warmup
time of 15 minutes shall be permitted. If
no explosion results, air shall be admitted
into the chamber so as to steadily reduce the
altitude below the desired test altitude to an
elevation 5,000 feet below that altitude. The
operation of the equipment shall be con
tinuous throughout this period of altitude
reduction and all making and breaking elec
trical contacts shall be operated as frequently
as possible.
(d) If by the time the simulated altitude
has been reduced to 5,000 feet below the test
altitude, no explosion has occurred as a re
sult of operation of the equipment, the po
tential explosiveness of the air-vapor mix
ture shall be verified by attempting to ignite
the mixture with the igniter furnished with
the chamber. If the air-vapor mixture is
not found to be explosive, the test shall be
considered void and the entire procedure
repeated.
b. Procedure II. This procedure is de
signed to determine the flame and explosion
arresting characteristics of equipment cases
607
§ 37.195
which are designed to prevent the propaga
tion of internal case explosions.”
(1) Preparation for Test.
(a) The case, with the equipment in posi
tion within, shall be installed in the explo
sion chamber. Testing shall be accom
plished without consideration of the equip
ment operating characteristics; accordingly,
the equipment need not be operated. Ade
quate circulation of the explosive mixture
throughout the case shall be provided by
optional means.
(b) If it is necessary to drill the case for
insertion of a hose from a blower, adequate
precaution shall be taken to prevent ignition
of the explosive mixture by backfire or release
of pressure through the supply hose. The
case volume shall not be altered by more
than + 5 percent by any modification to fa
cilitate the introduction of explosive vapor.
(c) A positive means of igniting the ex
plosive mixture within the case shall be pro
vided. The case may be drilled and tapped
for the spark plug or the spark plug may be
mounted internally.
(2) Test Procedure. The test shall be ac
complished as follows:
(a) The chamber shall be sealed and the
internal pressure reduced sufficiently to sim
ulate an altitude between local ground level
and 5,000 feet. The ambient chamber tem
perature shall be at least 25° C. An explo
Sive mixture shall be obtained within the
test chamber. (See paragraph 14.2a. (2) (b).
(b) The internal case ignition source shall
be energized, in order to cause an explosion
within the case. The occurrence of an explo
sion within the case may be detected by use
of a thermocouple inserted in the case and
connected to a sensitive galvanometer out
side the test chamber. If ignition of the
mixture within the case does not occur inn
mediately, thh test shall be considered void
and shall be repeated with a new explosive
charge.
(c) At least five internal case explosions
shall be accomplished at the test altitude
selected. If the case being tested is small
(not in excess of one-fiftieth of the test
chamber volume) and if the reaction within
the case upon ignition is of an explosive na
ture without continued burning of the mix
ture as it circulates into the case, more than
one internal case explosion but not more
than five may be produced without recharg—
ing the entire chamber. Ample time must
be allowed between internal case explosions
for replacement of burnt gases with a fresh
explosive mixture within the case. If the
internal case explosions produced did not
cause a main chamber explosion, the explo
Siveness of the fuel-air mixture in the main
chamber shall be verified. If the air-vapor
mixture in the main chamber is not found
to be explosive, the test shall be considered
void and the entire procedure repeated, using
an explosive mixture.
* See additional test procedure under para
graph 14.2a.
$ 37.195 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space

FIGURE 13

Approximate Quantity of 100/130 Octane Aviation Gasoline

required per cubic foot of air for Optimum Explosion.
50
NOTE: The amount of fuel will vary with ambient
humidity, chamber temperature, fuel
temperature and atmospheric pressure. The
\M volume occupied by the equipment must be
subtracted from the volume of the chamber
º 40 to determine the quantity of fuel required.
:
-
\
5 W
3
:
wn
30 N -

8
E
-
N
5t;# * NN
-:

>
10

O
•2 •4 •6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0

Fuel CC

APPENDIX A Category B–Equipment intended for in

STANDARDS ON EMISSION or SPURIOUs RADIo
rREQUENCY ENERGY (conductED AND RADIATED
INTERFERENCE) AND Associate:D TEST PROCE
dunes
The problem of describing the gross radio
frequency interference environment (RF
Conducted and Radiated Susceptibility Test)
in an aircraft is inseparably related to the
delineation of the maximum level of spurious
radio frequency energy that any one elec
trical or electronic equipment in that air
craft will emit. It is concluded, therefore,
that if the foregoing RF Conducted and
Radiated Susceptibility Tests are to achieve
their intended purposes, a compatible stand
ard on the maximum permissible level of
spurious emission of radio frequency energy
from any one electrical or electronic equip
ment in an aircraft must be applied to that
equipment.
Accordingly, one of the following stand
ards (and associated test procedure), as ap
propriate for the maximum weight of the
aircraft in which the electrical/electronic
equipment is intended to be installed must
be applied to each unit of equipment incor
porated in such installation:
1.0 Standards on Emission of Spurious
Radio Frequency Energy.
a. Categories of Equipment.
Category A—Equipment intended for in
stallation in aircraft having a Maximum
Weight of more than 12,500 pounds.
stallation in aircraft having a Maximum
Weight of 12,500 pounds, or less.
b. Conducted RF Interference. Radio in
terference voltages generated by the equip
ment within the frequency ranges and in
excess of the values shown in Figures 16,
17, 18, and 19 for Categories A and B, respec
tively, shall not appear on any power line
normally connected to an aircraft bus or
other equipment.
c. Radiated RF Interference. Radiated
interference fields generated by the equip
ment within the frequency ranges and in
excess of the values shown in Figures 20.
21, 22, and 23 for Categories A and B, re
spectively, shall not be radiated from any
unit, cable (including, but not limited to,
control, pulse, 1–f, video, antenna transmis
sion and power cables) or interconnecting
wiring. This requirement includes, but is
not limited to, Oscillator radiation, other
Spurlous emanations and broadband inter
ference. This does not include radiation
emanating from antennas or, in the case of
transmitters, any radiation on the selected
frequency + 50 percent of the band of fre
quencies between adjacent channels.
NotE: The emission of spurious radio
frequency energy from the equipment result
ing from manual operation of switches, but
not including any electrical or electro
mechanical operations resulting from man
ual operation of switches, may exceed the
limits stated in paragraphs 1.0b. and 1.0c.
if its duration does not exceed one second.

608
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
2.0 Test Procedure.
a. Equipment Required.
(1) Interference measuring instrument.—
Empire Devices Model NF-105 (including
heads and antennas), or equivalent.
(2) Line stabilization networks that meet
the requirements of paragraph 2.b.(2)(b).
b. General Requirements.
(1) The equipment under test shall be set
up on a ground plane and operated in ac
cordance with the following criteria:
(a) Ground Plane.-A copper or brass
ground plane, 0.01 inch thick minimum for
copper, 0.025 inch thick minimum for brass,
12-square feet or more in area with a mini
mum width of 30 inches, shall be used.
all cases where a shielded room is employed,
the ground plane shall be bonded to the
shielded room at intervals no greater than
3 feet and at both ends of the ground plane.
(b) Shock and Vibration Isolators.-The
equipment under test shall be secured to
mounting bases incorporating shock or vi
bration isolators, if such mounting bases are
specified by the manufacturer. The bond
ing straps furnished with the mounting
base shall be connected to the ground plane.
Where mounting bases do not incorporate
bonding straps, bonding straps shall not be
used in the test setup.
(c) Bonding.—Only the provisions in
cluded in the design of the equipment and
specified in the installation instructions
shall be used to bond units, such as equip
ment case and mount, together or to the
ground plane. Where bonding straps are
required to complete the test setup they
shall have a length not greater than 5
times the Width, shall have a minimum
thickness of 0.025 inch, and shall be copper
or brass metal straps, not braid. Connec
tions made with such bond straps shall have
clean metal-to-metal contact.
(d) External Ground Terminal.--When an
external terminal is available for a ground
connection on the equipment under test,
this terminal shall be connected to
ground plane if the terminal is normally
grounded in the installation. If the in
stallation conditions are unknown, the ter
minal shall not be grounded.
(e) Interconnecting Cables.—All equip
ment interconnecting cables and RF trans
mission lines shall be in accordance with the
manufacturer's installation wiring diagram
and shall use shielded or twisted wires only
where specified. Where no length of inter
connecting cables is specified, the cables
shall be at least five (5) feet long. Any
inputs or outputs from or to other equip
ments associated with the equipment undor
test shall be adequately simulated.
(f) Dummy Antennas.-The dummy an
tenna shall have electrical characteristics
which closely simulate those of the normal
antenna, and should be shielded. It shall
contain electrical components which are
used in the normal antenna (such as filters,
crystal diodes, synchros, motors, etc.).
$37,195
(2) Test instruments shall be set up and
operated in accordance with the following
Criteria:
(a) Bonding.—Interference meters used
for measurement during the “conducted”
test shall not be bonded to the ground plane
except through the interconnecting coaxial
cable. The counterpoise on rod antennas
shall be bonded to the ground plane with a
strap of such length that the rod antenna
can be positioned correctly. The strap shall
be as wide as the counterpolse.
(b) Powerline Stabilization Network.-
One stabllization network shall be inserted
in each ungrounded primary input power
In lead of the equipment under test. The net
work enclosure shall be bonded to the
round plane. The network shall be made
in accordance with Figure 14. The input
impedance characteristics of the stabiliza
tion network are shown in Figure 15.
(c) Antenna Orientation and Positioning
in Shielded Enclosures.—The rod or dipole
antenna shall be located as shown in Figures
25 or 26. The rod antenna shall be so
placed that the antenna is in a vertical
position. The rod antenna shall be located
at the point where maximum radiation pick
up is obtained when it is moved along a line
parallel with the edge of the ground plane.
Those measurements which use a resonant
dipole antenna shall have the dipole posi
tioned parallel with the edge of the ground
plane. The antenna shall be centered 12
inches + 1 inch above the level of the ground
plane. The rod or the dipole antenna shall be
located at the distance from the equipment
under test specified in Figures 25 or 26.
When the dimensions of the dipole antenna
become smaller than the test layout, the
antenna shall be moved parallel to the edge
of the ground plane to keep its sensitive ele
wnents adjacent to the point of maximum
radiation. At frequencies from 25 up to and
including 35 megacycles, the measurements
shall be taken with the dipole antenna ad
the justed to resonance at 35 megacycles. The
dipole antenna shall be adjusted to reso
nance at all frequencies above 35 megacycles.
In screen room tests, the antennas shall be
at least 1 foot away from any wall.
c. Detailed Procedure.
(1) Conducted Interference.
(a) Set up equipment in accordance with
Figure 24.
(b) Search the frequency range specified
for the applicable category for each equip
ment configuration required.
(2) Radiated Interference.
(a) Set up the equipment in accordance
with Figure 25.
(b) Search the frequency range specified
in the applicable category for each equip
ment configuration required.
(c) Set up the equipment in accordance
with Figure 26.
(d) Search the frequency range specified
for the applicable category for each equip
ment configuration required.
609
§ 37,195 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space

Ll
EQUIPMENT
UNDER test —ſſ'ſſjöö Y- Hºº wº
C1 -: ==c2
COAXIAL
TERMINAL
FOR
MEASURING
s Et z 3.
R1 $
3.
GROUND DIII ITISRound

Figure 14.—Powerline stabilization network schematic diagram.

ENCLOSURE DATA: 1.4 GAGE (B & S) ALUMINUM SUGGESTED SIZE 9% IN. BY 4 BY 4 IN.
FORM DATA: 53, IN. LENGTH, 3 IN. DIA (OD), .125 IN. WALL DIRILL }; IN. HOLE 34, IN. FROM
EACH EN D.
COIL DATA: Ll = 5 MICROHENRIES, 13 TURNS SINGLE LAYER, 4 IN. WINDING LENGTH.
WIRE DATA: AWG 6, 600 VOLT, .310 IN, DIA (OD). (FOR 50-AMPERE NETWORK.)
CAPACITOR: C1 SHALL BE MOUNTED ON 1 IN. INSULATING BLOCK ABOVE GROUND.
CAPACITOR DATA: C1 = 1 UF, 600, VOLT DC, BATHTU B.
C2 = 1 UF, 600-volt DC, BATHTUB, SINGLE TERMINAL CASE MOUNTED ON
GROUND.
RESISTOR DATA: R1 = 5,000-OH M., 5-WATT CARBON.
1. The values given for the component parts of the network are nominal. Itegardless of the construction or deviation
from nominal values, the network must have an impedance within 20 percent of that given in Figure 15.
2. Connecting leads to condensers and resistors should be as nearly as possible to zero length.
3. Networks may also be constructed having a 1-ohm series resistor between the line and capacitor C2. This 1-ohm
resistor shall be made up from ten 10-ohm, l-watt composition resistors.
. The data given in this figure is suitable for the construction of 50-ampere networks. Other current-carrying
networks may be constructed by changing the wire size given for the coil and the size of the over-all enclosure.
. The 50-ohm transmission line should be extended within the enclosure right up to the location where it connects
with capacitor Cl.

É
FIGURE 15

Input impedance at "equipment

under test" terminal of
stabilization network with the
"coaxial terminal for signal
generator" terminated in so ohms,
"power source" terminal open.

2 5 10 20 so

FREQUENCY in MEGAcycles

610
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration § 37.195

Maximum level of conducted Cw

interference from any one
equipment, using stabilization
network. Category A.

FIGURE 17
Maximum Level of Conducted CW
Interference from any one
equipment, using stabilization
network. Category B.
I

55

50

45

40

.05 •l •2 l 2 5 10 20 30

FREQUENCY IN MEGACYCLES

611
§ 37,195 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space

FIGURE 1.8
Maximum level of conducted
band and pulsed CW interference
from any one equipment, using
stabilization network. Category A

- - •2 •5 1 2

FREQUENCY in MEGAcycles

135
FIGURE 19
Maximum level of conducted
130 broadband and pulsed CW
interference from any one
125
equipment, using stabilization
net

120

115

110

105

..100

•05 •l •2 •5 l 2 5 10 20 30

preouency. In MEGACYCLEs

612
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration § 37.195

Figure 20
Maxi-um level of radiat
cw interference from any
one equipment. Category

41-inch rod antenna

Re-onant
Dipole Antenna

Non-Resonant Dipole
Antenna adjusted to 35 m.c.

2 -- 20 so 100. 200 sºo lood

FREQUENCY IN MEGAcycles

75
FIGURE 21

Maximum level of radia

CW interference from any
one equipment. Category B.
65

41-inch Rod Antenna

55
Resonant
Dipole Antenna
so
The use of the 41-inch Rod Antenna between
25 m.c. and 70 mc. is permissible only if the
45
induced voltages are converted to values
equivalent to those which would be obtained e
with the specified Dipole Antennas. Antenna Adjusted to
5 Inc.

•1 •2 .5 1 2 -, 10 2O -O 100 200 500 1000

PREQUENCY IN MEGAcycles

613
§ 37.195 Title 14—Aeroncºutics and Space

95

90
FIGURE 22.
Maximum level of radiated
85 broadband and pulsed cº
interference from any one
equipment. Category A.
so

75

41-inch Rod Antenna

7o

65
Resonant
Dipole Antenna

Non-Resonant Dipole Antenna

Adjusted to 35 m.c.
55

.05 -1 -2 -5 l 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 -Con

FREQUENCY IN MEGAcycles

FIGURE 23
41-inch Rod Antenna
Maximum level of radiated broad
band and pulsed. Cw interference
from any one equipment.
t

Resonant
Dipole antenna

The use of the 41-inch Rod Antenna

between 25 mc. and 70 m.c. is permissible
only if the induced voltages are
converted to values equivalent to those Non-Resonant Dipole
which would be obtained with the
Antenna Adjusted to 35 m.c.

FREQUENCY In MEGAcycles

(314
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration § 37.195

Units of Equipment Under Test

O O
4 Feet” M

*— M

--~~~~~~~~~~~ Paº-º-º-ºw-º-ºw-wºw wºw ºw-º-º-º-º-º

M * Interconnecting Cables to be bundled for

M at least four (4) feet and supported not
less than 2" above ground plane

Power
Leads
ine Stabilization Networks

Interference
Measuring
Instrument

Ground Plane

FIGURE 24—Arrangement of equipment for conducted RF interference test.

units of Equipment Under Teat

Line
stabilization
n-t-or

Q - - - - - - 2 M
4-
4 Feet" — | 7
4

A. \ I –4–
50 ohm
T-r-in-i-
º Bonded 7
8
round Plane
cable to -*
Interference
41-Rod ant-mn
Measuring
Instrument
* Interconnecting cables to be bundled 20” Square Counterpoise
for at least four (4) feet and at same level of, or not
supported not less than 2" above the more than 6” below,
ground plane ground plane

FIGURE 25—Location of rod antenna and arrangement of equipment.

615
 § 37.197 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space

Units of Bquipment Under Test

Line
stabilization
-t-orks

ETROIF"

4 Feet" --
4

TWTI
*0 oh
Terminations 77 ſº round -----

• Interconnecting cables to be bundled for Interfer-nc

at least four (4) feet and supported not
less than 2" above the ground plane
T-cable to reasuring
1-true

-- Dipole to be 12t+1)*
above-the-ground plane

FIGURE 26–Location of dipole antenna and arrangement of equipment.

[Amdt. 37–4, 30 FR 15548, Dec. 17, 1965; as amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 FR 5769, Apr. 11,
1967]
§ 37.197 Automatic pressure altitude
digitizer equipment; TSO–C88.
(a) Applicability. This technical
standard order prescribes the minimum
performance standards which automatic
pressure altitude digitizer equipment
must meet in order to be identified with
the applicable TSO marking. New
models of the equipment that are to be
so identified and that are manufactured
on or after February 10, 1967, must meet
the “Federal Aviation Administration
Standard for Automatic Pressure Alti
tude Digitizer Equipment,” set forth at
the end of this section.
(b) Data requirements. In accord
ance with $ 37.5, the manufacturer must
furnish the Chief, Engineering and
Manfacturing Branch, Flight Standards
Division, Federal Aviation Administra
tion, in the region in which the manu
facturer is located, the following tech
nical data:
(1) Seven copies of the manufac
turer's Operating instructions, equipment
limitations (including environmental
conditions, and where compatibility with
other airborne equipment is required,
identification of all characteristics to
assure proper matching) and installa
tion procedures: and
(2) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(c) Previously approved equipment.
Automatic pressure altitude digitizer
models approved prior to February 10.
1967, may continue to be manufactured
under the provisions of their original
approval.
FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION STANDARD
AUTOMATIC PREssure altiTUDE DIGITtze-R
EQUIPMENT
1. Purpose. 1.1 This document specifies
minimum performance standards and test
procedures for 100-foot increment automatic
altitude digitizing equipment which is to be
approved under this Standard.
1.2 The digitizer equipment is defined as
the combination of components needed for
conversion of an input related to pressure
altitude into the parallel digital code set
forth in the International (ICAO) Standard
Code for SSR Pressure Altitude Transmission.
2. General requirements. 2.1 To be eligi
ble for approval under a TSO authorization,
each automatic altitude reporting digitizer
equipment manufactured must comply with
the requirements of this Standard up to its
maximum range as indicated on the equip
ment nameplate.
2.2 The digitized altitude output must
be in accordance with the International
(ICAO) Standard Code for SSR Pressure Al
titude Transmission contained in ICAO In
ternational Standards and Recommended
Practices; Aeronautical Telecommunications.
Annex 10, Volume I, Part I, Equipment and
Systems. This ICAO code is the same as
specified in the U.S. National Standard for
Common System Component Characteristics

616
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration § 37.1.97

for the IFF Mark X (SIF)/Air Traffic Control
Radar Beacon System SIF/ATCRBS as
amended December 27, 1963.
2.3 In those cases where the digitizing
equipment forms part of an aircraft system
such as an altimeter, an alr data computer,
or an ATC transponder, this Standard ap
plies only to the digitizing equipment ele
ment as defined in paragraph 1.2. The other
elements are covered by separate airworth 1
ness requirements, technical standard orders,
and operating rules.
3. Detail requirements—3.1 Marking. In
addition to the information required to be
marked by § 37.7(d), the information must
include the maximum operating altitude.
3.2 Accessibility of controls. Controls
which are not normally adjusted in flight
must not be readily accessible to flight per
sonnel.
3.3 Compatibility of components. The
automatic altitude digitizer equipment may
3.7.3 If the pressure altitude input which
drives the digitizer also actuates a display in
the cockpit, the system, including the display
indicator, must meet the accuracy require
ments applicable to the pilot's altimeter.
The information fed to the digitizer and the
displayed altitude shall agree within +25
feet. The altitude displayed (when corrected
for the difference between the altimeter
barometric setting and 29.9213 inches of mer
cury, absolute) must correspond with the
digitized information given to the trans
ponder within + 125 feet on a 95 percent
probability basis.
3.8 Power variation. The device must
properly function with plus or minus 15
percent variation in d.c. voltage and/or plus
or minus 10 percent variation in a.c. voltage
and plus or minus 5 percent variation in
frequency.
4. Test conditions. 4.1 Unless otherwise
specified herein. all tests must be conducted

: be qualified either separately or in associ

ation with a pressure altitude device and/or
an ATC transponder. If the digitizer equip
ment is qualified separately, but requires
under the conditions specified in paragraph
3.7.1. Standard pressures used in testing
must conform with the U.S. Standard At
mosphere, 1962. (Geopotential altitude
matching, it must be identified in a manner tables.)
that will assure proper matching. 5. Required tests. 5.1 A prototype of a
3.4 Operating range. The operating range production article of digitizer equipment
i for all digitizers must begin at or below must be tested to show compliance with the
— 1,000 feet. The upper limit must be as performance requirements in paragraph 3.7
indicated on equipment nameplate. and the additional requirements in para
3.5 Pressure datum. The digitized alti graph 3.8. After these tests have been com
tude information transmitted to the trans pleted, the prototype must be subjected to
ponder must be referenced to 29.9213 inches the following test: The digitizer altitude
of mercury, absolute (1013.25 millibars). If equivalent input must slowly be changed in
the digitizer equipment is part of an altlin altitude, either increasing or decreasing in
eter system, the altimeter barometric set value, until a transition to the values shown
ting system must not affect this pressure in Column (A) occurs in the digital output.
datum. The altitude input reading at transition must
3.6 Power loss. If electrical power is used be as shown in Column (B), if increasing
to drive the digitizer, means must be incor values of altitude input are used; or in
porated in the equipment to detect loss of Column (C), if decreasing altitude inputs
power or the effect thereof (not including are used. The table is to be used to the
excitation power from the ATC transponder). maximum altitude as shown on the equip
Under this failure condition the equipment ment nameplate.
must READING or Altitude-Equival ENT INPUT
(a) Deactivate the digitizer output in a
manner which removes the altitude informa (A) (B) (C)
tion pulses; and
(b) Provide for operation of a warning Digital output Increasing alti Decreasing alti
(in feet) tude (in feet) tude (in feet)
device in the event of loss of digitizer drive
power.
3.7 Performance. 3.7.1 The digitizer 0 –50+50 50–E50
10,000 9,950+50 10,050+50
equipment must be capable of functioning 20,000 19,950+50 20,050+50
and not be adversely affected over the ranges 40,000 39, 950+50 40,050+50
of conditions expected in the environment 60,000 59, 950-t 50 60,050+50
in which the equipment is to be used. 80,000 79,950+50 80,050+50
3.7.2 The digitizer must reproduce its
input (related to pressure altitude) in digi 5.1.1 For combination devices, if pressure
tal form with a tolerance of +50 feet meas is used as the altitude-equivalent input in
ured at the transition points. When the showing compliance with para 5.1, the toler
pressure altitude information and the digi ance specified may be increased by the ap
tizer are incorporated in the same device plicable altimeter tolerance.
(including properly identified matched com 5.2 The manufacturers must determine

2. ponents in accordance with $ 3.3), the total the presence of each required digitizer coded
tolerance of the combination must not ex position.
-*
ceed the applicable altimeter tolerance plus [Amdt. 37–11, 32 F.R. 124, Jan. 7, 1967, as
º:º
*: a maximum digitizing error increment of 50 amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
feet at the transition points. Apr. 11, 1967]
º:
º 617
39–059–75 40
§ 37.198 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 37.198. Oxygen regulators, demand—
TSO-C89.
(a) Applicability. This technical
standard order prescribes the minimum
performance standards that aircraft de
mand oxygen regulators must meet in
order to be identified with the applica
ble TSO marking. New models of de
mand oxygen regulators that are to be
so identified and that are manufactured
on or after February 10, 1967, must meet
the requirements of the following “Fed
eral Aviation Administration Standard,
Oxygen Regulators, Demand.”
(b) Marking. In addition to the
markings required by § 37.7, the inlet
supply pressure range and the maximum
environmental (cabin) altitude must also
be marked on the regulator.
(c) Data requirements. The manu
facturer must furnish the Chief, Engi
neering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avia
tion Administration, in the region in
which the manufacturer is located, the
following technical data:
(1) Seven copies of the manufac
turer's operating instructions, equipment
limitations, and installation procedures.
(2) One copy of the manufacturer's
test report.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Oxygen regulators approved prior to
February 10, 1967, may continue to be
manufactured under the provisions of
the original approval.
FEDERAL AviATION ADMINISTRATION STANDARD
OxYCEN REGULATORS, DEMAND
1. Purpose. This standard contains mini
mum performance and quality control stand
ards for the manufacture of demand oxygen
system regulators.
2. Classification. The term “demand reg
ulator” includes all of the following classes
of regulators:
(a) Straight demand regulators designed
to deliver oxygen only.
(b) Diluter demand regulators designed
to deliver a mixture of oxygen and air, and
oxygen only.
(c) Straight demand pressure breathing
regulators (stralght demand regulators de
signed to deliver undiluted oxygen under
positive pressure). -
(d) Diluter demand pressure breathing
regulators (diluter demand regulators de
signed to deliver undiluted oxygen under
positive pressure).
3. Design and construction of regulator.
To be eligible for approval under a TSO au
thorization, the regulator Inust possess the
following design and construction character
1stics:
(31S
3.1 Demand regulators designed to be
mounted directly upon an oxygen mask or
the crewmember's clothing or safety harness
must include a flexible oxygen supply tube
connecting the regulator inlet with the oxy
gen supply system.
3.2 Demand regulators must be con
structed of materials that—
(a) Do not contaminate air or oxygen;
(b) Are not adversely affected by continu
ous contact with oxygen; and
(c) Are at least flame resistant.
3.3 (a) Demand regulators must be
equipped with a 200-mesh screen, or equiv
alent filter, at the oxygen inlet port or at
the oxygen inlet hose assembly.
(b) Diluter demand and diluter-demand
pressure regulations must be equipped with
screening of not more than 100 mesh and not
less than 30 mesh, or equivalent filter, at the
air inlet port.
3.4 Diluter demand and diluter-demand
pressure breathing regulators must be pro
vided with a means for manually selecting a
delivery of undiluted oxygen. If the selec
tion means is controlled by a rotating handle
or lever, the travel must be limited to not
more than 180 degrees from the “normal oxy
gen" position to the “100 percent oxygen"
position. The dilution position of the se
lection means must be designated “normal
oxygen” and the nondilution position must
be designated “100 percent oxygen.” The
selection means must be such that it will
not assume a position between the “normal
oxygen" and “100 percent oxygen” positions.
3.5 Straight demand pressure breathing
and diluter demand pressure breathing regu
lators must be designed to provide oxygen
at a positive pressure of 11.0+8.0 inches H.O
to determine mask peripheral leakage at al
titudes below which positive pressure are
hereinafter required. The means of obtain
ing this pressure must be by push, pull, or
toggle control appropriately marked to indi
cate its purpose.
3.6 Diluter demand and diluter demand
pressure breathing regulators must incorpo
rate means to indicate when oxygen is and
is not flowing from the regulator outlet.
This requirement does not apply to mask
mounted regulators.
4. Performance. Two demand regulators
of each class for which approval is sought
must be shown to comply with the minimum
performance standards set forth in para
graphs 4.1 through 4.10 in any position
which the regulators can be mounted. Tests
must be conducted at ambient atmospheric
conditions of approximately 30 inches Hg
and 70° F., except as otherwise specified.
It is permissible to correct gas flow rates
and pressures to STPD conditions by
computation.
4.1 (a) Demand regulators must supply
the following oxygen or oxygen-air flows at
not more than the specified outlet pres
sures. These characteristics must be dis
played at all altitudes, with the oxygen
supply pressure at all values within the
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration § 37.198
design inlet pressure range, and with the 0.8 inch H2O from the positive pressure at
diluter valve open and closed. 20 LPM, ATPD.
Marimum outlet (c) The positive pressure at 0.01 LPM,
ATPD, must not increase by more than
Flow, suction pressure,
LPM, ATPD: inches of water 0.8 inch H.O from the positive pressure at
20 LPM, ATPD.
4.4 (a) The inward leakage of air through
the regulator at sea level must not exceed
0.1 LPM, STPD, with a suction pressure of
1.0 Inch H.O applied to the outlet port, the
(b) Demand regulators must not flow
more than 0.01 LPM, STPD, when the outlet
9*W8°n supply Inlet port sealed, and the
diluter valve closed.
suction pressure is reduced to 0 inch of (b) The outward leakage of air through
H.O under the conditions specified in sub the regulator at sea level must not exceed
paragraph (a) of this paragraph. 0.1 LPM, STPD, with a positive pressure of
4.2 (a) Diluter demand and diluter de 12 inches H, O applied to the outlet port,
mand pressure breathing regulators must the oxygen supply inlet port Sealed, and the
supply the following percentages of cylinder diluter valve open and closed.
oxygen, by volume, at the specified atmos (c) The regulator outlet leakage must not
pheric pressures and corresponding altitudes. exceed 0.01 LPM, STPD, with the regulator
These oxygen percentages must be delivered outlet port open and any oxygen supply
at regulator outlet gas flows of 20, 70, and Pressure within the specified operating range
100 LPM, ATPD, with the oxygen supply *Pplied at the regulator inlet port.
pressure at all values within the design (d) The regulator overall leakage must not
inlet pressure range. exceed 0.01 LPM, STPD, with the regulator
outlet port sealed and the regulator inlet port
Pressurized to a value equal to the maximum
Minimum percent oxygen specified oxygen Supply pressure.
* 4.5 (a) Straight demand pressure breath
* †: ur Altitude ing and diluter demand pressure breathing
ºf . º: feet Diluter Diluter de
regulators must comply with paragraphs 4.1
ºt: demand mand pres
sure breathing through 4.4 after a negative pressure of 29
r: inches H.O and a positive pressure of 24
º
-
760 d 0 40
inches H.O are applied to the outlet port
: for a period of 2 minutes. The diluter valve
6:32.4 5,000 0 40
522.8 10,000 6 40 and the regulator inlet port must be closed
429. 1 15,000 14 40 during these two pressure tests.

º
*sº
349.5
282.4
226, 1
179.3
178.5
141.2
20, 000
25,000
30,000
35,000
35, 100
40,000
45,000
25
40
61
91
98
98
()
40
40
61
91
98
98
(b) Straight demand and diluter demand
regulators must comply with paragraphs 4.1
through 4.4 after a negative pressure of 29
inches H.O and a positive pressure of 12
111.1 98 inches H.O are applied to the outlet port for
* Period of 2 minutes. The diluter valve and
: 1 Not applicable.
(b) Straight demand and straight demand
the regulator inlet port must be closed dur
ing these two pressure tests.
(c) Demand regulators must comply with
pressure breathing regulators must supply
º: not less than 98 percent oxygen, by volume,
Paragraphs 4.1 through 4.4 after a positive
pressure of 1.5 times the maximum oxygen
at all altitudes under the conditions speci
supply pressure is applied to the inlet port, or
fied in subparagraph (a) of this paragraph.
4.3 (a) Diluter demand pressure breath
to the inlet of the oxygen supply tube in
the case of mask mounted regulators, for a
ing regulators with the diluter valve open period of 2 minutes. The positive pressure
or closed, and straight demand pressure
must be applied rapidly to simulate rapid
breathing regulators, must provide positive
opening of the supply valve. The diluter
breathing pressure at a flow of 20 LPM, ATPD, valve must be closed and the outlet port must
in accordance with the following table: be sealed during the test.
Altitude Positive outlet 4.6 (a) Straight demand and diluter de
1,000 feet pressure—H,o mand regulators must comply with para
80 ------------------------- 0. 0-4-3. 5 graphs 4.1 through 4.4 after being subjected
–0. 0
to a change in pressure from not less than
40 ------------------------- 2.5-i-2.5
12.2 p.s.l.a. to not less than 2.7 p.s.i.a. in not
more than 1 second.
42 ------------------------- 6.0+ 1.5
44 ------------------------- 10. 0+ 1.0 (b) Straight demand pressure breathing
45 ------------------------- 12. 0-E 1.0 and diluter demand pressure breathing reg
ulators must comply with paragraphs 4.1
(b) The positive pressure at 100 LPM, through 4.4 after being subjected to a change
ATPD, must not decrease by more than in pressure from not less than 12.2 p.s.i.a.
619
 § 37,199 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
to not less than 2.1 p.s.l.a. in not more than
1 second.
4.7 Demand regulators must comply with
paragraphs 4.1 through 4.4 under each condi
tion specified in subparagraphs (a) through
(d) of this paragraph with the maximum
oxygen supply pressure applied to the regula
tor inlet:
(a) At a temperature of approximately
70° F. after being stored at a temperature of
not less than 160° F. for 12 hours.
(b) At a temperature of 70° F. after being
stored at a temperature of not warmer than
–67* F. for 2 hours.
(c) At a temperature of not less than
130° F.
(d) At a temperature of not more than
20° F.
4.8 Demand regulators must comply with
paragraphs 4.1 through 4.4 after being sub
jected to the tests specified in subparagraphs
(a) and (b) of this paragraph.
(a) The regulator must be vibrated along
each mutually perpendicular axis for 1 hour
(3 hours total), at a frequency of 5 to 500
cps, and at a double amplitude of 0.036
-inches or an acceleration of 2 “g,” which
ever occurs first. Mask mounted regulators
need not be subjected to this vibration test.
(b) The regulator must be subjected to an
endurance test of a total of 250,000 breath
ing cycles. The peak breathing rate must be
30 LPM, STPD, for 200,000 cycles, and 70
LPM, STPD, for 50,000 cycles. The dilution
valve must be open during one half of the
200,000 cycles and one half of the 50,000
cycles, and it must be closed during the re
maining cycles. During the nonflow portion
of the 30 LPM and 70 LPM breathing cycles,
a back pressure of 0.5 and 1.0 inches H.O.
respectively, must be applied to the regulator
outlet.
4.9 Demand regulators must be free of
vibration, flutter, or chatter that will prevent
compliance with paragraphs 4.1 through 4.3
when subjected to the following simulated
flow conditions:
Peak flow | Back pressure | Diluter
Cycles per cycle at 0 LPM, valve
LPM, STPD inches H2O
5,000 100 1.5 | Closed.
5,000 100 1.5 Open.
4.10 Demand regulators, when subject to
accelerations up to 3 “g.” in any position,
must comply with paragraph 4.1 (a) except
that the specified suction pressures may be
exceeded by not more than 0.6 inches H.O.
5. Marimu m environmental (cabin) alti
tude. The minimum pressure to which the
regulator has been shown to comply under
paragraph 4.6 (a) or (b) of this standard
determines the maximum environmental
(cabin) altitude of the regulator, except that
620
the maximum environmental (cabin) alti
tude must not exceed the value shown in the
following table:
Class Feet
Straight or diluter-demand--------- 40,000
Pressure demand------------------- 45,000
6. Quality control. 6.1 Each production
regulator must be shown to comply with
paragraphs 4.1 through 4.4.
6.2. One regulator selected at random from
each lot must be shown to comply with para
graphs 4.1 through 4.10. The lot size may
be selected by the applicant subject to the
approval of the Federal Aviation Agency on
the basis of evaluation of the quality control
system of the applicant (see FAR, $ 37.5).
7. Abbreviations and definitions.
LPM; Liters per minute.
STPD: Standard temperature and pressure,
dry (0° C., 760 mm. Hg., PH, oi=0).
ATPD: Ambient temperature and pressure,
dry (70°. F.; ambient pressure; PH,0–0).
c.p.s.: Cycles per second.
p.s.l..a...: Pounds per square inch absolute.
g.: Acceleration of gravity, 32 feet/second/
Second.
[Amdt. 37-9, 32 F.R. 180, Jan. 7, 1967, as
amended by Doc. No. 8084, 32 FIR. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 37.199 Cargo pallets, nets, and con
tainers, TSO-C90.
(a) Applicability—(1) Minimum per
formance standards. This Technical
Standard Order prescribes the minimum
performance standards that aircraft
cargo pallets, nets, and containers must
meet in order to be identified with the
applicable TSO marking. New models
of such equipment which are so identi
fled that are manufactured on or after
October 18, 1970, must meet the mini
mum performance standards for cargo
pallets, nets, and containers as set forth
in National Aerospace Standard, NAS
3610, Revision 1, approved April 30, 1970.
National Aerospace Standard, NAS 3610,
Revision 1, approved April 30, 1970, en
titled “Cargo Unit Load Devices—spec
ification for” is incorporated by refer
ence herein in accordance with 5 U.S.C.
552(a)(1) and § 37.23 and is available
as indicated in § 37.23. Additionally, Na
tional Aerospace Standard, NAS 3610
may be examined at any FAA regional
office of the Chief, Engineering and
Manufacturing Branch (or in the case
of the Western Region, the Chief, Air
craft Engineering Division), and may be
obtained from National Standards Asso
ciation, Inc., 1321 14th Street NW.
Washington, D.C. 20005 at a cost of eight
(8) dollars.
 Chapter 1–Federal Aviation Administration
(2) Eacceptions. Paragraph 3.5 of NAS
3610 is not essential to compliance with
this Section since paragraph (b) of this
TSO provides the necessary marking re
quirements.
(b) Markings. In lieu of the marking
requirements of § 37.7 (d), cargo pallets,
nets, and containers must be legibly and
permanently marked in an area clearly
visible after the article is loaded with
Cargo, with the following information:
(1) Name and address of the manu
facturer.
(2) The weight of the article to the
Inearest pound.
(3) The serial number or date of man
ufacture or both.
(4) The identification of the article in
the Code system set out in paragraph
1.2.1 of NAS 3610, Revision 1, approved
April 30, 1970.
(5) Any limitations or restrictions.
(6) If the article is not omnidirec
tional, the words “Forward”, “Aft”, and
“Side" must be conspicuously and ap
propriately placed.
(7) The burning rate determined for
the article under paragraph 3.7 of NAS
3610, Revision 1, approved April 30, 1970.
(8) The applicable TSO number.
(c) Data requirements. In addition to
the data specified in § 37.5, the manufac
turer must furnish to the Chief, Engi
neering and Manufacturing Branch,
Flight Standards Division, Federal Avia
tion Administration, in the region in
which the manufacturer is located (or in
the case of the Western Region, the
Chief, Aircraft Engineering Division),
the following technical data:
(1) One copy of the manufacturer's
analysis and/or test results showing com
pliance With the requirements of this
TSO.
(2) One copy of the manufacturer's
instructions for installation, operation,
servicing, maintenance, and repair of the
article.
(3) An assembly drawing of the article
showing and describing the actual lan
guage of all markings, their location, and
size of print.
(d) Previously approved equipment.
Cargo pallets, nets, and containers ap
proved prior to October 18, 1970, may
continue to be manufactured under the
provisions of their original approval.
(Sec. 6(c), Department of Transportation
Act, 49 U.S.C. 1655(c)) (35 F.R. 14611,
Sept. 18, 1970)
6 1
$37.200
§ 37.200 Emergency locator transmit
ters—TSO-Cºl.
(a) Applicability. This technical
standard order prescribes the minimum
performance standards that airborne
emergency locator transmitters must
meet in order to be identified with the
applicable TSO marking. Emergency
locator transmitters which are to be SO
identified must meet the requirements
prescribed in paragraphs (b) and (C)
of this section.
(b) Basic performance standards.
Basic performance standards are hereby
established for the following types of
emergency locator transmitters:
(1) Type ELT (P) (personnel type).
Personnel type emergency locator trans
mitters must meet the standards pre
scribed in Radio Technical Commission
for Aeronautics Document No. DO-145
titled “Minimum Performance Stand
ards—Personnel Type Emergency Loca
tor Transmitters, ELT (P), Operating on
121.5 and 243.0 Megahertz,” dated No
Wember 5, 1970.
(2) Type ELT (AF) (automatic fired
type). Automatic fixed type emergency
locator transmitters must meet the
standards for Automatic Fixed (AF)
Type equipment Set forth in Radio Tech
nical Commission for Aeronautics Doc
ument No. DO-147 titled “Minimum Per
formance Standards—Automatic Fixed,
Automatic Portable, and Automatic De
ployable Type Emergency Locator Trans
mitters ELT (AF) (AP) (AD), Operating
On 121.5 and 243.0 Megahertz,” dated
November 5, 1970. Notwithstanding the
requirements of paragraphs 2.3.1(a)(1)
and 2.3.1(c) of DO-147, a tolerance of
+; milliseconds may be applied to the
value “11 milliseconds” prescribed
therein.
(3) Type ELT (AP) (automatic porta
ble type). Automatic portable type emer
gency locator transmitters must meet the
standards for Automatic Portable (AP)
Type equipment prescribed in Radio
Technical Commission for Aeronautics
Document No. DO-147 titled “Minimum
Performance Standards — Automatic
Fixed, Automatic Portable, and Auto
matic Deployable Type Emergency Loca
tor Transmitters, ELT (AF) (AP) (AD),
Operating on 121.5 and 243.0 Megahertz,”
dated November 5, 1970. Notwithstand
ing the requirements of paragraphs 2.3.1
(a) (1) and 2.3.1(c) of DO-147, a toler
§ 37.200 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
ance of +; milliseconds may be applied
to the value “11 milliseconds” prescribed
therein.
(4) Type ELT (AD) Automatic de
ployable type). Automatic deployable
type emergency locator transmitters
must meet the standards for Automatic
Deployable (AD) Type equipment pre
Scribed in Radio Technical Commission
for Aeronautics Document No. DO–147
titled “Minimum Performance Stand
ards—Automatic Fixed, Automatic Port
able and Automatic Deployable Type
Emergency Locator Transmitters, ELT
(AF) (AP) (AD), Operating on 121.5 and
243.0 Megahertz,” dated November 5,
1970. Notwithstanding the requirements
of paragraphs 2.3.1(a)(1) and 2.3.1(c)
of DO-147, a tolerance of +; millisec
onds may be applied to the value “11
milliseconds” prescribed therein.
(5) Type ELT (S) (survival type).
Survival type emergency locator trans
mitters must meet the Standards pre
scribed in Radio Technical Commission
for Aeronautics Document No. DO–146
titled “Minimum Performance Stand
ards—Survival Type Emergency Loca
tor Transmitters, ELT (S), Operating on
121.5 and 243.0 Megahertz,” dated No
vember 5, 1970.
(c) Additional performance stand
ards. In addition to meeting the basic
performance standards (as applicable)
prescribed in paragraph (b) of this sec
tion—
(1) Each personnel-type emergency
locator transmitter must, when installed
in accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions—
(i) Be automatically activated when
subject to a force of 5.0 +; g. and greater
for a duration of 11 +; milliseconds and
greater in the direction of the longi
tudinal axis of the aircraft;
(ii) Not be activated under conditions
less severe than those prescribed in sub
division (i) of this subparagraph; and
(iii) After activation, remain activated
when subsequently subjected to shock
forces in any direction of up to 50 g. and
having durations up to 11 +; milli
seconds.
Alternate means of transmitter activa
tion may be used, including, but not lim
62 3)
4-w
ited to, skin deformation Sensors, pro
vided that such alternate means are
shown to be substantially equivalent
to sensors responsive to the crash
forces otherwise prescribed in the
subparagraph.
(2) Not withstanding the require
ments of paragraph 3.1 of DO-145, the
“low operating temperature” for each
personnel type emergency locator trans
mitter shall be —20° C. In addition, no".
withstanding the requirements of para
graph 3.5 of DO-145, the maximum low
temperature for the temperature varia
tion test shall be — 40° C.
(3) The electrical connections to the
battery, in each personnel, automatic,
and Survival type emergency locator
transmitter must be corrosion resistant
and positive in action.
(4) Each personnel, automatic porta
ble, and survival type emergency locator
transmitter must be equipped with a
guard for the manual activiation switch.
(5) Each automatic fixed, automatic
portable, and automatic deployable type
emergency locator transmitter that is in
stalled with a remote switch for activa
tion, must be equipped with a guard for
the remote switch. In addition, the plac
ard required in paragraph (f) (1) (iii) of
this section must be installed adjacent
to the remote switch, as well as on the
transmitter.
(d) Environmental Standards. Unless
otherwise stated in RTCA documents ref
erenced in paragraphs (b) and (c) of
this section, environmental testing must
be done in accordance with RTCA Docu
ment No. DO–138 titled “Environmental
Conditions and Test Procedures for Air.
borne Electronic/Electrical Equipment
and Instruments,” dated June 27, 1968.
(e) Availability of documents. RTCA
Documents Nos. DO–138, DO-145, DO
146, and DO-147 are incorporated herein
in accordance with 5 U.S.C. 552(a)(1)
and $ 37.23 and are available as indicated
in § 37.23. Additionally, these RTCA doc
uments may be examined at any FAA
Regional Office of the Chief, Engineering
and Manufacturing Branch (or, in the
case of the Western Region, the Chief,
Aircraft Engineering Division). The
above documents may be obtained from
the RTCA Secretariat, Suite 655, 1717 H
Street NW., Washington, DC 20006.
(f) Marking. (1) In addition to the
markings prescribed in § 37.7 (d), the
equipment must be permanently and leg
ibly marked with—
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(i) Its type designation as prescribed
in paragraph (b) of this section;
(ii) The date on, or before, which the
battery must be replaced or recharged,
as applicable, to comply with the useful
life limitation prescribed in paragraph
(g) (2) of this section; and
(iii) The following placard: “For avia
tion emergency use only. Unlicensed
operation unlawful. Operation in viola
tion of FCC rules subject to fine or license
revocation.”
(2) In addition to the markings pre
scribed in § 37.7 (d) and subparagraph
(1) of this paragraph, each personnel
type emergency locator transmitter, and
each automatic portable type emergency
locator transmitter must be perma
nently and legibly marked with the fol
lowing placard: “When using in tem
peratures below freezing, keep trans
mitter inside your jacket with antenna
outside for longest operating life.”
(3) Each separate component of the
equipment (antenna, transmitter, or
other) must be permanently and legibly
marked with at least the manufacturer's
name and the TSO number.
(g) Data requirements. In accord
ance with $ 37.5, the manufacturer must
furnish to the Chief, Engineering and
Manufacturing Branch, Flight Stand
ards Division (or, in the case of the
Western Region, to the Chief, Aircraft
Engineering Division), Federal Aviation
Administration in the region in which
the manufacturer is located, one copy of
the following technical data, except that
additional copies must be furnished
upon request by the FAA:
(1) Manufacturer's operating in
structions and equipment limitations,
containing a statement identifying the
type designation of the equipment as
prescribed in paragraph (b) of this
Section.
(2) Installation instructions, includ
ing applicable schematic diagrams, wir
ing diagrams, procedures, and specifica
tions. The specifications must set forth
all linitations, restrictions, or other con
ditions, pertinent to the installation. The
limitations must include, for batteries
other than those that are essentially un
affected during probable storage inter
vals, a limitation on the use of the
battery beyond 50 percent of its useful
life (or in the case of a rechargeable bat
tery, beyond 50 percent of its useful life
of charge) as established by the trans
mitter manufacturer. For the purpose of
623
§ 39.1
this subparagraph, the useful life of the
battery (established cy the transmitter
manufacturer) is the length of time, after
its date of manufacture, that the battery
may be stored on the shelf under normal
environmental conditions without losing
its ability to meet the power supply re
quirements prescribed in the applicable
performance standards of paragraph (b)
Of this section.
(3) List of components (by part num
ber) that make up the equipment system
complying with the applicable standards
prescribed in this section.
(4) Manufacturer's test report.
(5) Equipment data sheets specifying,
within the prescribed range of environ
mental conditions, the actual perform
ance of equipment of that type with
respect to each performance factor pre
Scribed in the applicable standard.
(h) Data furnished with each manu
factured unit. A copy of the operating
instructions and equipment limitations
prescribed in paragraph (g) (1) of this
section, the installation instructions pre
Scribed in paragraph (g) (2) of this sec
tion, and the equipment data sheets
prescribed in paragraph (g) (5) of this
section, must be furnished with each
emergency locator transmitter manufac
tured under this TSO.
[Amdt. 37–31, 36 F.R. 18722, Sept. 21, 1971)
PART 39—AIRWORTHINESS
DIRECTIVES
Subpart A–General
Sec.
39.1 Applicability.
39.3 General.
Subpart B–Airworthiness Directives
39.11 Applicability.
39.13 Airworthiness directives.
AUTHORITY: The provisions of this Part 39
issued under secs. 601 and 603, 72 Stat. 775,
776; 49 U.S.C. 1421, 1423.
Source: The provisions of this Part 39
contained in Docket No. 5061, 29 F.R. 14403,
Oct. 20, 1964, unless otherwise noted.
Subpart A–General
§ 39.1 Applicability.
This part prescribes airworthiness di
rectives that apply to aircraft, aircraft
engines, propellers, or appliances (here
inafter referred to in this part as “prod
ucts”) when—
(a) An unsafe condition exists in a
product; and
§ 39.3 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(b) That condition is likely to exist or
develop in other products of the same
type design.
[Doc. No. 5061, 29 F.R. 14403, Oct. 20, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 39–106, 30 F.R. 8826,
July 14, 1965)
§ 39.3 General.
No person may operate a product to
which an airworthiness directive applies
except in accordance with the require
ments of that airworthiness directive.
Subpart B–Airworthiness Directives
§ 39.11 Applicability.
This subpart identifies those products
in Which the Administrator has found
an unsafe condition as described in § 39.1
and, as appropriate, prescribes inspec
tions and the conditions and limitations,
if any, under which those products may
Continue to be operated.
§ 39.13 Airworthiness directives.
(All airworthiness directives contained
in $ 507.10 of the regulations of the Ad
ministrator are hereby transferred to
this section of the Federal Aviation
Regulations.)
Note: Airworthiness directives prescribed
under this subpart were published in full in
the FEDERAL REGISTER at 21 F.R. 9449, Dec. 4,
1956.
For Federal Register citations
amendments in 1957 and subsequent years,
see former $ 507.10 of this title, in a separate
volume entitled “List of Sections Affected
1949–1963.” See also $ 39.13 of this title in
the List of CFR Sections Affected at the end
of this volume.
PARTS 40–42 IRESERVED]
PART 43—MAINTENANCE, PREVEN
TIVE MAINTENANCE, REBUILDING,
AND ALTERATION
Sec.
43.1 Applicability.
43.3 Persons authorized to perform main
tenance, preventive maintenance -
rebuilding, and alterations.
43.5 Return to service after maintenance,
preventive maintenance, rebuild
ing, or alteration.
43.7 Persons authorized to approve air
craft, airframes, aircraft engines,
propellers, and appliances for re
turn to service after maintenance,
preventive maintenance, rebuilding,
Or alteration.
Sec.
43.9 Content, form and disposition of
maintenance, rebuilding, and alter
ation records (except 100-hour,
annual, and progressive inspec
tions).
43.11 Content, form, and disposition of
annual, 100-hour, and progressive
inspection records.
43.13 Performance rules (general).
43.15 Additional performance rules for in
spections.
43.16 Rotorcraft Maintenance M a nual :
“Airworthiness Limitations” section.
43.17 Mechanical work performed on U.S.
registered aircraft by certain Cana
dian persons.
Appendix A–Major alterations, major re
pairs, and preventive maintenance
Appendix B–Recording of major repairs and
major alterations
Appendix C–|Reserved]
Appendix D—Scope and detail of items (as
applicable to the particular aircraft) to
be included in annual and 100-hour
inspections
Appendix E–Altimeter system test and in
spection
Appendix F-ATC transponder tests and
inspection
AUTHoRrrr: The provisions of this Part 43
issued under secs. 313, 601, 602, 603. 604, and
605, 72 Stat. 752, 775, 776, 778; 49 U.S.C. 1354,
1421, 1422, 1423, 1424, 1425.
Source: The provisions of this Part 43
contained in Docket No. 1993, 29 F.R. 5451,
Apr. 23, 1964, unless otherwise noted.
NoTE: For miscellaneous technical amend
to
ments to this Part 43, see Amdt. 43–3, 31 F.R.
3336, Mar. 3, 1966, and Amdt. 43–6, 31 F.R.
9211, July 6, 1966.
§ 43.1 Applicability.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(b) of this section, this part prescribes
rules governing the maintenance, pre
ventive maintenance, rebuilding, and
alteration of any—
(1) Aircraft having a U.S. airworthi
ness certificate; and
(2) Airframe, aircraft engine, pro
peller, or appliance of such an aircraft.
(b) This part does not apply to any
aircraft for which an experimental air
worthiness certificate has been issued,
unless a different kind of airworthiness
certificate had previously been issued
for that aircraft.
§ 43.3 Persons authorized to perform
maintenance, preventive mainte
nance, rebuilding, and alterations.
(a) Except as provided in this section,
no person may maintain, rebuild, alter,
or perform preventive maintenance on
an aircraft, airframe, aircraft engine
624
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
propeller, or appliance to which this part
; :- applies. Those items, the performance
* ... of which is a major alteration, a major
* - repair, or preventive maintenance, are
listed in Appendix A.
(b) The holder of a mechanic certifl
cate may perform maintenance, preven
tive maintenance, and alterations as pro
vided in Part 65 of this chapter.
(c) The holder of a repairman cer
tificate may perform maintenance and
preventive maintenance as provided in
Part 65 of this chapter.
(d) A person working under the
supervision of a holder of a mechanic or
repairman certificate may perform the
maintenance, preventive maintenance,
and alterations that his Supervisor is
authorized to perform, if the supervisor
personally observes the work being done
to the extent necessary to ensure that it
is being done properly and if the super
visor is readily available, in person, for
consultation. However, this paragraph
does not authorize the performance of
100-hour or annual inspections, nor in
spections performed after a major repair
or alteration.
(e) The holder of a repair station cer
tificate may perform maintenance, pre
ventive maintenance, and alterations as
provided in Part 145 of this chapter.
(f) An air carrier may perform main
tenance, preventive maintenance and
alterations as provided in Part 121, 127,
or 135 of this chapter, as applicable.
(g) The holder of a commercial oper
ator certificate issued under Part 121
of this chapter may perform mainte
nance, preventive maintenance, and
alterations as provided in that part.
(h) The holder of a pilot certificate
issued under Part 61 of this chap
ter may perform preventive maintenance
on any aircraft owned or operated by
him that is not used in air carrier service.
(1) A manufacturer may—
(1) Rebuild or alter any aircraft, air
craft engine, propeller, or appliance
.
manufactured by him under a type or
production certificate;
º*
º
(2) Rebuild or alter any appliance or
part of aircraft, aircraft engines, propel
lers. or appliances manufactured by him
under a Technical Standard Order Au
thorization, an FAA-Parts Manufacturer
º Approval, or Product and Process Spec
ification issued by the Administrator;
and
(3) Perform 100-hour, annual, and
progressive inspections on aircraft manu
factured by him, while operating under a
625
§ 43.7
production certificate or under an ap
proved production inspection system for
such aircraft.
[Docket No. 1993, 29 F.R. 5451, Apr. 23, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 43–4, 31 F.R. 5249,
Apr. 1, 1966; Aundt. No. 43–12, 34 F.R. 14424,
Sept. 16, 1969]
§ 43.5 Return to service after mainte
nance, preventive maintenance, re
building, or alteration.
(a) No person may return to service
any aircraft, airframe, aircraft engine,
propeller, or appliance, that has under
gone maintenance, preventive mainte
nance, rebuilding, or alteration unless—
(1) It nas been approved for return
to service by a person authorized under
$ 43.7;
(2) The maintenance record entry re
quired by § 43.9 has been made;
(3) The repair or alteration form au
thorized by or furnished by the Admin
istrator Alas been executed in a manner
prescribed by the Administrator; and
(4) If a repair or an alteration re
Sults in any change in the aircraft Oper
ating limitations or flight data contained
in the approved aircraft flight manual,
those Operating limitations or flight data
are appropriately revised and set forth
as prescribed in § 91.31 of this chapter.
(b) This section does not apply to pre
ventive maintenance performed by a cer
tificated pilot under § 43.3(h).
§ 43.7 Persons authorized to approve
aircraft, airframes, aircraft engines,
propellers, and appliances for return
to service after maintenance, pre
ventive maintenance, rebuilding, or
alteration.
(a) Except as provided in this section,
no person, other than the Administrator,
may approve any aircraft, airframe, air
craft engine, propeller, or appliance for
return to service after it has undergone
maintenance, preventive maintenance,
rebuilding, or alteration.
(b) The holder of a mechanic certifl
cate or an inspection authorization may
approve an aircraft, airframe, aircraft
engine, propeller, or appliance for re
turn to service as provided in Part 65
of this chapter.
(c) The holder of a repair station cer
tificate may approve an aircraft, air
frame, aircraft engine, propeller, or ap
pliance for return to service as provided
in Part 145 of this chapter.
(d) A manufacturer may approve for
return to service any aircraft, airframe,
aircraft engine, propeller, or appliance
§ 43.9 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
that he has worked on under § 43.3(i).
However, except for minor alterations,
the work must have been done in ac
cordance with technical data approved
by the Administrator.
(e) An air carrier may approve an air
craft, airframe, aircraft engine, pro
peller, or appliance for return to service
as provided in Part 121, 127, or 135 of
this chapter, as applicable.
(f) The holder of a commercial op
erator certificate issued under Part 121
of this chapter may approve an aircraft,
airframe, aircraft engine, propeller, or
appliance for return to service as pro
vided in that part.
[Docket No. 1993, 29 F.R. 5451, Apr. 23, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. No. 43–12, 34 F.R. 14424,
Sept. 16, 1969]
§ 43.9 Content, form and disposition of
maintenance, rebuilding, and altera
tion records (except 100-hour, an
nual, and progressive inspections).
(a) Maintenance record entries. Ex
cept as provided in paragraphs (b) and
(c) of this section, each person who
maintains, rebuilds, or alters an aircraft,
airframe, aircraft engine, propeller, or
appliance Shall make an entry in the
maintenance record of that equipment
containing the following information:
(1) A description (or reference to data
acceptable to the Administrator) of the
work performed.
(2) The date of completion of the
work performed.
(3) The name of the person perform
ing the work.
(4) If the aircraft, airframe, aircraft
engine, propeller, or appliance is ap
proved for return to service, the signa
ture (and if a certificated mechanic, the
certificate number) of the person who
approved it.
(5) If the work performed is an in
spection required under § 91.217 of this
chapter for a large airplane, or a turbo
jet- or turbopropeller-powered multi
engine airplane, the entry must name the
kind of inspection conducted (continuous
airworthiness inspection program, ap
proved inspection program, etc.) and
include a statement that—
(i) The inspection was performed in
accordance With the instructions and
procedures for the kind of inspection
program selected by the owner or opera
tor of the airplane; and
(ii) A signed and dated list of the de
fects, if any, found during the inspection
was given to the owner or operator of the
airplane.
626
In addition to the entry required by this
paragraph, major repairs and major al
terations shall be entered on a form,
and the form disposed of, in the manner
prescribed in Appendix B, by the person
performing the work.
(b) Each holder of an air carrier or
commercial operator certificate that is
required by its operating certificate or
by approved Operations Specifications to
provide for a continuous airworthiness
maintenance program, shall make a
record of the maintenance, rebuilding,
and alteration, on aircraft, airframes,
aircraft engines, propellers, appliances,
or parts thereof, which it operates, in
accordance with the provisions of Part
121 or Part 127 of this chapter, as
appropriate.
(c) This Section does not apply to
persons performing the annual, 100
hour, and progressive inspections re
quired by Part 91 of this chapter.
[Doc. No. 1993, 29 F.R. 5451, Apr. 23, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 43–1, 30 F.R. 3638, Mar. 19,
1965; Amdt. 43–11, 34 F.R. 14426, Sept. 16,
1969; Amdt. 43–15, 37 F.R. 14767, July 25,
1972; Amdt. 43–16, 37 F.R. 15983, Aug. 9,
1972]
$ 43.11 Content, form, and disposition
of annual, 100-hour, and progres
sive inspection records.
(a) Maintenance record entries. The
person approving or disapproving for
return to Service an aircraft, airframe,
aircraft engine, propeller, or appliance
after any annual, 100-hour, or progres
sive inspection required by Part 91 of
this chapter shall make an entry in the
maintenance record of that equipment,
containing the following information:
(1) The type of inspection (and for
progressive inspections, a brief descrip
tion of the extent of the inspection).
(2) The date of the inspection and
aircraft time in service.
(3) The signature (and if a certifi
cated mechanic, the certificate number)
of the person approving or disapproving
for return to service, the aircraft, air
frame, aircraft engine, propeller, or
appliance.
(4) For annual or 100-hour inspec
tions if the aircraft is approved for re
turn to service, the following or a simi
larly worded statement—“I certify that
this aircraft has been inspected in ac
cordance with (insert type) inspection
and was determined to be in airworthy
condition”.
(5) For annual inspections, if the air
craft is not approved for return to serv
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
ice because of needed maintenance, non
compliance with applicable specifica
tions, airworthiness directives or other
approved data, the following or a simi
larly worded statement—“I certify that
this aircraft has been inspected in ac
cordance with an annual inspection and
a list of discrepancies and unairworthy
items dated (date) has been provided for
the aircraft owner or lessee.”.
(6) For progressive inspections, the
following or a similarly worded state
ment—“I certify that in accordance with
a progressive inspection program, a
routine inspection of (identify whether
aircraft, or components) and a detailed
inspection of (identify components) were
performed in accordance with a pro
gressive inspection and the aircraft is
approved for return to service”.
(b) Listing of discrepancies. If the
person performing an annual inspection
finds that the aircraft is unairworthy or
does not meet the applicable type cer
tificate data, airworthiness directives, or
other approved data upon which air
Worthiness depends, he shall give the
owner or lessee a signed and dated copy
of a list of discrepancies. If the aircraft
is not approved for return to service, he
shall send the list of discrepancies to
the local FAA District Office, within 48
hours after completing the inspection.
[Docket No. 1993, 29 F.R. 5451, Apr. 23, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 43–13, 35 F.R. 7641,
May 16, 1970; Amdt. 43–16, 37 F.R. 15983,
Aug. 9, 1972)
§ 43.13 Performance rules (general).
(a) Each person maintaining or al
tering, or performing preventive main
tenance, shall use methods, techniques,
and practices acceptable to the Admin
istrator. He shall use the tools, equip
ment. and test apparatus necessary to
assure completion of the work in accord
ance with accepted industry practices.
If Special equipment or test apparatus
is recommended by the manufacturer
involved, he must use that equipment or
apparatus or its equivalent acceptable
to the Administrator.
(b) Each person maintaining or alter
ing, or performing preventive mainte
nance, shall do that work in such a man
ner and use materials of such a quality,
that the condition of the aircraft, air
frame, aircraft engine, propeller, or ap
pliance worked on will be at least equal
to its original or properly altered condi
tion (with regard to aerodynamic func
tion, structural strength, resistance to
6o”
§ 43.15
vibration and deterioration, and other
qualities affecting airworthiness).
(c) Special provisions for air carriers
and commercial operators. Unless
otherwise notified by the Administrator,
the methods, techniques, and practices
contained in the maintenance manual
or the maintenance part of the air car
rier manual of a certificated air carrier
or commercial operator (that is required
by its operating certificate or approved
Operating Specifications to provide a Con
tinuous airworthiness maintenance and
inspection program ) constitute accept
able means of compliance with this
Section.
(d) Each person performing an inspec
tion required by § 91.217 for a large air
plane, or a turbojet- or turbopropeller
powered multiengine airplane shall do
that work in accordance with the stand
ards prescribed in subparagraphs (1)
through (5) of this paragraph for the
applicable inspection program.
(1) For a continuous airworthiness
inspection program (§ 91.217(b) (1) of
this chapter), the standards prescribed
in paragraph (c) of this section apply.
(2) For an approved aircraft inspec
tion program (§ 91.217(b)(2) of this
chapter), the standards prescribed in
paragraph (a) of this section apply.
(3) For an approved continuous in
spection program (§ 91.217(b) (3) of this
chapter), the standards prescribed in
§ 43.15 (a) of this part apply.
(4) For an inspection program recom
mended by a manufacturer (§ 91.217(b)
(4) of this chapter), the standards con
tained in the recommendations and in
structions of the aircraft, engine, pro
peller, or appliance manufacturer apply.
(5) For an approved inspection pro
gram (§ 91.217 (b) (5) of this chapter),
the standards prescribed in paragraph
(a) of this section apply, except when
the inspection program for the particular
airplane includes other standards.
[Docket No. 1993, 29 F.R. 5451, Apr. 23, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 43–15, 37 F.R. 14767,
July 25, 1972.]
§ 43.15 Additional performance rules
for inspections.
(a) General. Each person performing
a 100-hour, annual, or progressive in
spection required by Part 91 of this
chapter or an inspection required under
Part 123 of this chapter, shall perform
those inspections in such a manner as
to determine whether the aircraft con
cerned meets all applicable airworthi
ness requirements.
$ 43.17 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(b) Rotorcraft. Each person per
forming a 100-hour, annual, or progres
sive inspection of a rotorcraft shall in
spect the following systems in accord
ance with the maintenance manual of
the manufacturer concerned:
(1) The drive shafts or similar
Systems.
(2) The main rotor transmission gear
box for Obvious defects.
(3) The main rotor and Center Sec
tion (or the equivalent area).
(4) The auxiliary rotor on helicopters.
(c) Annual and 100-hour inspections.
(1) Each person performing an annual
or 100-hour inspection shall use a check
list while performing the inspection.
The checklist may be of the person's Own
design, one provided by the manufac
turer of the equipment being inspected
or one obtained from another source.
This checklist must include the Scope and
detail of the items contained in Ap
pendix D to this part and paragraph
(b) of this Section.
(2) Each person approving an air
craft for return to service after an
annual or 100-hour inspection shall,
before that approval, run the aircraft
engine or engines to determine Satisfac
tory performance, in accordance with
º manufacturer's recommendations,
O -
(1) Power output (static and idle
r.p.m.);
(ii) Magnetos;
(iii) Fuel and oil pressure; and
(iv) Cylinder and oil temperature.
(d) Progressive inspection. (1) Each
person performing a progressive inspec
tion shall, at the start of a progressive
inspection system, inspect the aircraft
completely. After this initial inspec
tion, routine and detailed inspections
must be conducted as prescribed in the
progressive inspection schedule. Routine
inspections consist of visual examination
or check of the appliances, the aircraft,
and its components and Systems, insofar
as practicable without disassembly. De
tailed inspections consist of a thorough
examination of the appliances, the air
craft, and its components and systems,
with such disassembly as is necessary.
For the purposes of this slubparagraph,
the overhaul of a component or system
is considered to be a detailed inspection.
(2) If the aircraft is away from the
station where inspections are normally
conducted, an appropriately rated me
chanic, a certificated repair station, or
the manufacturer of the aircraft may
628
perform inspections in accordance with
the procedures and using the forms of
the person who would otherwise per
form the inspection.
(Sec. 607, 72 Stat. 779, 49 U.S.C. 1427) [Doc.
No. 1993, 29 F.R. 5451, Apr. 23, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 43–8, 33 F.R. 12888, Sept.
12, 1968]
§ 43.16 Rotorcraft Maintenance Man
ual: “Airworthiness Limitations”
section.
For rotorcraft for Which a Rotorcraft
Maintenance Manual containing an
“AirWorthiness Limitations” Section has
been issued, each person performing an
inspection or other work specified in that
Section of the manual shall perform the
inspection or work in accordance with
that Section of the manual.
(Secs. 604, 605, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424,
1425) [Amdt. No. 43–9, 33 F.R. 14107, Sept.
18, 1968]
§ 43.17 Mechanical work performed on
U.S. registered aircraft by certain
Canadian persons.
(a) A person holding a valid mechanic
Certificate of competence (Aircraft
Maintenance Engineer license) and ap
propriate ratings issued by the Canadian
Government, or a person who is an au
thorized employee (Approved Inspector)
performing work for a company whose
System of quality control for the inspec
tion and maintenance of aircraft has
been approved by the Canadian Depart
ment of Transport may, in connection
With aircraft of U.S. registry in Canada:
(1) Perform maintenance, preventive
maintenance and alterations if those op
erations are done in accordance with
§ 43.13 and the maintenance record en
tries are made in accordance with $ 43.9.
(2) Perform the 100-hour inspection
required by Part 91 of this chapter if that
inspection is done in accordance with
§ 43.15 and the maintenance record en
tries are made in accordance with $ 43.11.
(3) Approve (certify) maintenance,
preventive maintenance, and alterations
performed under this section except that
a Canadian Aircraft Maintenance Engi
neer may not approve a major repair or
major alteration.
(b) A Canadian Department of
Transport Airworthiness Inspector, or
an authorized employee (Approved In
spector) performing work for a company
approved by the Canadian Department
of Transport, may approve (certify) a
major repair or major alteration per
formed under this section if the work
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
was done in accordance with technical
data approved by the Administrator.
(c) No person may operate in air
commerce an aircraft, airframe, aircraft
engine, propeller, or appliance on which
maintenance, preventive maintenance,
or alteration has been performed under
this section unless it has been approved
by a person authorized in this section.
(secs. 101, 610, 72 Stat. 737, 780, 49 U.S.C.
1301, 1430) [Amdt. 43–10, 33 F.R. 15988,
Oct. 31, 1968; 33 F.R. 16273, Nov. 6, 1968]
NoTE: The record-keeping and reporting
requirements contained herein have been
approved by the Office of Management ard
Budget in accordance with the Federal Re
ports Act of 1942.
APPENDIx A–MAJos ALTERATIONS, MAJOR
REPAIRs, AND PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
(a) Major a liter at i on s—(1) Airframe
major alterations. Alterations of the follow
ing parts and alterations of the following
types, when not listed in the aircraft specifi
cations issued by the FAA, are airframe major
alterations:
(1) Wings.
(ii) Tail surfaces.
(iii) Fuselage.
(iv) Engine mounts.
(v) Control system.
(vi) Landing gear.
(vii) Hull or floats.
(viii) Elements of an airframe including
spars, ribs, fittings, shock absorbers, brac
ing, cowlings, fairings, and halance weights.
(ix) Hydraulic and electrical actuating
system of components.
(x) Rotor blades.
(xi) Changes to the empty weight or
empty balance which result in an increase in
the maximum certificated weight or cen
ter of gravity limits of the aircraft.
(xii) Changes to the basic design of the
fuel, oil, cooling, heating, cabin pressuriza
tion, electrical, hydraulic, de-icing, or ex
haust systems.
(xiii) Changes to the wing or to fixed or
movable control surfaces which affect flutter
and vibration characteristics.
(2) Powerplant major alterations. The
following alterations of a powerplant when
not listed in the engine specifications issued
by the FAA, are powerplant major altera
tions.
(1) Conversion of an aircraft engine from
one approved model to another, involving
any changes in compression ratio, propeller
reduction gear, impeller gear ratios or the
substitution of major engine parts which re
quires extensive rework and testing of the
engine.
(ii) Changes to the engine by replacing
aircraft engine structural parts with parts
not supplied by the original manufacturer or
parts not specifically approved by the Ad
ministrator.
629
$ 43.17
(iii) Installation of an accessory which is
not approved for the engine.
(1V) Removal of accessories that are listed
as required equipment on the aircraft or en
glne specification.
(v) Installation of structural parts other
than the type of parts approved for the
1Installation.
(v1) Conversions of any sort for the pur
pose of using fuel of a rating or grade other
than that listed in the engine specifications.
(3) Propeller major alterations. The fol
lowing alterations of a propeller when not
authorized in the propeller specifications is
sued by the FAA are propeller major altera
tlons:
(1) Changes in blade design.
(11) Changes in hub design.
(111) Changes in the governor or control
design.
(iv) Installation of a propeller governor or
feathering system.
wº IIl.
Installation of propeller de-icing sys
(v1) Installation of parts not approved for
the propeller.
(4) Appliance major alterations. Alter
ations of the basic design not made in ac
cordance with recommendations of the ap
pliance manufacturer or in accordance with
an FAA Airworthiness Directive are appliance
major alterations. In addition, changes in
the basic design of radio communication and
navigation equipment approved under type
certification or a Technical Standard Order
that have an effect on frequency stability,
noise level, sensitivity, selectivity, distortion,
spurious radiation, AVC characteristics, or
ability to meet environmental test condi
tions and other changes that have an effect
on the performance of the equipment are
also major alterations.
(b) Major repairs—(1) Airframe major
repairs. Repairs to the following parts of
an airframe and repairs of the following
types, involving the strengthening, rein
forcing, splicing, and manufacturing of pri
mary structural members or their replace
ment, when replacement is by fabrication
such as riveting or welding, are airframe
major repairs.
(1) Box beams.
(ii) Monocoque or semimonocoque wings
Or Control surfaces.
(111) Wing stringers or chord members.
(iv) Spars.
(v) Spar flanges.
(vi) Members of truss-type beams.
(v11) Thin sheet webs of beams.
(vii.1) Keel and chine members of boat
hulls or floats.
(ix) Corrugated sheet compression mem
bers which act as flange material of wings or
tall surfaces.
(x) Wing main ribs and compression mem
bers.
(x1) Wing or tall surface brace struts.
(xii) Engine mounts.
(xiii) Fuselage longerons.
 § 43.17 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(xiv) Members of the side truss, horizontal
truss, or bulkheads.
(xv) Main seat support braces and brack
etS.
(xvi) Landing gear brace struts.
(xvii) Axles.
(xviii) Wheels.
(xix) Skis, and ski pedestals.
(xx) Parts of the control system such as
control columns, pedals, shafts, brackets, or
horns.
(xxi) Repairs involving the substitution of
material.
(xxii) The repair of damaged areas in metal
or plywood stressed covering exceeding six
inches in any direction.
(xxiii) The repair of portions of skin sheets
by making additional seams.
(xxiv) The splicing of skin sheets.
(xxv) The repair of three or more adjacent
wing or control surface ribs or the leading
edge of wings and control surfaces, between
such adjacent ribs.
(xxvi) Repair of fabric covering involving
an area greater than that required to repair
two adjacent ribs.
(xxvii) Replacement of fabric on fabric
covered parts such as wings, fuselages, sta
bilizers, and control Surfaces.
(xxviii) Repairing, including rebottoming,
of removable or integral fuel tanks and oil
tanks.
(2) Powerplant major repairs. Repairs of
the following parts of an engine and repairs
of the following types, are powerplant major
repairs:
(1) Separation or disassembly of a crank
case or crankshaft of a reciprocating engine
equipped with an integral supercharger.
(ii) Separation or disassembly of a crank
case or crankshaft of a reciprocating engine
equipped with other than spur-type propeller
reduction gearing.
(iii) Special repairs to structural engine
parts by welding, plating, metalizing, or
other methods.
(3) Propeller major repairs. Repairs of the
following types to a propeller are propeller
major repairs:
(i) Any repairs to, or straightening of steel
blades.
(ii) Repairing or machining of steel hubs,
(iii) Shortening of blades.
(iv) Retipping of wood propellers.
(v) Replacement of outer laminations on
fixed pitch wood propellers.
(v1) Repairing elongated bolt holes in the
hub of fixed pitch wood propellers.
(vii) Inlay work on wood blades.
(viii) Repairs to composition blades.
(ix) Replacement of tip fabric.
(x) Replacement of plastic covering.
(xi) Repair of propeller governors.
(xii) Overhaul of controllable pitch pro
pellers.
(xiii) Repairs to deep dents, cuts, scars,
nicks, etc., and straightening of aluminum
blades.
(xlv) The repair or replacement of internal
elements of blades.
6:}()
(4) Appliance major repairs. Repairs of
the following types to appliances are appli
ance major repairs:
(1) Calibration and repair of instruments.
(ii) Calibration of radio equipment.
(iii) Rewinding the field coil of an elec
trical accessory.
(iv) Complete disassembly of complex hy
draulic power valves.
(v) Overhaul of pressure type carburetors,
and pressure type fuel, oil, and hydraulic
pumps.
(c) Preventive maintenance. Work of
the following type is preventive mainte
nance:
(1) Removal, installation, and repair of
landing gear tires.
(2) Replacing elastic shock absorber cords
On landing gear.
(3) Servicing landing gear shock struts by
adding oil, air, or both.
(4) Servicing landing gear wheel bear
ings, such as cleaning and greasing.
(5) Replacing defective safety wiring or
cotter keys.
(6) Lubrication not requiring disassembly
other than removal of nonstructural items
such as cover plates, cowlings, and fairings.
(7) Making simple fabric patches not re
quiring rib stitching or the removal of struc
tural parts or control surfaces.
(8) Replenishing hydraulic fluid in the
hydraulic reservoir.
(9) Refinishing decorative coating of
fuselage, wings, tail group surfaces (ex
cluding balanced control surfaces), fairings,
cowling, landing gear, cabin, or cockpit in
terior when removal or disassembly of any
primary structure or operating system is not
required.
(10) Applying preservative or protective
material to components where no disassem
bly of any primary structure or operating
system is involved and where such coating
is not prohibited or is not contrary to good
practices.
(11) Repairing upholstery and decorative
furnishings of the cabin or cockpit interior
when the repairing does not require disas
sembly of any primary structure or operating
system or interfere with an operating sys
tem or affect primary structure of the
aircraft.
(12) Making small simple repairs to fair
ings, nonstructural cover plates, cowlings.
and small patches and reinforcements not
changing the contour so as to interfere with
proper air flow.
(13) Replacing side windows where that
Work does not interfere with the structure or
any operating system such as controls, elec
trical equipment, etc.
(14) Replacing safety belts.
(15) Replacing seats or seat parts with
replacement parts approved for the aircraft,
not involving disassembly of any primary
structure or operating system.
(16) Trouble shooting and repairing bro
ken circuits in landing light wiring circuits.
(17) Replacing hulbs, reflectors, and lenses
of position and landing lights.
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(18) Replacing wheels and skis where no
weight and balance computation is involved.
(19) Replacing any cowling not requiring
removal of the propeller or disconnection of
flight controls.
(20) Replacing or cleaning spark plugs
and setting of spark plug gap clearance.
(21) Replacing any hose connection ex
cept hydraulic connections.
(22) Replacing prefabricated fuel lines.
(23) Cleaning fuel and oil strainers.
(24) Replacing batteries and checking
fluid level and specific gravity.
(25) Removing and installing glider wings
and tall surfaces that are specifically de
signed for quick removal and installation
and when such removal and installation can
be accomplished by the pilot.
[Docket No. 1993, 29 F.R. 5451, Apr. 23, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 43–14, 37 F.R. 14291,
June 19, 1972]
APPENDIX B–RECORDING OF MAJOR REPAIRS
AND MAJOR ALTERATIONS
(a) Except as provided in paragraphs (b)
and (c), each person performing a major re
pair or major alteration shall—
(1) Execute FAA Form 337 at least in
duplicate;
(2) Give a signed copy of that form to the
aircraft owner; and
(3) Forward a copy of that form to the
local Flight Standards District Office within
48 hours after the aircraft, airframe, air
craft engine, propeller, or appliance is ap
proved for return to service.
(b) For major repairs made in accordance
with a manual or specification acceptable to
the Administrator, a certificated repair sta
tion may, in place of the requirements of
paragraph (a) —
(1) Use the customer's work order upon
which the repair is recorded;
(2) Give the aircraft owner a signed copy
of the work order and retain a duplicate copy
for at least two years from the date of ap
proval for return to service of the aircraft,
airframe, aircraft engine, propeller, or ap
pliance;
(3) Give the aircraft owner a maintenance
release signed by an authorized representa
tive of the repair station and incorporating
the following information:
(1) Identity of the aircraft, airframe, air
craft engine, propeller, or appliance.
(ii) If an aircraft, the make, model, serial
number, nationality and registration marks,
and location of the repaired area.
(iii) If an airframe, aircraft engine, pro
peller, or appliance, give the manufacturer's
name, name of the part, model, and serial
numbers (if any); and
(4) Include the following or a similarly
Worded Statement—
“The aircraft, airframe, aircraft engine,
propeller, or appliance identified above was
repaired and inspected in accordance with
current Regulations of the Federal Aviation
Agency and is approved for return to service.
631
§ 43.17
Pertinent details of the repair are on file
at this repair station under Order No. ------ -
Pate -------------------------------------
Signed -----------------------------------
(For signature of authorized
representative)
(Address)
(c) For a major repair or major altera
tion made by a person authorized in § 43.17.
the person who performs the major repair
or major alteration and the person author
ized by § 43.17 to approve that work shall
execute a FAA Form 337 at least in dupli
cate. A completed copy of that form shall
be—
(1) Given to the aircraft owner; and
(2) Forwarded to the Federal Aviation
Administration, Aircraft Registration
Branch, Post Office Box 25082, Oklahoma
City, Okla. 73125, within 48 hours after the
work is inspected.
(Secs. 101, 610, 72 Stat. 737, 780, 49 U.S.C.
1301, 1430) [Doc. No. 1993, 29 F.R. 5451,
Apr. 23, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 43–10,
33 F.R. 15989, Oct. 31, 1968]
APPENDIx C–IRESERVED]
APPENDIx D—ScoPE AND DETAIL of ITEMs (as
APPLICABLE To THE PARTICULAR AIRCRAFT)
TO BE INCLUDED IN ANNUAL AND 100-Hova
INSPECTIONS
(a) Each person performing an annual or
100-hour inspection shall, before that in
spection, remove or open all necessary inspec
tion plates, access doors, fairing, and cowling.
He shall thoroughly clean the aircraft and
aircraft engine.
(b) Each person performing an annual or
100-hour inspection shall inspect (where ap
plicable) the following components of the
fuselage and hull group:
(1) Fabric and skin—for deterioration, dis
tortion, other evidence of failure, and defec
tive or insecure attachment of fittings.
(2) Systems and components—for im
proper installation, apparent defects, and
unsatisfactory operation.
(3) Envelope, gas bags, ballast tanks, and
related parts—-for poor condition.
(c) Each person performing an annual or
100-hour inspection shall inspect (where ap
plicable) the following components of the
cabin and cockpit group:
(1) Generally—for uncleanliness and loose
equipment that might foul the controls.
(2) Seats and safety belts—for poor con
dition and apparent defects.
(3) Windows and windshields—for deteri
oration and breakage.
(4) Instruments—for p o or condition,
mounting, marking, and (where practicable)
improper operation.
(5) Flight and engine controls—for im
proper installation and improper operation
(6) Batteries—for improper installation
and improper charge.
$ 43.17 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(7) All systems—for improper installation,
poor general condition, apparent and obvious
defects, and insecurity of attachment.
(d) Each person performing an annual or
100-hour inspection shall inspect (where ap
plicable) components of the engine and
nacelle group as follows:
(1) Engine section—for visual evidence of
excessive oil, fuel, or hydraulic leaks, and
sources of such leaks.
(2) Studs and nuts—for improper torqu
ing and obvious defects.
(3) Internal engine—for cylinder compres
sion and for metal particles or foreign matter
on screens and sump drain plugs. If there
is weak cylinder compression, for improper
internal condition and improper internal
tolerances.
(4) Engine mount—for cracks, looseness of
mounting, and looseness of engine to mount.
(5) Flexible vibration dampeners—for poor
condition and deterioration.
(6) Engine controls—for defects, improper
travel, and improper safetying.
(7) Lines, hoses, and clamps—for leaks,
improper condition and looseness.
(8) Exhaust stacks—for cracks, defects,
and improper attachment.
(9) Accessories—for apparent defects in
security of mounting.
(10) All systems—for improper installa
tion, poor general condition, defects, and in
secure attachment.
(11) Cowling—for cracks, and defects.
(e) Each person performing an annual or
100-hour inspection shall inspect (where ap
plicable) the following components of the
landing gear group:
(1) All units—for poor condition and in
security of attachment.
(2) Shock absorbing devices—for improper
oleo fluid level.
(3) Linkages, trusses, and members—for
undue or excessive wear fatigue, and dis
tortion.
(4) Retracting and locking mechanism—
for improper operation.
(5) Hydraulic lines—for leakage.
(6) Electrical system—for chaſing and im
proper operation of switches.
(7) Wheels—for cracks, defects, and con
dition of bearings.
(8) Tires—for wear and cuts.
(9) Brakes—for improper adjustment.
(10) Floats and skis—for insecure attach
ment and obvious or apparent defects.
(f) Each person performing an annual or
100-hour inspection shall inspect (where ap
plicable) all components of the wing and
center section assembly for poor general con
dition, fabric or skin deterloration, distor
tion, evidence of failure, and insecurity of
attachment.
(g) Each person performing an annual
or 100-hour inspection shall inspect (where
applicable) all components and systems that
make up the complete empennage assembly
for poor general condition, fabric or skin
deterioration, distortion, evidence of failure,
insecure attachment, improper component
632
installation, and improper component
operation.
(h) Each person performing an annual or
100-hour inspection shall inspect (where ap
plicable) the following components of the
propeller group:
(1) Propeller assembly—for cracks, nicks,
binds, and oil leakage.
(2) Bolts—for improper torquing and lack
of safetying.
(3) Anti-icing devices—for improper op
erations and obvious defects.
(4) Control mechanisms—for improper
operation, insecure mounting, and re
stricted travel.
(1) Each person performing an annual or
100-hour inspection shall inspect (where
applicable) the following components of the
radio group:
(1) Radio and electronic equipment—
for improper installation and insecure
mounting.
(2) Wiring and conduits—for improper
routing, insecure mounting, and obvious
defects.
(8) Bonding and shielding—for improper
installation and poor condition.
(4) Antenna including trailing antenna–
for poor condition, insecure mounting, and
improper operation.
(j) Each person performing an annual or
100-hour inspection shall inspect (where
applicable) each installed miscellaneous
item that is not otherwise covered by this
listing for improper installation and im
proper operation.
APPENDIX E–ALTIMETER SYSTEM TEST AND
INSPECTION
Each person performing the altimeter
system tests and inspections required by
$ 91.170 shall comply with the following:
(a) Static pressure system:
(1) Ensure freedom from entrapped mois
ture and restrictions.
(2) Determine that leakage is within the
tolerances established in § 23.1325 or
$ 25.1325, whichever is applicable.
(3) Determine that the static port heater,
if installed, is operative.
(4) Ensure that no alterations or deforma
tions of the airframe surface have been made
that would affect the relationship between
air pressure in the static pressure system and
true ambient static air pressure for any flight
condition.
(b) Altimeter:
(1) Test by an appropriately rated repair
facility in accordance with the following
subparagraphs. Unless otherwise specified,
each test for performance may be conducted
with the instrument Subjected to vibration.
When tests are conducted with the tempera
ture substantially different from ambient
temperature of approximately 25 degrees C.,
allowance shall be made for the variation
from the specified condition.
(1) Scale error. With the barometric pres
sure scale at 29.92 inches of mercury, the al
timeter shall be subjected successively to
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration § 43.17

pressures corresponding to the altitude responds to an altitude of 18,000 feet, shall

specified in Table I up to the maximum
normally expected operating altitude of the
airplane in which the altimeter is to be in
stalled. The reduction in pressure shall be
made at a rate not in excess of 20,000 feet
per minute to within approximately 2,000
feet of the test point. The test point shall
be approached at a rate compatible with the
test equipment. The altimeter shall be
kept at the pressure corresponding to each
test point for at least 1 minute, but not more
than 10 minutes, before a reading is taken.
The error at all test points must not exceed
the tolerances specified in Table I.
(ii) Hysteresis. The hysteresis test shall
begin not more than 15 minutes after the
altimeter's initial exposure to the pressure
corresponding to the upper limit of the scale
error test prescribed in subparagraph (i);
and while the altimeter is at this pressure,
the hysteresis test shall commence. Pressure
not change the altimeter reading by more
than the tolerance shown in Table II during
an interval of 1 minute.
(vi) Barometric scale error. At constant
atmospheric pressure, the barometric pres
sure scale shall be set at each of the pres
sures (falling within its range of adjustment)
that are listed in Table IV, and shall cause
the pointer to indicate the equivalent alti
tude difference shown in Table IV. With a
tolerance of 25 feet.
(2) Altimeters which are of the air data
computer type with associated computing
systems may be tested in parts, by major
components, to specifications developed by
the manufacturer and acceptable to the Ad
ministrator.
(c) Records: Comply with the provisions
of $ 43.9 of this chapter as to content, form,

: shall be increased at a rate simulating a

descent in altitude at the rate of 5,000 to
20,000 feet per minute until within 3,000
feet of the first test point (50 percent of
maximum altitude). The test point shall
then be approached at a rate of approxi
mately 3,000 feet per minute. The altim
eter shall be kept at this pressure for at
least 5 minutes, but not more than 15
minutes, before the test reading is taken.
After the reading has been taken, the pres
sure shall be increased further, in the Same
º manner as before, until the pressure cor
and disposition of the records. The person
performing the altimeter tests shall record
on the altimeter the date and 1-aximum alti
tude to which the alitmeter has been tested
and the persons approving the airplane for
return to Service shall enter that data in the
airplane log or other permanent record.
TABLE I
Equivalent
Altitude (feet) ressure | Tolerance
ches of +(feet)
mercury)

: responding to the second test point (40 per

cent of maximum altitude) is reached. The
altimeter shall be kept at this pressure for
at least 1 minute, but not more than 10
31.018
29. 921
20
20
29.385 20
tº minutes, before the test reading is taken. 28.856 20
After the reading has been taken, the pres 28.335 25
27.821 30
sure shall be increased further, in the same 26.817 30
manner as before, until atmospheric pres 25. 842 35
sure is reached. The reading of the altimeter 23.978 40
22.225 60
at either of the two test points shall not 20. 577 80
differ by more than the tolerance specified 19.029 90
in Table II from the reading of the altimeter 17. 577 100
16. 216 110
for the corresponding altitude recorded dur 14.942 120
ing the scale error test prescribed in sub 13. 750 130
12. 636 140
paragraph (1). 11. 104 155
(iii) After effect. Not more than 5 min 8.885 180
utes after the completion of the hysteresis 7. 041 205
5.538 230
test prescribed in subparagraph (ii), the 4.355 255
reading of the altimeter (corrected for any 3.425 280
change in atmospheric pressure) shall not
differ from the original atmospheric pres
sure reading by more than the tolerance TABLE II
º:
º specified in Table II. TEST TOLERANCES
tº (iv) Friction. The altimeter shall be Tolerance
º subjected to a steady rate of decrease of Test (feet)
pressure approximating 750 feet per minute. Case Leak Test---------------------- + 100
At each altitude listed in Table III, the Hysteresis Test:

: change in reading of the pointers after vi

bration shall not exceed the corresponding
tolerance listed in Table III.
(v) Case leak. The leakage of the altim
First Test Point (50 percent of maxi
mum altitude).------------------
Second Test Point (40 percent of
maximum altitude).-------------
75

75
eter case, when the pressure within it cor After Effect Test-------------------- 80

º 39–059–75—41 633
§ 45.1 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
TABLE III (c) Receiver sensitivity:
PRICTION (1) Verify that receiver sensitivity of the
Tolerance System is -73+44bm by use of a test set—
(1) Connected to the antenna end of the
Altitude (feet) (feet)
1,000 - --- + 70 transmission line;
2,000-------------------------------- 70 (ii) Connected to the antenna terminal
3,000 --- 70 of the transponder with a correction for
transmission line loss; or
5,000-------------------------------- 3. (iii) Utilizing a radiated signal.
10,000--------- 90
15,000---------- 100 (2) Verify that the difference in mode 3/A
20,000------ 120 and mode C receiver sensitivity does not ex
ceed 1db.
25,000------ 140
(d) Records:
30,000------ 160
35,000------ 180 Comply with the provisions of $ 43.9 of
40,000------------------------ 250 this chapter as to content, form, and dis
position of the records.
50,000-------------------------------
TABLE IV [Amdt. No. 43–18, 88 FR 35442, Dec. 28, 1973]
PRESSURE-ALTTTUDE DIFFERENCE
PART 45—IDENTIFICATION AND REG
Altitude
difference
ISTRATION MARKING
Pressure (inches of Hg) (feet) Subpart A–General
28.10------------------------------ - #: Sec.
28.50 - 863 45.1 Applicability.
29.00------------------------- -

—392
Subpart *—a nuns; of Alrcraft and Related
roducts
0 45.11 General.
+ 531 45.13 Identification data.
+893
+974 45.14 Identification of critical components.
45.15 Replacement and modification parts.
Amdt. 43–2, 30 F.R. 8262, June 29, 1965, as
{: by Amdt. 43–7, 32 F.R. 7587, May 24, Subpart C-Nationality and Registration Marks
1967] 45.21 General.

Appendix F-ATC Transponder Tests 45.22 Exhibition, antique, and other air
and Inspections craft: Special rules.
45.23 Display of marks; general.
Each person performing the ATC trans 45.25
Location of marks on fixed-wing air
ponder tests required by § 91.177 shall com craft.
ply with the following: (If portable test 45.27 Location of marks: nonfixed-wing
aircraft.
equipment with appropriate coupling to the 45.29 Size of marks.
aircraft antenna system is used, operate the 45.31
test equipment at a nominal rate of 235 Marking of export aircraft.
45.33
interrogations per second to avoid possible Sale of aircraft to a non-U.S. citizen;
removal of marks.
ATCRBS interference. An additional 3db
tolerance is permitted to compensate for AUTHORITY: The provisions of this Part
antenna coupling errors during receiver sen 45 issued under secs. 807, 318, 501, 502. 601.
sitivity measurements conducted in accord and 603.72 Stat. 749, 752, 771, 772, 775. Tis:
ance with paragraph (c) (1) when using 49 U.S.C. 1348, 1854, 1401, 1402, 1421, and
1423.
portable test equipment.)
(a) Reply radio frequency: Source: The provisions of this Part 45
(1) Interrogate the transponder and verify contained in Docket No. 2047, 29 F.R. 322s.
that the reply frequency is 1090+3 MHz. Mar. 11, 1964, unless otherwise noted.
(b) Suppression:
(1) Verify that the transponder response
Subpart A–General
to mode 3/A interrogations does not exceed $ 45.1 Applicability.
8 replies per second when the amplitude of This part prescribes the requirements
the P. pulse is equal to the P. pulse and the for—
transponder is interrogated at a pulse rep
etition rate of 235 per second. (a) Identification of aircraft, and
(2) Verify that the transponder response identification of aircraft engines and
to mode 3/A interrogations is at least 211 propellers that are manufactured under
replies per second when the amplitude of the terms of a type or production
the P. pulse is 9db less than the P. pulse and certificate:
the transponder is interrogated at a pulse (b) Identification of certain replace
repetition rate of 235 per second. ment and modified parts produced for in

634
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
stallation on type certificated products;
and
(c) Nationality and registration mark
ing of U.S. registered aircraft.
[Doc. No. 2047, 29 F.R. 8223, Mar. 11, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 45–3, 32 F.R. 188, Jan.
10, 1967]
Subpart B–ldentification of Aircraft
cºnd Related Products
§ 45.11 General.
(a) Aircraft and aircraft engines.
Aircraft covered by § 21.182 of this chap
ter must be identified, and each person
who manufactures an aircraft engine
under a type or production certificate
shall identify his engine, by means of a
fireproof plate that has the information
specified in § 45.13 marked thereon by
etching, stamping, engraving, or other
approved method of fireproof marking.
The identification plate for aircraft must
be secured in such a manner that it will
not likely be defaced or removed during
normal service, or lost or destroyed in
an accident; and it must be secured to
the aircraft at an accessible location near
at:1
an entrance, except that if it is legible
to a person on the ground it may be lo
cated externally on the fuselage near the
tail surfaces. For aircraft engines, the
identification plate shall be affixed to the
engine at an accessible location, in such
a manner that it will not be likely to be
defaced or removed during normal Serv
ice, or lost or destroyed in an accident.
(b) Propellers and propeller blades
and hubs. Each person who manufac
tures a propeller, propeller blade, or pro
peller hub under the terms of a type or
production certificate shall identify his
product by means of a plate, stamping,
engraving, etching, or other approved
method of fireproof identification that is
placed on it on a noncritical surface,
contains the information specified in
$ 45.13, and will not be likely to be de
faced or removed during normal Service
or lost or destroyed in an accident.
[Amdt. 45–3, 32 F.R. 188, Jan. 10, 1967 as
amended by Amdt. 45–7, 33 F.R. 14402, Sept.
25, 1968]
§ 45.13 Identification data.
(a) The identification required
$ 45.11 shall include the following
information:
(1) Builder's name.
(2) Model designation.
§ 45.21
(3) Builder's Serial number.
(4) Type certificate number, if any.
(5) Production certificate number, if
8 Ily.
(6) For aircraft engines, the estab
lished rating.
(7) Any other information the Ad
ministrator finds appropriate.
(b) No person may remove or change
identification information without the
approval of the Administrator.
[Amdt. 45–3, 32 F.R. 188, Jan. 10, 1967]
§ 45.14 Identification of critical com
ponents.
Each person who produces a part for
which a replacement time, inspection in
terval or related procedure is specified
in the “Airworthiness Limitations” sec
tion of a Rotorcraft Maintenance Man
ual shall mark that component with a
part number (or equivalent) and with a
serial number (or equivalent).
(Secs. 604, 605, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424,
1425) [Amdt. No. 45–6, 33 F.R. 14107, Sept.
18, 1968]
§ 45.15 Replacement and modification
parts.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(b) of this section, each person who pro
duces a replacement or modification part
under a Parts Manufacturer Approval
issued under § 21.303 of this chapter
shall permanently and legibly mark the
part with—
(1) The letters “FAA—PMA”;
(2) The name, trademark, or symbol
of the holder of the Parts Manufacturer
Approval;
(3) The part number; and
(4) The name and model designation
of each type certificated product on
Which the part is eligible for installation.
(b) If the Administrator finds that a
part is too small or that it is otherwise
impractical to mark a part with any of
the information required by paragraph
(a) of this section, a tag attached to the
part or its container must include the
information that could not be marked on
the part.
[Amdt. 45–8, 37 F.R. 10660, May 26, 1972]
Subpart C–Nationality and
Registration Marks
by
§ 45.21 General.
(a) Except as provided in § 45.22, no
person may operate a U.S.-registered
aircraft unless that aircraft displays na
635
§ 45.22 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
tionality and registration marks in
accordance with the requirements of this
section and §§ 45.23 through 45.33.
(b) Unless otherwise authorized by
the Administrator, no person may place
on any aircraft a design, mark, or Sym
bol that modifies or confuses the nation
ality and registration marks.
(c) Aircraft nationality and registra
tion marks must—
(1) Except as provided in paragraph
(d) of this section, be painted on the
aircraft or affixed by any other means
insuring a similar degree of permanence;
(2) Have no ornamentation;
(3) Contrast in color with the back
ground; and
(4) Be legible.
(d) The aircraft nationality and reg
istration marks may be affixed to an air
craft with readily removable material
if—
(1) It is intended for immediate de
livery to a foreign purchaser;
(2) It is bearing a temporary regis
tration number; Or
(3) It is marked temporarily to meet
the requirements of $ 45.22(c) (1).
(Sec. 1202, 72 Stat. 749, 49 U.S.C. 1522) [Doc.
No. 8093, Amdt. 45–5, 33 F.R. 450, Jan. 12,
1968]
§ 45.22 Exhibition, antique, and other
aircraft: Special rules.
(a) When display of aircraft nation
ality and registration marks in accord
ance with $$ 45.21 and 45.23 through
45.33 would be inconsistent with exhibi
tion of that aircraft, a U.S.-registered
aircraft may be operated without dis
playing those marks anywhere on the
aircraft if:
(1) It is operated for the purpose of
exhibition, including a motion picture
or television production, or an airshow;
(2) Except for practice and test fights
necessary for exhibition purposes, it is
operated only at the location of the
exhibition, between the exhibition loca
tions, and between those locations and
the base of operations of the aircraft;
and
(3) For each flight in the United
States:
(i) It is operated with the prior ap
proval of the General Aviation District
Office, in the case of a flight within the
designated airport control zone of the
takeoff airport, or within 5 miles of that
airport if it has no designated control
zone; Or
636
(ii) It is operated under a flight plan
filed under § 91.83 of this chapter de
scribing the marks it dispalys, in the
case of any other flight.
(b) When it was built at least 30 years
ago or has the same external configura
tion as an aircraft built at least 30 years
ago, a U.S.-registered aircraft may be
Operated without displaying marks in ac
cordance With $$ 45.21 and 45.23 through
45.33 if:
(1) It displays in accordance with
§ 45.21 (c) marks at least 2 inches high
on each side of the fuselage or vertical
tail surface consisting of the Roman
capital letter “N” followed by:
(i) The U.S. registration number of
the aircraft; or
(ii) The symbol appropriate to the air
worthiness certificate of the aircraft
(“C”, standard; “R”, restricted; “L”,
limited; or “X”, experimental) followed
by the U.S. registration number of the
aircraft; and
(2) It displays no other mark that
begins with the letter “N” anywhere on
the aircraft, unless it is the same mark
that is displayed under subparagraph
(1) of this paragraph.
(c) No person may Operate an aircarft
under paragraph (a) or (b) of this
Section—
(1) In an ADIZ or DEWIZ described
in Part 99 of this chapter unless it
temporarily bears marks in accordance
with $$ 45.21 and 45.23 through 45.33;
(2) In a foreign country unless that
country consents to that operation; or
(3) In any operation conducted under
Part 121, 127, 133, 135, or 137 of this
chapter.
(d) If, due to the conflguration of an
aircraft, it is impossible for a person to
mark it in accordance with $$ 45.21 and
45.23 through 45.33, he may apply to
the Administrator for a different mark
ing procedure.
(Sec. 1202, 72 Stat. 749, 49 U.S.C. 1522) [Doc.
No. 8093, Amdt. 45–5, 38 F.R. 450, Jan. 12,
1968]
§ 45.23 Display of marks; general.
(a) Each operator of an aircraft shall
display on that aircraft marks consist
ing of the Roman capital letter “N” (de
noting U.S. registration) followed by the
registration number of the aircraft.
(b) When marks that include only the
Roman capital letter “N” and the regis
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
tration number are displayed on limited
or restricted category aircraft or experi
mental or provisionally certificated air
craft, the operator shall also display on
that aircraft near each entrance to the
cabin or cockpit, in letters not less than 2
inches nor more than 6 inches in height,
the words “limited,” “restricted,” “ex
perimental,” or “provisional airworthl
ness,” as the case may be.
(Sec. 1202, 72 stat. 749, 49 U.S.C. 1522) [Doc.
No. 8093, Amdt. 45–5, 33 F.R. 450, Jan. 12,
1968]
§ 45.25 Location of marks on fixed
wing aircraft.
Except as provided in § 45.29(f), the
operator of a fixed-wing aircraft may
display the required marks either on the
vertical tail surfaces or on the sides of the
fuselage. The marks shall be displayed
horizontally as follows:
(a) If displayed on the vertical tail
surfaces, both surfaces of a single vertl
cal tail or the outer surfaces of a multi
vertical tail must be marked.
(b) If displayed on the fuselage Sur
faces, both sides of the fuselage must be
marked between the trailing edge of the
wing and the leading edge of the hori
zontal stabilizer, but if engine pods or
other appurtenances are located in this
area and are an integral part of the
fuselage side surfaces, the operator may
place the marks on those pods or
appurtenances.
[Docket No. 7497, Amdt. 45–2, 31 F.R. 9863,
July 21, 1966]
§ 45.27 Location of marks; nonfixed
wing aircraft.
(a) Rotorcraft. Each operator of a
rotorcraft shall display on that rotor
craft the marks required by § 45.23 on
the–
(1) Bottom surface of the fuselage or
cabin with the top of the marks toward
AE the left side of the fuselage; and
(2) Side surfaces of the fuselage below
the window lines, as near the cockpit as
possible.
:
º
º
(b) Airships. Each operator of an
airship shall display on that airship the
marks required by § 45.23, horizontally
º on
(1) The upper surface of the right
horizontal stabilizer and on the under
sà surface of the left horizontal stabilizer
637
§ 45.29
with the top of the marks toward the
leading edge of each stabilizer; and
(2) Each side of the bottom half of the
vertical stabilizer.
(c) Spherical balloons. Each Operator
of a spherical balloon shall display the
marks required by § 45.23 in two places
diametrically opposite and near the
maximum horizontal circumference of
that balloon.
(d) Nonspherical balloons. Each op
erator of a nonspherical balloon shall
display the marks required by § 45.23 on
each side of the balloon near its maxi
mum cross section and immediately above
either the rigging band or the points of
attachment of the basket or cabin Sus
pension cables.
§ 45.29 Size of marks.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(f) of this section, each operator of an
aircraft shall display marks on the air
craft meeting the size requirements of
this section.
(b) Height. The character marks
must be of equal height and on—
(1) Fixed-wing aircraft—must be at
least 12 inches high;
(2) Airships, spherical balloons, and
nonspherical balloons—must be at least
20 inches high; and
(3) Rotorcraft fuselage or cabin—
(i) Bottom surfaces—must be at least
four-fifths as high as the fuselage is wide
or 20 inches high, whichever is less; and
(ii) Side surfaces—must be as high as
practicable, but not less than 2 inches
high.
However, subparagraph (3) (ii) of this
paragraph does not require the use of
marks more than 6 inches high.
(c) Width. Characters must be two
thirds as wide as they are high, except
the number “1”, which must be one
sixth as wide as it is high, and the letters
“M” and “W’’ which may be as wide as
they are high.
(d) Thickness. Characters must be
formed by solid lines one-sixth as thick
as the character is high.
(e) Spacing. The space between each
character may not be less than one
fourth of the character width.
(f) If either one of the Surfaces au
thorized for displaying required marks
under § 45.25 is large enough for display
of marks meeting the size requirements
of this section and the other is not, full
size marks shall be placed on the larger
$ 45.31 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space

surface. If neither Surface is large Sec.

47.47 Cancellation of Certificate for ex
enough for full-size marks, marks as
large as practicable shall be displayed on port purpose.
47.49 Replacement of Certificate.
the larger of the two surfaces. If any
surface required to be marked by § 45.27 Subpart C–Dealers' Aircraft Registration
is not large enough for full-size marks, Certificate
marks as large as practicable shall be 47.61 Dealers' Aircraft Registration Certifi
displayed on that Surface. cates.
[Docket No. 2047, 29 FIR. 3223, Mar. 11, 1964, 47.63 Application.
as amended by Amdt. 45–2, 81 F.R. 9868, 47.65 Eligibility.
July 21, 1966] 47.67 Evidence of ownership.
47.69 Limitations.
§ 45.31 Marking of export aircraft. 47.71 Duration of Certificate; change of
Status.
A person who manufactures an air
craft in the United States for delivery AUTHORITY: The provisions of this Part 47
outside thereof may display on that air issued under secs. 307, 313, 501, 503, 505, 506,
craft any marks required by the State and 1102, 72 Stat. 749, 752, 771, 772, 774, 797;
of registry of the aircraft. However, no 49 U.S.C. 1348, 1354, 1401, 1403, 1405, 1406,
and 1502, and the Convention of the Inter
person may operate an aircraft SO
marked within the United States, ex national Recognition of Rights in Aircraft;
4 U.S.T. 1830.
cept for test and demonstration flights
for a limited period of time, or while Source: The provisions of this Part 47
contained in Docket No. 7190, 81 FIR. 4495,
in necessary transit to the purchaser. Mar. 17, 1966.
§ 45.33 Sale of aircraft to a non-U.S.
citizen; removal of marks. Subpart A–General
When an aircraft that is registered in § 47.1 Applicability.
the United States is sold to a person who This part prescribes the requirements
is not a citizen of the United States, the for registering aircraft under section 501
United States registered owner shall, be of the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 (49
fore its delivery to the purchaser, remove U.S.C. 1401). Subpart B applies to each
all United States marks from that air applicant for, and holder of, a Certificate
craft. of Aircraft Registration. Subpart C
applies to each applicant for, and holder
PART 47—AIRCRAFT REGISTRATION of, a Dealers’ Aircraft Registration Cer
tificate.
Subpart A–General
Sec.
47.1
§ 47.3 Registration required.
Applicability.
47.3 Registration required. (a) Section 501 (b) of the Federal
47.5 Applicants. Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1401(b))
47.11 Evidence of ownership.
47.13 defines eligibility for registration as
Signatures and instruments made by
representatives.
follows:
47.15 Identification number. (b) An aircraft shall be eligible for reg
47.16 Temporary registration numbers. istration if, but only if–
47.17 Fees. (1) It is owned by a citizen of the United
47.19 FAA Aircraft Registry. States and it is not registered under the laws
of any foreign country; or
Subpart B–Certificates of Aircraft Registration (2) It is an aircraft of the Federal Gov
47.31 Application. ernment, or of a State, Territory, or posses
47 33 Aircraft not previously registered any sion of the United States, or the District of
Where. Columbia, or of a political subdivision
47.35 Aircraft last previously registered in thereof.
the United States.
(b) No person may operate on aircraft
47.37 Aircraft last previously registered in
that is eligible for registration under
a foreign country.
47.39 section 501 of the Federal Aviation Act
Effective date of registration.
47.41 Duration and return of Certificate. of 1958 unless the aircraft—
47.44 Report on registration eligibility of (1) Has been registered by its owner:
aircraft. (2) Is carrying aboard the temporary
47.45 Change of address. authorization required by § 47.31(b); or

638
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(3) Is an aircraft of the Armed Forces.
(c) Governmental units are those
named in paragraph (a) of this section
and Puerto Rico.
§ 47.5 Applicants.
(a) A governmental unit or a citizen
of the United States that wishes to reg
ister an aircraft in the United States
must Submit an Application for Aircraft
Registration under this part.
(b) An aircraft may be registered only
by, and in the legal name of, its owner.
However, section 501(f) of the Federal
Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1401 (f))
States that registration is not evidence
of ownership of aircraft in any proceed
ing in which such ownership by a par
ticular person is in issue. The FAA does
not issue any certificate of ownership
or endorse any information with respect
to ownership on a Certificate of Aircraft
Registration. The FAA issues a Certifi
cate of Aircraft Registration to the per
son who appears to be the owner on the
basis of the evidence of ownership Sub
mitted with the Application for Aircraft
Registration, or recorded at the FAA
Aircraft Registry.
(c) In this part, “owner” includes a
buyer in possession, a bailee, or a lessee
of an aircraft under a contract of condi
tional sale, and the assignee of that
perSon.
§ 47.11 Evidence of ownership.
Each governmental unit or citizen of
the United States that submits an Appli
cation for Aircraft Registration under
this part must also submit the required
evidence of ownership, recordable under
§§ 49.13 and 49.17 of this chapter, as
follows:
(a) The buyer in possession, the bailee,
or the lessee of an aircraft under a con
tract of Conditional sale must submit the
contract. The assignee under a contract
of conditional sale must submit both
the contract (unless it is already recorded
at the FAA Aircraft Registry), and his
assignment from the original buyer,
bailee, lessee, or prior assignee, that bears
the written assent of the seller, bailor,
lessor, or assignee thereof, under the
original contract.
(b) The repossessor of an aircraft
must submit—
(1) A certificate of repossession on
FAA Form 8050–4, or its equivalent,
signed by the applicant and stating that
639
§ 47.11
the aircraft was repossessed or other
wise seized under the security agreement
involved and applicable local law;
(2) The security agreement (unless it
is already recorded at the FAA Aircraft
Registry), or a copy thereof certified as
true under § 49.21 of this chapter; and
(3) When repossession was through
foreclosure proceedings resulting in sale,
a bill of sale signed by the sheriff, auc
tioneer, or other authorized person who
conducted the sale, and stating that the
sale was made under applicable local
law.
(c) The buyer of an aircraft at a ju
dicial sale, or at a sale to satisfy a lien
or charge, must Submit a bill of sale
signed by the sheriff, auctioneer, or
other authorized person who conducted
the sale, and stating that the sale was
made under applicable local law.
(d) The owner of an aircraft, the title
to which has been in controversy and has
been determined by a court, must submit
a certified copy of the decision of the
court.
(e) The executor or administrator of
the estate of the deceased former OWner
of an aircraft must submit a certified
copy of the letters testimentary or let
ters of administration appointing him
executor or administrator. The Certif
icate of Aircraft Registration is issued to
the applicant as executor or adminis
trator.
(f) The buyer of an aircraft from the
estate of a deceased former owner must
submit both a bill of Sale, signed for the
estate by the executor or administrator,
and a certified copy of the letters testi
mentary or letters of administration
When no executor or administrator has
been or is to be appointed, the applicant
must submit both a bill of sale, signed
by the heir-at-law of the deceased for
mer owner, and an affidavit of the heir
at-law stating that no application for
appointment of an executor or adminis
trator has been made, that so far as he
can determine none will be made, and
that he is the person entitled to, or hav
ing the right to dispose of, the aircraft
under applicable local law.
(g) The guardian of another person's
property that includes an aircraft must
Submit a certified copy of the order of
the Court appointing him guardian. The
Certificate of Aircraft Registration is
issued to the applicant as guardian.
$ 47.13 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(h) The appointed trustee of property
that includes an aircraft must submit
either a certified copy of the order of the
court appointing him trustee (if ap
pointed by court order), or a copy of the
complete trust instrument (if appointed
without court order) certified as true
under § 49.21 of this chapter. The Cer
tificate of Aircraft Registration is issued
to the applicant as trustee.
§ 47.13 Signatures and instruments made
by representatives.
(a) Each signature on an Application
for Aircraft Registration, on a request
for cancellation of a Certificate of Air
craft Registration or on a document sub
mitted as supporting evidence under this
part, must be in ink.
(b) When one or more persons doing
business under a trade name submits
an Application for Aircraft Registration
or a request for cancellation of a Cer
tificate of Aircraft Registration, the ap
plication or request must be signed by,
or in behalf of, each person who shares
title to the aircraft.
(c) When an agent submits an Ap
plication for Aircraft Registration or a
request for cancellation of a Certificate
of Aircraft Registration in behalf of the
owner, he must—
(1) State the name of the OWner On
the application Or request;
(2) Sign as agent or attorney-in-fact
on the application or request; and
(3) Submit a signed power of attor
ney, or a true copy thereof certified under
$ 49.21 of this chapter, with the applica
tion or request.
(d) When a corporation Submits an
Application for Aircraft Registration or
a request for cancellation of a Certificate
of Aircraft Registration, it must—
(1) Have an authorized person sign
the application or request;
(2) Show the title of the signer's of
fice on the application or request; and
(3) Submit a copy of the authorization
from the board of directors to sign for
the corporation, certified as true under
§ 49.21 of this chapter by a corporate
officer or other person in a managerial
position therein, with the application or
request, unless—
(i) The signer of the application or
request is a corporate officer or other
person in a managerial position in the
corporation and the title of his office is
stated in connection with his signature;
or
640
(ii) A valid authorization to sign is on
file at the FAA Aircraft Registry.
(e) When a partnership Submits an
Application for Aircraft Registration or a
request for cancellation of a Certificate
of Aircraft Registration, it must—
(1) State the full name of the partner
ship on the application or request;
(2) State the name of each general
partner on the application or request;
and
(3) Have a general partner sign the
application or request.
(f) When coowners, who are not en
gaged in business as partners, submit an
Application for Aircraft Registration or
a request for cancellation of a Certificate
of Aircraft Registration, each person who
shares title to the aircraft under the
arrangement must sign the application
Or request.
(g) A power of attorney or other evi
dence of a person's authority to sign for
another, Submitted under this part, is
valid for the purposes of this section, un
less Sooner revoked, until—
(1) Its expiration date Stated therein;
or
(2) If an expiration date is not stated
therein, for not more than 3 years after
the date—
(i) It is signed; or
(ii) The grantor (a Corporate officer
or other person in a managerial position
therein, where the grantor is a corpora
tion) certifies in writing that the author
ity to sign shown by the power of attor
ney or other evidence is still in effect.
[Doc. No. 7190, 31 F.R. 4495, Mar. 17, 1966,
as amended by Amdt. 47–2, 31 F.R. 15349,
Dec. 8, 1966; Amdt. 47–3, 32 F.R. 6554, Apr.
28, 1967; Amdt. 47–12, 36 F.R. 8661, May 11,
1971]
§ 47.15 Identification number.
(a) Number required. An applicant for
Aircraft Registration must place a U.S.
identification number (registration
mark) on his Aircraft Registration Ap
plication, AC Form 8050–1, and on any
evidence submitted with the applica
tion. There is no charge for the assign
ment of numbers provided in this
paragraph. This paragraph does not
apply to an aircraft manufacturer who
applies for a group of U.S. identification
numbers under paragraph (c) of this
section; a person Who applies for a spe
cial identification number under para
graphs (d) through (g) of this section;
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
or a holder of a Dealer's Aircraft Regis
tration Certificate who applies for a tem
porary registration number under § 47.16.
(1) Aircraft not previously registered
anywhere. The applicant must obtain
the U.S. identification number from the
FAA Aircraft Registry by request in writ
ing describing the aircraft by make, type,
model, and serial number (or, if it is
amateur-built, as provided in § 47.33(b))
and stating that the aircraft has not
previously been registered anywhere. If
the aircraft was brought into the United
States from a foreign country, the ap
plicant must submit evidence that the
aircraft has never been registered in a
foreign country.
(2) Aircraft last previously registered
in the United States. Unless he applies
for a different number under para
graphs (d) through (g) of this section,
the applicant must place the U.S. identi
floation number that is already assigned
to the aircraft on his application and the
supporting evidence.
(3) Aircraft last previously registered
in a foreign country. Whether or not the
º:
foreign registration has ended, the appli
cant must obtain a U.S. identification
number from the FAA Aircraft Registry
for an aircraft last previously registered
in a foreign country, by request in writ
ing describing the aircraft by make,
model, and serial number, accompanied
by—
(i) Evidence of termination of for
eign registration in accordance with
§ 47.37 (b) or the applicant's affidavit
showing that foreign registration has
ended; or
(ii) If foreign registration has not
ended, the applicant's affidavit stating
that the number Will not be placed on
the aircraft until foreign registration has
ended.
º If a person wishes to renew his reserva
º Authority to use the identification num
ber obtained under subparagraph (1) or
>
(3) of this paragraph expires 90 days
24.
;: after the date it is issued unless the ap
plicant submits an Aircraft Registration
º Application, AC Form 8050–1, and com
plies with $ 47.33 or § 47.37, as applicable,
within that period of time. However, the
t
applicant may obtain an extension of this
90-day period from the FAA Aircraft
Registry if he shows that his delay in
complying with that section is due to
circumstances beyond his control.
gº
641
§ 47.15
(b) A U.S. identification number may
not exceed five symbols in addition to the
prefix letter “N”. These symbols may be
all numbers (N10000), one to four num
bers and one suffix letter (N 1000A), or
One to three numbers and two suffix
letters (N 100AB).
(c) An aircraft manufacturer may
apply to the FAA Aircraft Registry for
enough U.S. identification numbers to
supply his estimated production for the
next 18 months. There is no charge for
this assignment of numbers.
(d) Any unassigned U.S. identification
number may be assigned as a special
identification number. An applicant who
Wants a Special identification number or
wants to change the identification num
ber of his aircraft may apply for it
to the FAA Aircraft Registry. The fee
required by § 47.17 must accompany the
application.
(e) [Reserved]
(f) The FAA Aircraft Registry assigns
a special identification number on AC
Form 8050–64. Within 5 days after he
affixes the special identification number
to his aircraft, the owner must complete
and sign the receipt contained in AC
Form 8050–64, State the date he affixed
the number to his aircraft, and return
the original form to the FAA Aircraft
Registry. The owner shall carry the du
plicate of AC Form 8050–64 and the pres
ent Certificate of Aircraft Registration in
the aircraft as temporary authority to
operate it. This temporary authority is
valid until the date the OWner receives
the revised Certificate of Aircraft Reg
istration issued by the FAA Aircraft
Registry.
(g) [Reserved]
(h) A special identification number
may be reserved for no more than 1 year.
tion from year to year, he must apply to
the FAA Aircraft Registry for renewal
and submit the fee required by § 47.17
for a special identification number.
(Sec. 3(e), 80 Stat. 931, 49 U.S.C. 1652)
[Doc. No. 7190, 81 F.R. 4495, Mar. 17, 1966,
as amended by Amdt. 47–1, 81 F.R. 13814,
Oct. 14, 1966; Amdt. 47–5, 32 F.R. 13505,
Sept. 27, 1967; Amdt. 47–7, 34 F.R. 2480,
Feb. 21, 1969; Amdt. 47–13, 36 F.R. 16187,
Aug. 20, 1971; Amdt. 47–15, 37 F.R. 21528,
Oct. 12, 1972; Amdt. 47–15, 37 F.R. 25487,
Dec. 1, 1972; Amdt. 47–17, 39 FR 1353, Jan. 8,
1974]
$47.16 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
§ 47.16 Temporary registration
bers.
(a) Temporary registration numbers
are issued by the FAA to manufacturers,
distributors, and dealers Who are holders
of Dealer's Aircraft Registration Cer
tificates for temporary display on air
craft during flight allowed under Sub
part C of this part.
(b) The holder of a Dealer's Aircraft
Registration Certificate may apply to the
FAA Aircraft Registry for as many tem
porary registration numbers as are nec
essary for his business. The application
must be in Writing and include—
(1) Sufficient information to justify
the need for the temporary registration
numbers requested; and
(2) The number of each Dealer's Air
craft Registration Certificate held by
the applicant.
There is no charge for these numbers.
(c) The use of temporary registration
numbers is subject to the following
Conditions:
(1) The numbers may be used and
reused—
(1) Only in connection with
holder's Dealer's Aircraft Registration
Certificate;
(ii) Within the limitations of § 47.69
where applicable, including the require
ments of § 47.67; and
(iii) On aircraft not registered under
Subpart B of this part or in a foreign
country, and not displaying any other
identification markings.
(2) A temporary registration number
may not be used on more than one air
craft in flight at the same time.
(3) Temporary registration numbers
may not be used to fly aircraft into the
United States for the purpose of importa
tion.
(d) The assignment of any temporary
registration number to any person lapses
upon the expiration of all of his Dealer's
Aircraft Registration Certificates. When
a temporary registration number is used
on a flight outside the United States for
delivery purposes, the holder shall re
Cord the assignment of that number to
the aircraft and shall keep that record
for at least 1 year after the removal of
the number from that aircraft. When
ever the owner of an aircraft bearing a
temporary registration number applies
for an airworthiness certificate under
Part 21 of this chapter he shall furnish
that number in the application. The
temporary registration number must be
num removed from the aircraft not later than
the date on which either title or posses
sion passes to another person.
[Amdt. 47–4, 32 F.R. 12556, Aug. 30, 1967]
§ 47.17 Fees.
(a) The fees for applications under
this Part are as follows:
(1) Certificate of Aircraft Regis
tration (each aircraft) ------------- $5.00
(2) Dealer's Aircraft Registration
Certificate ----------------------- $10.00
(3) Additional Dealer's Aircraft
Registration Certificate (issued to
same dealer)---------------------- $2.00
(4) Special identification number
(each number)-------------------- 010.00
(5) Changed, reassigned, or re
served identification number------- $10.00
(6) Duplicate Certificate of Regis
tration --------------------------- 02.00
(b) Each application must be accom
panied by the proper fee, that may be
paid by check or money order to the Fed
eral Aviation Administration.
[Doc. No. 7190, 31 F.R. 4495, Mar. 17, 1966;
31 F.R. 5483, Apr. 7, 1966, as amended by
Doc. No. 8084, 82 F.R. 5769, Apr. 11, 1967]
the § 47.19 FAA Aircraft Registry.
Each application, request, notification,
or other communication sent to the FAA
under this part must be mailed to the
FAA Aircraft Registry, Department of
Transportation, Post Office Box 25082,
Oklahoma City, Okla. 73125, or delivered
to the Registry at 6400 South MacArthur
Boulevard, Oklahoma City, Okla.
(Sec. 3(e), 80 Stat. 931, 49 U.S.C. 1652)
[Amdt. 47–3, 32 F.R. 6554, Apr. 28, 1967, as
amended by Amdt. 47–5, 32 F.R. 13505,
Sept. 27, 1967]
Subpart B–Certificates of Aircraft
Registration
§ 47.31 Application.
(a) Each applicant for a Certificate of
Aircraft Registration must submit the
following to the FAA Aircraft Registry—
(1) The original (white) and one copy
(green) of the Aircraft Registration Ap
plication, AC Form 8050-1;
(2) The original Aircraft Bill of Sale,
ACC Form 8050–2, or other evidence of
ownership authorized by § 47.33, 47.35,
or 47.37 (unless already recorded at the
FAA Aircraft Registry); and
(3) The fee required by § 47.17.
The FAA rejects an application when
any form is not completed, or when the
name and signature of the applicant
are not the same throughout.
642
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
(b) After he complies with paragraph
(a) of this section, the applicant shall
carry the second duplicate copy (pink)
of the Aircraft Registration Applica
tion, AC Form 8050–1, in the aircraft
as temporary authority to operate it
without registration. This temporary au
thority is valid until the date the appli
cant receives the certificate of the
Aircraft Registration, AC Form 8050–3,
or until the date the FAA denies the
application, but in no case for more than
90 days after the date the applicant
signs the application. If by 90 days after
the date the applicant signs the applica
tion, the FAA has neither issued the
Certificate of Aircraft Registration nor
denied the application, the FAA Aircraft
Registry issues a letter of extension that
serves as authority to continue to op
erate the aircraft without registration
while it is carried in the aircraft.
(c) Paragraph (b) of this section ap
plies to each application submitted under
paragraph (a) of this section, and signed
after October 5, 1967. If, after that date,
an applicant signs an application and the
second duplicate copy (pink) of the
Aircraft Registration Application, AC
Form 8050–1, bears an obsolete statement
limiting its validity to 30 days, the appli
cant may strike out the number “30” on
that form, and insert the number “90” in
place thereof.
(Sec. 1001, 72 Stat. 788, 49 U.S.C. 1481) [Doc.
No. 7190, 31 FIR. 4495, Mar. 17, 1966; 31 F.R.
5483, Apr. 7, 1966, as amended by Amdt. 47–6,
33 F.R. 11, Jan. 3, 1968; Amdt. 47–15, 37 F.R.
21528, Oct. 12, 1972; Amdt. 47–16, 37 F.R.
25487, Dec. 1, 1972]
§ 47.33 Aircraft not previously regis
tered anywhere.
(a) A citizen of the United States who
is the owner of an aircraft that has not
been registered under the Federal Avia
tion Act of 1958, under other law of
the United States, or under foreign law,
* AC Form 8050–2, signed by the seller
º: may register it under this part if he
gº (1) Complies with $$ 47.11, 47.13, 47.15,
º: and 47.17; and
º: (2) Submits with his application an
Aircraft Bill of Sale, AC Form 8050–2,
43
signed by the Seller, an equivalent bill
º: of sale, or other evidence of ownership
gº authorized by § 47.11.
dº (b) If, for good reason, the applicant
cannot produce the evidence of owner
ship required by paragraph (a) of this
section, he must submit other evidence
that is satisfactory to the Administrator.
º This other evidence may be an affidavit
stating why he cannot produce the re
643
§ 47.35
quired evidence, accompanied by what
ever further evidence is available to prove
the transaction.
(c) The owner of an amateur-built
aircraft who applies for registration un
der paragraphs (a) and (b) of this sec
tion must describe the aircraft by class
(airplane, rotorcraft, glider, or balloon),
Serial number, number of seats, type of
engine installed (reciprocating, turbo
propeller, turbojet, or other), number of
engines installed, and make, model, and
Serial number of each engine installed;
and must state whether the aircraft is,
built for land or water operation. Also,
he must submit as evidence of owner
ship an affidavit giving the U.S. identifi
cation number, and stating that the air
craft was built from parts and that he
ls the owner. If he built the aircraft
from a kit, the applicant must also sub
mit a bill of sale from the manufacturer
of the kit.
(d) The owner, other than the holder
of the type certificate, of an aircraft
that he assembles from parts to conform
to the approved type design, must de
scribe the aircraft and engine in the
manner required by paragraph (c) of
this section, and also submit evidence of
ownership satisfactory to the Adminis
trator, such as bills of sale, for all major
COmponents of the aircraft.
[Docket No. 7190, 31 F.R. 4495, Mar. 17, 1966:
31 F.R. 5483, Apr. 7, 1966, as amended by
Amdt. 47–16, 37 F.R. 25487, Dec. 1, 1972)
§ 47.35 Aircraft last previously regis
tered in the United States.
(a) A citizen of the United States who
is the owner of an aircraft last previ
ously registered under the Federal Avia
tion Act of 1958, or under other law of
the United States, may register it under
this part if he complies with $$ 47.11.
47.13, 47.15, and 47.17, and submits with
his application an Aircraft Bill of Sale,
or an equivalent conveyance, or other
evidence of ownership authorized by
§ 47.11:
(1) If the applicant bought the air
craft from the last registered owner, the
conveyance must be from that owner
to the applicant.
(2) If the applicant did not buy the
aircraft from the last registered owner,
he must submit conveyances or other
instruments showing consecutive trans
actions from the last registered owner
through each intervening owner to the
applicant.
§ 47.37 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
(b) If, for good reason, the applicant
cannot produce the evidence of owner
ship required by paragraph (a) of this
section, he must Submit other evidence
that is satisfactory to the Administrator.
This other evidence may be an affidavit
stating why he cannot produce the re
quired evidence, accompanied by what
ever further evidence is available to prove
the transaction.
[Doc. No. 7190, 31 F.R. 4495, Mar. 17, 1966,
as amended by Amdt. 47–16, 37 F.R. 25487,
Dec. 1, 1972]
§ 47.37 Aircraft last previously regis
tered in a foreign country.
(a) A citizen of the United States who
is the owner of an aircraft last previously
registered under the law of a foreign
country may register it under this part
if he—
(1) Complies with $$ 47.11, 47.13,
47.15, and 47.17;
(2) Submits with his application a bill
of sale from the foreign seller or other
evidence satisfactory to the Administra
tor that he owns the aircraft; and
(3) Submits evidence satisfactory to
the Administrator that—
(i) If the country in which the air
craft was registered has not ratified the
Convention on the International Recog
nition of Rights in Aircraft (4 U.S.T.
1830), the foreign registration has end
ed or is invalid; or
(ii) If that country has ratified the
convention, the foreign registration has
ended or is invalid, and each holder of a
recorded right against the aircraft has
been satisfied or has consented to the
transfer, or ownership in the country of
export has been ended by a Sale in exe
cution under the terms of the conven
tion.
(b) For the purposes of paragraph
(a) (3) of this section, Satisfactory evi
dence of termination of the foreign reg
istration may be—
(1) A statement, by the official having
jurisdiction over the national aircraft
registry of the foreign country, that the
registration has ended or is invalid, and
showing that official's name and title and
describing the aircraft by make, model,
and Serial number; Or
(2) A final judgment or decree of a
court of competent jurisdiction that de
termines, under the law of the Country
concerned, that the registration has in
fact become invalid.
644
§ 47.39 Effective date of registration.
(a) Except for an aircraft last previ
ously registered in a foreign country, an
aircraft is registered under this Subpart
on the date and at the time the FAA Air
craft Registry receives the documents
required by § 47.33 or 47.35.
(b) An aircraft last previously regis
tered in a foreign country is registered
under this subpart on the date and at
the time the FAA Aircraft Registry is
Sues the Certificate of Aircraft Registra
tion, AC Form 8050–3, after the docu
ments required by § 47.37 have been re
ceived and examined.
[Doc. No. 7190, 31 F.R. 4495, Mar. 17, 1966,
as amended by Amdt. 47–16, 37 F.R. 25487,
Dec. 1, 1972]
§ 47.41 Duration and return of Certifi
cate.
(a) Each Certificate of Aircraft Reg
istration issued by the FAA under this
Subpart is effective, unless suspended or
revoked, until the date upon which—
(1) Subject to the Convention on the
International Recognition of Rights in
Aircraft when applicable, the aircraft is
registered under the laws of a foreign
COuntry;
(2) The registration is canceled at the
written request of the holder of the Cer
tificate;
(3) The aircraft is totally destroyed or
scrapped;
(4) Ownership of the aircraft is trans
ferred;
(5) The holder of the certificate loses
his U.S. citizenship; Or
(6) 30 days have elapsed since the
death of the holder of the certificate.
(b) The Certificate of Aircraft Regis
tration, with the reverse side completed,
must be returned to the FAA Aircraft
Registry—
(1) In case of registration under the
laws of a foreign country, by the person
who was the owner of the aircraft before
foreign registration;
(2) Within 60 days after the death of
the holder of the Certificate, by the ad
ministrator or executor of his estate, or
by his heir-at-law if no administrator or
executor has been or is to be appointed;
or
(3) Upon the termination of the regis
tration, by the holder of the Certificate of
Aircraft Registration in all other cases
mentioned in paragraph (a) of this sec
tion.
[Docket No. 7190, 31 F.R. 4495, Mar. 17, 1966;
31 F.R. 5483, Apr. 7, 1966)
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
§ 47.43 Invalid registration.
(a) The registration of an aircraft is
invalid if, at the time it is made—
(1) The aircraft is registered in a for
eign country;
(2) The applicant is not the owner;
(3) The applicant is not a citizen of
the United States; or
(4) The applicant is a citizen of the
United States, but his interest in the air
craft was created by a transaction that
was not entered into in good faith and
was made to avoid (with or Without the
owner's knowledge) compliance with sec
tion 501 of the Federal Aviation Act of
1958 (49 U.S.C. 1401), that prevents
registration of an aircraft owned by a
person who is not a citizen of the United
States.
(b) If the registration of an aircraft
is invalid under paragraph (a) of this
section, the holder of the invalid Certifl
cate of Aircraft Registration shall return
it as soon as possible to the FAA Aircraft
Registry.
[Docket No. 7190, 81 F.R. 4495, Mar. 17, 1966;
31 F.R. 5483, Apr. 7, 1966]
§ 47.44 Report on registration eligibil
ity of aircraft.
(a) The holder of each Certificate of
Aircraft Registration issued under this
subpart shall sign and submit an Aircraft
Registration Eligibility, Identification.
and Activity Report, Part 1, AC Form
8050–73, to the FAA Aircraft Registry
before July 1 of each of the years 1970
and 1971 and April 1 of each year there
after, stating—
(1) The name and address of the
owner of the aircraft;
(2) Whether he is a United States
citizen if not a governmental unit;
(3) The make, model, and registra
tion and serial numbers of the aircraft;
and
(4) Whether the aircraft has been
registered under the laws of a foreign
country.
(b) Signatures and instruments made
by representatives of the holders of cer
tificates must be made in the manner
prescribed by § 47.13 of this part for
Application for Aircraft Registration.
However, any one of coowners who are
not in business as partners may sign and
submit Part 1, AC Form 8050–73.
(c) Refusal or failure to submit Part
1, AC Form 8050–73, containing the re
quired information may be cause for sus
645
§ 47.49
pension or revocation of the holder's
Certificate of Aircraft Registration.
[Amdt. 47–10, 35 F.R. 2580, Feb. 5, 1970, as
amended by Amdt. 47–14, 36 F.R. 19159,
Sept. 30, 1971]
§ 47.45 Change of address.
Within 30 days after any change in his
permanent mailing address, the holder of
a Certificate of Aircraft Registration for
an aircraft shall notify the FAA Aircraft,
Registry of his new address. A revised
Certificate of Aircraft Registration is
then issued, without charge.
§ 47.47 Cancellation of Certificate for
export purpose.
(a) The holder of a Certificate of Air
craft Registration who wishes to cancel
the Certificate for the purpose of export
must Submit to the FAA Aircraft
Registry—
(1) A Written request for cancellation
of the Certificate describing the aircraft
by make, model, and serial number, stat
ing the United States identification num
ber and the country to which the aircraft
will be exported; and
(2) The applicable satisfaction of
conveyance or consent to transfer, as
follows:
(i) When the aircraft is under a con
tract of conditional sale, the written con
sent of the seller, bailor, or lessor under
the contract.
(ii) When the aircraft is subject to a
recorded right other than a contract of
conditional sale, evidence satisfactory to
the Administrator that the holder of the
recorded right has been satisfied, or has
consented to the transfer.
(b) The FAA notifies the country to
which the aircraft is to be exported of the
cancellation by Ordinary mail, or by air
mail at the owner's request. The owner
must arrange and pay for the transmis
sion of this notice by means other than
ordinary mail or airmail.
[Amdt. 47–11, 36 F.R. 8661, May 11, 1971)
§ 47.49 Replacement of Certificate.
(a) If a Certificate of Aircraft Regis
tration is lost, stolen, or mutilated, the
holder of the Certificate of Aircraft Reg
istration may apply to the FAA Aircraft
Registry for a duplicate certificate, ac
companying his application with the fee
required by § 47.17.
(b) If the holder has applied and has
paid the fee for a duplicate Certificate
of Aircraft Registration and needs to
§ 47.61 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
operate his aircraft before receiving it,
he may request a temporary certificate.
The FAA Aircraft Registry issues a tem
porary certificate, by a collect telegram,
to be carried in the aircraft. This tem
porary certificate is valid until he re
ceives the duplicate Certificate of Air
craft Registration.
Subpart C–Dealers' Aircraft
Registration Certificate
§ 47.61 Dealers' Aircraft Registration
Certificates.
(a) The FAA issues a Dealer's Air
craft Registration Certificate, AC Form
8050-6, to manufacturers and dealers so
aS to
(1) Allow manufacturers to make any
required flight tests of aircraft.
(2) Facilitate operating, demonstrat
ing, and merchandising aircraft by the
manufacturer or dealer without the bur
den of obtaining a Certificate of Aircraft
Registration for each aircraft with each
transfer of ownership, under Subpart B
of this part.
(b) A Dealer's Aircraft Registration
Certificate is an alternative for the Cer
tificate of Aircraft Registration issued
under Subpart B of this part. A dealer
may, under this subpart, obtain one or
more Dealers' Aircraft Registration Cer
tificates in addition to his original cer
tificate, and he may use a Dealer's Air
craft Registration Certificate for any
aircraft he owns.
[Docket No. 7190, 31 F.R. 4495, Mar. 17, 1966:
as amended by Amdt. 47–9, 35 F.R. 802,
Jan. 21, 1970; Amdt. 47–16, 37 F.R. 25487,
Dec. 1, 1972.]
§ 47.63 Application.
A manufacturer or dealer that wishes
to obtain a Dealer's Aircraft Registration
Certificate, AC Form 8050–6, must sub
mit—
(a) An Application for Dealers' Air
craft Registration Certificates, AC Form
8050–5; and
(b) The fee required by § 47.17.
[Doc. No. 7190, 31 F.R. 4495, Mar. 17, 1966,
as amended by Amdt. 47–16, 37 F.R. 25487,
Dec. 1, 1972.]
§ 47.65 Eligibility.
To be eligible for a Dealer's Aircraft
Registration Certificate, a person must
have an established place of business in
the United States, must be substantially
engaged in manufacturing or selling air
craft, and must be a citizen of the United
646
States, as defined by section 101 (13) of
the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 (49
U.S.C. 1301).
[Amdt. 47–9, 35 F.R. 802, Jan. 21, 1970)
§ 47.67 Evidence of ownership.
Before using his Dealer's Aircraft
Registration Certificate for Operating an
aircraft, the holder of the certificate
(other than a manufacturer) must send
to the FAA Aircraft Registry evidence
satisfactory to the Administrator that he
is the owner of that aircraft. An Air
craft Bill of Sale, or its equivalent, may
be used as evidence of ownership. There
is no recording fee.
§ 47.69 Limitations.
A Dealer's Aircraft Registration Cer
tificate is valid only in connection with
use of aircraft—
(a) By the owner of the aircraft to
whom it was issued, his agent or em
ployee, or a prospective buyer, and in the
case of a dealer other than a manufac
turer, only after he has complied with
§ 47.67;
(b) Within the United States, except
When used to deliver to a foreign pur
chaser an aircraft displaying a tempo
rary registration number and carrying
an airworthiness certificate on Which
that number is written;
(c) While a certificate is carried with
in the aircraft; and
(d) On a flight that is—
(1) For required flight testing of air
craft; or
(2) Necessary for, or incident to, sale
of the aircraft.
however, a prospective buyer may op
erate an aircraft for demonstration pur
poses only while he is under the direct
Supervision of the holder of the Dealer's
Aircraft Registration Certificate or his
agent.
[Doc. No. 7190, 31 F.R. 4495, Mar. 17, 1966;
81 F.R. 5483, Apr. 7, 1966, as amended by
Amdt. 47–4, 32 F.R. 12556, Aug. 30, 1967]
§ 47.71 Duration of Certificate; change
of status.
(a) A Dealer's Aircraft Registration
Certificate expires 1 year after the date
it is issued. Each additional certificate
expires on the date the original certifi
cate expires.
(b) The holder of a Dealer's Aircraft
Registration Certificate shall immedi
ately notify the FAA Aircraft Registry of
any of the following—
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration § 49.13

(1) A change of his name; Subpart A–Applicability

(2) A change of his address;
(3) A Change that affects his status § 49.1 Applicability.
as a citizen of the United States; or (a) This part applies to the recording
(4) The discontinuance of his busi of certain conveyances affecting title to,
ness. or any interest in—
Note: The record-keeping requirements (1) Any aircraft registered under Sec
contained herein have been approved by the tlon 501 of the Federal Aviation Act of
Office of Management and Budget in accord 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1401);
ance with the Federal Reports Act of 1942. (2) Any Specifically identified air
Craft engine of 750 or more rated takeoff
PART 49–RECORDING OF AIRCRAFT horsepower, or the equivalent of that
TITLES AND SECURITY DOCU horsepower;
MENTS (3) Any specifically identifled aircraft
propeller able to absorb 750 or more rated
Subpart A–Applicability takeoff shaft horsepower; and
Sec
igi Applicability. (4) Any aircraft engine, propeller, or
appliance maintained by or for an air
Subpart B–General carrier certificated under section 604(b)
49.11 FAA Aircraft Registry. of the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 (49
49.13 Signatures and acknowledgments. U.S.C. 1424(b)), for installation or use
49.15 Fees for recording. in an aircraft, aircraft engine, or pro
49.17 Conveyances recorded. peller, or any spare part, maintained at
49.19 Effective date of filing for recordation.
49.21
a designated location or locations by or
Return of original conveyance. for such an air carrier.
Subpart C–Aircraft Ownership and (b) Subpart B of this part governs,
Encumbrances Against Aircraft where applicable by its terms, convey
49.31 Applicability. ances Subject to this part.
49.33 Eligibllity for recording: general re
quirements. Subpart B–General
49.35 Eligibility for recording: ownership
requirements.
§ 49.11 FAA Aircraft Registry.
49.37 Claims for salvage or extraordinary To be eligible for recording, a con
expenses. veyance must be mailed to the FAA Air
Subpart D–Encumbrances Against Specifically craft Registry, Department of Trans
Identified Aircraft Engines and Propellers portation, Post Office Box 25082, Okla
49.41 Applicability.
homa City, Okla. 73125, or delivered to
49.43 Eligibility for recording: general re the Registry at 6400 South MacArthur
quirements. Boulevard, Oklahoma City, Okla.
49.45 Recording of releases, cancellations, (Sec. 3(e), 80 Stat. 931, 49 U.S.C. 1652)
discharges, and satisfactions: spe [Amdt. 49–3, 32 F.R. 6554, Apr. 28, 1967, as
clal requirements. amended by Amdt. 49–4, 32 F.R. 13505, Sept.
27, 1967]
Subpart E—Encumbrances Against Air Carrier
Aircraft Engines, Propellers, Applicances, and § 49.13 Signatures and acknowledg
Spare Parts ments.

49.51 Applicability. (a) Each signature on a conveyance

49.53 Eligibility for recording: general re must be in ink.
quirements. (b) Paragraphs (b) through (f) of
49.55 Recording of releases, cancellations, § 47.13 of this chapter apply to a con
discharges, and satisfactions: spe
cial requirements. veyance made by, or on behalf of, one or
more persons doing business under a
AUTHoRrry: The provisions of this Part 49 trade name, or by an agent, corporation,
issued under sec. 313, 501, 503, 505, and
1102, 72 Stat. 752, 771, 772, 774, 797, as partnership, COOwner, or unincorporated
amended, 49 U.S.C. 1354, 1401, 1403, 1405, association.
1502, and the Convention on the Inter (c) No conveyance or other instrument
national Recognition of Rights in Aircraft need be acknowledged, as provided in
(4 U.S.T. 1830). section 503 (e) of the Federal Aviation
Souace: The provisions of this Part 49 Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1403(e)), in order
contained in Docket No. 1996, 29 F.R. 6486, to be recorded under this part. The law
May 19, 1964, unless otherwise noted. of the place of delivery of the conveyance

647
§ 49.15 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
determines when a conveyance or other
instrument must be acknowledged in or
der to be Valid for the purposes of that
place.
(d) A power of attorney or other evi
dence of a person's authority to sign for
another, submitted under this part, is
valid for the purposes of this section,
unless sooner revoked, until—
(1) Its expiration date Stated therein;
or
(2) If an expiration date is not stated
thereon, for not more than 3 years after
the date—
(i) It is signed; or
(ii) The grantor (a corporate officer
or other person in a managerial position
therein, where the grantor is a corpo
ration) certifies in Writing that the au
thority to sign shown by the power of
attorney or other evidence is still in
effect.
[Doc. No. 7190, 31 F.R. 4499, Mar. 17, 1966,
as amended by Amdt. 49–2, 31 F.R. 15349,
Dec. 8, 1966; Amdt. 49–6, 36 F.R. 8661, May 11,
1971]
§ 49.15 Fees for recording.
(a) The fees charged for recording
conveyances under this part are as
follows:
(1) Conveyance of aircraft—
for each aircraft listed therein-- $5.00
(2) Conveyance, made for security
purposes, of a specifically iden
tified aircraft engine or propel
ler, or any assignment or amend
ment thereof, or supplement
thereto, recorded under Sub
part D–
for each engine or propeller-- 5.00
(3) Conveyance, made for security
purposes, of aircraft engines,
propellers, appliances, or spare
parts, maintained at a des
ignated location or locations, or
any assignment or amendment
thereof, or supplement thereto,
recorded under Subpart E
for the group of items at each
location ------------------
(b) There is no fee for recording a
bill of sale that accompanies an appli
cation for aircraft registration and the
proper fee under Part 47 of this chapter.
(c) Each conveyance must be accom
panied by the proper fee, that may be
paid by check or money order to the Fed
eral Aviation Administration.
[Doc. No. 1996, 29 F.R. 6486, May 19, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 49–1, 31 F.R. 4499,
Mar. 17, 1966; Doc. No. 8084, 32 F.R. 5769,
Apr. 11, 1967]
§ 49.17 Conveyances recorded.
(a) Each instrument recorded under
this part is a “conveyance” Within the
following definition in section 101 (17) of
the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 (49
U.S.C. 1301):
(17) “Conveyance” means a bill of sale,
contract of conditional sale, mortgage, as
signment of mortgage, or other instrument
affecting title to, or interest in, property.
A notice of Federal tax lien is not re
COrdable under this part, Since it is re
quired to be filed elsewhere by the Inter
nal Revenue Code (26 U.S.C. 6321, 6323;
26 CFR 301.6321–1, 301.6323–1).
(b) The kinds of conveyance record
able under this part include those used
as evidence of ownership under § 47.11
of this chapter.
(c) The validity of any instrument,
eligible for recording under this part, is
governed by the laws of the State, posses
slon, Puerto Rico, or District of Columbia,
as the case may be, in which the instru
ment was delivered, regardless of the
location or place of delivery of the prop
erty affected by the instrument. If the
place where an instrument is intended
to be delivered is stated in the instru
ment, it is presumed that the instrument
was delivered at that place. The record
ing of a conveyance is not a decision of
the FAA that the instrument does, in
fact, affect title to, or an interest in, the
aircraft or other property it covers.
(d) The following rules apply to con
tracts of conditional sale, that are de
fined in Section 101 (16) of the Federal
Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1301),
and assignments thereof:
(1) A contract of conditional sale may
be recorded by either party to it. It must
be signed by both parties.
(2) An assignment of the interest of
the Seller, bailor, or lessor under a con
tract of conditional Sale must be signed
by the assignor and, unless it is attached
5.00 to and is a part of the contract itself,
must contain a description of the con
tract, including the date of the contract,
the names of the parties, the date of FAA
recording, and the recorded document
number.
(3) An assignment of the interest of
the buyer, bailee, or lessee under a con
tract of conditional sale must clearly
identify the original contract, must be
signed by the assignor (original cond
tional buyer, bailee, or lessee, or his as
signee), and must bear the assent in
648
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
writing of the seller, bailor, or lessor un
der the contract of conditional sale, or
his assignee. The description of the con
tract must include its date, the names of
the parties, the date of FAA recording,
and the recorded document number.
(4) An amendment of or a supplement
to a contract of conditional sale that
has been recorded by the FAA must meet
the requirements for recording a con
tract of conditional sale and describe
the original contract in enough detail to
identify it, including its date, the names
of the parties, the date of FAA record
ing, and the recorded document number,
(5) Immediately after the conditions
of a contract of conditional sale for the
passing of title to the conditional buyer,
bailee, or lessee have been met, the
holder of the conditional Seller's, bail
or's, or lessor's interest shall execute a
release on AC Form 8050–41 provided to
him by the FAA when he recorded the
conveyance to him, or its equivalent, and
send it to the FAA Aircraft Registry for
recording.
(e) The following rules apply to
chattel mortgages:
(1) A chattel mortgage must be signed
by the mortgagor. If he is not the reg
lstered owner of the aircraft, the chattel
mortgage must be accompanied by his
Application for Aircraft Registration and
evidence of ownership, as prescribed in
Part 47 of this chapter, unless—
(i) He holds a Dealer's Aircraft Reg
istration Certificate and he submits evi
dence of ownership as provided in § 47.67
of this chapter (if applicable);
(ii) He was the owner of the aircraft
on the date the mortgage was signed, as
shown by documents recorded at the FAA
Aircraft Registry; or
(iii) He is the vendor, bailor, or lessor
under a contract of conditional sale.
(2) The name of a co-signor may not
appear in the mortgage as a mortgagor
(owner). If a person other than the reg
istered OWIler signs as co-signor, he must
show the title “co-signor” under his
Signature.
(3) An assignment of a chattel mort
gage must be signed by the mortgagee
(assignor) and, unless it is attached to
and is a part of the original mortgage,
must describe the mortgage in enough
detail to identify it, including its date,
the names of the parties, the date of FAA
recording, and the recorded document
number.
(4) An amendment of or a supplement
to a chattel mortgage that has been re
39–059–75—42
649
§ 49.31
corded by the FAA must meet the re
quirements for recording a chattel mort
gage and describe the original mortgage
in enough detail to identify it, including
its date. the names of the parties, the
date of FAA recording, and the recorded
document number.
(5) Immediately after a debt secured
by a chattel mortgage has been Satisfied
or any of the mortgaged aircraft have
been released from the chattel mortgage,
the holder shall execute a release on AC
Form 8050–41 provided to him by the
FAA when he recorded the conveyance
made to him, or its equivalent, and shall
send it to the FAA Aircraft Registry for
recording. If the debt is secured by more
than one aircraft and all of the collat
eral is released, the collateral need not
be described in detail in the release docu
ment. However, the description of the
mortgage must include its date, the
names of the parties, the date of FAA
recording, and the recorded document
number.
[Doc. No. 1996, 29 F.R. 6486, May 19, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 49–1, 31 FIR. 4499, Mar. 17,
1966; Amdt. 49–7, 37 F.R. 25487, Dec. 1, 1972]
§ 49.19 Effective date of filing for
recordation.
A conveyance is filed for recordation
upon the date and at the time it is re
ceived by the FAA Aircraft Registry.
§ 49.21 Return of original conveyance.
If a person submitting a conveyance
for recording wants the original returned
to him, he must Submit a true copy with
the original. After recording, the copy
is kept by the FAA and the original is
returned to the applicant stamped with
the date and time of recording. The
copy must be imprinted on paper per
manent in nature, including dates, and
signatures, to which is attached a cer
tificate of the person Submitting the con
Veyance stating that the copy has been
compared with the original and that it is
a true copy.
[Doc. No. 1996, 29 F.R. 6486, May 19, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 49–1, 31 F.R. 4499,
Mar. 17, 1966]
Subpart C–Aircraft Ownership and
Encumbrances Against Aircraft
§ 49.31 Applicability.
This subpart applies to the recording
of the following kinds of conveyances:
(a) A bill of sale, contract of condi
tional Sale, assignment of an interest
under a contract of Conditional Sale,
$49,33 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
mortgage, assignment of mortgage, lease,
equipment trust, notice of tax lien or of
other lien, or other instrument affecting
title to, or any interest in, aircraft.
(b) A release, cancellation, discharge,
or satisfaction of a conveyance named in
paragraph (a) of this section.
§ 49.33 Eligibility for recording: gen
eral requirements.
A conveyance is eligible for recording
under this subpart only if, in addition to
the requirements of §§ 49.11, 49.13, and
49.17, the following requirements are
met:
(a) It is in a form prescribed by, or
acceptable to, the Administrator for that
kind of conveyance;
(b) It describes the aircraft by make
and model, manufacturer's serial num
ber, and United States registration
number, or other detail that makes
identification possible:
(c) It is an original document, or a
duplicate original document, or if neither
the original nor a duplicate original of a
document is available, a true copy of an
original document, certified under
§ 49.21;
(d) It affects aircraft registered under
Section 501 of the Federal Aviation Act
of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1401); and
(e) It is accompanied by the recording
fee required by § 49.15, but there is no
fee for recording a conveyance named in
§ 49.31 (b).
[Doc. No. 1996, 29 F R. 6486, May 19, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 49–1, 31 F.R. 4499,
Mar. 17, 1966]
§ 49.35 Eligibility for recording: owner
ship requirements.
If the seller of an aircraft is not shown
on the records of the FAA as the owner
of the aircraft, a conveyance, including
a contract of conditional Sale, Submitted
for recording under this subpart must be
accompanied by bills of sale or similar
documents showing consecutive trans
fers from the last registered owner,
through each intervening owner, to the
Seller.
§ 49.37 Claims for salvage or extraor
dinary expenses.
The right to a charge arising out of a
claim for compensation for Salvage of an
aircraft or for extraordinary expenses
indispensable for preserving the aircraft
in operations terminated in a foreign
country that is a party to the Conven
tion on the International Recognition of
Rights in Aircraft (4 U.S.T. 1830) may
650
be noted on the FAA record by filing
notice thereof With the FAA Aircraft
Registry within three months after the
date of termination of the salvage or
preservation operations.
Subpart D–Encumbrances Against
Specifically laentified Aircraft En
gines and Propellers
§ 49.41 Applicability.
This subpart applies to the recording
of the following kinds of conveyances:
(a) Any lease, a notice of tax lien or
Other lien (except a notice of Federal tax
lien referred to in § 49.17(a)), and any
mortgage, equipment trust, contract of
conditional sale, or other instrument exe
cuted for Security purposes, which affects
title to, or any interest in, any specifi
cally identified aircraft engine of 750 or
more rated takeoff horsepower, or the
equivalent of that horsepower, or a spe
cifically identified aircraft propeller ca
pable of absorbing 750 or more rated
takeoff shaft horsepower.
(b) An assignment or amendment of,
or Supplement to, an instrument named
in paragraph (a) of this section.
(c) A release, cancellation, discharge,
or satisfaction of a conveyance named in
paragraph (a) or (b) of this section.
|Docket No. 1996, 29 F.R. 6486, May 19, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 49–5, 35 F.R. 802,
Jan. 21, 1970]
§ 49.43 Eligibility for recording: gen
eral requirements.
A conveyance is eligible for recording
under this subpart only if, in addition to
the requirements of §§ 49.11, 49.13, and
49.17, the following requirements are
met :
(a) It affects and describes an air
craft engine or propeller to which this
Subpart applies, specifically identified
by make, model, horsepower, and manu
facturer's serial number; and
(b) It is accompanied by the record
ing fee required by § 49.15, but there is
no fee for recording a conveyance named
in § 49.41 (c).
§ 49.45 Recording of releases, cancella
tions, discharges, and satisfactions:
special requirements.
(a) A release, cancellation, discharge,
or satisfaction of an encumbrance cre
ated by an instrument recorded under
this subpart must be in a form equiva
lent to AC Form 8050–41 and contain a
description of the encumbrance, the re
cording information furnished to the
 Chapter l—Federal Aviation Administration
holder at the time of recording, and the
collateral released.
(b) If more than one engine or pro
peller, or both, are listed in an instru
ment, recorded under this subpart, that
created an encumbrance thereon and all
of them are released, they need not be
listed by serial number, but the release,
cancellation, discharge, or satisfaction
must state that all of the encumbered
engines or propellers are released. The
original recorded document must be
clearly identified by the names of the
parties, the date of FAA recording, and
the document date.
[Doc. No. 1996, 29 F.R. 6486, May 19, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 49–7, 37 F.R. 25.487, Dec. 1,
1972.]
Subpart E–Encumbrances Against
Air Carrier Aircraft Engines, Pro
pellers, Appliances, and Spare
Ports
§ 49.51 Applicability.
**
This subpart applies to the recording
--
of the following kinds of conveyances:
(a) Any lease, a notice of tax lien or
other lien (except a notice of Federal tax
lien referred to in § 49.17 (a)), and any
mortgage, equipment trust, contract of
conditional Sale, or other instrument exe
cuted for security purposes, which affects
i title to, or any interest in, any aircraft
engine, propeller, or appliance main
tained by or on behalf of an air carrier
ºp
certificated under section 604 (b) of the
Federal Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C.
1424(b)) for installation or use in air
craft, aircraft engines, or propellers, or
any spare parts, maintained at a desig
nated location or locations by or on be
half of such an air carrier.
(b) An assignment or amendment of,
: or Supplement to, an instrument named
in paragraph (a) of this section.
(c) A release, cancellation, discharge,
or satisfaction of a conveyance named in
paragraph (a) or (b) of this section.
[Docket No. 1996, 29 F.R. 6486, May 19, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 49–5, 35 F.R. 802,
Jan. 21, 1970)
§ 49.53 Eligibility for recording: gen
eral requirements.
ºjº (a) A conveyance is eligible for re
cording under this subpart only if, in
addition to the requirements of §§ 49.11,
49.13, and 49.17, the following require
ments are met:
: (1) It affects any aircraft engine, pro
peller, appliance, or Spare part, main
651
§ 49.55
tained by or on behalf of an air carrier
certificated under section 604 (b) of the
Federal AWiation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C.
1424(b));
(2) It contains or is accompanied by a
statement by the air carrier certificated
under that section;
(3) It specifically describes the loca
tion or locations of each aircraft engine,
propeller, appliance, or spare part
covered by it; and
(4) It is accompanied by the record
ing fee required by § 49.15, but there is
no fee for recording a conveyance named
in § 49.51(c).
(b) The conveyance need only de
Scribe generally, by type, the engines,
propellers, appliances, or spare parts
covered by it.
[Docket No. 1996, 29 F.R. 6486, May 19, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 49–5, 35 F.R. 802,
Jan. 21, 1970]
$ 49.55 Recording of releases, cancella
tions, discharges, and satisfactions:
special requirements.
(a) A release, cancellation, discharge,
or Satisfaction of an encumbrance on all
of the collateral listed in an instrument
recorded under this subpart, or on all
of the collateral at a particular location,
must be in a form equivalent to AC Form
8050–41, signed by the holder of all of
the collateral at the particular location,
and contain a description of the encum
brance, the recording information fur
nished to the holder at the time of
recording, and the location of the re
leased collateral.
(b) If the encumbrance on collateral
at all of the locations listed in an instru
ment recorded under this subpart is re
leased, canceled, discharged, or satisfied,
the locations need not be listed. How
ever, the document must state that all
of the collateral at all of the locations
listed in the encumbrance has been so
released, canceled, discharged, or satis
fied. The original recorded document
must be clearly identified by the names
of the parties, the date of recording by
the FAA, and the document number.
[Doc. No. 1996, 29 F.R. 6486, May 19, 1964,
as amended by Amdt. 49–1, 31 F.R. 4499,
Mar. 17, 1966; Amdt. 49–7, 37 F.R. 25487,
Dec. 1, 1972]
Note: The reporting and/or record-keep
ing requirements contained herein have been
approved by the Office of Management and
Budget in accordance with the Federal Re
ports Act of 1942.
PARTS 50–59 [RESERVED]
 FINDING AIDS

A list of current CFR volumes, a list of superseded CFR volumes, and a list of
CFR titles, subtitles, chapters, subchapters and parts are included in the subject
index volume to the Code of Federal Regulations which is published separately
and revised annually.
Table of CFR Titles, Chapters, and Parts
Alphabetical List of CFR Subtitles and Chapters
Redesignation Tables
List of CFR Sections Affected

653
 Table of CFR Titles, Chapters, and Parts
Title l—General Provisions
Chap.
Administrative Committee of the Federal Register (Parts 0–49)
II Office of the Federal Register (Parts 50–299)
III Administrative Conference of the United States (Parts 300–end)
Title 2–Clemency
Presidential Clemency Board (Parts 101–199)
Selective Service System (Parts 200–299)
Title 3–The President
I–III [Reserved]
IV Codified Text of Selected Presidential Documents
Executive Office of the President

Title 3A—The President, Appendix

Proclamations
II Executive Orders
III Presidential Documents Other Than Proclamations and Executive
Orders

Title 4–Accounts

General Accounting Office (Parts 0–99)

Federal Claims Collection Standards (General Accounting Of
fice—Department of Justice) (Parts 100–299)
Cost Accounting Standards Board (Parts 300–499)
Title 5–Administrative Personnel

Civil Service Commission (Parts 0–1199)

Office of Management and Budget (Parts 1300–1399)
International Organizations Employees Loyalty Board (Parts
1500–1599)
VI Department of Defense (Parts 1600–1699)
VII Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations (Parts
1700–1799)
IX Appalachian Regional Commission (Parts 1900–1999)
National Capital Housing Authority (Parts 2000–2099)
XI United States Soldiers' and Airmen's Home (Parts 2100–2199)
XII District of Columbia Redevelopment Land Agency (Parts 2200–
2299)
XIII National Commission on Product Safety (Parts 2300–2399)
655
 Title 5–Administrative Personnel (Continued)
Chap.
XIV Federal Labor Relations Council and Federal Service Impasses
Panel (Parts 2400–2499)
Title 6–IReserved]

Title 7—Agriculture
SUBTITLE A–Office of the Secretary of Agriculture (Parts 0–25)
SUBTITLE B–Regulations of the Department of Agriculture
Agricultural Marketing Service (Standards, Inspections, Mar
keting Practices), Department of Agriculture (Parts 26–209)
II Food and Nutrition Service, Department of Agriculture (Parts
210–299)
III Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Department of
Agriculture (Parts 300–399)
IV Federal Crop Insurance Corporation, Department of Agriculture
(Parts 400–499)
Agricultural Research Service, Department of Agriculture (Parts
500–599)
VI Soil Conservation Service, Department of Agriculture (Parts 600–
699)
VII Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (Agricultural
Adjustment), Department of Agriculture (Parts 700–799)
VIII Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (Sugar), De
partment of Agriculture (Parts 800–899)
IX Agricultural Marketing Service (Marketing Agreements and
Orders; Fruits, Vegetables, Nuts), Department of Agriculture
(Parts 900–999)
Agricultural Marketing Service (Marketing Agreements and
Orders; Milk), Department of Agriculture (Parts 1000–1199)
XI Agricultural Marketing Service (Marketing Agreements and
Orders; Miscellaneous Commodities), Department of Agri
culture (Parts 1200–1299)
XII Statistical Reporting Service (Agricultural Statistics), Depart
ment of Agriculture (Parts 1300–1399)
XIV Commodity Credit Corporation, Department of Agriculture
(Parts 1400–1499)
XV Foreign Agricultural Service, Department of Agriculture (Parts
1500–1599)
XVI Rural Telephone Bank, Department of Agriculture (Parts 1600–
1699)
XVII Rural Electrification Administration, Department of Agriculture
(Parts 1700–1799)
XVIII Farmers Home Administration, Department of Agriculture (Parts
1800–1899)
XXI Foreign Economic Development Service, Department of Agri
culture (Parts 2100–2199)
XXIV Board of Contract Appeals, Department of Agriculture (Parts
2400–2499)
656
 Title 7—Agriculture (Continued)
Chap.
XXV Export Marketing Service, Department of Agriculture (Parts
2500–2599)
XXVI Office of the Inspector General, Department of Agriculture (Parts
2600–2699)
XXVII Office of Audit, Department of Agriculture (Parts 2700–2799)
Title 8—Aliens and Nationality
Immigration and Naturalization Service, Department of Justice
(Parts 0–499) -

II Office of Alien Property, Department of Justice (Parts 500–599)

Title 9—Animals and Animal Products

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Department of

Agriculture (Parts 0–199)
II Packers and Stockyards Administration, Department of Agri
culture (Parts 200–299)
III Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (Meat and Poultry
Products Inspection), Department of Agriculture (Parts 300
399)
Agricultural Research Service, Department of Agriculture (Parts
400–499) -

Title 10–Energy
Atomic Energy Commission (Parts 0–199)
Federal Energy Administration (Parts 200–999)
Title 11–Federal Elections

Comptroller General (Parts 0–99)

Title 12–Banks and Banking
Comptroller of the Currency, Department of the Treasury (Parts
0–199)
II Federal Reserve System (Parts 200–299)
III Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (Parts 300–399)
IV Export-Import Bank of the United States (Parts 400–499)
Federal Home Loan Bank Board (Parts 500–599)
VI Farm Credit Administration (Parts 600–699)
VII National Credit Union Administration (Parts 700–799)
VIII Federal Financing Bank (Parts 800–899)
Title 13—Business Credit and Assistance

Small Business Administration (Parts 100–199)

III Economic Development Administration, Department of Com
merce (Parts 300–399)
Regional Action Planning Commissions (Parts 500–599)

657
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
Chap.
Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Transportation
(Parts 0–199)
II Civil Aeronautics Board (Parts 200–399)
III National Transportation Safety Board (Parts 400–499)
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (Parts 1200–
1299)
Title 15—Commerce and Foreign Trade

SUBTITLE A–Office of the Secretary of Commerce (Parts 0–19)

SUBTITLE B–Regulations Relating to Commerce and Foreign
Trade -

Bureau of the Census, Department of Commerce (Parts 20–199)

II National Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce (Parts
200–299)
III Domestic and International Business Administration, Depart
ment of Commerce (Parts 300–399)
* IV Foreign-Trade Zones Board (Parts 400–499)
Office of Trade Adjustment Assistance, Department of Commerce
(Parts 500–599)
VI Bureau of Domestic Commerce, Department of Commerce (Parts
600–699)
VII Office of Import Programs, Department of Commerce (Parts
700–799)
VIII Bureau of Economic Analysis, Department of Commerce (Parts
800–899)
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Department
of Commerce (Parts 900–999)
Foreign Direct Investments, Department of Commerce (Parts
1000–1099)
XII United States Travel Service, Department of Commerce (Parts
1200–1299)
SUBTITLE C–Regulations Relating to Foreign Trade Agreements
XX Office of the Special Representative for Trade Negotiations (Parts
2000–2099)
Title 16—Commercial Practices

Federal Trade Commission (Parts 0–999)

II Consumer Product Safety Commission (Parts 1000–1799)
Title 17—Commodity and Securities Exchanges
Commodity Exchange Authority (Including Commodity Ex
change Commission), Department of Agriculture (Parts
0–199)
II Securities and Exchange Commission (Parts 200–299)

658
 Title 18–Conservation of Power and Water Resources
Chap.
I Federal Power Commission (Parts 0–299)
II Tennessee Valley Authority (Parts 300–399)
III Delaware River Basin Commission (Parts 400–499)
IV Office of Water Resources Research, Department of the Interior
(Parts 500–599)
VI Water Resources Council (Parts 701-799)
VIII Susquehanna River Basin Commission (Parts 800–899)
Title 19–Customs Duties

United States Customs Service, Department of the Treasury (Parts

0–199)
II United States Tariff Commission (Parts 200–299)|
Title 20–Employees' Benefits
Bureau of Employees’ Compensation, Department of Labor (Parts
0–199)
II Railroad Retirement Board (Parts 200–399)
III Social Security Administration, Department of Health, Educa
tion, and Welfare (Parts 400–499)
Employees’ Compensation Appeals Board, Department of Labor
(Parts 500–599)
Manpower Administration, Department of Labor (Parts 600-699)
VI Employment Standards Administration, Department of Labor
(Parts 700–799)
VII Benefits Review Board, Department of Labor (Parts 800-899)
Title 21—Food and Drug
Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health, Educa
tion, and Welfare (Parts 0–1299)
II Drug Enforcement Administration, Department of Justice (Parts
1300–1399)
III Special Action Office for Drug Abuse Prevention (Parts 1400–
1499)
Title 22—Foreign Relations
Department of State (Parts 0–199)
Agency for International Development, Department of State
(Parts 200–299)
Peace Corps (Parts 300–399)
International Joint Commission, United States and Canada (Parts
400–499)
United States Information Agency (Parts 500–599)
United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (Parts 600–
699)
VII Overseas Private Investment Corporation (Parts 700–799)
VIII Employee-Management Relations Commission (Parts 800–899)
Inter-American Foundation (Parts 1000–1099)
659
 Title 23—Highways
Chap.

Federal Highway Administration, Department of Transportation

(Parts 0–899)
II Highway Safety Program Standards, Department of Transporta
tion (Parts 1200–1299)

Title 24—Housing and Urban Development

SUBTITLE A–Office of the Secretary, Department of Housing and
Urban Development (Parts 0–99)
SUBTITLE B–Regulations Relating to Housing and Urban Devel
opment
Office of Assistant Secretary for Equal Opportunity, Department
of Housing and Urban Development (Parts 100–199)
II Office of Assistant Secretary for Housing Production and Mort
gage Credit—Federal Housing Commissioner (Federal Hous
ing Administration), Department of Housing and Urban
Development (Parts 200–299)
III Government National Mortgage Association, Department of Hous
ing and Urban Development (Parts 300–399)
IV Office of Assistant Secretary for Housing Management, Depart
ment of Housing and Urban Development (Parts 400–499)
Office of Assistant Secretary for Community Development, De
partment of Housing and Urban Development (Parts 500–599)
VI Office of Assistant Secretary for Community Planning and Man
agement, Department of Housing and Urban Development
(Parts 600–699)
VII Community Development Corporation, Department of Housing
and Urban Development (Parts 700–799)
VIII Department of Housing and Urban Development (Low-income
Housing) (Parts 1200–1299)
Office of Interstate Land Sales Registration, Department of
Housing and Urban Development (Parts 1700–1799)
Federal Insurance Administration, Department of Housing and
Urban Development (Parts 1900–1999)
XIII Federal Disaster Assistance Administration, Department of Hous
ing and Urban Development (Parts 2200–2299)
Title 25–Indians

Bureau of Indian Affairs, Department of the Interior (Parts 0–

299)
II Indian Arts and Crafts Board, Department of the Interior (Parts
300–399)
III Indian Claims Commission (Parts 500–599)
Title 26—Internal Revenue

Internal Revenue Service, Department of the Treasury (Parts

0–699)
660
 Title 27–Alcohol, Tobacco Products and Firearms
Chap.
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms, Department of the
Treasury (Parts 0–99)

Title 28–Judicial Administration

Department of Justice (Parts 0–199)

III Federal Prison Industries, Department of Justice (Parts 300–399)
Title 29–Labor

SUBTITLE A–Office of the Secretary of Labor (Parts 0–99)

SUBTITLE B–Regulations Relating to Labor
National Labor Relations Board (Parts 100–199)
II Office of the Assistant Secretary for Labor-Management Rela
tions, Department of Labor (Parts 200–299)
III National Railroad Adjustment Board (Parts 300–399)
Office of Labor-Management and Welfare-Pension Reports,
Department of Labor (Parts 400–499)
Wage and Hour Division, Department of Labor (Parts 500–899)
IX Construction Industry Collective Bargaining Commission (Parts
900–999)
National Mediation Board (Parts 1200–1299)
XII Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service (Parts 1400–1499)
XIV Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (Parts 1600–1699)
XVI Automotive Agreement Adjustment Assistance Board (Parts 1800–
1899)
XVII Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Department of
Labor (Parts 1900–1999)
Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission (Parts
2200–2299)
Employee Benefits Security Office (2500–2599)
XXVI Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation (2600–2699)
Title 30–Mineral Resources

Mining Enforcement and Safety Administration, Department of

the Interior (Parts 0–199)
II Geological Survey, Department of the Interior (Parts 200–299)
III Board of Mine Operations Appeals, Department of the Interior
(Parts 300–399)
IV Federal Metal and Nonmetallic Mine Safety, Board of Review
(Parts 400–499)
V Interim Compliance Panel (Coal Mine Health and Safety) (Parts
500–599)
Bureau of Mines, Department of the Interior (Parts 600–699)

661
 Title 31—Money and Finance: Treasury

SUBTITLE A–Office of the Secretary of the Treasury (Parts 0–50)

SUBTITLE B–Regulations Relating to Money and Finance
Chap.
Monetary Offices, Department of the Treasury (Parts 51–199)
II Fiscal Service, Department of the Treasury (Parts 200–399)
IV Secret Service, Department of the Treasury (Parts 400–499)
V Office of Foreign Assets Control, Department of the Treasury
(Parts 500–599)
VI Bureau of Engraving and Printing, Department of the Treasury
(Parts 600–699)
Title 32—National Defense

SUBTITLE A–Department of Defense

Office of the Secretary of Defense (Parts 0–499)
Department of the Army (Parts 500–699)
VI Department of the Navy (Parts 700–799)
VII Department of the Air Force (Parts 800–1099)
SUBTITLE B–Other Regulations Relating to National Defense
XII Defense Supply Agency (Parts 1200–1299)
XIV The Renegotiation Board (Parts 1400–1499)
XVI Selective Service System (Parts 1600–1699)
XVII Office of Emergency Preparedness (Parts 1700–1799)
XVIII Defense Civil Preparedness Agency (Parts 1800–1899)
XIX Central Intelligence Agency (Parts 1900–1999)
XX Interagency Classification Review Committee (Parts 2000–2099)

Title 32A—National Defense, Appendix

Office of Preparedness, General Services Administration

Domestic and International Business Administration, Depart
ment of Commerce
VII Department of Commerce and Department of Transportation
VIII Transport Mobilization Staff, Interstate Commerce Commission
XV Federal Reserve System
XVIII National Shipping Authority, Maritime Administration, Depart
ment of Commerce
XIX Office of the Maritime Administrator, Department of Commerce

Title 33—Navigation and Navigable Waters

Coast Guard, Department of Transportation (Parts 0–199)

II Corps of Engineers, Department of the Army (Parts 200–299)
IV Saint Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation, Department
of Transportation (Parts 400–499)
662
 Title 34—Government Management
Chap.
II Office of Federal Management Policy, General Services Admin
istration (Parts 200–299)
Title 35–Panama Canal

Canal Zone Regulations (Parts 0–299)

Title 36—Parks, Forests, and Public Property

National Park Service, Department of the Interior (Parts 0–199)
II Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (Parts 200–299)
III Corps of Engineers, Department of the Army (Parts 300–399)
IV American Battle Monuments Commission (Parts 400–499)
Smithsonian Institution (Parts 500–599)
VI American Revolution Bicentennial Administration (Parts 600–
699)
VII Library of Congress (Parts 700–799)
VIII Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (Parts 800–899)
Title 37—Patents, Trademarks, and Copyrights
Patent Office, Department of Commerce (Parts 0–199)
Copyright Office, Library of Congress (Parts 200–299)
Title 38—Pensions, Bonuses, and Veterans' Relief
Veterans Administration (Parts 0–99)
Title 39—Postal Service

United States Postal Service (Parts 0–999)

Postal Rate Commission (Parts 3000–3099)
Title 40—Protection of Environment

Environmental Protection Agency (Parts 0–1399)

Low-Emission Vehicle Certification Board (Parts 1400–1499)
V Council on Environmental Quality (Parts 1500–1599)
Title 41—Public Contracts and Property Management
SUBTITLE A–Federal Procurement Regulations System
1 Federal Procurement Regulations (Parts 1–1–1–30)
Dººm of Health Education, and Welfare (Parts 3–1.
–75)
Department of Agriculture (Parts 4–1–4–50)
General Services Administration (Parts 5–1–5–60)
5A Federal Supply Service, General Services Administration (Parts
5A-1–5A–76)
5B Public Buildings Service, General Services Administration (Parts
5B-1–5B–53)
Department of State (Parts 6–1–6–60)
663
Title 41—Public Contracts and Property Management (Continued)
Chap.
7 Agency for International Development, Department of State
(Parts 7–1–7–60)
8 Veterans Administration (Parts 8–1–8–95)
9 Atomic Energy Commission (Parts 9–1–9–59)
10 Department of the Treasury (Parts 10–12–10–60)
12 Department of Transportation (Parts 12–1–12–99)
13 Department of Commerce (Part 13–1)
14 Department of the Interior (Parts 14–1–14–63)
14H bº of Indian Affairs, Department of the Interior (Part
14H-1)
14R Office of Saline Water, Department of the Interior (Part 14R-9)
15 Environmental Protection Agency (Parts 15–1–15–60)
18 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (Parts 18–1–
18–52)
19 United States Information Agency (Parts 19–1–19–60)
22 Office of Economic Opportunity (Parts 22–1–22–50)
23 U; * Control and Disarmament Agency (Parts 23–1–
3–52)
24 Department of Housing and Urban Development (Parts 24–1–
24–51)
25 National Science Foundation (Parts 25–1–25–50)
29 Department of Labor (Parts 29–1—29–61)
SUBTITLE B–Other Provisions Relating to Public Contracts
50 Public Contracts, Department of Labor (Parts 50–201–50–250)
51 Committee for Purchase from Blind and Other Severely Handi
capped (Part 51–1)
60 Office of Federal Contract Compliance, Equal Employment Op
portunity, Department of Labor (Parts 60–1—60–60)
SUBTITLE C–Federal Property Management Regulations System
101 Federal Property Management Regulations (Parts 101–1–101–
47)
105 General Services Administration (Parts 105–1–105–735)
109 Atomic Energy Commission (Parts 109–1–109–40)
114 Department of the Interior (Parts 114–1–114–60)
115 Environmental Protection Agency (Part 115–1)
SUBTITLE D–Other Provisions Relating to Property Management
[Reserved]
Title 42—Public Health

Public Health Service, Department of Health, Education, and

Welfare (Parts 0–199)
II Children's Bureau, Social and Rehabilitation Service, Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare (Parts 200–299)
III St. Elizabeths Hospital, Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare (Parts 300–399) -

664
 Title 43—Public lands: Interior

SUBTITLE A–Office of the Secretary of the Interior (Parts 0–25)

SUBTITLE B–Regulations Relating to Public Lands
Chap.

Bureau of Reclamation, Department of the Interior (Parts 200–

499)
II Bureau of Land Management, Department of the Interior (Parts
1700–9299)
Title 44–IReserved]

Title 45–Public Welfare

SUBTITLE A–Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,

General Administration (Parts 0–99)
SUBTITLE B–Regulations Relating to Public Welfare
Office of Education, Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare (Parts 100–199)
II Social and Rehabilitation Service (Assistance Programs), Depart
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare (Parts 200–299)
Social and Rehabilitation Service (Rehabilitation Programs), De
partment of Health, Education, and Welfare (Parts 400–499)
Foreign Claims Settlement Commission of the United States
(Parts 500–599)
National Science Foundation (Parts 600–699)
VII Commission on Civil Rights (Parts 700–799)
VIII Civil Service Commission (Parts 800–899)
IX Administration on Aging, Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare (Parts 900–999)
Office of Economic Opportunity (Parts 1000–1099)
XI National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities (Parts
1100–1199)
XII ACTION (Parts 1200–1299)
XIII Office of Human Development, Department of Health, Educa
tion, and Welfare (Parts 1300–1399)
XIV National Institute of Education, Department of Health, Educa
tion, and Welfare (Parts 1400–1499)
Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education, Depart
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare (Parts 1500–1599)
XVII National Commission on Libraries and Information Science
(Parts 1700–1799)
Title 46—Shipping
Coast Guard, Department of Transportation (Parts 0–199)
Maritime Administration, Department of Commerce (Parts 200–
399)
III Coast Guard (Great Lakes Pilotage), Department of Trans
portation (Parts 400–499)
IV Federal Maritime Commission (Parts 500–599)
39–059–75–43 665
 Title 47—Telecommunication
Chap.
I Federal Communications Commission (Parts 0–199)
II Office of Telecommunications Policy (Parts 200–299)
Title 48–IReserved]

Title 49—Transportation
SUBTITLE A–Office of the Secretary of Transportation (Parts
0–99)
SUBTITLE B–Other Regulations Relating to Transportation
Department of Transportation (Parts 100–199)
Federal Railroad Administration, Department of Transportation
(Parts 200–299)
III Federal Highway Administration, Department of Transportation
(Parts 300–399)
IV Coast Guard, Department of Transportation (Parts 400–499)
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Department of
Transportation (Parts 500–599)
VI Urban Mass Transportation Administration, Department of
Transportation (Parts 600–699) w

IX United States Railway Association (Parts 900–999)

Interstate Commerce Commission (Parts 1000–1399)
Title 50—Wildlife and Fisheries

United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the

Interior (Parts 0–199)
II National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmos
pheric Administration, Department of Commerce (Parts 200–
299)
III International Regulatory Agencies (Fishing and Whaling) (Parts
300–399)
IV Anadromous Fisheries, (Department of the Interior—Depart
ment of Commerce) (Parts 400–499)
Finding Aids
Table

Parallel Tables of Statutory Authorities and Rules

II Parallel Tables of Presidential Documents
III Guide to Federal Register Finding Aids
IV List of Acts Requiring Publication in the Federal Register
Guide to Record Retention Requirements

666
 Alphabetical List of CFR Subtitles and Chapters
Title and Subtitle or
Chapter Reference
ACTION 45, XII
Administrative Committee of the Federal Register 1, I
Administrative Conference of the United States 1, III
Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations 5, VII
Advisory Council on Historic Preservation
Agency for International Development
Federal Procurement Regulations System
Aging, Administration on
Agricultural Marketing Service 7, I, IX, X, XI
Agricultural Research Service 7, V:9, IV
Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service 7, VII, VIII
Agriculture Department
Agricultural Marketing Service I
Agricultural Research Service
Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
Audit, Office of
Commodity Credit Corporation
Commodity Exchange Authority
Commodity FXchange Commission
Contract Appeals, Board of XIV
Export Marketing Service
Farmers Home Administration
Federal Crop Insurance Corporation
Federal Procurement Regulations System
Food and Nutrition Service
Foreign Agricultural Service
Foreign Economic Development Service XI
Forest Service
;º
Inspector General, Office of the
Packers and Stockyards Administration
Rural Electrification Administration
§§ VI

Rural Telephone Bank 7, XVI

Secretary of Agriculture, Office of 7, Subtitle A
Soil Conservation Service 7, VI
Statistical Reporting Service 7, XII
Air Force Department 32, VII
Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms, Bureau of 27, I
Alien Property, Office of 8, II
American Battle Monuments Commission 36, IV
American Revolution Bicentennial Administration 36, VI
Anadromous Fisheries 50, IV
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service 7, III; 9, I, III
Appalachian Regional Commission 5,» IX
Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, U.S. 22, VI
Federal Procurement Regulations System 41, 23
Army Department 32, V
Engineers, Corps of 33, II: 36, III
Arts and the Humanities, National Foundation on the 45, XI
Atomic Energy Commission 10, I
Federal Procurement Regulations System 41, 9
Federal Property Management Regulations System 41, 109
Audit, Office of 7, XXVII
Automotive Agreement Adjustment Assistance Board 29, XVI
Benefits Review Board 20, VII
Blind and Other Severely Handicapped, Committee for 41, 51
Purchases from
Budget, Office of Management and 5, III
667
 Title and Subtitle or
Chapter Reference .
Canal Zone Regulations 35, I
Census Bureau 15, I
Central Intelligence Agency 32, XIX
Children's Bureau, Social and Rehabilitation Service 42, II
Civil Aeronautics Board 14, II
Civil Rights Commission 45, VII
Civil Service Commission 5, I, IV; 45, VIII
Claims Collection Standards, Federal 4. II
Coast Guard 33, i, 46, I, III;49, Iv
Commerce Department
Anadromous Fisheries 50, IV
Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Domestic and Inter 32A, VII
national Business
Census Bureau 15, I
Domestic and International Business Administration 15, III; 32A, VI
Domestic Commerce Bureau 15, VI
Economic Analysis, Bureau of 15, VIII
Economic Development Administration 13, III
Federal Procurement Regulations System 41, 13
Foreign Direct Investments 15, X
Import Programs, Office of 15, VII
Maritime Administration 32A, XVIII, XIX;46, II
National Bureau of Standards 15, II
National Defense 32A, VII
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 15, IX; 50, II
National Shipping Authority 32A, XVIII
Patent Office 37, I
Secretary of Commerce, Office of 15, Subtitle A
Trade Adjustment Assistance, Office of 15, V
United States Travel Service 15, XII
Committee for Purchase from Blind and Other Severely 41, 51
Handicapped
Commodity Credit Corporation 7, XIV
Commodity Exchange Authority 17, I
Commodity Exchange Commission 17, I
Community Development, Office of Assistant Secretary for 24, V
Community Development Corporation 24, VII
Community Planning and Management, 24, VI
Office of Assistant Secretary for
Comptroller General
Comptroller of the Currency 12, I
Construction Industry Collective Bargaining Commission 29, IX
Consumer and Marketing Service 7, I, IX, X, XI; 9, III
Consumer Product Safety Commission 16, II
Contract Appeals, Board of 7, XXIV
Copyright Office, Library of Congress 37, II
Cost Accounting Standards Board 4, III
Council on Environmental Quality 40, V
Credit Union Administration, National 12, VII
Customs Service, United States 19, I
Defense Civil Preparedness Agency 32, XVIII
Defense Department 5, VI; 32, Subtitle A, XII
Air Force Department 32, VII
Army Department 32,V,XVIII;33, II;36, III
Defense Civil Preparedness Agency 32, XVIII
Navy Department 32, VI
Secretary of Defense, Office of 32, I
Defense Supply Agency 32, XII
Delaware River Basin Commission 18, III
District of Columbia Redevelopment Land Agency 5, XII
Domestic and International Business Administration 15, III
Domestic Commerce Bureau 15, VI
Drug Abuse Prevention, Special Action Office for 21, III
Drug Enforcement Administration 21, II

66S
 Title and Subtitle or
Chapter Reference
Economic Analysis, Bureau of 15, VIII
Economic Development Administration 13, III
Economic Opportunity, Office of 41, 22; 45, X
Education, Office of 45. I
Emergency Preparedness, Office of 32, XVII
Employee Benefits Security Office 29, XXV
Employee-Management Relations Commission 22, VIII
Employees’ Compensation, Bureau of 20, I
Employees’ Compensation Appeals Board 20, IV
Employees Loyalty Board, International Organizations
Employment Standards Administration
Energy Administration, Federal 10, II
Engineers, Corps of 33, II; 36, III
Engraving and Printing, Bureau of 31, VI
Environmental Protection Agency 40, I; 41, 15, 115
Equal Employment Opportunity 41, 60
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission 29, XIV
Equal Opportunity, Office of Assistant Secretary for
Executive Office of the President
Export Marketing Service
Export-Import Bank of the United States
Farm Credit Administration
Farmers Home Administration
Federal Aviation Administration
Federal Claims Collection Standards
Federal Communications Commission
Federal Contract Compliance, Office of
Federal Crop Insurance Corporation
Federal Disaster Assistance Administration
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
Federal Energy Administration
Federal Financing Bank
Federal Highway Administration 23, I, II; 32A, IX; 49, III
Federal Home Loan Bank Board 12, V
Federal Insurance Administration 24, X
Fºllaborrelation. Council and Federal Service Impasses
Pane
5, XIV

Federal Management Policy Office 34, II

Federal Maritime Commission 46, IV
Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service 29, XII
Federal Metal and Nonmetallic Mine Safety, Board of Review 30, IV
Federal Power Commission 18, I
Federal Prison Industries 28, III
Federal Procurement Regulations 41, I
Federal Procurement Regulations System 41, Subtitle A
Federal Property Management Regulations 41, 101
Federal Property Management Regulations System 41, Subtitle C
Federal Railroad Administration 49, II
Federal Register, Administrative Committee of 1, I
Federal Register, Office of , II
Federal Reserve System 12, II; 32A, XV
Federal Supply Service
Federal Trade Commission 16, I
Fiscal Service, Treasury Department 31, II
Fish and Wildlife Service, United States 50, I
Food and Drug Administration 21, I
Food and Nutrition Service 7, II
Foreign Agriculture Service 7, xv.
Foreign Assets Control, Office of 31, V
Foreign Claims Settlement Commission of United States 45, V
Foreign Direct Investments 15, X
Foreign Economic Development Service 7, XXI
Foreign-Trade Zones Board 15, IV
Forest Service 36, II
Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education 45, XV

669
 Title and Subtitle or
Chapter Reference
General Accounting Office 4, I, II
General Services Administration
Federal Management Policy Office 34, II
Federal Procurement Regulations System 41, 1,5, 5A, 5B
Federal Property Management Regulations System 41, 101, 105
Preparedness, Office of 32A, I
Geological Survey 30, II
Government National Mortgage Association 24, III
Great Lakes Pilotage 46, III

Health, Education, and Welfare, Department of 45, Subtitle A

Aging, Administration on 45, IX
Children’s Bureau, Social and Rehabilitation Service 42, II
Education, Office of 45, I
Federal Procurement Regulations System 41, 3
Food and Drug Administration 21, I
Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education 45, XV
Human Development Office 45, XIII
National Institute of Education 45, XIV
Public Health Service 42, I
St. Elizabeths Hospital 42, III
Social and Rehabilitation Service 42, II; 45, II, IV
Social Security Administration 20
Highway Administration, Federal 23.1:19, III
Highway Safety Program Standards 23, II
Housing and Urban Development, Department of
Community Development, Office of Assistant Secretary for 24, V
Community Development Corporation 24, VII
Community Planning and Management, Office of Assistant 24, VI
Secretary for
Equal Opportunity, Office of Assistant Secretary for 24, I
Federal Disaster Assistance Administration 24, XIII
Federal Insurance Administration 24, X
Federal Procurement Regulations System 41, 24
Government National Mortgage Association 24, III
Housing Management, Office of Assistant Secretary for 24, IV
Housing Production and Mortgage Credit—Federal Hous 24, II
ing Commissioner [Federal Housing Administration],
Office of Assistant Secretary for
Interstate Land Sales Registration, Office of 24, IX
Low-income Housing 24, VIII
Secretary, Office of 24, Subtitle A
Housing Management, Office of Assistant Secretary for 24, IV
Housing Production and Mortgage Credit—Federal Housing 24, II
Commissioner [Federal Housing Administration], Office of
Assistant Secretary for
Human Development Office 45, XIII

Immigration and Naturalization Service 8, I

Import Programs, Office of 15, VII
Indian Affairs, Bureau of 25, I; 41, 14H
Indian Arts and Crafts Board 25, II
Indian Claims Commission 25, III
Inspector General, Office of the 7, XXVI
Interagency Classification Review Committee 32, XX
Inter-American Foundation 22, X
Intergovernmental Relations, Advisory Commission on 5, VII
Interim Compliance Panel (Coal Mine Health and Safety) 30, V
Interior Department
Anadromous Fisheries 50, IV
Federal Procurement Regulations System 41, 14, 14H
Federal Property Management Regulations System 41, 114
Fish and Wildlife Service, United States 50, I
Geological Survey 30, II
Indian Affairs, Bureau of 25, I
Indian Arts and Crafts Board 25, II
 Title and Subtitle or
Interior Department (Continued) Chapter Reference
Land Management Bureau 43, II .. .
Mine Operations Appeals, Board of 30, III
Mines, Bureau of 30, VI
Mining Enforcement and Safety Administration
National Park Service f
30, I
36, I
Reclamation, Bureau of 43, I
Saline Water, Office of * . 41, 14R
Secretary of the Interior, Office of 43, Subtitle A
United States Fish and Wildlife Service 50, I
Water Resources Research, Office of 18, IV
Internal Revenue Service 26, I
International Development, Agency for 22, II:41, 7
International Joint Commission, United States and Canada 22, IV .
International Organizations Employees Loyalty Board - 5, V
International Regulatory Agencies (Fishing and Whaling) 50, III
Interstate Commerce Commission -
49, X
Transport Mobilization Staff 32A, VIII
Interstate Land Sales Registration, Office of 24, IX
Justice Department 28, I
Alien Property, Office of 8, II
Drug Enforcement Administration 21, II
Federal Claims Collection Standards 4, II
Federal Prison Industries 28, III
Immigration and Naturalization Service 8, I
Labor Department
Benefits Review Board 20, VII
Employees’ Compensation, Bureau of 20, I
Employees’ Compensation Appeals Board 20, IV
Employment Standards Administration 20, VI
Federal Contract Compliance, Office of 41, 60
Federal Procurement Regulations System 41, 29, 50
Labor-Management and Welfare-Pension Reports, Office of 29, IV
Labor-Management Relations, Office of the Assistant 29, II
Secretary -

Manpower Administration 20, V

Occupational Safety and Health Administration 29, XVII *

Public Contracts 41, 50

Secretary of Labor, Office of 29, Subtitle A
Wage and Hour Division 29, V
Labor-Management and Welfare-Pension Reports, Office of 29, IV
Land Management, Bureau of 43, II
Library of Congress 36, VII
Copyright Office 37, II
Low-Emission Vehicle Certification Board 40, IV
Low-income Housing, Department of Housing and Urban 24, VIII
Development
Management and Budget, Office of 5, III
Manpower Administration 20, V - • *

Maritime Administration 46, II ---

Maritime Administrator, Office of 32A, XIX * * *

National Shipping Authority 32A, XVIII º

Mine Operations Appeals, Board of 30, III * *

Mines, Bureau of 30, VI -

Mining Enforcement and Safety Administration 30, I - º, , , , 2.

Monetary Offices, Treasury Department 31, I * *** , º

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 14, V

Federal Procurement Regulations System 41, 18
National Bureau of Standards 15, II
National Capital Housing Authority 5, X
National Commission on Libraries and Information Science 45, XVII
National Commission on Product Safety 5, XIII
National Credit Union Administration 12, VII
National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities 45, XI

671
 Title and Subtitle or
Chapter Reference
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 23, II;49, V
National Labor Relations Board 29, I
National Marine Fisheries Service 50, II
National Mediation Board 29, X
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 15, IX; 50, II
National Park Service 36, I
National Railroad Adjustment Board 29, III
National Science Foundation 45, VI
Federal Procurement Regulations System 41, 25
National Shipping Authority 32A, XVIII
National Transportation Safety Board 14, III
National Institute of Education 45, XIV
Navy Department 32, VI
Occupational Safety and Health Administration 29, XVII
Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission 29, XX
Overseas Private Investment Corporation 22, VII
Packers and Stockyards Administration 9, II
Panama Canal, Canal Zone Regulations 35, I
Patent Office 37, I
Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation 29, XXVI
Peace Corps 22, III
Postal Rate Commission 39, III
Postal Service, United States
Preparedness, Office of
Presidential Clemency Board
Presidential Documents
Executive Orders
Proclamations
Price Commission
Procurement Regulations System, Federal
Property Management Regulations System, Federal 41, Subtitle C
Public Buildings Service 41, 5B
Public Contracts, Department of Labor 41, 50
Public Health Service 42, I
Railroad Adjustment Board, National 29, III
Railroad Administration, Federal 49, II
Railroad Retirement Board 20, II
Railway Association, United States 49, IX
Reclamation, Bureau of 43, I
Regional Action Planning Commissions 13, V
Renegotiation Board 32, XIV
Rural Electrification Administration 7, XVII
Rural Telephone Bank 7, XVI
St. Elizabeths Hospital 42, III
Saint Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation 33, IV
Saline Water, Office of 41, 14R
Secret Service, Treasury Department 31, IV
Securities and Exchange Commission 17, II
Selective Service System 32, XVI; 2, II
Small Business Administration 13, I
Smithsonian Institution 36, V
Social and Rehabilitation Service 45, II, IV
Social Security Administration 20, III
Soil Conservation Service 7, VI
Special Representative for Trade Negotiations, Office of 15, XX
State Department 22, I
Agency for International Development 22, II; 41, 7
Federal Procurement Regulations System 41, 6
Statistical Reporting Service, Agriculture Department 7, XII
Susquehanna River Basin Commission 18, VIII
Tariff Commission, United States 19, II
Telecommunications Policy, Office of 47, II

672
 Title and Subtitle or
Chapter Reference
Tennessee Valley Authority 18, II
Trade Adjustment Assistance, Office of 15, V
Trade Negotiations, Office of Special Representative 15, XX
Transport Mobilization Staff, Interstate Commerce Commission 32A, VIII
Transportation, Department of 49, I
Coast Guard 33, I;46, I, III;49, IV
Federal Aviation Administration I
Federal Highway Administration 23, I; 49, III
Federal Procurement Regulations System 41, 12
Federal Railroad Administration 49, II
Highway Safety Program Standards 23, II
National Defense 32A, VII
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 49, V
Saint Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation 33, IV
Secretary, Office of 49, Subtitle A
United States Railway Association 49, IX
Urban Mass Transportation 49, VI
Transportation Safety Board, National 14, III
Travel Service, United States 15, XII
Treasury Department
Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms, Bureau of
Comptroller of the Currency
Customs Service
Engraving and Printing, Bureau of
Federal Procurement Regulations System
Fiscal Service
Foreign Assets Control, Office of
Internal Revenue Service
Monetary Offices
Secret Service 31, IV
Secretary of the Treasury, Office of 31, Subtitle A
United States and Canada, International Joint Commission 22, IV
United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 22, VI; 41,23
United States Customs Service 19, I
United States Fish and Wildlife Service 50, I
United States Information Agency 22, V; 41, 19
United States Postal Service 39. I
United States Railway Association 49, IX
United States Soldiers’ and Airmen's Home 5, XI
United States Tariff Commission 19, II
United States Travel Service 15, XII
Urban Mass Transportation Administration 49, VI
Veterans Administration 38, I
Federal Procurement Regulations System 41, 8
Wage and Hour Division 29, v
Water Resources Council 18, VI
Water Resources Research, Office of 18, IV
Welfare-Pension Reports, Office of Labor-Management and 29, IV

673
 Redesignation Tables
In the reorganization and recodification of the regulations of the Federal Aviation
Agency formerly contained in Chapters I and III of this title (26 FR 10698,
Nov. 15, 1961; 27 FR 4587, May 15, 1962), the subject material was rearranged,
consolidated, rewritten, or eliminated as necessary.
The following tables show the relationship between the old and new materials
as reflected in the recodification program:
PART 11 PART 21
Former Revised Former revised Former section Revised Section
section section section Section 1.0 (except last clause) -- 21.1.
405.1--------- (*) 405.29-------- 11.49 1. Transferred to
405.11 (a) ----- 11.1 405 30-------- 11.51 Part 1.
405.11 (less 40531(a) (1st 21.31.
(a) ) -- 11.21 two sen- 21.13.
- 11.23 tences) ---- 11.43 21.15.
11.25 405.31 (less 21.15.
11.27 1st two sen- 21.11.
11.29 tences of Not a rule.
11.31 (a)).------- 11.53 21.21, 21.23.
11.33 11.55 Not a rule.
11.35 405.33.-------- 11.11 Not a rule.
11.27 409.1--------- (*) 21.43.
11.25 409.11 (a) ----- 11.1 21.47.
11.37 409.11 (less Not a rule.
11.41 (a) ) ------ 11.61 21.33.
11.43 409.12-------- 11.63 21.123.
11.45 409.13-------- 11.65 Not a rule.
405.28 (less 409.14-------- 11.67 Not a rule.
last sentence 409.15-------- 11.69 - Not a rule.
of (b))----- 11.47 409.16------- I 11.71 1.15-4 (less (d), (e), and 21.125.
405.28 (last 409.17-------- 11.73 (f)).
sentence of 409.18-------- 11.75 - #;
(b)) ------- 11.11 409.19.-------- 11.11 21.129.
* Transferred to Part 1. 21.125.
PART 13 Surplusage.
Not a rule.
Pormer Revised Former Repised 21.51.
section section 8ection Section 21.49.

;:------- (*) 40838 (1st ##,

408.11-- -- 18.1 sentence) -- 13.35 ------

408.12-------- 13.3 408.38 (less 1st #; ſº ſº)---------- ##,

408.21-------- 18.11 sentence) -- 13.43 --- -- ----------------- 21.91 -

408.22-------- 13.13
408.23-------- 13.15
408,39--------
408.40--------
13.45
13.47
Not a rule
21.93 -

18.17 408.41-------- 13.49 21.95.

18.19 408.42-------- 13.51 21.97.
18.21
13.23 408.43--------
408.44-------- 13.53
13.55 *...* 1st sentence of
- -**
21.99. - -

#: *:::
-
--------

-----------
#.-
1.24(a) (1st sentence).--- Transferred to
Part 39.
13.38 408.47-------- 13.61 21.113
13.87
13.39
408.48--------
408.49--------
13.63
13.65
Not a rule
21.115 -

#: 408.50-------- 13.67 Not a rule.

21.117.
* Transferred to Part 1. Not a rule.

6
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
RART 21–Continued PART 21—Continued
Former Section Revised section Former Section Revised section
1.27-2. ----------------- Not a rule. 1.70 -------------------- 21.187.
128 ------------------- 21.1.19. 1.70–1 ------------------ Not a rule.
1.28-1 ----------------- Not a rule. 1.71 (less 2d sentence).--- 21.189.
1.80 -------------------- 21.133. 1.71 (2d sentence).------- Transferred to
1.30-1 ------ --------- Surplusage. Part 91.
1.30-2 ----- ---------- Not a rule. 1.71-1 ------------------ Not a rule.
1.81 ------------------- 21.133. 21.189.
1.32 ------ ---------- 21,135. Not a rule.
1.82–1 ------------------ Not a rule. 21.191.
188 ------------- ------- 21.137. Not a rule.
21.137. 21.193.
1.34 (1st sentence).----- - 21.139. 21.191.
1.34 (less 1st sentence).-- Surplusage. 21.193.
Not a rule. Not a rule.
Not a rule. Not a rule.
Not a rule. 21.195.
21.163. Not a rule.
Not a rule. 21.197.
21.143. - 21.199.
Not a rule. 1.77-1 (a) -------------- 21.197.
Not a rule. 1.77–1 (less (a) ) --------. Not a rule.
21.143. 1.77-2 ------------ ---- Not a rule.
Not a rule. 1.77-3 ------------ ---- Not a rule.
21.147. 1 77–4 - - - - -- - Transferred to
-- - - - - - - -
--

Not a rule. Part 91.

21.149. .10 -------------------- 21.21.
Not a rule. .11 (less (d) and (e) ) -- 21.17.
21.151. 21.101.
Not a rule.
i
21.153.
Not a rule.
21.155.
Not a rule.
21.157.
Not a rule.
i 21.21.
21.41.
21.21.
(less (a))----------- 21.31.
5 -------------------- 21.33.
21.19.
Surplusage.

Not a rule. 21.35.

21.159. Not a rule.
Not a rule. Not a rule.
21.161. Surplusage.
Not a rule. 21.305.
21.165. Surplusage.
Part 45. Not a rule.
Part 45. Not a rule.
21.303. Not a rule.
Not a rule. Not a rule.
Not a rule. 21.37.
21.803. 21.35.
Not a rule. 21.35.
21.173. 21.39.
Not a rule. 21.21.
21.173. Not a rule.
Not a rule. Not a rule.
Not a rule. 4b.10–3 Not a rule.
21.175. 4b.11 (less (d). (e), and 21.17.
21.175. (f)).
21.177. 4b.11 (d) and (f) ------ 21.101.
Not a rule. 4b.11(e) --------------- 21.19.
4b.12 ------------------ Surplusage.
4b.18(a) --------------- 21.21.
1.65 -------------------- Transferred to 4b.13 (less (a) ) --------- 21.41.
Part 91. 4b.14(a) ---------------- 21.21.
1.65–1 ------------------ Transferred to 4b.14 (less (a)).- 21.31.
Part 91. 4b.15 ------------------ 21.33.
166 -------------------- Surplusage. 4b.16 ------------------ 21.35.
1.67 -------------------- 21.183. 4b.16–1 (1st sentence).-- 21.35.
1.68 -------------------- Surplusage. 4b.16–1 (less 1st sen- Not a rule.
1.69 -------------------- 21.185. tence).
1.69–1 ------------------ Not a rule. 4b.16–2 ---------------- Not a rule.

676
 Redesignation Tables
PART 21—Continued PART 21—Continued
Former section Revised section Former Section. Revised. Section
Not a rule. 7.17 -------------------- Not a rule.
Not a rule. 7.18 (less note).-- Surplusage.
Not a rule. 7.18 (note).------ 21.305.
Surplusage. 7.19 -------------------- Not a rule.
21.305. 7.100 (less (d)–(g))----- Part 29.
4b.18–1 Surplusage. 7.100(d) 21.37.
4b.18–2 Not a rule. 21.35.
4b.18–3 Not a rule. 7.100(g) -------- 21.39.
4b.18–4 Not a rule. 80 -------------- Surplusage.
4b.19 ------------------. Not a rule. 21.25.
4b.100 (less (d)-(g)) --- Part 25. Not a rule.
4- 1000d) --------- ----- 21.37. Not a rule.
4b.100 (e) and (f) -----. 21.35. Not a rule.
4b.100(g) 21.39. Transferred to
50 --------------- ----- Surplusage. Part 1 or omit
5.1 Transferred to
ted as surplus
Part 1 or omit age.
ted as surplus Not a rule.
age. 21.25.
5-10------------- ------- 21.23. Not a rule.
5.11 (less (d) and (e)).- 21.17. Not a rule.
5.11 (d) 21.101. Not a rule.
21.19. Not a rule.
Surplusage. Not a rule.
21.23. 21.185.
5.13 (less (a) ) ---------- 21.41. Not a rule.
5.14(a) 21.23. Not a rule.
21.31. Not a rule.
21.33. 21.187.
5.16 -------- 21.35. Not a rule.
5.17 ------------------- Not a rule. Surplusage.
5.18 (less note).---------- Surplusage. Not a rule.
5.18 (note).--------- 21.305. Surplusage.
5.19 --------------- Not a rule. Not a rule.
6.10 -------------------- 21.21. Surplusage.
6.11 (less (d) and (e)).- 21.17. Surplusage.
6.11 (d) 21.101. 21.129.
21.19. 21.27.
Surplusage. Surplusage.
21.21. Transferred to
21.41. Part 1 or onnit
21.21.
ted as surplus
21.31.
21.33.
21.35.
Not a rule. 21.29.
6.18 (less note) Surplusage. 10:20 ------------------- Surplusage.
6.18 (note).---- 21.305. 10.21 (less (b) and note) - Surplusage.
6.18–1 --------- Surplusage. 10.21 (note).------------ 21.305.
6.18-2 --------- Not a rule. 1021 (b) --------------- 21.307.
6.18–3 --------- Not a rule. 10.30 ----- Part 45.
6.19 -------------------- Not a rule. 10.31 ----- 21.29, 21.307.
6.100 (less (d)-(g)) ----- Part 27. 13.10 ------------------- 21.21.
6.100(d) --------------- 21.37.
13.11 (less (d) and (e)). 21.17.
6.100(e) and (f) --------- 21.35. 13.11(d) --------------- 21.101.
6.100(g) ---------------- 21.39. 13.11(e) ---------- 21.19.
7.10 -------------------- 21.21. 13.12 -------- Surplusage.
7.11 (less (d) and (e)).- 21.15. 13.13(a) --------------- 21.21.
7.11(d) ---------------- 21.101. 13.13 (less (a) ) --------- 21.41.
7.11(e) --- 21.19. 13.14 (a) ---------------- 21.21.
7.12 -------------------- Surplusage. 13.14 (less (a) ) --------- 21.31.
7.13(a) ---------- 21.21. 18.15 ------------- 21.33.
7.13 (less (a)).--- 21.41. 13.16 -------- Part 33.
7.14(a) ----------------- 21.21. 13.17 -------- Not a rule.
7.14 (less (a))---------- 21.81. 13.18 (less note).-------- Surplusage.
7.15 -------------- 21.33. 13.18 (note).------------ 21.305.
13.18–1 ----------------- Not a rule.

677
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
PART 21—Continued PART 21—Continued
Former section, Revised section Former section Revised section.
13.19 ------------------- Not a rule. SR 425C.1--------------- 21.71 and 21.211.
Part 45. SR 425C.2 (less (b)).---- 21.73 and 21.213.
Part 33. SR 425C.2(b) ------- - 21.213.
14.10 ------------------- 21.21. SR 425C3----------- - 21.75 and 21.215.
14.11 (less (d) and (e)).- 21.17. SR 425C.4 (less (f))----- 21.77.
14.11(e) ---------------- 21.19. SR 425C.4 (1st sentence 21.217.
14.11(d) ---------- 21.101. and (f)).
14.12 ------------- Surplusage. SR 425C-5--------------- 21.79 and 21.219.
14.13(a) ---------- 21.21. SR 425C.6--------- Part 45.
14.13 (less (a)).--------- 21.41. SR 425C.7--------- 21.81.
14.14(a) ---------------- 21.21. SR 425C.8--------- 21.221.
14.14 (less (a))--------- 21.31. SR 425C.9--------- 21.83.
14.14-1 ----------------- Not a rule. SR 425C.10-------- 21.223.
SR 425C.11-------- 21.85.
SR 425C.12-------- 21.225.
14.16 ------------------- Transferred to SR 425C.16-------------- Surplusage.
Part 35.
14.16–1 ----------------- Not a rule. PART 23
14.16-2 ----------------- Not a rule. Fevised:
Former Section Section
14.16–3 ----------------- Not a rule.
14.17 -------------------. Not a rule. 8.0 ------------------------- 23.1.
14.18 (less note).--------- Surplusage. 8.1 --------------------- -- Executed or
14.18 (note).------------ 21.305. transferred
14.19 ------------------- Not a rule. to Part I.
3.10-3.19 -------------------- Transferred
zioi ------------------ Transferred to to Part 21.
Part 1 or onit 3.20 (less 2d sentence of (a) 23.3.
ted as surplus (2) and 2d and 3d sen
age. tences of (b) ).
4102 ------------------- alº. 8.20(a)(2) (2d sentence).----- Surplusage.
21.235. 3.20(b) (2d and 3d sentences) – Obsolete.
-------------- Surplusage. 820–1 ---------------------- 28.3.
410.13 ------------------ 21.239. 3.20–2 (1st sentence).--------- 23.3.
21.241 820–2 (less 1st sentence).----- Not a rule.
21.243 3.61 ------------------------ 23.21
21.245 3.62-8-65 -------------------- Transferred
21.247 to Part 21.
21.249 3.71 ------------------------ 23.23.
21.251 3.71-1 ---------------------- 23.21.
410.82(a)(1) --- 21.253 3.72 ------------------------ 23.31.
410.82(a)(2) --- 21.255. 8.72–1 ---------------------- Not a rule.
410.32(a)(3) --- 21.257 3.73 (1st sentence).----------- 23.29.
410.82(b) ------- 21.263 3.73 (less 1st sentence).------- 23.1591.
410.82(c) ------- 21.259 3.73-1 ---------------------- Transferred
410.82(d) -------------- 21.261 to Part 21.
410.32 (less (a), (b), 21.265 3.72-2 ---------------------- Not a rule.
(c), and (d)). 3.13–3(a) Not a rule.
410.33(a) --------------- 21.267 3.73–3(b) ------------------- 23.29.
410.33 (b) and (c)------ 21.269 3.73–3 (less (a) and (b)).---- 23.1589.
410.83 (less (a), (b), and 21.271 3.74 ----------------- 23.25.
-------

-
23.25.
- 23.1589.
- Not a rule.
- Surplusage.
- .45.
- 23.49.
- 23.49.
... --~~ ------------------------ 23.49.
SR 422 (less 4T.110- Surplusage. ** Uiess (C) 1 --------------- 23.51.
123, 4T.743, and 3.8% (C) --------------------- 23.1587
40T.80–84). 3.84-1 ---------------------- Not a rule.
SR 422A (less 4T.110- Surplusage. 8-84-2. ---------------------- 23.51.
123, 4T.743, and 8.84-3 ---------------------- Not a rule.
40T.80–84).
SR 422B (less 4T.110- Surplusage.
123, 4T.743, a n d
40T.80–84). 8.85 (less (a) and (b)).------ 23.77.

S
 Redesignation Tables
PART 23–Continued PART 23–Continued
Retrised Revised
Former section section Former section section
---------- Not a rule. 3.17? ----------------------- 23.303.
3.178 ----------------------- 23.305.
3.173-1 --------------------- Not a rule.
3.85–4 (last sentence).-------- 23.473. 3.174 ----------------------- 23.307.
3.85–4 (less last sentence).---- Surplusage. 8.174-1 through 8----------- Surplusage
8.85–5(b) (less (1) and (2)).- 23.65. or not
3.85–5(b) (1) and (2)------- Not a rule. rules.
3.85-5 (less (b))------------ Not a rule. 8.181 ----------------------- 23.321.
8.85a (a) -------------------- 23.65. 3.182 ----------------------- 23.321.
23.67. 3.183 ----------------------- 23.331.
23.77. 3.184 -- 23.335.
Not a rule. 3.185 _ 23.333
Not a rule. 3.186 ----------------------- 23.337
23.75. 3.187 ----------------------- 23.333
23.141 3.188 ----------------------- 23.341
23.143 8-188-1 --------------------- 23.34.1
23.151 3.189 ----------------------- 23.331
23.151 3.190 and note--------------- 23.345
23.75. 8-190-1 --------------------- 23.345
23.1587 3.191 (less (a) and (b)).----- 23.347.
23.145 3.191 (a) and note------------ 23.349.
23.147 8-1910b) -------------------- 23.351
23.149 3.19.1-1
23.16.1 3.194 and note---
23.171 8.195 -----------
23.17.3 3.196 -----------
23.173 3.197 -----------
23.175 3.211 ----------------
23.179.
23.181 3.211–1
23.177. 3.212
Not a rule.
3.1200A) -------------------- 23.201. 3.213
3.1200p) -------------------- 23.201. 3.214. ----------------------- Surplusage.
3.120(c) --- ---------- 23.203. 3.215 and note-------------- 23.421.
3.12004) -------------------- 23.203. 3.216 and notes-------------- 23.423.
3.120(e) (1st through 26th 23.203. 8216-1 --------------------- Not a rule.
words). 3.216–2 --------------------- Not a rule.
3.120(e) (less 1st through 23.1587. 8.216-3 --------------------- Not a rule.
26th words). 3.216-4 (a) and (b) ---------- 23.423.
3.1200ſ) -------------------- 23.207. 3.216–4 (less (a) and (b)).--- Not a rule.
8.120 (less (a)-(f))---------- 23.201. 3.216–5 --------------------- Not a rule.
3.120-1 23.201. 3.216-6 --------------------- Not a rule.
3.120–2 Not a rule. 3.217 and notes-------------- 23.425.
8-121 ------ 23.203. 8217-1 --------------------- Not a rule.
3.121-1 Not a rule. 3.218 ----------------------- 23.427.
3.122 (2d sentence).---------- 23.201. 3.219 and notes------------- 23.441.
3.122 (less 2d sentence).------ 23.203. 3.219–1
3.123(a) -------------------- 23.205. 8.220 -----------
8.123(b) (1) and (2)--------- 23.205. 3.220–1
3.123(b) (less (1) and (2)).- 23.1587. 8.221 ----------------------- -

3.124(a) (less last sentence).-- 23.221. 3.222 (a), (b), and (e).------- 23.455.
3.124 (a) (last sentence).-- 23.1583. 3.222 (less (a), (b) and (e))-- Not a rule.
3.124(b) -------------------- 23.221. 23
3.124(c) (less (4)) ---------- 23.221.
3.124(c)(4) ----------------- 23.1583.
23.221.
Surplusage.
23.231.
23.233. 3.231–1 (1st and 4th sen- 23.895.
23.235. tences).
23.239. 3.231–1 (less 1st and 4th sen- Not a rule.
23.251. tences).
23.301. 8.231-2 --------------------- 23.395.
23.301. 3.231-3 Not a rule,
Not a rule. 3.232 ----- ----- 23.399.
-------------

679
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
PART 23–Continued PART 23–Continued
Repised Revised
Former section section, Former section section
8.288 ----------------------- 23.415. 8.336 ----------------------- 23.673.
23.415. 3336-1 --------------------- Not a rule.
23.405. --------23.677.
23.471. Not a rule.
---------

Not a rule. Not a rule.

------

Not a rule. 3.337-3 --------------------- Not a rule.

23.473. 3.338 (less 2d and 3d sen- 23.697.
23.473. tences).
23.477. 3.338 (2d and 3d sentences) -- 23.699.
Not a rule. 3.338-1 --------------------- 23.699.
----------------- 23.479. 3.339
3.245–1(a) Not a rule. 3.340 ------------
3.245–1 (b) (before equation)- 23.479.
3.245–1 (b) (equation and fol- Appendix D.
lowing).
8.245–1 (less (a) and (b)).--- Not a rule.
3.245–2 Not a rule.
8.246 ------------ 23.481.
8.247 ------------ 23.483.
8.248 ------------ 23.493.
8249 ----------------------- 23.485
8.250 ----------------------- 23.497
8.251 ------------ 23.497
8.252 ----------------------- 23.497
8.258 ----------------------- 23.499
3.254 ----------------------- 23.499
8.255 ----------------------- 23.499 3354 ----

8.256 ----------------------- 23.499 3.355 ------- ---- 23.727.

8.257 ----------------------- 23.505. 3.356 ----------------------- 23.729.
8.257-1 --------------------- Obsolete. 3.356–1 (b) (last sentence).--- 23.729.
8.257-2 --------------------- Not a rule. 3.356–1 (less (b) (last sen- Not a rule.
8.257-8 --------------------- Not a rule. tence)).
8265 ----------------------- 23.521. 3.357 ----------------------- 23.729.
8.265-1(a) ------------------ 23.521. 3.358
3.265–1 (less (a))------------ Not a rule. 3.359 and last sentence of 23.729.
3.265-2 --------------------- 23.521. note.
3270 ----------------------- 23.571. 3.360 ----------------------- Surplusage.
3.291 3.361 - -

3.292 3.362
8.293 ----------------------- 23.605. 3.362–
3.294 (less last sentence).----- Not a rule. 3.362–2 -----
3.294 (last sentence).--------- 23.607. 8.363
3.295 ----------------------- 23.609. 8.364
8.296 ----------------------- 23.611. 3.364-1
3.301 and note--------------- 23.618. 3.371 (introductory para- 23.753
3.301-1 --------------------- 23.615. graph (1st sentence)).
3.301–2 --------------------- 23.617. 8.371 (less introductory para- 23.751
23.619. graph (1st sentence)).
--- 23.619. 8.372 ----------------------- 23.755.
3.373 -- 23.757.
3.381 -- 23.771.
3.382 -- 23.773.
3.382–1 Not a rule.
3.382–2 Not a rule.
3.383 (including note follow- 23.775.
3.311–203) --- ing (b)).
3.311-2 (less (a) ) ------------ Not a rule. 3.383–1 Not a rule.
assºſa) (less parenthetical 2sºn.
note).
3.384 (a) (parenthetical note) – 28.779.
3.884(c) (1) and (2)--------- 23.777.
3.384(c) (less (1) and (2)).-- 23.781.
3.384 (less (a) and (c) ) ------ 23.777.
 Redesignation Tables
PART 23–Continued PART 23–Continued
Revised Repised
Former section section Former section section
3.561 ----------------------- 23.1011.
3.561–(b)
33ss dess (a))-------------- 23.859. 3.561–1 (less (b))----------- Not a rule.
8.388-1 --------------------- Not a rule. 3.562 ----------------------- Surplusage.
8388-2 --------------------- Not a rule.
8.388-3 --------------------- Not a rule.
3.388–4 --------------------- Not a rule. --- 23.1013.
3.389 23.783. ----------------23.1013.
3390 ----- 23.785. - 23.1013.
----------

3.390–1 Surplusage. 3.568. ----- ---------------23.1013.

3.390–2 23.785. 3569 ----------------------- 23.1013.
3.390–3 Not a rule. 23.1017.
-----------

3.392 23.787. ----------- Surplusage.

3.392– Not a rule. ----------- 23.1023.
3.393 ----- 23.831. ----------- 23.1019.
3.394 Surplusage. ----------- 23.1021.
3.395 23.841. ----------- 23.1017
3.396 23.843. ---------------- Surplusage.
3.401 23.871. 3.577 ----------------------- 23.1027.
3.411 23.901. 9.881 ----------------------- 23.1041.
3.411– Not a rule. ---------------- 23.1043.
3.415 23.903. 8.98%-1. --------------------- 23.1043.
3.416 23.905. 3.683 ----------------------- 23.1043.
3.417 23.907. 3.583–1 (1st sentence).-------- 23.1043.
3.418 ------------- 23.33. 3.583–1 (less 1st sentence).---- Surplusage.
3.419 23.33. 23.1043.
3.419–1 (a) (2d sentence).---- 23.65. - 23.1043.
3.419–1 (less 2d sentence of Not a rule. - 23.1045.
(a)). _ 23.1047.
3.420 ----------------------- 23.33. - Not a rule.
3.421 23.33.
----------------------- _ 23.1061.
3.422 ------------- 23.925. _ 23.1061.
3.422–1 Not a rule. _ 23.1063.
3.422-2 ----------- 23.925. _ 23.1061.
3.429 ------------- 23.951.
3.430 ------------- 23.951. ----------------------- 23.1061.
3.431 ------------- 23.953. 23.1061.
3.431–1 Not a rule. 23.1061.
3.433 ------------- 23.955. Surplusage.
3.434 ------------- 23.955. 23.1091.
3.435 ------------- 23.955. 23.1093.
3.436 ----------------------- 23.955. Not a rule.
3.437 (a) (less last sentence) -- 28.959. 23.1095.
3.437(a) (last sentence).----- 23.1587. _ 23.1097.
3.437 (less (a))-------------- 23.959. — 23.1099.
3.438 ------------- 23.961. — 23.1101.
3.439 23.957. - 23.1103.
3.440 (less last two sentences) - 23.963. _ 23.1105.
3.440 (next to last sentence).-- 23.1587. — 23.1121.
3.440 (last sentence).--------- Surplusage. - 23.1123.
23.965. - 23.1125.
23.967. - 23.1125.
23.967. - 23.1191.
23.969.
23.971.
23.978.
23.975.
23.975.
23.977.
23.991.
23.991.
23.993.

39–059–75—44
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
PART 23–Continued PART 23–Continued
Revised Revised
Former Section Section Former section section
8.637 ----------------------- 23.1189. 3.716 23.1415.
8.688 ----------------------- 23.1183. 3.716–1 Surplusage.
3.651 (less 1st sentence).------ 23.1301. 3.717 23.1415
3.651 (1st sentence).---------- Surplusage. 3.718 23.1415.
23.1301. 23.1431.
23.1301 Not a rule.
Not a rule
------------ Not a rule.
3.655(a) -------------------- 23.1303 23.1437.
8.655(b) -------------------- 23.1305 23.1435.
-- 23.1307 23.1435.
3.655(d) (less (1))---------- Surplusage. 23.1435.
3.655 (less (a), (b), and (d) ) - 23.1307. 23.1501.
8,661 ----------------------- 23.1321. 23.1501.
8,662 ----------------------- 23.1821. 23.1505.
8.663 23.1505.
3.664 23.1505.
3.665 23.1507.
3.666 23.1511.
3.667 23.1513.
3.668 23.1521.
3.669 23.1519.
8,670 ----------------------- Surplusage. 23.1523.
3.671 --------- 23.1337. 23.1525.
3.672 --------- 23.1337 23.1541.
3.672–1 - Not a rule.
3.673 -
Not a rule.
3.674. ----------------------- 23.1337 23.1543.
3.675 ----------------------- 23.1337 23.1545.
8.681 ----------------------- 23.1351 Not a rule.
3.682 ----------------------- 23.1351 23.1547.
3.683 ----------------------- 23.1353 23.1549.
3.685 ----------------------- 23.1351 Not a rule.
8.686 ----------------------- 23.1351 3.760 23.1551.
8.687 ----------------------- 23.1351 3.761 (less 49th through 85th 23.1553.
8,688 ----------------------- 23.1361 words).
8.689 ----------------------- 23.1361 8.761 (49th through 85th 23.1583.
8,690 ----------------------- 23.1357 words).
8,691 ----------------------- 23.1857 3.762 28.1555.
8,692 ----------------------- 23.1857 28.1555.
8,693 ----------------------- 23.1365 23.1555.
8,694 ----------------------- 23.1867 23.1555.
3.695 ---- 23.1367. 23.1555.
8.696 -- 23.1381. 23.1557.
3.696–1 --------------------- 23.1381. 23.1557.
8.697 ----------------------- 23.1381 23.1557.
8.698 ---- - 23.1567.
8.699 ---- 23.1559.
3.700 ---- 23.1563.
8.700–1 -- 23.1559.
8.701 ---- - 23.1581.
8.702 ----------------------- 23.1889 Not a rule.
3.702–1 - Not a rule.
8.702–2 - Not a rule.
8.703 ----------------------- -
Not a rule.
8,704 ----------------------- 23.1399 23.1583.
8.705 ----------------------- 23.1401 23.1585.
8.705–1 (1st sentence).-------- 23.1401. 23.1587.
8.705–1 (less 1st sentence).----. Not a rule. Not a rule.
3.711 (1st through 27th 23.1411. 23.51 and
words). 23.75.
3.711 (less 1st through 27th 23.1561. 3.780–3 (a) (less 1st sentence) - Not a rule.
words). 3.780–8(b) (1st sentence).---- 23.1587.
8.712 ----------------------- 23.1419. 3.780–3 (less (a) and (b) 1st Not a rule.
8.713 ----------------- -- Obsolete. sentence).
8,714. ------------------ --- Obsolete. 3.791 -------------- ------ Transferred
8.716 ----------------------- 23.1413 to Part 45.

682
 Redesignation Tables
PART 23–Continued PART 23—Continued

Revised Appendiz A Revised

Former section section former section Section

8.792 Transferred A23.11.

to Part 45. A23.11.
Figure 3-1------------------- 23.333. A23.11.
Figure 3–3 (a) ---------- Appendix B. A23.11.
Figure 3–3(b) ---------- Appendix B. A23.11.
Figure 3-4-------------- Appendix B. A23.13.
Figure 3–5(a)----------- Appendix B. A23.13.
Figure 3–5(b) ---------- Appendix B. A23.13.
Figure 3-6-------------- Appendix B. A23.13.
Figure 3-7-------------- Appendix B. A23.13.
Figure 8-8-------------- Appendix B. A23.13.
Figure 3–9–------------- Appendix B. A23.13.
Figure 3-10------------- Appendix B. Follow
Figure 8-11------------- 23.397. Figure 5---------------- Follow
Figure 3–12(a) ---------- Appendix C. A23.13.
Figure 3-12(b) --------- Appendix C. Table 1---------------- Follow
Figure 8-13------------- 23.781. A23.13.
Figure 3-14------------- 23.779. Table 2---------------- ----- Follow
Figure 3–15------------- 23.1391. A23.18.
Figure 8–16------------- 23.1393. Figure 6---------------- ---- Follow
Figure 3-17------------- 23.1395. A23.13.
Figure 8-18------------------ 23.1401. Figure 7---------------- ----- Follow
A23.18.
Appendiz A Revised
Figure 8---------------- ----- Follow
former section Section
A23.13.
10 ------------------------- 23.217. Figure 9---------------- ----- Follow
1.1 (less last sentence).-- A23.1. A23.18.
1.1 (last sentence).----------- Not a rule. Appendix B------------- ----- Nonregula
1.2 (1st and 2d sentences) --- 23.217. tory.
1.2 (less 1st and 2d sentences) - Not a rule. Appendix C------------- ----- Nonregula
Not a rule. tory.
Not a rule. Appendix D:
Not a rule. SR 392D-------------- ---- Obsolete.
Not a rule. SR 425C-------------- ----- Transferred
Not a rule. to Parts 21
Not a rule. and 121.
24 ------------------------ Not a rule.
-

PART 25
3.1 (Introductory paragraph) - A23.1.
8.1 (less introductory para A23.3. Former section Revised section
4b.0------------------- 25.1.
º: A28.5.
4b.1------------------- Transferred to Part
.1 (1st sentence).----------- A23.7. 1 or executed.
(2d sentence).------------ A23.7.
A23.7. 4b.10 through 4b.19.---- Transferred to Part
21.
A23.7.
A23.7. 4b.100 (less (d)–(g)).- 25.21.
A23.7. 4b.100(d)-(g) --------- Transferred to Part
21.
Surplusage. 4b.100–1 (less 1st sen Not a rule.
A23.7.
A23.7.
tence of (b)(1)).
A23.9. 4b.100–1 (1st sentence 25.21.
A23.9. of (b)(1)).
A23.9.
4b.100–1 (less (b)(2)). Not a rule.
4b.100–1(b)(2) 25.21.
A23.9.
4b.100–2--------------- Not a rule.
A23.9.
A23.9. 4b.100–3 (less 1st sen Not a rule.
tence).
A23.9.
A23.9. 4b.100–3 (1st sentence).- 25.21.
4b.101----------------- 25.25.
A23.9.
4b.102---------- 25.27.
-

6:32 ſist and 2d sentences).III

A23.9.
4b.108---------- 25.23.
-

6.32 (3d sentence to end).--- A23.9. 4b.104----- 25.29.

-

A23.9. 4b.105---------- 25.31.

A23.9. 4b.105-1-------- Not a rule.
4b.110----------------- 25.45.
4b.110–1 (less (a)).----- Not a rule.
4b.110-1(a) ----------- 25.45.

683
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
PART 25—Continued PART 25—Continued
Former Section Revised sections Former section Revised section
*b,110-2--------------- Not a rule.
25,47.
Not a rule.
25.49.
Not a rule.
25.51.
Not a rule.
Not a rule.
25.55.
Not a rule.
*b.115(a) ------------- Transferred to Part
1.
4b.115 (less (a) ) ------- 25.57. 4b.160(a)-(c) --------- 25.201.
4b.115–1----- - Not a rule. 4b.160 (less (a)-(c)).-- 25.203.
4b.115–2----- -- Not a rule. 4b.160-1--------------- Not a rule.
4b.115–3–---- -- Not a rule. 4b.161------------ 25.205.
4b.115–4–---- -- Not a rule. 4b.161-1--------------- Not a rule.
4b.116------- -- 25.59. 4b.162----------------- 25.207.
4b.116-1------...--- --- 25.59. 4b.162–1 (less last sen- Not a rule.
4b.116–2--------------- Not a rule. tence).
4b.117 (introductory 25.1587. 4b.162–1 (last sen- 25.207.
paragraph) (21st tence).
35th words). 4b.170----------------- 25.231.
4b.117 (less intro. 25.61. 4b.170-1--------------- Not a rule.
para. (21st–35th 4b.170–2--------------- Not a rule.
words)). Not a rule.
4b.118----------------- Surplusage. 25.233.
4b.118–1----- Not a rule. 25.238.
4b.119------- 25.65. Not a rule.
4b.119–1----- Not a rule. Not a rule.
4b.120–------ 25.67. 25.235.
4b.120–1---------- 25.67. 4b.172-1--------------- Not a rule.
4b.120–2---------- Not a rule. 4b.173----------------- 25.237.
4b.121------------ 25.69. 4b.173-1--------------- Not a rule.
4b.121-1---------- Not a rule. 4b.173–2--------------- Not a rule.
4b.122------------ 25.75. 25.231.
4b.122-1---------- Not a rule. Not a rule.
4b.122-2---------- Not a rule. 4b.181----------------... 25.237.
4b.122-3---------- Not a rule. 4b.181-1--------------... Not a rule.
4b.122-4---------- Not a rule. 4b.182----------------- 25.239.
4b.123------------ 25.75. 4b.182—1-- Not a rule.
4b. 123–1-- 25.75. 4b.182-2--------------- Not a rule.
4b.123–2-- Not a rule. 4b.190 (as applicable to Surplusage.
4b.123-3---------- Not a rule. flutter).
4b.123-4---------- Not a rule. 4b.190 (less applicabil- 25.251.
*b.124------------ 25.75. ity to flutter).
4b. 124-1---------- Not a rule. 4b.190-1--------------- Not a rule.
4b.125------------ 25.75. 25.253.
4b.125-1---------- Not a rule. 25.301.
4b.130------- 25.143. 25.303.
4b.130–1----- Not a rule. 25.305.
4b.131------- 25.145. 4b.202----------------- 25.307.
4b.131-1---------- Not a rule. 4b.210 (less (b) and 25.321.
4b.182------------ 25.147. (c)).
4b.182-1---------- Not a rule. 4b210(b) ------------- 25.335.
*b,133.------------ 25.149. 4b210(c) ------------- 25.343.
4b.133–1----- Not a rule. 4b.211 (less (a) and 25.333.
4b. 140------- 25.161. (b)).
4b.140–1---------- Not a rule. 4b211(a) ------------- 25.337.
4b.141------------ 25.161. 4b.211 (b) -------------25.341.
4b.141-1---------- Not a rule. 4b.212----------------- 25.345.
4b.142------------ 25.161. 4b.213---- 25.331.
4b. 142-1----- Not a rule. 4b.214---- 25.349.
25.161. 4b.215--------- 25.351.
Not a rule. 4b.216 (less (b)-(e)).- 25.361.
25.161. 4b.216(b) ------------- 25.363.
4b216(c) ------------- 25.365.

684
 Redesignation Tables
PART 25–Continued PART 25—Continued
Former section Revised section Former section Revised section
4b216 (d) ------------- 25.367. 4b.301–1 (1st sentence) - 25.603.
4b216 (e).---- 25.371. *b*02----------------- 25.605.
*b*17----------------- 25.373. 4b.303 (last sentence) - 25.607.
4b.220 (less (a)-(e)).-- 25.391. 4b.303 (less last sen- Not a rule.
4b220 (a) ------------- 25.397. tence).
4b2200B) ------------- 25.407. 4b.304--- --- 25.609.
4b2200c) ------------- 25.427. *b*05----------------- 25.611.
4b2200d) ------------- 25.445. 4b.306 (less (d)) ------ 25.613.
4b.220ſe) -------------25.393. 4b.306 (d) ------------- 25.615.
4b221------- 25.457. 4b.306–1 (less (c)).---- 25.615.
4b222------- 25.409. 4b.306-1 (c) ----------- Not a rule.
*b*23----------------- 25.459. 4b.307 (less (a)-(c)).-- 25.619.
4b.224 (less last two 25.395. 4b.307(a) ------------- 25.621.
sentences of (a)). 4b.307(b) ------------- 25.623.
4b.224 (last two sen- 25.397. 4b.307 (c) ------------- 25.625.
tences of (a)). 4b.308 (less (c) and 25.629.
4b225----------------- 25.399. (d) as appropriate
25.415. to vibration).
25,405. 4b.308 (c) and (d) (as 25.251.
4b.230 (less (b)).------ 25.471. appropriate to vibra
4b230(b) (3) (1st sen- 25.477. tion).
tence). *b*10----------------- Surplusage.
4b.230 (less (b) (3) 25.473. 4b.311----
(1st sentence)). 4b.312----
*b 281----------------- 25,479. 4b.818-----------------
25.481. 4b.320 (less (b)).----- 25,671.
25.483. 4b.820ſb) -------------
25 485.
25.487.
4b235 (introductory 25.489. 4b.323 (less (e) and 25.697.
paragraph) (less last (f)).
sentence). 4b.323 (e) and (f)----- 25.699.
4b285 (introductory 25.493 and 25.499. 4b.324---------- ------- 25.701.
paragraph) (la st 4b.824-1--------------- Not a rule.
sentence). 4b.825----------------- 25.675.
4b235(a) ------------- 25.491. 4b.826----------------- 25.679.
25.493. 4b.827----------------- 25.681.
25.495. 4b.828----------------- 25.683.
25.503. 4b.329 (less (a) and 25.685.
4b235(e) ------------- 25.499. (b)).
4b235(f) ----- 25.497. 4b.329(a) ------------- 25.689.
4b235(g) ------------- 25.507. 4b.329(b) ------------- 25.693.
4b.235 (less introduc- 25.509. 4b.829-1--------------- Not a rule.
tory paragraph and 4b.329–2------- Not a rule.
(a) through (g)). 4b.329-3------- Not a rule.
4b236----------------- 25.511. 4b.329-4--------------- Not a rule.
4b250--------- 25.521. 4b.329–5--------------- Not a rule.
4b250-1------- 25.521. 4b.329-6--------------- 25.693.
4b251--------- 25.523. 4b.330----------------- 25.721.
4b.252--------- 25.525. 4b.331----------------- 25.721.
4b.253--------- 25.527. 4b.332 (introductory 25.721.
4b254--------- 25.529. paragraph).
25.531. 4b.332 (less introduc- 25.727.
25.533. tory paragraph, (a)
25.535. and (b)).
25.537. 4b.332(a) ------------- 25.723.
25.561. 4b.332(b) ------------- 25.625.
25.563. 4b.333----------------- 25.625.
25.571. 4b.834----------------- 25.729.
25.571. 4b.334-1--------------- Not a rule.
Not a rule. 4b.334–2--------------- 25.729.
25.573. 4b.335 (a) and (b) ----- 25.731.
25.601. 4b.335 (less (a) and 25.735.
4b.300-1--------------- Not a rule. (b)).
4b.301----------------- 25.603. 4b.336----------------- 25.733.
4b.301–1 (less 1st sen- Not a rule. 4b.337----------------- 25.735.
tence). 4b.337-1--------------- Not a rule.

685
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
PART 25–Continued PART 25—Continued

Former section Revised section Former section Revised section

4b.337-2--------------- Not a rule. 4b.362-3(a) ----------- Surplusage.
4b.337-3--------------- Not a rule. 4b.862-4----------- -- 25.809.
4b.337-4 (less 1st sen- Not a rule. 4b.362–5 (less (c)).---- 25.811.
tence). 4b.362–5(c) ------- --
Not a rule.
4b.337–4 (1st sentence) - 25.735. Not a rule.
*P.338----------------- 25.737. Not a rule.
4b.940----------------- Surplusage. Surplusage.
4b.341 (less (a) and 25.753. 25.831.
(b)). 25.831.
4b.341 (a) and (b) ----- 25.751. 4b372----------- 25.833.
*934?----------------- 25.755. 4b.872-1--------------- Not a rule.
25.771. 4b.373----------------- Surplusage.
Not a rule. 4b.874----------------- 25.841.
25.773. 4b.875----------------- 25.841.
Not a rule. 4b.375-1--------------- 25.841.
Not a rule. 4b.876----------------- 25.843.
Not a rule. 4b.380 (less (c))------- 25.851.
25.775. 4b.3800c) ------------- 25.1439.
25.777. 4b.880-1--------------- Not a rule.
Not a rule. 4b.880-2--------------- Not a rule.
Surplusage. 4b.881----------------- 25.853.
Surplusage. 4b.881-1--------------- Not a rule.
*b*56----------------- 25.783. 4b.882----------------- 25.855.
4b.356-1 (less last sen- Not a rule. 4b.383 (less 2d sen 25.857.
tence). tence of (a) and
4b.356–1 (last sen- 25.783. (b) (3)).
tence). 4b.383 (2d sentence of 25.851.
4b.356–2 (less (a) (1st Not a rule. (a) and (b) (3)).
sentence)). 4b.884----------------- 25.855.
4b.356–2(a) (1st sen- 25.783. 4b.884-1--------------- Not a rule.
tence). 4b.885-------- -- 25,863.
4b.856-3--------------- Not a rule. 4b.386-------- -- 25.859.
4b.856-4--------------- Not a rule. 4b.390-------- -- 25.875.
4b.856-5--------------- Not a rule. 4b.391-------- -- 25.871.
4b.356–6------ Not a rule. 4b.400-------- -- 25.901.
4b.858----------------- 25.785. 4b.400–1------ -- Not a rule.
4b.358–1 (less 2d and Not a rule. 4b.400–2------ -- Surplusage.
3d sentences). 4b.401-------- -- 25.903.
4b.358–1 (2d and 8d 25.785. 4b.401-1------ -- Not a rule.
sentences). 4b.401-2----------- -- Not a rule.
4b.859----------------- 25.787. 4b.401-8----------- -- Not a rule.
4b.860----------------- Surplusage. 4b.401-4----------- -- Not a rule.
4b.361 (introductory 25.1585. 4b.402------------- -- 25.905.
paragraph) (1 a st 4b.402-1----------- -- Not a rule.
sentence). 4b.408------------- -- 25.907.
4b.361 (less introduc- 25.801. 4b.404------------- -- 25.33.
tory paragraph (last 4b.405------------- -- 25.925.
sentence)). 4b.406------------- - 25.929.
4b.362 (introductory 25.803. 4b.406-1--------------- Not a rule.
paragraph). 4b.407----------------- 25.933.
4b.362(a) ------------- 25.805. 4b.407–1 (less 1st sen 25.933.
4b.362(b) --------- __ 25.807. tences of (b) and
4b.362(c) --------- __ 25.807. (c)).
*b,362(d) ------------- 25.807. 4b.407–1 (1st sentence Not a rule.
4b362(e) ------------- 25.809. of (b) and (c)).
4b.362(f) ------------- 25.811. 4b.408----------------- 25.937.
4b.862(g) (last sen- 25.1557. 4b.409----- 25.939.
tence). 4b.410-----
4b.362(g) (less last 25,813. 4b.411-----
sentence). 4b.413-----
4b.362 (less introduc- 25.815. 4b.416-----
tory paragraph and
(a)-(g)).
4b.362–1 (less (a)).----. 25.809 and 25.811.
4b.362-1(a) ----------- 25.805.
*b*62–2--------------- 25.807.
4b.362–3 (less (a)).---- 25.807.
 Redesignation Tables
PART 25–Continued PART 25—Continued
Former section Revised section Former section Revised Section,
4b.422----------------- 25.967. *b,481----------------- 25.1185.
4b.482----------------- 25.1189.
4b.483----------------- 25.1183.
4b.484 (a) ------------- 25.1195.
4b.484(b) ------------- 25.1197.
4b.484(c) ------------- 25.1199.
4b.484 (d) ------------- 25.1199.
4b.484 (less (a)-(d)).- 25.1201.
4b.484–1 (less 18th- Not a rule.
30th words of para
graph (a) and sub
paragraphs (a) (1)
and (2)).
4b.484-1 (18th-30th 25.1197.
4b.437 (less (e) (last 25iooi. words of paragraph
sentence)). (a) and subpara
4b.437(e) (last sen 25.1587. graphs (a) (1) and
tence). (2)).
4b.437-1--------------- Not a rule. 4b.485----------------- 25.1203.
4b.440---------- 25.1011. 4b.485-1-------- Not a rule.
4b.441---------- 25.1013. 4b.486---------- 25.1191.
4b.442---------- 25.1015. 4b.487---------- 25.1193.
4b.443---------- 25.1013. 4b.489---------- 25.1187.
4b.444---------- 25.101.7. 4b.490---------- 25.1205.
4b.445---------- 25.1025. 25.1301.
4b.446---------- 25.1023. 25.1301.
4b.447---------- - Surplusage.
4b.448---------- 25.1303.
4b.449---------- 25.1305.
4b.449-1-------- 25.1807.
25.1309.
Not a rule.
4b.606–2--------------- Not a rule.
4b.610----------------- 25.1321.
4b.611----------------- 25.1821.
4b.611-1--------------- Not a rule.
4b.612(a) ------------- 25.1823.
4b.612(b) ------------- 25.1325.
4b.612(c) ------------- 25.1327.
4b.612(d) ------------- 25.1329.
4b.466----------------- 4b.612(e) ------------- 25.1331.
4b.612 (less (a)-(c))-- 25.1333.
25.1123. Not a rule.
4b.467 (c) ------ -
25.1125. Not a rule.
4b.467 (d) ------------- 25.1125. Not a rule.
4b.467 (less (a)-(d))-- 25.1127. - Not a rule.
4b.467–1 (less 1st sen Not a rule. 4b.612-5--------------- Not a rule.
tence). 25.1337.
4b.467–1 (1st sentence)- 25.1121. Surplusage.
4b,467—2--------------- Not a rule. 25.1351.
4b.470----------------- 25.1141. 25.1351.
4b.471---------- 25.1143. Not a rule.
4b.472----------------- 25.1145. 25.1855.
4b.478----------------- 25.1147. 25.1357.
4b.474(a) ------------- 25.1149. 4b.624–1 (1st sentence) - Not a rule.
4b.474 (less (a)).------- 25.1153. 4b.624–1 (less 1st sen- 25.1357.
4b.474-1 -------------- Not a rule. tence).
4b.474a --------------- 25.1155. 4b.625----------------- 25.1353.
4b.475----------------- 25.1161. 4b.625–1 (introductory 25.1353.
4b,476---------- 25.1157. paragraph) (1st sen
4b.476a -------- 25.1159. tence).
4b.477----------------- 25.1163. 4b.625–1 (less intro- Not a rule.
4b.478----------------- 25.1165. ductory paragraph)
4b.480 (1 e s s 21–49 25.1181. (1st sentence).
words of (a) (7) ). 4b.626----------------- 25.1359.
4b.480 (21–49 words 25.1195. 4b.626-1--------------. Not a rule.
of (a)(1)). 4b.627----------------- 25.1363.

687
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
PART 25––Continued PART 25—Continued
Former Section Revised section Former section Revised sections
4b.628----------------- 25.1369. 4b.700-1--------------- Not a rule.
4b.630----------------- 25.1387. 4b.710----------- 25.1503.
4b.631----------------- 25.1383. 4b.711----------- 25.1505.
4b.632----------------- 25.1385. 4b.713----------- 25.1507.
4b.632–1 (1st sentence) - 25.1385. 4b.714----------- 25.1511.
4b.632–1 (less 1st sen- Not a rule. 4b.715----------- 25.1515.
tence). 4b.716----------- 25.1515.
4b.633----------------- 25.1387. 4b.717----------- 25.1513.
4b.634------ 25.1389. 4b.718----------- 25.1521.
4b.634–1---- 25.1389. 4b.718-1--------------- Not a rule.
4b.635------ 25.1397. 4b.719 (1st sentence).-- 25.1519.
4b.636----------------- 25.1399. 4b.719 (less 1st sen 25.1583.
4b.637----------------- 25.1401. tence).
4b.640 (less introduc- 25.1419. 4b.720----------------- 25.1523.
tory p a r a graph) 4b.721----------------- 25.1525.
(third sentence). 4b.722--- 25.1527.
4b.640 (introductory 25.1585. 25.1531.
paragraph) (third 25.1541.
sentence). Not a rule.
*b,641----------------- Surplusage. 25.1543.
4b.642----------------- Obsolete. 25.1545.
4b.642-1--------------- Not a rule. 25.1547.
*b,643----------------- 25.1413. 25.1549.
5b.644----------------- 25.1413. 4b.735----------------- 25.1551.
4b.645 (less (e) and 25.1415. 4b.736 (less last sen 25.1553.
applicability to tence).
marking). 4b.736 (last sentence).-- 25.1583.
4b.645 (less (e) as ap- 25.1561. 4b.737----------------- 25.1555.
plicable to mark 4b.738(a) -------------
25.1557.
ing). 4b.738(b) ------------- 25.1557.
4b.645(e).-------------- 25.1411. 4b.738(c) -- 25.1557.
4b.646 (less 4th sen- 25.1411. 4b.738(d) ------------- 25.1561.
tence of introduc 4b.738 (less (a)-(d)).- 25.1563.
tory paragraph). 4b.740 25.1581.
4b.646 (4th sentence 25.1561. Not a rule.
of introductory par 4b.740–2------ Not a rule.
agraph). 25.1583.
*b,647----------------- 25.1415. 25.1585.
*b,650----------------- 25.1431. 25.1587.
4b.651(a) ------------- 25.1441. Transferred to Part
25.1443.
25.1445. Transferred to Part
4b.651(d) ------------- 25.1447.
4b.651(e) ------------- 25.1449.
4b.651(f) ------------- 25.1451. Not a rule.
4b.651(g) ------------- 25.1453. 25.333.
4b.651 (less (a)-(g)) --- 25.1439. 25.333.
4b.851-1--------------- Not a rule. - 25.415.
4b.651-2--------------- Not a rule.
4b.651-3--------------- Not a rule.
4b.051-4--------------- Not a rule. Appendix
4b.651–5(a) ------ ___ 25.1445.
4b.651–5 (less (a)).---- Not a rule. Appendix
4b.651–6--------------- Not a rule.
4b.051-7--------- -- Not a rule. Appendix
4b.651–8--------- ---- Not a rule.
4b.651–9---- ---- Not a rule.
Appendix
4b.651-10--- ---- Not a rule.
4b.651–11--- --- Not a rule.
4b.651-12-------------- Not a rule Fig. 5 of Appendix
4b.658----------------- 25.1435
4b.654----------------- 25.1435 Fig. 6 of Appendix
4b.655----------------- 25.1435
ºb.656----------------- 25.1457. Fig. 7 of Appendix
4b.658----------------- 25.1433.
4b.660----------------- 25.1455. Fig. 8 of Appendix
4b.700----------------- 25.1501.
 Redesignation Tables
PART 25—Continued PART 27
Figures Revised
Former section section
Former section Revised section
4b-15a --------------- Fig. 1 of Appendix 6.0 (1st Bentence).----------- 27.1.
B.
6.0 (less 1st sentence).------- Surplusage.
4b-15b --------------- Fig. 2 of Appendix 6.1(a)(1) ------------------- Part 1.

B. 6.1(a)(2) ------------------- Surplusage.

4b-15c ---------------- Fig. 3 of Appendix 6.1 (a) (less (1) and (2)) ----- Part 1.

B.
6.1 (b) ---------------------- Part 1.
4b-16 ----------------- 25.779. 6.1 (c) (1) ------------------- Part 1.
4b-17 ----------------- 25.779. 6.1 (c) (2) --------- -------- Surplusage.
*b-18----------------- 25.1391. 6.1 (c) (3) ------------------- Part 1.
4b-19 ----------------- 25.1393. 6.1(c)(4) --------------- ---- Part 1.
4b–20 --- 25.1395. 6.1 (c) less (1) through (4)--- Surplusage.
4b-21 ---------- -- Previously deleted. 6.1 (d) (1)–(d) (2) --------- Executed.
4b-22 ---------- -- 25.781. 6.1 (d) (3) ------------------ Surplusage.
4b-23----------------- Previously deleted. 6.1 (d) (4)–(d) (5) --- Executed
4b-24a --------------- Fig. 1 of Appendix 6.1 (d) (less (1)–(5))------- Surplusage.
C. 6.1 (e) (1) (less symbol Part 1.
4b-24b --------------- Fig. 2 of Appendix “IAS”).
C.
Symbol “IAS"--------------- To be trans
4b-24c ---------------- Fig. 3 of Appendix ferred to
C. Part 1.
4b-25a. --------------- Fig. 4 of Appendix 6.1(e)(2) ------------------- Part 1.
C. 6.1 (e) (3) (less symbol Part 1.
4b-25b --------------- Fig. 5 of Appendix “EAS”).
C.
Symbol “EAS"--------------- To be trans
*b-25c ---------------- Fig. 6 of Appendix ferred to
C.
Part 1.
*b-26 ----------------- 25.509. 6.1(e) (4) (1 ess symbol Part 1.
4b-27 ----------------- 25.1401. “TAs").
Symbol “TAS"--------------- To be trans
SR 422B ferred to
Item 1---------------- Surplusage. Part 1.
Item 2, comprised of 6.1 (e) (less (1)–(4)) --------- To be trans
an introductory par ferred to
agraph, 33 4T.110– Part 1.
4T.123, and $ 4T.743, 6.1 (f) (1) and (2)---------- Executed.
distributed as fol 6.1 (f)(3) ------------------- Surplusage.
lows: 6.1 (f)(4) ------------------- To be trans
Introductory para- 25.101. ferred to
graph. Part 1.
4T.110(a) ----------- Surplusage. 6.1 (f) (5) and (6)----------- Surplusage.
4T.110 (less (a)).--- 25.101. 6.1 (f) (less (1)–(6)).-------- Executed.
4T-111 -------------- 25.101. 6.1 (g) (1)–(3))-------------- Part 1.
4T.112 (a) and (b) --- 25.103. 6.1 (g)(4) ------- Surplusage.
4T.112 (less (a) and 25.149. 6.1 (g) (5) ------------------- Part 1.
6.1 (g) (less (1)–(5))--------- To be trans
25.105. ferred to
25.107. Part 1.
25.109. 6.1 Surplusage.
25.111. 6.1 Part 1.
25.113. 6.1 Surplusage.
25.115. 6.1 27.339.
25.117. 6.1 ) Part 1.
25.119. 6.1 (less (a)-(h) and (1) (1)- Part 1.
25.121. (1) (4)).
25.123. 6.10-6.19 -------------------- To be trans
- 25.125. ferred to
4T.123(a) ----------- 25.1533. proposed
4T.123 (less (a)).---- 25.1587. Part 21.
4T.743(a) ----------- 25.1583. 6.100 (a)-(c)---------------- 2721.
6.100 (less (a)-(c) ) ---------- To be trans
4T.743 (less (a))----- 25.1587.
Item 3---------------- Transferred to Part ferred to
121. proposed
Part 21.
Item 4---------------- Transferred to Part
6.101 ----------------------- 27.25.
91. 6.102(a) -------------------- 27.27.
SR 422B (less items Transferred to Part 6,102 (less (a))-------------- 27.1589.
1-4). 1. 6.108 ----------------------- 27.33.

689
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
PART 27–Continued PART 27–Continued
Repised Revised
Former section section Former section Section
6.104 ----------------------- 27.29. 6246 ----------------------- 27.497.
6.105 ----------------------- 27.31. 6.247 ----------------------- 27.501.
8.110 ----------------------- 27.45. 6250 ----------------------- 27.547.
6.250-1 --------------------- Not a rule.
6.251(c) (2d—4th sentences) -- 27361.
6.112 (a) and (b) ------------ 27.65. 6.251 (less (c) (2d—4th sen- 27.549.
6.112 (less (a) and (b)).----- 27.67. tences)).
6,118 ----------------------- 27.73. 6200 ----------------------- 27.561.
6.114 (2d sentence).---------- 27.1587. 6300 ----------------------- 27.601.
6.114 (less 2d sentence).------ 27.75. 6391 ----------------------- 27.603.
6-114-1 --------------------- Not a rule. 6302 ----------------- 27.605.
6.115 ----------------------- 27.75. 6803 ----------------- 27.607.
6,116 ----------------------- 27.79. 6,804 ------------------- 27.609.
6,120 ----------------------- 27.141. 6.805 ------------------- -- 27.611.
6,121 (less (c))-------------- 27.143. 0800 ----------------------- 27.613.
6-121(c) -------------------- Out of date. 6307(a) -------------------- 27.619.
6-122 ----------------------- 27.161. °307(b) -------------------- 27.621.
6.123 (less (b))-------------- 27.171. 6,807(c) -------------------- 27.623.
6.123(b) (less (1)–(4)) - 27.173 6.807 (less (a)-(c))---------- 27.625.
6.123(b) (1)–(4) ------- - 27.175 *10 ----------------------- 27.653.
6.180 ----------------------- 27.231. 6311 ----------------------- 27.675.
6,181 ----------------------- 27.241. 681? ----------------------- 27.659.
6.182 ----------------------- 27.239. 6313 ----------------------- 27.661.
6.140 (vibration aspect).----- 27.251. 6.820 ----------------------- 27.671.
6.140 (less vibration aspect) -- 27.629. 6.821 ----------------------- 27.675.
6-2000b) -------------------- 27.303.
6.200 (less (b)).------------- 27.301.
6201 ----------------------- 27.305.
6.202 (less (c) ) -------------- 27.307.
6,202(c) -------------------- Surplusage.
6.208 ----------------------- 27.307. *327 ----------------------- 27.691
6:203-1 --------------------- Not a rule. 6.828 ----------------------- 27.695
6.204 ----------------------- 27.309. 0.885 ----------------------- 27.731
6.336 -

6.337
6.212 (last sentence).--------- 27.339. 6.338 ---> --

6.212 (less last sentence).----- 27.337. 6840 ----------------------- Surplusage.

6-218 ----------------------- 27.341. 6.841 (a) and (b)------------ 27.751.
6.220 -------------- --------- 27.391. 6.341 (less (a) and (b)).----- 27.755.
62.21 ----------------------- 27.401. 6842 ----------------------- 27.753.
6.221-1 Not a rule. 6.350
6.222 -- 27.403. 6.351
6.228 ----------------------- 27.411. 6.352
°224 ----------------------- 27.413. 6.353 • * * * -

6.225(a) (1), (2), and (3).---- 27.397. 6,354 ----------------------- 27.783.

6.225 (less (a) (1), (2), and 27.395. 6.855 ----------------------- 27.785.
(3)). 6.355–1 (less 1st sentence).---- 27.785.
6,226 ----------------------- 27.399. 6.355–1 (1st sentence).------- Surpl
6.230 (a) and (b) ------------ 27.471. 6356 ---------------- __ 27.787.
6.230 (c) and (d) ------------ 27.478. 6.857 ------------ __ 27.807.
6.230(e) -------------------- 27.475. 6358 ----------------------- 27.831.
6.230 (less (a)-(e)).--------- 27.477. 6880 ----------------------- Surplusage.
**31 ----------------------- 27.479. 6,881 ----------------------- 27.853.
6,231-1 --------------------- Not a rule.
0.282 ----------------------- 27.481.
6.288 ----------------------- 27.483.
6.284 ----------------------- 27.485.
6285 ----------------------- 27.498.
0.286 ----------------------- 27.235.
6.237 (introductory para- 27.723.
graph). 6.401 (less (c))-------------- 27.903.
6287(a) -------------------- 27,725. 6401(c) -------------------- 27.141.
6237 (less introductory 27.727. 6402 ----------------------- 27,907.
paragraph and (a)). 6.410 ----------------------- 27.917.
6.240 ------------------------ 27.505. 6411 ----------------------- 27.921.
6-245 ------------------------ 27.521. 641* --------------------- 27.923.

690
 Redesignation Tables
PART 27–Continued PART 27–Continued
Revised Revised
Former Section Section Former Section Section
6413 ----------------------- 27,927. 6,617 ----------------------- 27.1851.
6414 ----------------------- 27.931. 6,618 ------- 27.1851.
6415 ----------------------- 27.935. 6.619 27.1853.
6418 ----------------------- 27.951. 6.620 27.1851.
6419 ----------------------- 27.953. 6.621 27.1351.
6420 ----------------------- 27.955. 6.622 27.1351.
6.421 ----------------------- 27.959. 6.623 27.1361.
6422 ----------------------- 27.963. 6.624 27.1361.
6.423(a) -------------------- 27.969. 6.625 (less last sentence of 27.1357.
6.423(b) -------------------- 27.971. note following).
6428(c) -------------------- 27.973. Last sentence of note follow- Not a rule.
6.423(d) -------------------- 27.975. ing $ 6.625.
6.423 (less (a)-(d) ) --------- 27,977. 0.626 ----------------------- 27.1357.
6.424 (less 2d and 3d sen- 27.991. 6,627 ------- 27.1365.
tences of note following 6.628 ------- 27.1367.
(a)). 6.630 ------- 27.1381.
2d and 3d sentences of note Not a rule. 6.631 27.1383.
following $ 6.424(a). 3.032 (less note following 27 issº.
6.425 (e) -------------------- 27.961. (a)).
6.425 (less (e)) - Note following $6.632(a)----- Not a rule.
6.426 ---------- - 27.1387.
6427 ---------- 6.634 ----------------------- 27.1389.
6.428 ---------- 6.634–1 (less footnote 2).----- 27.1389.
6.429 ---------- - Footnote 2 of $ 6.634–1------- Not a rule.
6,440 ----------------------- 27.1011 Figure 6-1------------------- 27.1391.
6441 ----------------------- 27.1013 Figure 6-2------------------- 27.1393.
6,442 ----- -
Figure 6–3 and note following- 27.1395.
6443 ----------------------- 27.1021 6.635 ----------------------- 27.1397.
6444. ----------------------- 27.1337 6,636 ----------------------- 27.1399.
6,447 ----------------------- 27.1019 6.637 ----------------------- 27.1401.
6.450 ----------------------- 27.1041. Figure 6–4– 27.1401.
6.451 (1st sentence).--------- 27.1041. 6.637–1 --- - Obsolete.
6.451 (less 1st sentence).------ 27.1043. 6.640 ----- - 27.1411.
6.452 ----------------------- 27.1045. 6.643 ----------------------- 27.1413
6.460 27.1091. 6.644 ----- 27.1415
6.461 --- 27.1091 6.650 ----- 27.1435
6.461-1 ---------------------- Not a rule 6,700(a) -------------------- Surplusage.
6.462 ----------------------- 27.1093 6,700 (less (a))-------------- 27.1501.
6.463 27.1121 6.710 ----------------------- 27.1503.
6470 ----------------------- 27.1141 27.1505.
-----------

6471 ----------------------- 27.1143 27.1503.

------

6472 ---------- 27.1145 27.1509.

------

6473 ----------------------- 27.1147 27.1521.

----------------

6474 ----------------------- 27.1163 27.1525.

------

6,480 ----------------------- Surplusage. 27.1529.

------

Note following $ 6.480-------- Not a rule. 27.1541.

------

6.481 27.1187. 27.1543.

-------------------

6482 ----------------------- 27.1189 27.1519.

-------------------

6.483 ----------------------- 27.1.191 27.1523

--------------

6,484 ----------------------- 27.1.193 27.1545

-------------------

6485 ----------------------- 27.1183 27.1547

-------------------

6,486 ----------------------- 27.1185. - - -- 27.1549

-----------------------

6.600 ----------------------- Surplusage 6.735 ----------------------- 27.1551.

6.601 ----------------------- 27.1301
6.736 (less last sentence).----- 27.1553.
6.602 ----------------------- Surplusage Last sentence of $ 6.736----- - Surplusage.
6.603 ---------- 27.1303.
6.737 ----------------------- 27.1555.
6.604 ----------------------- 27.1305
6.605 ----------------------- 27.1307 6.738(a)-(c) ---------------- 27.1557.
6.606 ----------------------- 27.1309 6.738(d) -------------------- 27.1559.
6.610 ----------------------- Surplusage 6.738(e) -------------------- 27.1561.
6.611 ----------------------- 27.1321. 6.738 (less (a)-(e)) ---------- 27.1565.
6.612 (less (b) and (c)) ------- 27.1323.
6.612(b) -------------------- 27.1325.
6.612(c) (less last sentence) -- 27.1327.
6.612(c) (last sentence).------ Surplusage.
6.613 ----------------------- 27.1337. 6.73% ----------------------- Surplusage.

691
 Title 14—Aerona utics and Space
PART 27–Continued PART 29–Continued
Revised Former section Revised sections
Former section section 29.1.
7.20 (a) and (b) (1st
----------------- To be trans
6.750–6.751 sentence).
ferred to 7.20(b) (less 1st sen Surplusage.
Part 45. tence).
Appendix A.----------------- Not a rule. 7.100(a)-(c) ---------- 29.21.
Appendix B: 7.100 (less (a)-(c)).--- Transferred to Part
SR 392C------------------- Expired. 21.
SR 392D------------------- Expired. 7.101 ----------------- 29.25.
SR 425C------------------- To be trans 7.102(a) ----------- --
29.27.
ferred to 7.102 (less (a)).-------- 29.1589.
proposed 7.108 ----------------- 29.33.
Part 21. 29.29.
PART 29 7.105 ----------------- 29.31.
7.110 (less note follow 29.45.
Former Section Revised section ing).
7.0 (1st sentence).------ 29.1. Note following $ 7.110-- Not a rule
7.0 (less 1st sentence) -- Surplusage. 7.111 29.79.
7.1(a)(1) ------------- Part 1. 29.53.
7.1(a)(2) ------------- Surplusage. 29.51.
7.1 (a) (less (1) and Part 1. 29.53.
(2)). 7.114 (a) -------------- 29.59.
7.1(b) ---------------- Part 1.
7.114 (less (a) ) -------- 29.63.
7.1(c)(1) ------------- Part 1.
7.115 (less (b) ) -------- 29.67.
7.1(c)(2) ------------- Surplusage. 7.115 (b)(1) ---------- 29.65.
Part 1. 29.67.
7.115(b)(2) -----------
7.1(c)(4) ------------- Part 1. 7.115(b) (less (1) and
7.1 (c) (less (1)–(4)).-- Surplusage. 29.71.
7.1 (d) (1)–(d) (2) ----- Executed. 29.73.
7.1 (d) (3) ------------- Surplusage. 29.75.
7.1 (d) (4)–(5) --------- Executed. 29.75.
7.1 (d) (less (1)–(5)) --- Surplusage. 29.77.
7.1(e) (1) (less symbol Part 1. 29.141.
“IAS”). 29.143.
8ymbol “IAS"--------- To be transferred to 7.122 29.161.
Part 1.
7.1(e) (2) ------------- Part 1. 7.123 (less (b)) -------- 29.171.
7.123(b) (less (1)–(4)). 29.173.
7.1(e) (3) (less symbol Part 1. 29.175.
7.123(b)(1)–(4)
“EAS”). 7.130 29.231.
Symbol “EAS”--------- To be transferred to 29.241.
Part 1.
7.132 29.239.
7.1(e) (4) (less symbol Part 1. 7.140 (vibration as
“TAS”).
pect). 29.251.
Symbol “TAS”--------- To be transferred to
Part 1.
7.140 (less vibration as
pect). 29.629.
7.1(e) (5)-(7) --------- To be transferred to
Part 1.
7.2000b) -------------- 29.303.
7.200 (less (b)) -------- 29.301.
7.1(e) (less (1)–(7))--- To be transferred to 7.201 29.305.
Part 1.
7.1(f) (1) and (2)------ Executed. 7.202 (less (c)) -------- 29.307.
7.202(c) ----------- Surplusage
---
7.1 (f)(3) ------------- Surplusage. 7.203 ----------------- 29.307.
7.1 (f)(4) ------------- To be transferred to
7.204 ----------------- 29.809.
Part 1. 7.210 29.321.
7.1(f) (5) and (6)------ Surplusage. 7.211 29.321.
7.1 (f) (less (1)–(6) ) --- Executed. 7.212 (last sentence).--- 29.339.
7.1 (g) (1)–(3) --------- Part 1. 7.212 (less last sen 29.337.
7.1 (g) (4) ------------- Surplusage. tence).
7.1 (g) (5) ------------- Part 1. 7.213 29.341.
7.1 (g) (less (1)–(5))--- To be transferred to 29.851.
Part 1.
29.391.
7.1 (h)(1) ------------- Surplusage. 29.401.
7.1(h) (2) and (3).----- Part 1.
29.403.
7.1 (h) (4) and (5)----- Surplusage. 29.411.
7.1(h) (less (1)–(5))-- 29.339. 7.224 - 29.413.
7.1 (1) Part 1. 29.397.
7.225(a) (1), (2)
7.1 (less (a)-(1))------ Surplusage. 3
7.10-7.19 ------------ --
To be transferred to 7.225 tless (a) (1), (2), 29.395.
Part 21. and (3)) ------------.

69O
-/
 Redesignation Tables
PART 29–Continued PART 29–Continued
Former section Revised section Former section Revised sections
7226 ----------------- 29.399. 7341 ----------------- 29.753.
7.230 (a) and (b) ------ 29.471. 7.850 ----------------- 29.771.
7.230 (c) and (d) --
7230(e) -------------- 29.475.
7.230 (less (a)-(e)).--- 29.477.
7231 ----------------- 29.479.

7.357 (introductory 29.803.

paragraph).
7.357(a) --------- ----- 29.805.
7.357 (b) and (c) ------ 29.807.
7.357 (d) (less (7)).--- 29.809.
7.857(d) (7) ----------- 29.807.
7.857(e) -------------- 29.811.
7.251 (2d—4th sen- 29.361. 7.357(f) ---------- 29.813
tences). 7.357 (less (a)-(f)) ---- 29.815.
7.251 (less 2d—4th sen- 29.549. 7.358 (less note follow- 29.831.
tences). ing (c)).
7.252 ----------------- Note following Not a rule.
7.260 $ 7.358 (c).
7.261 (less note follow- 29.561. 7.359 (1st 8 words) ---- 29.833.
ing). 7.359 (less 1st 8 words) - Surplusage.
Note following $ 7.261-- Not a rule. 79°0 ----------------- 29.851.
7.300 2 7.881 ----------------- 29.853.
7.382 (less note follow- 29.855.
ing (a), and (c)).
Note following Not a rule.
§ 7.382(a).
7.882(c) -------------- 29.1439.
7* ----------------- 29.859.
73°4 ----------------- 29.861.
7.885 ----------------- 29,863.
7899 ----------------- 29.871.
7.307 (less (a)-(c))---- 29.625. 73°1 ----------------- 29.873.
7.810 ----------------- 29.653. 739? ----------------- 29.877.
7400 ----------------- 29.901.
7401 ----------------- 29.903.
740? ----------------- 29.907.
7403 ----------------- 29.917.
7404 ----------------- 29.921.
7.405 (less sentences 29.923.
(4) and (5) of (a)
(1)).
7.405(a)(1) (sentence Transferred to
(4) ). Part 33.
7.405(a)(1) (sentence Surplusage.
(5) )
Executed. 29.027.
Surplusage. 29.931.
7.332 (introductory 29.723. 29.935.
paragraph). 29.951.
7.332(a) (less note fol- 29.725. 29.953.
lowing). 29.955.
7.332 (less introductory 29.727. 29.959.
paragraph, (a), and 29.961.
note following (a). 29.957.
7.333 ----------------- 29.725. 29.963.
7.334 ----------------- 29.729. 29.965.
7.335 ----------------- 29.731. 29.967.
7.336 ----------------- 29.735. 29.969.
7337 ----------------- 20.733. 29.971.
7.338 ----------------- 29.737. 29.973.
7.340 (a) and (b) ------ 29.751. 29.975.
7.340 (less (a) and 29.755. 29.977.
(b)). 29.979.

39–059–75—45
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
PART 29—Continued PART 29–Continued
Former section Revised section Former section Revised section
7.430 (less 2d and 8d 29.991. 7600 ----------------- Surplusage.
sentences of note 7001 ----------------- 29.1301.
following (a)). 7.002 ----------------- Surplusagº.
(2d and 3d sentences Not a rule. 7.99% ----------------- 29.1303.
of note following 7,604 ----------------- 29.1305.
$ 7.430(a)). 7:005 ----------------- 29.1307.
7.431 ----------------- 29.991. 7,000 ----------------- 29.1309.
7.432 ----------------- 29.993. 7°19 ----------------- Surplusage.
7.433 ----------------- Surplusage. * ----------------- 29.1321.
29.995.
------ 7°12(a) -------------- 29.1323.
7.612(b) -------------- 29.1325.
7.612(c) (less (3))----- 29.1327.
7.612(c)(3) ----------- Surplusage.
7612(d) -------------- 29.1329.
7°12(e) -------------- 29.1331.
7.612 (less (a)-(e)).--- 29.1333.
* ----------------- 29.1337.
7.444 (less (b)) -------- 29.1017. 7.820 ----------- ---- Surplusage.
7.444(b) -------------- 29.1183. - ---- 29.1351.
7.445 ----------------- 29.1025. 7° ----------------- 29.1351.
7.446 ----------------- 29.1023. 7.623 (less note follow- 29.1355.
7.447 ----------------- 29.1019 1ng).
7,448 ----------------- 29.1021 Note following $ 7.623__. Not a rule.
7450 ----------------- 29.1041. 7.624 (less note follow- 29.1357.
7.451 (1st sentence).--- 29.1041. ing (e)).
7.451 (less 1st sen- 29.1043. Note following Not a rule.
tence). $ 7.624(e).
7.452 ----------------- 29.1045. 7°5(a) -------------- 29.1309.
7.453 --- 29.1047. ---- 29.1353.
7.454 --- 29.1047.
7:455 ----------- 29.1049.
7.460 ----------- 29.1091.
7.461 -------- 29.1093.
7.462 -------- 29.1101.
7.463 ----------------- 29.1103.
7.464 ----------------- 29.1105.
7.465 29.11.09.
7.466 29.1107. Figure 7-2------------- 29.1393.
7.467(a) ----- 29.1121. Figure 7–3 and note 29.1395.
7.467(b) -------------- 29.1123. following.
7.467 29.1125. 7°5 ----------------- 29.1397.
(b)). 7.636 -------- ---- 29.1399.
7470 ----------------- 29.1141. 7°7 ----------------- 29.1401.
7.471 ----------------- 29.1143. Figure 7-4------------ 29.1401.
7472 ----------------- 29.1145. 7” ----------------- 29.1411.
7,473 ----------- 29.1147. 7** ----------------- 29.1413.
7.474 ----------- 29.1157. 7.644 (less note follow- 29.1415.
7475 ----------- 29.1159. ing (b), and mark
7476 ------------ --- 29.1151. 1ng aspect).
7.477 (less note follow- 29.1163. Note following Not a rule.
ing). $ 7.644(b).
Note following $7.477-- Not a rule. Marking aspect of 29.1561.
7.478 ----------------- 29.1165. § 7.644.
7.480 (less note follow- 29.1181. 7.645 (less 3d sentence 29.1411.
1.Lig). of introductory para
Note following $ 7.480-- Not a rule. graph).
7.481 29.1185.
7.482 29.1189. 3d sentence of intro- 29.1561.
7.483 29.1183. ductory paragraph
of 7.645.
7.484 (a) -------- 29.1195.
7.484 (b) -------------- 29.1197.
7,646 (less note follow- 29.1439.
7.484 (c) and (d) ------. 29.1199. ing).
7.484 (less (a)-(d) ) ---- 29.1201. Note following $ 7.646–- Not a rule.
7.485 29.1203. 7.650 (less note fol- 29.1435.
7.486 --- 29.1191. lowling).
7.487 29.1198. Note following $ 7.650-- Not a rule.
7.489 ----------------- 29.1187. 7.651 ----------------- 29.1435.

694
 Redesignation Tables
PART 29–Continued PART 33–Continued
Revised
Revised
Fortner section &ection,
Former section section
13.104 ---------------------- 33.19
7.652 ----------------- 29.1435.
13.110 ---------------------- 33.35
7.653 (less note follow- 29.1431. 13.111 33.37
ing (a)). 13.112 - 33.39
Note following Not a rule. 13,113 83.21
$ 7.653(a). 13,114 83.23
7,654 ----------- 29.1433.
13.115 33.25
7.7000a) -------- Surplusage. 13.116 33.27
7.700 (less (a)).- 29.1501. 13.150 33.41
7.710 ----------- 29.1503. 13.15.1 33.43
7.711 ----------- 29.1505.
13.15.2 33.45
7.712 ----------------- 29.1503. 13.153 33.47
7.713 (less introduc- 29.1509. 13.154 33.49
tory paragraph). 13.155 33.51
7.713 (introductory Surplusage. 13.156 33.53
paragraph). 13.157 33.55
7.714 ----------------- 29.1521.
13,158 33.57
29.1517.
29.1519.
13.200 (openlng sentence).---- 33.61
29.1523. 13-2000a) ------------------- 33.13
29.1525. 13.200 (less opening sentence Obsolete.
29.1529. and (a)).
13.201 33.15
29.1541.
13.202 33.17
29.1543.
13.203 83.63
29.1545.
13.204 ------------- 33.19
29.1545.
13.205 83.65
- 29.1549.
13.210 33.67
7.735 ----------------- 29.1551.
13,211 33.69
7.736 (less last sen- 29.1553. 13 212 33.71
tence). 13.213 83.21
Last sentence of Surplusage. 13.214 33.23
§ 7,736. 13.215 33.25
7.737 ----------------- 29.1555.
13.216 33.27
7.738(a)-(c) ---------- 29.1557. 13.217 33.73
7.738(d) -------------- 29.1559. 13.250 33.81
7.738(e) -------------- 29.1581. 13,251 33.83
7.738 (less (a)-(e)) ---- 29.1565. 13.252 33.85
7.740 ----------------- 29.1581.
13.254 33.87
7.741 ----------------- 29.1583.
13.255 -- 83.89
13.256 83.91
13.257 33.93
7.744 ----------------- Surplusage. 13.258 33.99
Appendix A: 13.259 33.95
SR 392C------------- Expired. 13.260 33.97
SR 392D------------- Expired.
SR 425C------------- Transferred to PART 35
Part 21. Former Section Revised section,
PART 33 14.0 (less last sentence).------- 35.1
Repised 14.0 (last sentence).------ -- Surplusage.
Former Section section 14.1 ------------------------ (1)
14.1-1 ---------------------- (1)
13.1 14.10 through 14.19 (except Part 21
13.10–13.19 (except $ 14.16).
14.16(a) -------------------- 35.33
13.16(b) -------------------- Surplusage
13.16 (less (a), (b), and (d)). 33.7 14.16(b) -------------------- Surplusage
18.16 (a) and (d))----------- 33.57, 33.99 14.16 (less (a) and (b)).----- 85.5
14:20 ----------------------- 45.11
---, -------------------- --- 33.5 14:21 ----------------------- 35.3
13.100 (opening sentence).---- 33.31 14.100 (less (b))------------- 85.15
18.100(a) ------------------- 83.13 14.100(b) -- 85.11
13.100 (less opening sentence Obsolete. 14.100–1 -- Not a rule.
and (a)). 14.101 ---------- -- 85.17
18.101 ---------------------- 33.15 14.102 ---------------------- 85.19
18.102 ---------------------- 33.17 14.108 ---------------------- 35.21
18.103 ---------------------... 33.33 14.103-1 -------------------- 35.21
* Trfd. to Part 1 or executed.
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
PART 35—Continued PART 43–Continued
Repºsed.
Former section Revised section, Former section, sections
14.150 (less last sentence).---- 85.81 18.11 (15th through 54th Trfd. to Part
14.150 (last sentence) -------- 85.33 words of (b) (5) (as ap- 145
14.150–1 ------------------ Not a rule
plicable to repair sta
tions)).
18.11 (15th through 54th 43.7.
words of (b) (5) (less ap
plicability to air carriers,
commercial operators,
and repair stations)).
18.11 (less 7th through 81st 43.5.
words of (b) (2) and 15th
14.156–1 (2d Sentence).-------- 85.45 through 54th words of
14.156–1 (less 2d sentence).--- Not a rule (b) (5)) (as applicable to
14.157 ---------------------- 35.47
return to service require
PART 37 ments).
Former section Revised section
18.11 (less 7th through 81st
words of (b)(2) and 15th
514.1-------------------------------- 37.1 through 54th words of
5142(a) and (b) -------------------- 37.3 (b) (5) and less appli
514.2 (less (a) and (b))------------ 37.5 cability to return to serv
514.3– 37.7 ice requirements).
514.4-------------------------------- 87.9 18.11-1 -------------------- Surplusage.
514.5 37.11 18.11-2 -------------------- Not a rule.
514.6 -- 37.13 18.12 (as applicable to per- 43.3.
514.7-------------------------------- 37.15 formance).
514.8------------------ 37.17 18.12 (less applicability to 43.7.
514.9- -- 39.19 performance).
514.10------------------------------- 87.21 18.12-1 -------------------- Surplusage.
514.11-5.14.91--------------- 37.111–37.191 18.13 ---------------------- 43.5.
PART 39 18.20 (last sentence).-------
18.20 (less last sentence).--- Surplusage.
Former section Revised section 1820-1 ---------------- -- Obsolete.
1.24(a) (1st sentence 39.1. 18.21 ------------------ -- 43.9.
through 3d comma). 18.21–1 (2d sentence).------- 43.9.
124(a) (1st sentence 39.3. 18.21–1 (less 2d sentence) -- Not a rule.
less portion preceding 1822 ---------------------- 43.9.
3d comma). Appendix A.
1.24(a) (footnote 5a).-- Surplusage. Appendix A.
1.24 (less 1st sentence of Transferred to 43.11.
(a) and footnote 5a). Part 21. Appendix B.
607.1 ------------------- 39.1. 43.9.
607.2 ------------------- Surplusage. 43.13.
507.3 ------------------- Not a rule. - 43.13.
507.10 (less airworthiness 39.11. 18.30—2—18.30–17 ------ - Not a rule
directives). 18.30–18 (paragraph (a) ) --- 43.15.
507.10 (airworthiness di- 39.13. 18.30–18 (paragraph (1))---- Appendix D.
rectlves). 18.30–18 (paragraphs (1)– Appendix D.
PART 43 (ix)) (less last sentence of
(1), (iii), (v), and (vi) ).
Former section Revised section 1830–18 (paragraphs (1), 43.15.
18.0 ----------------------- 43.1. (111), (v), and (vi) (last
18.1 ----------------------- Surplusage. sentence)).
18.1-1 --------------------- Appendix A. 1830–18 (paragraph (x))--- 43.15.
18.1–2 --------------------- Not a rule. 1830–18 (paragraphs (x1), 43.11.
18.1–3 ----------------- ... --- Appendix A. (a), and (b)).
18.1–4 --------------------- Not a rule. 1830–19 (a) --------------- Not a rule.
18.1-5 --------------------- Not a rule. 1830–19 (b) (less last 2 43.15.
18.1-6 --------------------- Appendix A. sentences).
1810 ---------------------- 43.3. 1830–19 (b) (last 2 sen- Trfd. to Part 91.
18.10–1 -------------------- 43.3. tences).
18.11 (7th through 31st Trfd. to Part 1830–190c) ---------------- Trfd. to Part 91.
words of (b)(2)). 145" 18.30-19 (d) --------------- 43.15.
18.11 (15th through 54th Trfd. to Parts 18.30–19 (less (a)-(d))----- 43.11.
words of (b) (5) (as ap- 40, 41, 42, 1830–20 ------------------- Obsolete.
plicable to air carriers and 46. 1830–21 -------- ---- Surplusage.
and commercial opera 1830–22 ------------------- Not a rule.
tors)). Appendix A.---------------- Not a rule.

696
 Redesignation Tables
PART 43–Continued PART 45—Continued
Pormer Revised Former Revised
section section section section
Appendix B---------------- Not a rule. 1.105 ------------------------------- 45. 21
Appendix C---------------- Not a rule. 1.106 -------
Appendix P---------------- Not a rule.
PART 45
Former Revised
section section
1.50 (1st sentence).------------------ 45. 11
1.50 (less 1st sentence).------------- 45. 13
1-50-1 ------------------------------ 45. 13
1.55–2(b) (less 1st sentence) . 15
1.55–2(d) . 15
1.100 --------------- . 21
1.101 (a) and (b)------------------- 45. 23
1.101 (less (a) and (b))------------- 45.25
1.102(a) ---------------------------- 45.25
1.102 (less (a) ) --------------------- 45.27 ------------------------------ 45. 11
1.108 ------------------------------ 45. 29 SR 425C (last sentence of 6th para.) -- 45.23
1.104 45. 21 1. Obsolete.

697
 List of CFR Sections Affected

All changes in this volume of the Code of Federal Regulations which were
made by documents published in the FEDERAL REGISTER since January 1, 1964,
are enumerated in the following list. Entries indicate that nature of the changes
effected. Page numbers refer to Federal Register pages. The user should con
sult the entries for chapters and parts as well as sections for revisions.
For the period before January 1, 1964, see the “List of CFR Sections Affected,
1949–1963,” which is published in a separate volume.
- 29 F.R.
1964 14 CFR-Continued Page
29 F.R.
1.24
14 CFR Page
(a) amended----------------- 14403
Subchapter G [New I added.------ 603
1.50
Subchapter C [New] added.------ 3223
Deleted ---------------------- 3223
Status of recodification program - 4853
1.50–1
Subchapter J added------------- 11337
Deleted ---------------------- 3223
Special Civil Air Regulations:
330 ------------------------------ 19097 1.55–2
386F ----------------------------- 19231 (b) and (d) deleted.----------- 3223
389B ----------------------- 19097, 19231 1.100–1.110
3920 ----------------------- 15717, 16183 Deleted ---------------------- 3223
392P ----------------- 15717, 16183, 18000 3
895 B ----------------------------- 19097
397 ------------------------------ 19097
Deleted; superseded by Part 23
[New] --------------------- 17955
399p ---------------------------- 19099
405 ------------------------------ 19231 3.791
406C ----------------------------- 19231 Deleted ---------------------- 3223
407 ------------------------------ 19099 3.792
410 ------------------------------ 19231 Deleted ---------------------- 3223
411 B ----------------------- 19097, 19231 4a
420 ------------------------------ 19231 Deleted ---------------------- 18290
422 ------------ 14576, 18290, 19188, 19231
422A ---------- 14576, 18290, 19188, 19231
422B ----- 14576, 18290, 18353, 19188, 19231 Deleted; superseded by Part 25
[Newl --------------------- 8290
425C-3223, 14576, 16183, 18000, 19188, 19231
426 ------------------------------ 19099 4b.308
430 -- -- 19097 (a) revised, (d) added--------- 12612
431 -- - 19097 4b.334
432A - - 19231 (e) (4) added----------------- 5381
433 -- - 19097 4b.656
436B - - 19231
Added ----------------------- 8403
440 -- --- 19231
446B - - 19188, 19097
4b.750
448A --- - 19097, 19231 Deleted ---------------------- 3223
450A --- 1560, 11151, 19097 4b.751
454A ----------------------------- 19099 Deleted ---------------------- 3223
455 ------------------------------ 19231 5
456 ------------------------------ 19097 Deleted ---------------------- 14563
1 6
Deleted ---------------------- 14563 Deleted ---------------------- 15695
1.1 [New J 6.750
Amended -------------------- 603 Deleted ---------------------- 3223
Amended -------------------- 2991 6.751
Amended -------------------- 7453 Deleted ---------------------- 3223
Amended -------------------- 5450 7
Amended -------------------- 18290 Deleted; superseded by Part 29
Amended -------------------- 19188 [New] --------------------- 16150
1.2 [New] 7.750
Amended -------------------- 18290 Deleted ---------------------- 3223

699
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
29 F.R. - 29 F.R.
14 CFR-Continued Page
14 CFR-Continued Page
7.751 31 [New I
Deleted ---------------------- 3223 Added ----------------------- 8258
8 Subpart G deleted.------------ 14563
Deleted ---------------------- 14563 31.91—31.105 [Newl
9 Subpart G deleted.------------ 14563
Peleted ---------------------- 14563 33 [New J
9a Added ----------------------- 7453
Peleted ---------------------- 14563 35 [New]
10 Added ----------------------- T458
Deleted ---------------------- 14563 37 [New I
10.30 Added, superseding Part 514--- 15317
Deleted ---------------------- 3223 39 [New J
11.11 [Newl Added, superseding Part 507––– 14403
Amended -------------------- 15074 39.13 [New I
11.15 [New] Amended -------------------- 15011,
Added ----------------------- 7091 15199, 15810 (2 docs.), 15897,
11.61 [New J 15945, 16065, 16066, 16317–16318
(c) revised, (d) added--------- 9662 (3 docs.), 16968, 17035, 17797,
(c) revised------------------- 15074 18353, 18354, 18477.
11.63 [New J Subchapter G [New J added.------ 603
(a) amended----------------- 9662 Subchapter J LNew] added------- 11337
11.69 [New J 40
(a) revised, (b) amended------ 9662 Appendix D added.------------ 5634
11.75 [New J Deleted; Superseded by Part 121
(a) amended----------------- 9662 [New] --------------------- 19188
13 40.1
Deleted ---------------------- 14563 Revised ---------------------- 5629
13.1 40.5
(b) (5) through (8) redesig Amended -------------------- 5629
nated as (b) (6) through (9); 40.11
(b) (5) added--------------- 5382 Revised ---------------------- 5629
13.20 40.13
Deleted ---------------------- 3223 (c) added-------------------- 5629
13.254 40.14
Introductory text amended; (c) Revised ---------------------- 5629
added --------------------- 5382 40.20
14 Revised ---------------------- 5629
Deleted ---------------------- 14563 40.21
14.20 Revised ---------------------- 5629
Deleted ---------------------- 3223 40.23
15 Revised ---------------------- 5630
Added ----------------------- 19283 40.30
18 Revised ---------------------- 5630
Deleted ---------------------- 5451 40.31
21 [New I Redesignated as 40.32, revised–- 5630
Added ----------------------- 14563 40.32
23 [New I Deleted ---------------------- 5630
Added; recodified from Part 3-- 17955 40.32
25 [New] Redesignated from 40.31, re
Added, superseding Part 4b---- 18291 vised ---------------------- 5630
SFAR 13 --------------------- 19099 40.36
27 [New] Amended -------------------- 5630
Added ----------------------- 15695 40.51
Effective date corrected.-------- 16065 (a)(4) amended-------------- 5630
27.479 [Newl 40.52
(c) corrected.----------------- 17885 (a) (2) amended-------------- 5630
29 [New] 40.53
Added, superseding Part 7----- 16150 (b) amended----------------- 5630.

700
 List of CFR Sections Affected

- 29 F.R. - 29 F.R.
14 CFR-Continued Page 14 CFR-Continued Page
40.60 40.212
Amended -------------------- 5630 Added ----------------------- 8403
40.61 40.233
(b) amended----------------- 5630 Added ----------------------- 5632
(c) added-------------------- 8407 40.240
40.62 Revised ---------------------- 5450
(a) amended----------------- 4994 Center heading and Section re
Introductory text and (a) Vised ---------------------- 6523
amended, (b) revised.------- 5630 40.241
40.63
Revised ---------------------- 6524
(b) amended, (c) revised.------ 5630 40.241–1
40.63–1
Redesignated as 40.244–1------ 6524
Deleted ---------------------- 5630
40.242
40.70
Redesignated as 40.243-------- 6524
Revised ---------------------- 5630
40.242
40.90
Added ----------------------- 6524
Revised ---------------------- 5631
40.243
40.110
Amended -------------------- 5631 Redesignated as 40.245-------- 6524
40.115 40.243

(c) amended, (d) and (e) Redesignated from 40.242------ 6524

added --------------------- 5631 40.244
40.125 Added ----------------------- 6525
Revised ---------------------- 5631 40.244–1
40.136 Redesignated from 40.241–1---- 6524
(a) amended----------------- 5631 40.245
40.151 Redesignated from 40.243------ 6524
Amended -------------------- 5631 40.246
40.154 Added ----------------------- 6525
Added ----------------------- 5631 40.260
40.155 (a) revised------------------- 5632
Added ----------------------- 5384 40.261
40.170 (a) revised.------------------- 5632
(c) (1) amended-------------- 53.84
40.282
Revised ---------------------- 5631
40.173
(b) (1) (ii) revised.------------- 4994
40.302
(a), (c) and (e) revised.------- 5631
40.174
(a) revised, (b) (1) amended,
(b) (2) revised.-------------- 5632
Revised ---------------------- 5631
40.302–1
40.176
Revised ---------------------- 5632 (j) and (V) amended---------- 4994
40.177
Deleted ---------------------- 5633
40.307
Revised ---------------------- 5632
40.179 Amended -------------------- 5633
Added ----------------------- 5632 40.310
40.200 (b) amended----------------- 5633
Introductory text amended.---- 5632 40.353
40.201 Amended -------------------- 5633
Introductory text amended---- 5632 40.357
40.202 Deleted ---------------------- 5633
(a), (b) (1) and (2), and (c) 40.357
(1), (2) and (3) annended--- 5632 Redesignated from 40.358; (b)
40.204 revised -------------------- 5633
(a) and (b) amended---------- 5632 40.358
40.206 Redesignated as 40.357; (b) re
Revised ---------------------- 5632 Vised ---------------------- 5633
(a) (5) added----------------- 5942 40.358
Effective date of (a) (5) post Redesignated from 40.359;
poned --------------------- 14875 amended.------------------- 5633

01
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
- 29 F.R. - 29 F.R.
14 CFR-Continued Page 14 CFR-Continued Page
40.359 41.170
R e de S 1 g n a t e d as 40.358; (c) (1) amended-------------- 5386
amended ------------------- 5633 41.206
40.359 (a) (5) added----------------- 5942
Added ----------------------- 5633 Effective date of (a) (5) post
40.360 poned --------------------- 14875
(c) revised.------------------- 5633 41.212
40.361 Added ----------------------- 8404
Amended -------------------- 5633 41.240
40.363 Revised ---------------------- 5450
(b) amended----------------- 4994 Center heading and section re
(b) (2) deleted; (d) amended-- 5633 Vised ---------------------- 6525
40.365 41.241
Introductory text of (a) and (a) Revised ---------------------- 6525
(2) and (3) revised.--------- 5633 41.242
40.370 Redesignated as 41.243-------- 6526
Amended -------------------- 5633 41.242
40.372 Added ----------------------- 6526
Added ----------------------- 5633 41.243
40.373 Redesignated as 41.245-------- 6526
Added ----------------------- 6003 41.243
40.382 Redesignated from 41.242----- 6526
Amended -------------------- 5634 41.244
40.388 Added ----------------------- 6526
(a) amended----------------- 4994 41.245
(a) amended----------------- 5634 Redesignated from 41.243----- 6526
40.390 41.246
Revised ---------------------- 5634 Added ----------------------- 6526
40.391 41.282
(b) revised------------------- 5634 (b) (1) (ii) revised------------- 4995
40.395 41.363
Revised ---------------------- 5634 (b) amended----------------- 4995
40.397 41.373
Amended -------------------- 5634 Added ----------------------- 6004
40.407 41.388
Added ----------------------- 5634 (a) amended----------------- 4995.
40.408 41.511
(b) amended----------------- 5634 Revised ---------------------- 6526
40.501 42
Revised ---------------------- 5634 Appendix C added------------ 8407
40.502 Deleted; Superseded by Part 121
Amended -------------------- 5634 [New] --------------------- 19188
40.510 42.1
Revised ---------------------- 5634 (a)(4) amended-------------- 603
40.511 42.29
Revised ---------------------- 6525 Amended -------------------- 430
40.511–1 42.61
Deleted ---------------------- 6525 (c) revised.------------------- 430
40.512 (b) revised; (d) added-------- 8407
Amended -------------------- 5634 42.62
41 (a) amended----------------- 4996
Deleted; Superseded by Part 121 42.90
[New] --------------------- 19188 Amended -------------------- 430
41.61 42.92
(c) added-------------------- 8407 (b) (3) amended-------------- 430
41.62 42.155
(a) amended----------------- 4995 Added ----------------------- 5387
41.155 42.170
Added ----------------------- 5385 (c) (1) amended-------------- 5387

702
 List of CFR Sections Affected

- 29 F.R. 29 F.B.
14 CFR-Continued Page -
14 CFR-Continued-
Page
42.175 46.240
Amended -------------------- 430 Revised ---------------------- 5450
42.206 Center heading and section re
(a) (5) added----------------- 5942 vised ---------------------- 6528
Effective date of (a) (5) post 46.241
Poned --------------------- 14875 Revised ---------------------- 6528
42.212 46.242
Added ----------------------- 8404 Redesignated as 46.243-------- 6523
42.240 46.242
Revised ---------------------- 5450 Added ----------------------- 6528
Center heading and section re 46.243
vised ---------------------- 6526
Redesignated as 46.245-------- 6523
42.241
46.243
Revised ---------------------- 6526
42.242 Redesignated from 46.242----- 6528
46.244
Redesignated as 42.243-------- 6527
42.242 Added ----------------------- 6529
46.245
Added ----------------------- 6527
42.243 Redesignated from 46.243------ 652%
Redesignated as 42.245--------- 6527 46.246
42.243 Added ----------------------- 6529
Redesignated from 42.242------ 6527 46.511
42.244 Revised ---------------------- 6522
Added ----------------------- 6527 47
42.245 Rescinded ------------ ----- 2991
Redesignated from 42.243------ 6527 47 [New I
42.246 Added ----------------------- 6484
Added ----------------------- 6527 47.17 [New J
42.282 (a) (5) amended-------------- 9369
(b) (1) (ii) revised.------------- 4996 47.33 [New J
42.300 (b) amended----------------- 9369
(a) amended----------------- 430 49 [New J
42.322 Added ----------------------- 6484
(c), (d), and (e) redesignated
as (d), (e), and (f); (c) 1965
added --------------------- 2999 30 F.R.
(c) (1) amended-------------- 16969 14 CFR Page
42.363 Special Civil Air Regulations re
(b) amended----------------- 4996 Voked --------------------- 535
42.373 1.1
Added ----------------------- 6004 Effective date of amendment--- 535
42.388 Amended -------------------- 3638.
(a) amended----------------- 4996 Amended -------------------- 825?
42.396 13.3
(a) (2) and (b) (2) amended--- 430 (b) amended----------------- 12024
42.511 13.13
Revised ---------------------- 6527 Amended -------------------- 12024
42a 13.15
Rescinded ------------------- 2991 (b) and (c) amended--------- 12024
43 [New J 13.17
Added ----------------------- 5451 (a), (c), (d), introductory text
SR 10------------------------ 14981 of (e), and (e) (3) amended-- 12024
44 13.19
Peleted ---------------------- 1720 (c) amended----------------- 12025
45 [New I 13.21
Added ----------------------- 3223 Amended -------------------- 12025
46 13.35
Superseded by Part 127 (New1- 11708 (b) amended ---------------- 12025

703
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
- 30 F.R. - 80 F.R.
14 CFR-Continued Page 14 CFR-Continued Page
13.37 23.1563
(d) through (j) redesignated as (a)(2) amended; (a) (3) de
(e) through (k) respectively; leted; (a)(4) redesignated as
new (d) added-------------- 7223 (3); (b) (2) amended; (b) (3)
13.41 deleted; (b) (4) redesignated
(b) amended ----------------- 7223 as (3)---------------------- 14240
13.49 23.1585
(a) amended; (b) through (g) (c) added-------------------- 14240
redesignated as (c) through 25
(h) respectively; new (b) Appendix D added------------ 6067
added --------------------- 7223 Appendix E added.------------ 8468
13.57 25.21
(b) amended----------------- 12025 (e) added-------------------- 13117
13.59 25.25 -

(a) amended----------------- 7224 (a)(3) revised.---------------- 8468

13.61 25.59
Amended -------------------- 7224 (c) added-------------------- 8468
13.65 25.111
Peleted ---------------------- 7224 (e) added-------------------- 8468
13.67 25.171
Heading and (a) revised.------- 7224 Amended -------------------- 13117
21 25.173
Subpart L. added-------------- 8465 Revised ---------------------- 13117
Subpart J revised.------------- 11375 25.175
Subpart M added------------- 11379 (a) amended; (b) revised; (c)
21.1 and (d) amended----------- 13117
(a) (1) and (b) revised.-------- 8465 25.201
(a) (2) and (3) amended; (a) (c) (2) revised.---------------- 13117
(4) deleted----------------- 11379 25.207
21.77 (c) amended----------------- 13118
(b) revised.------------------- 14311 25.771
21.99 (e) deleted; (f) redesignated as
Heading revised.-------------- 8826 (e) ------------------------ 6113
21.181 25.803
(a) revised.------------------- 8033 (c) revoked------------------- 3204
21.189 25.809
(c) deleted.------------------- 9437 (f) revised.-------------------- 3203
21.231–21.293 25.811
Subpart J revised.------------- 11375 Revised ---------------------- 3204
21.321–21.339 25.813
Subpart L. added-------------- 8465 Revised ---------------------- 3204
21.431–21.493 25.1325
Subpart M added------------- 11379 Heading, (b) and (c) revised;
21.435 (f) added------------------ 8261
(a) corrected.----------------- 11849 25.1457
23 (a), (b), (c) (3) and (4), and
Appendix E added.------------ 8468 (g) revised.----------------- S932
23.25 25.1523
(a) (1) (iii) revised.------------ 8468 Closing sentence added-------- 6067
23.205 29.67
Revised ---------------------- 14240 (a) (2) (i), (a) (3) (i) and (b)
23.365 revised -------------------- 8778
(d) corrected.----------------- 258 29.79
23.427 (b) (1) revised.---------------- 8778
Corrected -------------------- 258 29.923
23.1325 (a), (b) and (f) revised; (k),
Revised ---------------------- 8261 (l) and (m) redesignated as
23.1545 (l), (m) and (n) respectively;
(b) (5) added----------------- 14240 new (k) added-------------- 8778

704
 List of CFR Sections Affected

30 F.R.
14 CFR-Continued 30 #: 14 CFR-Continued -

29.1045
(c) revised.-------------------
29.1047
(a) (3) and (4) revised.-------
29.1521
(f) and (g) added.------------
31.25
(c) amended------------------
31.45
Amended --------------------
31.47
(c) through (f) added.---------
31.49
(d) and (e) added------------
31.55
Revised ----------------------
31.61
Added -----------------------
31.63
Added -----------------------
31.65
Added -----------------------
31.85
Added -----------------------
33
Effective date-----------------
35
Effective date-----------------
37.127
Revised ---------------------- 13209
37.132
(b) amended----------------- 13210
37.134
(b) (1) amended-------------- 13210
37.140
Heading amended------------- 13210
37.141
(b) amended----------------- 13210
37.142
(b) amended----------------- 13210
37.143
Revised ---------------------- 13210
37.144
(b) amended----------------- 13211
37.145
Heading and (b) amended----- 13211
37.146
(b) amended----------------- 13211
37.147
(b) amended----------------- 13211
37.152
(b) (2) amended-------------- 13211
37.154
In troduct or y text of (b)
amended ------------------ 13211
37.168
Revised ---------------------- 8263
37.171
Revised ---------------------- 7637
Page
37.192
8778 Added ----------------------- 13211
37.193
8778 Added ----------------------- 13211
37.194
8778 Added ----------------------- 13212
37.195
3377 Added ----------------------- 15548
39.1
3377 (a) revised.------------------- 8826
39.13
3377 Amended -------------------- 81,
82 (2 docs.), 572–573 (3 docs.),
3377 828 (2 docs.), 881, 1032 (2 docs.),
1188, 1239, 1975, 2103, 2133–2134
3377 (5 docs.), 2256, 2438 (2 docs.),
2655, 2761, 2855, 2924, 3349, 3350,
3377 3377, 3421, 3515, 3759,4240, 4319,
4533, 4609, 5506, 5622 (2 docs.),
3377 5827, 5897 (2 docs.), 6068, 6150,
6431, 6577, 6639, 6640, 6837, 6838,
3377 6940, 6976 (2 docs.), 6977, 7098,
7182 (2 docs.), 7276, 7371, 7372,
3377 7638 (2 docs.), 7701, 7816 (2
docs.), 7876–7877 (3 docs.), 7993,
535 8033—8034 (4 docs.), 8156, 8203
(5 docs.), 8264, 8328–8330 (4
535 docs.), 8407, 8470, 8607, 8963,
9260, 9536–9537 (3 docs.), 9624,
10154, 10155, 10284–10285 (3
docs.), 10948, 10982–10983 (5
docs.), 11029–11030 (5 docs.),
11169, 11272, 11313, 11347–11348
(3 docs.), 11669, 11670, 11752,
11849, 12120, 12331–12332 (4
docs.), 12385, 12464, 12465, 12837,
13006 (2 docs.), 13312, 13358,
13811, 13948, 14043, 14151, 14152,
14366, 14423, 14648 (2 docs.),
14649, 14781, 14967, 15209, 15362,
15363 (4 docs.), 15418, 15566,
15783, 16070, 16104.
43
Appendix E added.------------ 8262
SFAR 10 amended------------ 13781
43.9
Heading, (a), (b), and (c)
amended ------------------ 3638
47.69
(d) (2) revised; (d) (3) deleted- 1283
1966
31 F.R.
14 CFR Page
Amended -------------------- 3337
Subchapter O added---------- 5104
Amended -------------------- 9211
1.1
Introductory text revised.------ 5055

705
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
- 31 F.R.
14 CFR-Continued
1.2
Introductory text revised.------
1.3
Introductory text of (a) and of
(b) revised-----------------
11
Subpart C heading revised.----- 13697
Subpart E added-------------- 13697
11.11
Amended -------------------- 13697
11.15
Amended -------------------- 11091
11.25
(a) amended----------------- 11091
11.41—11.55
Subpart C heading revised.----- 13697
11.41
(a) amended-----------------
(b) revised.-------------------
11.47
(a) amended-----------------
11.61
(c) amended-----------------
11.81–11.93
Subpart E added-------------- 13697
13.11
Revised ----------------------
21.73
(b) redesignated as (c); new (b)
added --------------------- 13388
21.75
Amended -------------------- 13388
21.83
(a) amended ----------------- 9211
Revised ---------------------- 13388
21.85
(d) (3) revised; (e) amended--- 92.11
Revised ---------------------- 13388
21.223
(a) (2) and (f) amended------- 13389
21.225
(a) (2) and (e) amended------- 13389
21.329
(c) revised; (e) deleted; (f) and
(g) redesignated as (e) and
(f), respectively------------
(c) amended-----------------
21.337
(d), (e) and (f) added--------
21.339
Revised ---------------------- 12565
25.571
(a) revised; (d) added.--------- 11934
25.809
(f) revised.-------------------
25.1459
Added -----------------------
37.149
Revised ----------------------
- 81 F.R.
Page 14 CFR-Continued Page
37.150
5055 Revised ----------------------- 127
37.178
Revised ---------------------- 12942
5055 39.13
Amended -------------------- 82
(2 docs.), 129 (2 docs.), 249, 288,
475, 693, 1002, 1144, 1175, 1267
(2 docs.), 2422 (2 docS.), 2649,
2650, 2681, 2887, 2927, 3015, 3063–
3064 (4 docs.), 3388 (2 docs.),
3449–3450 (3 docs.), 4283 (3
docs.), 4447, 4493–4494 (3 docs.),
4771, 4836–4837 (4 docs.), 5482
(2) docs.), 5548, 5660, 5823, 6015,
6201, 6296 (2 docs.), 6353, 6582,
6790 (2 docs.), 6959, 7031, 7111
11091 7112 (3 docs.), 7170 (3 docs.),
13697 7279, 7351, 7676, 7736, 7881–7882
(3 docs.), 8045, 8046, 8417, 8.746,
11091 8870 (2 docs.), 9000, 9046 (2
docs.), 9109, 93.99 (2 docs.), 9446,
11091 96.75, 9793, 10023 (2 docs.), 100.73–
10074 (3 docs.), 10248, 10357,
10466–10467 (3 docs.), 10631,
10769 (2 docs.), 10957–10958 (3
8353 docs.), 11091, 11593, 11594, 11641,
11714–11715 (5 docs.), 11973,
12083 (2 docs.), 12515, 12516,
12597, 12921, 13167, 13521, 13752,
13912, 13985–13987 (4 docs.),
14312 (3 docs.), 14391–14392 (4
docs.), 14545–14547 (4 docs.),
14771, 14827, 14880, 15014, 15191,
15634 (2 docs.), 16125–16126 (4
docs.), 16264–16265 (3 docs.),
16311 (2 docs.), 16347, 16407.
16604–16607 (5 docs.).
43
Appendices C and D amended-- 3336
43.3
(d) and (i) amended---------- 3336
(i) revised.------------------- 5249
43.9
Heading and (c) amended----- 3336
43.11
2421
3336
Heading, introductory text of
(a) , (a) (4) and (5), and (b)
amended ------------------ 3336
2421 43.15
Heading, (a), (b), introductory
text of (c), and (c) (1) and
(2) amended--------------- 3336
43.17
8912 Added ----------------------- 5949
45.21
127 (e)(2) deleted.---------------- 1268
45.25
99.78 Revised ---------------------- 98.63
706
 List of CFR Sections Affected

- 31 F.R. - 32 F.R.
14 CFR-Continued Page 14 CFR-Confinued Page
45.29 13.1, 13.3
(a) revised; (f) added--------- 98.63 Subpart A heading revised----- 7585
47 13.11
Revised --------------------- 4495 Designated as new Subpart B
47.13 and revised; Subpart B head
(g) revised.------------------- 15349 ing revised----------------- 7585
47.15 13.13
(a revised------------------- 13314 Peleted ---------------------- 7585
47.33 13.15—13.23
(c) corrected----------------- 5483 Designated as new Subpart C:
47.41 heading added-------------- 7585
(b) (3) corrected.-------------- 5483 13.19
47.43 (d) amended----------------- 5769
(a)(4) corrected.-------------- 5483 (c) amended----------------- 7585
49.11 13.31—13.67
Revised ---------------------- 4498 Subpart C redesignated as Sub
49.13 Part P--------------------- 7585
Revised ---------------------- 4499 13.59
(d) revised------------------- 15349 (a). amended----------------- 5769
49.15 13.67
(b) amended----------------- 4499 (c) amended----------------- 5769
49.17 (*) revised.------------------- 7585
(b) and (c) revised; (d) (1), 21.16
(2), and (3) amended; (e) (1) Added ----------------------- 17850
revised; (e) (3) amended---- 4499 21.17
49.21 (a) revised.------------------- 13262
Amended -------------------- 4499 (a) revised.------------------- 17851
49.33 21.21
(b) amended; (c) revised.------ 4499 (b)(2) amended-------------- 3735
49.55 In troduct or y text of (b)
(a) amended----------------- 4499 amended ------------------ 17851
21.33
1967 (*) revised------------------- 14926
32 F.R. 21.49
14 CFR Page
Amended -------------------- 5769
Amended -------------------- 5769 21.53
Subchapter N added.---------- 20843 Kevised ---------------------- 14926
1.1 21.101
Amended -------------------- 3735, (a) revised------------------- 13262
5769, 6905, 9641, 10250, 13910 (b) revised.------------------- 17851
1.2 21.115
Amended -------------------- 5769 Revised ---------------------- 14927
Amended -------------------- 6905 21.128
Amended -------------------- 13910 (a) (1) and (2) amended------- 3735
11.25 21.130
(b) (2) amended-------------- 6390 Revised ---------------------- 14927
11.35 21.182
(a) and (b) amended--------- 5769 Added ----------------------- 188
11.37 21. 183
(b) amended----------------- 6390 Revised ---------------------- I4927
11.41 21.273
(a) amended----------------- 6390 (a) amended----------------- 15472
11.55 21.325
(b), (c), (d) amended--------- 5770 (b)(1) revised.---------------- 2999
13 23.3
Subpart A heading revised; (a) and (b) revised.----------- 5984
Subpart C redesignated as 23.859
Subpart D; Subpart B re (b) revised.------------------- 6912
designated as Subparts B and 23.11.83
C ------------------------- 7585 (b) (1) revised.---------------- 6912
A
()7
4.
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
- 32 F.R.
14 CFR-Continued *; 14 CFR-Continued -

Page
23.1325 25.981
(b) (2) and (3) revised.--------- 7586 Added ----------------------- 6913
(b) (2) (ii) corrected.----- 13505, 13714 25.993
23.1585 (f) added-------------------- 13266
(d) added-------------------- 6912 25.1041
25 Revised ---------------------- 6913
Appendix F added------------ 13266 25.1141
25.2 (e) added-------------------- 6913
Added ----------------------- 13262 25.1153
(b) corrected.----------------- 13635 (b) revised------------------- 6913
25.721 25.1155
(d) added-------------------- 13262 Revised ---------------------- 6913
25.783 25.1181
(g) added-------------------- 13262 (c) deleted------------------- 6913
25.785 25.1182
(c) revised------------------- 13262 Added ----------------------- 6913
25.803 25.11.83
(b) revised; (c), (d), and (e) (b) (1) revised---------------- 6913
added --------------------- 13262 25.1305
25.807 -
(x) added-------------------- 6913
(a) and (c) revised.----------- 13263
25.1325
(d) revised.------------------- 13264
(c) (2) revised.---------------- 7587
25.809
25.1359
(f) revised; (h) added-------- 13264
(c) added-------------------- 13266
25.811
25.1435
Revised ---------------------- 13264
Revised ---------------------- 9154
25.812
25.1457
Added----------------------- 13265
(d) (2) revised.---------------- 13914
25.813
25.1585
(a), (b), and (c) revised.------- 13265 (b) added-------------------- 6913
25.815
27.859
Revised ---------------------- 13265
(c) (2) revised.---------------- 6914
25.817
27.939
Added ----------------------- 13265
Added ----------------------- 6914
25.853
27.955
Introductory text, (a), and (b)
(b) revised.------------------- 6914
revised -------------------- 13265
27.1183
25.855
(b) (1) revised.---------------- 6914
(a) revised.------------------- 13266
27.1585
25.859
(e) (1) revised.---------------- 6912 Revised ---------------------- 6914
25.933 29.859
(d) added-------------------- 6912 (e) (1) revised---------------- 6914
29.939
25.939
Revised ---------------------- 6912 Added ----------------------- 6914
25.954 29.955
Added ----------------------- 11629 (b) revised.------------------- 6914
25.955 29.11.83
(b) revised.------------------- 6912 (b) (1) revised---------------- 6914
25.961 29.1585
Revised ---------------------- 6912 Revised ---------------------- 6914
25.965 33.7
(b) (3) (1) revised.------------- 6913 Revised ---------------------- 3736
25.969 33.8
Revised ---------------------- 6913 Added ----------------------- 3736
25.977 33.17
Revised ---------------------- 6913 (b) amended----------------- 3736
25.979 33.23
Revised ---------------------- 6913 Revised ---------------------- 3736

708
 List of CFR Sections Affected

14 CFR-Continued º, 14 CFR-Continued *:::

33.43
Amended -------------------- 3736
33.49
Revised ---------------------- 3736
33.51
Amended -------------------- 3737
33.73
Amended -------------------- 3737
33.87
(b) (1), (2), (3), and (5), (c)
(1), (2), (3), (5), and (7),
and (d) (1) and (3) amended- 3737
33.95
(b), (c), and (d) amended.---- 3737
33.97
(b) amended----------------- 3737
35.23
Added ----------------------- 3737
35.35
Amended -------------------- 3737
35.37
Revised ---------------------- 3737
35.39
(a) (2) and (3) and introduc
tory text of (c) and (c) (1)
amended ------------------ 3737
37.111
Revised ---------------------- 3142
37.113
Revised ---------------------- 12109
37.158
Revised ---------------------- 14690
37.159
Revised ---------------------- 14686
37.175
(a)(1) amended-------------- 13266
37.180
Revised ---------------------- 191
37.184
Added ----------------------- 129
37.197
Added ----------------------- 124
37.198
Added -----------------------
130
39.13
Amended ------------- 5–6 (3 docs.),
260, 409, 486 (2 docs.), 608, 654,
655, 854, 2438–2440 (3 docs.),
2775, 2807, 3048, 3091, 3218, 3291.
(2 docs.), 3386–3387 (4 docs.),
3437 (2 docs.), 3690, 3691, 3738,
3764, 3882, 3937 (2 docs.), 3971
(2 docs.), 4306–4307 (3 docs.),
4491, 4529, 4577, 5366 (3 docs.),
5463, 5464, 5496, (3 docs.), 5543–
5545 (5 docs.), 5676, 5731, 5732,
5771. 5830, 5922, 5984–5985 (4
39.13, Amended—Continued
docs.), 6022, 6091, 6185 (2 docs.),
6344, 6553, 6674–6675 (3 docs.).
6914, 6968, 6969, 7051, 7124 (2
docs.), 7205 (2 docs), 7247–7248
(4 docs.), 7391, 7443 (2 docs.).
7704, 7749, 7817-7818 (4 docs.),
7948, 8024, 8079, 8295.8357, 8579.
8708, 8891, 8957, 9155, 9219 (2
docs.), 9641, 10061, 10345, 10642
(4 docs.), 10721, 10784 (2 docs.),
10928, 11074, 11154 (2 docs.),
11209, 11314, 11380–11381 (5.
docs.), 11630, 11704, 11849 (2.
docs.), 12050, 12110, 12387,
12668, 12711, 12746, 12788, 12789,
12909–12911 (5 docs.), 13115,
13182–13183 (3 docs.), 13269 (2
docs.), 13321, 13453, 13760,
13857 (2 docs.), 14061, 14151,
14311, 14647 (3 docs.), 14756–
14757 (4 docs.), 14890, 14927,
15094, 15153, 15154, 15390, 15421
(2 docs.), 15472, 15523, 15579,
15635 (2 docs.), 15809, 15873,
15874, 16201 (3 docs.), 16251,
16391, 16481 (2 docs.), 17426,
17515, 17516, 17652–17653 (3.
docs.), 17927, 20842, 20946 (2
docs.), 21029–21031 (5 docs.)
43
Appendix E amended.---------- 7.587
45.1
(*) revised------------------- 188
45.11
Revised ---------------------- 188
45.13
Revised ---------------------- 188
45.21
(b)(1) amended-------------- 12556
47.13
(a), (d) (3) (1), and (e) (3) re
vised ---------------------- 6554
47.15
Introductory text of (a)
amended ------------------ 12556
Introductory text of (a) revised- 13505
47.16
Added ----------------------- 12556
47.19
Revised --------------------- 6554
Amended -------------------- 13505
47.47
(b) revised; (c) added.-------- 6554
47.69
(b) revised.------------------- 12556
49.11
Revised ---------------------- 6554
Amended -------------------- 13505

39–059–75—46 700
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
1968
33 F.R.
14 CFR-Continued *;
14 CFR Page 25.1185
Subchapter O added----------- 8267 (a) revised------------------- 15410
25.1359
Subchapter G heading revised- 12888
SFAR 21--------------------- 14103 (c) revised.------------------- 9066
1.2 27.27
Amended -------------------- 962 Revised ---------------------- 962
11.15 27.33
Amended -------------------- 17850 (b) and (c) revised; (d) added.-- 962
11.55 27.141
(b), (c) and (e) amended.----- 972 (b) revised------------------- 962
13.3 27.143
(b) amended----------------- 14401 (b) (1), (c), and (d) revised.---- 963
13.15 27.173
(b) and (c) anended---------- 14401 (b) revised.------------------- 963
13.17 27.175
(d) amended----------------- 14401 (d) (2) revised.---------------- 963
13.19 27.307
(c) amended----------------- 14401 (a) revised------------------- 14105
13.21 27.401
Amended -------------------- 14401 (c) deleted------------------- 14105
13.35 27.473
(b) amended----------------- 14401 Revised --------------------- 963
21.50 27.501
Added ----------------------- 14105 (c) (2) revised.---------------- 963
21.173 27.547
Revised ---------------------- 6858 (b) deleted.------------------- 14105
21. 175 27.549
Revised ---------------------- 6858 (e) deleted.------------------- 14105
21.181 27.571
Revised ---------------------- 6858 Center heading and section
21.183 added --------------------- 14105
(d) (2) revised.---------------- 3055 27.607
21.191 Revised ---------------------- 14533
Revised ---------------------- 6858 27.653–27.661
21.195 Center heading and sections
Revised ---------------------- 6858 revised -------------------- 963
21.197 27.663
(a) revised.------------------- 6859 Added ----------------------- 963
(c) added-------------------- 11901 27.751
21.199 (b) revised------------------- 963
(a) revised.------------------- 6859 27.807
Introductory text of (a) revised- 11901 (a) revised------------------- 963
25.2 27,901
Introductory text, amended; (a) (b) (4) added----------------- 963
revised -------------------- 9066 27.923
25.343
(i) added-------------------- 963
(a) amended----------------- 12226
27,927
25.803
Revised ---------------------- 963
Introductory text of (c)
27,991
amended ------------------ 9066
25.813
(b) revised.------------------- 964
(c) amended----------------- 9066 27.993
25.853 (d) and (e) revised.----------- 964
Introductory text, (a), and (b) 27.1041
revised -------------------- 9066 (a) revised.------------------- 964
25,1001 27.1091
Revised --------------------- 12226 (e) added-------------------- 964
25.1013 27.1163
(a) amended----------------- 15410 Revised ---------------------- 964

710
 List of CFR Sections Affected

14 CFR-Continued *::: 14 CFR-Continued *;

27.1185 29.519
(a) and (b) revised.----------- 964 Added ----------------------- 966
27.1189 29.521
(a)(2) revised.---------------- 964 Revised --------------------- 967
27.1.191 29.547
(a) revised.------------------- 964 (b) deleted.------------------- 14106
27.1.194 29.549
Added ----------------------- 964 (e) added-------------------- 967
27.1322 (d) deleted------------------- 14106
Added ----------------------- 964. 29.571 -

27.1323 Center heading and section

(a) and (b) (2) revised.-------- 964 added --------------------- 14106
27.1399 29.607
(a)(1) revised --------------- 964 Revised ---------------------- 14533
27.1461 29.653—29.661
Added ----------------------- 964 Center heading and sections
27.1505 revised -------------------- 967
(b) revised.------------------- 964 29.663
27.1519 Added ----------------------- 967
Revised --------------------- 965 29.725
27.1529 (a) revised ------------------ 967
Revised ---------------------- 14106. 29.751
27.1559 (b) revised.------------------- 967
Revised ---------------------- 14106. 29.755
27.1565 Revised ---------------------- 967
Revised --------------------- 965 29.757
27. 1583 Added ----------------------- 967
(c) revised.------------------- 965 29.771
29.27 (e) and (f) deleted.------------ 967
Revised --------------------- 965 29.773
29.33 (b)(2) revised.---------------- 967
(b) and (c) revised; (d) added- 965 29.803
29.67 (c) added-------------------- 967
(a)(2) revised.---------------- 965 29.805
29.73 Revised ---------------------- 968
(b) (2) revised.---------------- 965 29.807
29.75 Revised ---------------------- 968
(b) (5) amended; (b) (6) de- 29.809
leted; introductory text of (c) Revised ---------------------- 968
(1) and (c) (2) (ii) revised.--- 965 29.811
29.141 Revised ---------------------- 968
(b) revised ------------------ 965 29.853
29.143 (f) revised.------------------- 969
(b) (1), and (c), and (d) revised 965 29.855
29.173 (d) revised; (e) added.--------- 969
(b) revised------------------- 965 29.901
29.175 (b) (5) added----------------- 969
(d) (2) revised.---------------- 966. 29.903
29.307 Introductory text of (c) re
(a) revised.------------------- 14106 Vised ---------------------- 969
29.401 29,927
(c) deleted------------------- 14106 Revised ---------------------- 969
29.473 29.991
Revised --------------------- 966 (b) and (c) revised.----------- 969
29.501 29.997
Added ----------------------- 966 (e) added-------------------- 969
29.511 29.1041
Added ----------------------- 966 (a) revised.------------------- 969

711
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space

14 CFR-Continued - 33 F.R.
Page 14 CFR-Continued *;
29.1091 39.13, Amended—Continued
(d) revised; (f) added.--------- 969 docs.), 3621,4249, 4366,4794–4795 (4
29.1093 docs.), 4919, 5035 (2 docS.), 5140–
Revised ---------------------- 969 5141 (3 docs.), 5255, 5449, 5534, 5580,
29.1121 5614–5615 (4 docs.), 5747, 5748, 5867
(h) added-------------------- 970 (2 docs.), 5998 (3 docs.), 6083 (2
29.1163 docs.), 6286, 6531, 6855–6856 (3
(d) added-------------------- 970 docs), 7019, 7073 (2 docs.), 7110 (2
29.1181 docs.), 7298, 7486 (2 docs.), 7566,
Revised ---------------------- 970 7751 (2 docs.), 7874, 8336 (2 docs.),
29.11.89 - 8537, 8590, 8591, 8731, 8809, 9253 (2
(a) revised.------------------- 970 docs.), 9598, 9599, 9706, 9810, 9874,
29.1.191 9875, 10134, 10280, 10389 (2 docs.),
(a) revised.------------------- 970 10644, 10798, 11114, 11261, 11535–
29.1.193 11536 (3 docs.), 11592 (2 docs.),
(e) (3) revised.---------------- 970 11646, 11714, 11745–11746 (3 docs.),
29.1.194 11975–11976 (3 docs.), 12085, 12135,
Added ----------------------- 970 12178, 12227, 12303, 12304, 12542 (2
29.11.95 docs.), 12620, 12823 (2 docs.), 12887
(a) revised.------------------- 970 (2 docS.), 12961 (2 docs.), 13002,
29.1203 14401, 14402, 14534 (2 docs.), 14636,
(a) revised.------------------- 970 14777–14778 (3 docs.), 14861, 14943,
29.1305 15200, 15245, 15411 (2 docs.), 15543,
(a) revised.------------------- 970 15588, 15647, 15704, 15858, 15859,
29.1322 15988, 16386, 16441, 16493, 16555,
Added ----------------------- 970 17099–17100 (4 docs.), 17232, 17895,
29.1323 18134 (2 docs.), 18259, 18367, 18433,
(b) (2), (c), and (d) revised.---- 970 18695, 18927–18928 (3 docs.), 18981,
29.1325 18982, 19164, 19898
(e) revised------------------- 971 43
29.1461 Appendix B amended---------- 15989
Added ----------------------- 971 43.15
29.1505 Heading and (a) revised.------- 12888
(b) revised.------------------- 971 43.16
29.1521 Added ----------------------- 14107
(b) and (c) revised.------------ 971 43.17
29.1529 Revised ---------------------- 15988
Revised ---------------------- 14106 Introductory text of (a) cor
29.1557 rected --------------------- 16273
(d) revised------------------- 971 45.11
Corrected -------------------- 4729 (a) amended----------------- 14402
29.1559 45.14
Revised ---------------------- 14107 Added ----------------------- 14107
45.21
29.1565
Revised ---------------------- 6235 Revised ---------------------- 450
29.1583 45.22
(c) revised.------------------- 971 Added ----------------------- 450
87.145 45.23
Corrected -------------------- 6812 Revised ---------------------- 450
37.159 47.31
Revised ---------------------- 971 (b) revised; (c) added.-------- 11257
39.13
Amended -------------------- 10, 1969
256–257 (5 docs.), 403, 565 (2 docs.), 34 F.R.
626, 1069, 1070, 2503, 2504, 2626 (2
14 CFR Page
docs.), 2709 (2 docs.), 2886 (2 docs.), 21
2934, 2990, 3168, 3371, 3372, 3425 (2 Subpart N added-------------- 14068

712
 List of CFR Sections Affected

- 34 F.R. - 34 F.R.
14 CFR-Continued Page 14 CFR-Continued Page
21.13 23.75
Revised ---------------------- 14068 Introductory text of (a) and
21.17 (a) (1)amended; (a)(4)
Introductory text of (a) added --------------------- 13086
amended, (b) revised; (c) 23.77
redesignated as (d); new (c) Introductory text of (b)
added --------------------- 364 amended ------------------ 13086
In tro du c to r y text of (a) 23.141
amended ------------------ 18363 Revised ---------------------- 13086
21.21 23.145
Introductory text of (b) and (a) (2), (b) (1), (4), and (6),
(b)(1) revised-------------- 18363 and introductory text of (d)
21.29 amended ------------------ 13086
(a) revised------------------- 364 23.149
Introductory text of (a) re (a) (5) added----------------- 13086
vised: (a) (3) added.--------- 14068 23.161
Revised --------------------- 18363 (c) (3), (4), and (5) revised.--- 13086
21.31 23.175
(c) amended----------------- 18363 Revised.----------------------- 13087
21.33 23.20.1
(b) (1) amended-------------- 18363 (c) (2) amended-------------- 13087
21.93 23.207
Revised --------------------- 18363 Revised ---------------------- 13087
21.101 23.221
In troduct or y text of (a) Introductory text of (a)
amended ------------------- 18363 amended; introductory text
21.130 of (c) and (c) (1) revised.--- 13087
Revised ---------------------- 14068 23.253
21.173 Added ----------------------- 13087
Revised ---------------------- 15244 23.333
21.183 (c) and (d) revised.----------- 13087
(c) revised.------------------- 14068 23.335
21.307 Introductory text, (a), and (b)
Peleted ---------------------- 14068 revised -------------------- 13088
21.500, 21.502 23.337
Subpart N added-------------- 14068 (a)(1) amended-------------- 13088
23 23.34.1
SFAR 23--------------------- 189 Revised ---------------------- 13088
Appendices A and B amended-- 13097 23.345
Appendix C amended--------- 13099 (a) (2) and (e) revised.-------- 13088
Appendix A corrected.--------- 14727 23.349
SFAR 23 amended------------ 20176 (a) (1) and (2) amended------- 13088
23.25 23.361
Introductory text of (a), (a) (1), (a) and (b) revised.----------- 13088
and (b) (4) revised.---------- 13086 23.367
23.49 Added ----------------------- 13089
Introductory texts of (a), (b), 23.369
and (c) amended----------- 13086 (a) amended----------------- 13089
23.51 (a) corrected.----------------- 17509
(a)(2) (ii) and (3) amended--- 13086 23.371
23.65 Added ----------------------- 13089
Introductory text of (b) 23.373
amended ------------------ 13086 Added ----------------------- 13089
23.67 23.395
Introductory texts of (a) and Heading revised; (a)(1) and (2)
(b) (1) and (2) amended---- 13086 amended; (c) revised.------- 13089

713
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
84 F.R.
14 CFR-Continued
Page
14 CFR-Continued *:
23.397 23.726
Heading, (a), and (b) amended- 13089 Added ----------------------- 13091
23.415 23.727
(a)(2) amended-------------- 13089 (b) revised.------------------- 13091
23.421 23.729
(b) amended----------------- 13089 (a) (2) and (e) revised; (f)
23.423 added --------------------- 13091
(a) and (b) amended---------- 13089 23.733
23.425 (a) revised.------------------- 13092
(a) (1) and (2), (b), and (d) 23.735
revised -------------------- 13089 Revised ---------------------- 13092
23.441 23.775
(b) amended----------------- 13090 (c) revised; (e) added-------- 13092
23.443 23.777
Revised ---------------------- 13090 (f) added-------------------- 13092
23.455 23.785
(b) revised.------------------- 13090 Closing paragraph of (f) de
23.473
leted; (g) added.------------ 13092
(a), (b), (c), and (g) revised–- 13090 23.807
23.505 (a)(1) revised.---------------- 13092
Revised ---------------------- 13090 23.841
23.5.1.1 (f) revised.-------------------- 13092
Added ----------------------- 13090 23.867
23.561
Center heading and section
(c) (3) and introductory text of added --------------------- 13092
(d) revised.----------------- 13090 23.871
23.572
Revised ---------------------- 13092
Added ----------------------- 13090 23.901
23.611
(b) (1) revised.---------------- 13092
Revised ---------------------- 13090
23.909
23.615
Added ----------------------- 13092
(a) (1) and (2) revised.-------- 13090
23.933
23.617
Added ----------------------- 13092
Deleted ---------------------- 13091
23.937
23.619
Revised ---------------------- 13091 Added ----------------------- 13093
23.623 23.939
Revised ---------------------- 13091 Added ----------------------- 13093
23.625 23.953
(d) added-------------------- 13091 (b)(1) revised.---------------- 13093
23.629 23.954
(a) revised; (b) and (c) redes Added ----------------------- 13093
ignated as (c) and (d), re 23.955
spectively; new (b) and (e) (c) and introductory text of
added --------------------- 13091 (d) revised; (e) and (f)
23.643 added -------------------- 13093
Deleted ---------------------- 13091 23.959
23,677 Revised ---------------------- 13093
Introductory text of (b) revised– 13091 23,967
23.683 (a)(6) added----------------- 13093
(b) (1) revised.---------------- 13091 23.991
23.689 (a) and (b) revised.----------- 13093
(b) revised.------------------- 13091 23.994
23.721 Added ----------------------- 13093
Deleted ---------------------- 13091 23.997
23.725 (d) added-------------------- 13093
Introductory text of (b) and 23.1001
(c) revised.----------------- 13091 Added ----------------------- 13094

714
 List of CFR Sections Affected

- 34 F.R. - 34 F.R.
14 CFR-Continued Page 14 CFR-Continued Page.
23.1017 23.1505
(a) revised.------------------- 13094 (c) added-------------------- 13096
23.1041 23.1527
Revised ---------------------- 13094 Added ----------------------- 13097
23.1043 23.1545
Introductory text of (a) re (d) added-------------------- 13097
vised; (a)(4) deleted; (b) 23.1557
and (c) revised.------------- 13094 (c) (1) revised.---------------- 13097
23.1045 23.1563
Revised ---------------------- 13094 Revised --------------------- 13097
23.1047 23.1583
Revised ---------------------- 13094 (a), (c), and (d) revised; (j)
23.1091 and (k) added-------------- 13097
(b) and (c) revised; (d) and 23.1585
(e) deleted.----------------- 13095 (a) anended; (b) revised.------ 13097
23.1093 23.1587
Revised ---------------------- 13095 (c) (3) added----------------- 13097
23.1103 25.2
(a) revised.------------------- 13095 (a) revised; (b) amended; (c)
23.1111 and (d) added-------------- 5544
Added ----------------------- 13095 25.785
23.11.21 (c) amended----------------- 5544
(g) added-------------------- 13095 25.803
23.1141 (b) and (c) (1) revised.-------- 5544
(e) added-------------------- 13095 36
23.1143 Added ---------------------- 18364
Revised ---------------------- 13095 Appendix C amended--------- 18815
23.1147 Appendix C corrected--------- 19025
Introductory text revised.------ 13096 36.2
23.1155 (a) corrected.----------------- 19025
Added ----------------------- 13096 37.23
23.11.89 Added ----------------------- 9851
Introductory text and (a) 39.13
through (f) redesignated as Amended -------------------- 8.
introductory text of (a) and (2 docs.), 129–130 (3 docs.), 550, 707
(a) (1) through (6); redesig (3 docs.), 811, 1009 (2 docs.), 1369,
nated (a)(2) revised; (b) 1521 (3 docs.), 1633–1634 (3 docs.),
added --------------------- 13096 1769, 2246 (2 docs.), 2416, 3597–3598.
23.1301 (3 docs.), 3738, 4885, 4939–4940 (4
va) revised.------------------- 13096 docs.), 5327 (2 docs.), 5428–5429 (4.
23.1305 docs.), 5545–5546 (3 docs.), 5647,
Revised ---------------------- 13096 6330 (2 docs.), 6375–6376 (3 docs.),
23.1323 6472, 6518, 6519, 6640 (3 docs.), 6729,
Introductory text of (a) 6771, 7006 (4 docs.), 7221, 7371, 7500,
amended ------------------ 13096 7501, 7609, 8157–8158 (4 docs.), 8273,
23.1337 8274, 8701, 9028–9030 (3 docs.), 9157,
(e) deleted.------------------- 13096 9259, 9260, 9330, 9547—9548 (3 docs.),
23.1351 9657, 9705, 9748 (2 docs.), 9852, 9915–
(b) (2), (3), and (4) revised.---- 13096 9916 (4 docs.), 11137, 11415, 11465,
23.1413 12026 (2 docs.), 12085, 12159, 12160,
Heading and (a) revised; (b) 12214, 12256–12257 (5 docs.), 12332.
deleted; (c) redesignated as 12379, 12562–12564 (4 docs.), 12781,
(b) ----------------------- 13096 12942, 12943, 13099–13100 (4 docs.),
23.1435 13265 (2 docs.), 13467 (2 docs.),
(c) revised.------------------- 13096 13697, 13698, 13793 (2 docs.), 13922,
23.1501 13968–13969 (4 docs.), 14025–14027
Introductory te x t of (c) (4 docs.), 14123, 14207–14208 (3
amended ------------------ 13096 docs.), 14280, 14315, 14517, 14640 (2

715
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
e 85 F.R.
14 CFR-Continued *: 14 CFR-Continued Page

39.13, Amended—Continued 21.123

docs.), 14727, 14761, 14884, 14885, (c) revised.------------------- 13008
15290–15292 (4 docs.), 15340, 15341, 21.185
15466–15467 (4 docs.), 15749, 16543, (c) added-------------------- 10202
16860–16861 (3 docs.), 17330, 17509 21.195
(2 docs.), 17755, 18121 (2 docs.), (b) revised.------------------- 2818
18226, 18295–18298 (7 docs.), 18379, 21.251
18921, 19025, 19189–1919.2 (9 docs.), (b) (4) (1) revised.------------- 7292
19498, 19545 (2 docs.), 19595, 19648 23
(2 docs.), 19871, 20177, 20266–20267 SFAR 23 corrected.------------- 1102
(3 docS.), 20417–20418 (3 docs.) 23.1441
43.3 Added ----------------------- 6386
(f) revised------------------- 14424 23.1443
43.7 Added ----------------------- 6386
(e) revised.------------------- 14424 23.1447
43.9
Added ----------------------- 6387
23.1449
(b) revised------------------- 14426
Added ----------------------- 6387
47.15
23.1529
(b) amended----------------- 2480
Added ----------------------- 303
(g) revised.------------------- 12215
25.21
(e) revised.------------------- 5671
1970 25.25
35 F.R.
14 CFR Page (a) revised.------------------- 5671
25.113
1.1
(a) (2) and (b) (2) amended--- 5671
Amended ---------------- 5671, 7784
25.145
Amended -------------------- 14610
(b) (6) and (c) revised.-------- 5671
1.2
25.161
Amended -------------------- 13115
(c) (2) amended-------------- 5671
13
25.233
Subpart D heading revised.----- 5465
(a) amended----------------- 5671
13.3
25.237
(b) amended----------------- 2579
(a) and (b) (1) revised.-------- 5671
13.19
25.251
(a), (b), introductory and clos (c) revised; (d) and (e) added- 5671
ing texts of (c), and (d)
25.253
amended ------------------ 2579
(c) revised.------------------- 5465 Introductory text of (a)(2)
amended ------------------ 5671
13.31—13.67
5465 25.301
Subpart D heading revised.----
(b) amended----------------- 5672
13.35
25.303
(b) amended----------------- 2580
Revised ---------------------- 5672
(b) amended----------------- 5465
25.305
13.67
Revised --------------------- 2580 (b) revised; (d) added-------- 5672
25.307
(a) deleted; (c) amended; (e)
deleted -------------------- 5465 (d) added-------------------- 5672
15
25.321
Rescinded ------------------- 12708 (b) (2) amended-------------- 5672
21 25.331
SFAR 26 added--------------- 12749 (a) (2) and (3) revised.-------- 5672
25.335
21.3
Added ----------------------- 3155 (b) revised; (f) added-------- 5672
Effective date extended-------- 5319 25.337
Effective date further extended- 10653 (b) revised------------------- 5672
Effective date of addition fur 25.349
ther extended-------------- 15288 (b) amended----------------- 5672
Added ----------------------- 1818.7 25.351
(a) and (b) revised.----------- 18450 (a)(1) revised---------------- 5672

716
 List of CFR Sections Affected
• 35 F.R.
14 CFR-Continued *: 14 CFR-Continued Page
25.361 25.631
(a)(3) revised.---------------- 5672 Added ----------------------- 5674
25.363 25.657
(a)(2) amended-------------- 5672 Revised --------------------- 5674
25.395 25.671
(a) amended; (b) revised.------ 5672 (c) and (d) revised.------------ 5674
25.427 25.672
(b) (2) revised.---------------- 5673 Added ----------------------- 5675
25.471 25.677
Revised --------------------- 5673 (c) amended----------------- 5675
25.683
25.473
(a) (1) (iii) and (2) amended--- 5673 Introductory text revised.------ 5675
25.695
25.479
Revoked --------------------- 5675
(d) amended----------------- 5673
25.697
25.489
Revised ---------------------- 5675
Amended -------------------- 5673
25.699
25.493
Revised ---------------------- 5675
(a) and introductory text of (b) 25.701
amended ------------------ 5673
Revised ---------------------- 5675
25.499 25.721
Introductory text of (b), (c), Revised ---------------------- 5675
and introductory text of (d) 25.723
amended ------------------ 5673 Revised ---------------------- 5675
25.509 25.725
Introductory text of (a) (3) (b) amended; (c) revised.------ 5675
amended ------------------ 5673 25.727
25.523 (b) revised.------------------- 5675
(a) amended----------------- 5673 25.729
25.527 (a) (1) (ii) and (iii) revised.---- 5676
(b) (3) amended-------------- 5673
25.733
25.531 (a) revised.------------------- 5676
(b) amended----------------- 5673 25.735
25.533 (e) and (f) (2) amended------ 5676
(b) (1) and (2) and (c) (1)
25.773
amended ------------------ 5673
(c) added-------------------- 5676
25.535
25.775
(b), (f), and (g) amended---- 5673 (a) revised; (d) amended----- 5676
25.561 25.783
Introductory text of (b) (3) (b) and (f) amended.--------- 5676
amended ------------------ 5673
25.853
25,571
(e) revised.------------------- 5676
Closing paragraph of (c) de
25.859
leted; (e) added------------ 5673
25.581 (e) (2) and introductory text of
(g) revised.----------------- 5676
Center heading added---------- 5673
25.863
Added ----------------------- 5674
Revised ---------------------- 5676
25.607
25.865
Revised.---------------------- 5674
Added ----------------------- 5676
25.611
25.867
Revised --------------------- 5674
Added ----------------------- 5676
25.615 25.871
(a)(1) and (2) amended------ 5674 Revised ---------------------- 5676
25.619 25.901
Introductory text revised.------ 5674 (c) added-------------------- 5676
25.625 25.903
(d) added-------------------- 5674 (c) and (d) revised.----------- 5676
25.629 25.934
(a) and (b) revised.----------- 5674 Added ----------------------- 5677

717
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space
- 85 F.R. - 35 F.R.
14 CFR-Continued Page 14 CFR-Confinued Page
25.951 25.1455
(b) revised.------------------- 5677 Revised ---------------------- 5680
25.959 25.1459
Revised ---------------------- 5677 (a) (5), (6), and (7) added.---- 13192
25.994 25.1505
Added ----------------------- 5677 Revised ---------------------- 5680
25.997 25.1529
(a)(1) revised.---------------- 5677 Added ----------------------- 303
25.1013 25.1585
(c) (2) amended-------------- 5677 (a) (5) and (6) annended, (a)
25.1015 (7) and (8) and (c) added--- 5680
(b)(1) revised.---------------- 5677 25.1587
25.1091 (a) revised.------------------- 5680
(d) (2) revised.---------------- 5677 29.1457
25.1103 Added ----------------------- 7293
(d) added-------------------- 5677 37.17
25.1143 Revised --------------------- 3155
Revised --------------------- 5677 Effective date of revision ex
25.1165 tended --------------------- 5319
(f) revised.------------------- 5677 Effective date of revision further
25.1181 extended ------------------ 10653
(a)(3) revised.---------------- 5677 Effective date of revision fur
25.1.183 ther extended-------------- 15288
Heading and (a) revised.------- 5677 Revised ---------------------- 18188
25.1189 (a) and (b) revised.----------- 18450
(a) and (d) revised; (g) and 37.160
(h) added-----------------. 5677 Revised ---------------------- 14447
25.1192 37.16.1
Added ----------------------- 5678 Revised ---------------------- 14447
25.1195 37.172
(b) revised.------------------- 5678 Revised ---------------------- 19344
25.1199
37.180
(e) added-------------------- 5678
25.1203
(a) through (c) revised; stand
ard amended--------------- 6914
(b) through (f) amended.---- 5678 37.199
25.1205
Added ----------------------- 14611
Revoked --------------------- 5678
39.13
25.1303
(a)(6) revised.---------------- 304 Amended -------------------- 84,
Revised --------------------- 5678 143–145 (10 docs.), 305–307 (7
(b) (4) revised.---------------- 7108 docs.), 621–622 (5 docs.), 760 (2
25.1305 docs.), 941–942 (3 docs.), 1049,
Revised --------------------- 5678 1158, 1159, 1278, 1279, 2517, 2726,
25.1307 2868, 3108–3109 (3 docs.), 3153,
Revised ---------------------- 5678 3154, 3220, 3281–3282 (3 docs.),
25.1309 3753–3754 (3 docs.), 4198, 4199,
Revised ---------------------- 5679 4326, 4395–4396 (4 docs.), 4548,
25.1321 4747, 4947, 5110–5111 (4 docs.),
Revised ---------------------- 5679 5215, 5319 (2 docs.), 5465, 5680,
25.1331 591.2 (2 docs.), 6046–6047 (3
(a) revised.------------------- 5679 docs.), 6117, 6118, 6176, 6491 (2
25.1333 docs.), 6857–6858 (3 docs.), 6916
Revised ---------------------- 5679 6917, 7006, 7051, 7294 (2 docs.),
25.1355 7378, 7551–7552 (4 docs.), 7857,
(b) revoked------------------ 5679 8211 (2 docs.), 8347–8348 (2
25.1369 docs.), 8544, 8736–8738 (5 docs.),
Revoked --------------------- 5680 8821 (2 docs.), 8924 (2 docs.),
25.1419 -
9106 (2 docs.), 99.21 (2 docs.),
(c) revised.------------------- 5680 101.06 (2 docs.), 10502, 10754 (2
25.1435 docs.), 10856, 11016, 11174–11176
(a) (4) revised.---------------- 5680 (5 docs.), 11383–11387 (8 docs.),
718
 List of CFR Sections Affected
14 CFR-Continued *:
39.13, Amended—Continued
11463–11465 (4 docs.), 11554
11556 (5 docs.), 11616, 11898,
11991, 12058–12060 (4 docs.),
12197–12198 (2 docs.), 12270 (2
docs.), 12325–12326 (3 docs.),
12531—12533 (5 docS.), 12649–
18584 (2 docs.), 18734–18735 (4
docs.), 13008 (2 docs.), 13116,
13513, 13641, 13723–13724 (2
docs.), 13879, 14074, 14132 (2
docs.), 1425.7", 14381 (2 docs.),
14541, 14542, 14692, 14985,
15633–15635 (5 docs.), 15804 (2
docs.), 16041, 16468, 16598–16591
(5 docs.), 16791–16792 (3 docs.),
17030 (3 docs.), 17245, 17246,
17398, 17533–17534 (3 docs.),
17834, 18189–18190 (3 docs.),
18372, 18451–18454 (6 docs.),
18584 (2 docs.), 18734–18735 (4
docs.), 19170 (3 docs.), 19247,
19346–19347, 19503, 19571, 19633
(2 docs.), 19982–19983 (3 docs.)
43
Appendix C revoked----------- 7641
43.11
(b) revised.------------------- 7641
47.44
Added ----------------------- 2580
47.61
(a)(1) revised.---------------- 802
47.65
Revised ---------------------- 802
49.41 -
(a) revised.------------------- 802
49.51
(a) revised------------------- 802
49.53
(a) (1) and (2) revised.-------- 802
1971
14 CFR 36Page
F.R.
1.1 Amended --------------- 43, 13911
11.15 Amended --------------- 3463
11.53 Heading and (a) revised.-- 3463
11.55 Removed ---------------- 3463
23.1 (a) revised.---------------- 2864
23.807 (a) revised.-------------- 2864
23.1387 (a) revised; (e) added---21278
23.1397 (c) revised.------------ 12971
23.1401 (d) and (f) revised; (e)
amended ------------------ 12972
23.1524. Added ---------------- 2864
23.1583 (1) added--------------- 2864
25.812 Introductory texts of (e)
and (g) (2) revised.---------- 16899
a
19
14 CFR-Continued *:
25.1203 (b) revised; (g) added-- 5493
25.1387 (a) revised; (e) added-- 21278
25.1397 (c) revised.------------- 12972
25.1401 (d) and (f) revised; (e)
amended ------------------ 12972
25.1415 (d) revised.------------- 18722
25.1459 (a) (1) revised effective
Jan. 10, 1972--------------- 23549
27.1195 Added ---------------- 5493
27.1387 (a) revised; (e) added-- 21278
27.1397 (c) revised.------------- 12972
27.1401 (d) and (f) revised; (e)
amended ------------------ 12972
29.1387 (a) revised; (e) added-- 21279
29.1397 (c) revised.------------- 12972
29.1401 (d) and (f) revised; (e)
amended ------------------ 12972
29.1415 (d) revised.------------- 18722
33.73 Revised ----------------- 5493
33.89 Revised ----------------- 5493
37.5 (a)(2) revised.------------- 15
37.137 Revised ---------------- 7127
37.200 Added ----------------- 18722
39.13 -------------------------- 15,
214, 421, 422, 733, 904, 974, 1135,
1249, 2400, 2480, 2563, 2864, 3261,
3262, 3517, 3891, 4369, 4478, 4479,
4689, 4753, 4861, 4862, 5034, 5209,
5210, 5286, 5673, 5674, 5837, 6413,
6740, 6826, 6827, 7224, 7581, 7582,
7842, 8029, 8030, 8209, 8306, 8307,
8509,8862, 9005–9007, 9241, 9242,
9768, 9860, 9861, 10779–10781,
10946, 11185–11187, 11429, 11512,
11640, 11721, 12090, 12091, 12282,
12283, 12688, 12734, 12842, 13132,
13324, 13369, 13370, 13776, 13777,
13830, 13911, 14126–14128, 14179,
14691, 14692, 14743, 15109, 15110,
15428, 15429, 15470, 15471, 16186,
16187, 16505, 16573, 17032, 17330,
17493–17495, 17487–17849, 18190,
18301, 18302, 18373, 18462, 18508,
18638, 18639, 18785, 18786, 18859,
19075, 19076, 19114, 19359, 19360,
19494–19496, 19572, 19573, 19671,
19672, 20033, 20152, 20219, 20417,
20672, 20743, 21279, 21582, 21668,
21669, 21753, 22008, 22009, 22056,
22224, 22364, 22365, 22366, 22670,
22809, 23048, 23140, 23200, 23301,
23302, 23357, 23549, 23866, 23997,
24113, 24796, 24797, 24988, 25212
47.13 (d) (3) and (g) revised___ 8661
47.15 (d) revised; (e) and (g)
removed ------------------- 1618.7
47.44 (a) amended------------- 1915.9
47.47 Revised ----------------- 8661
49.13 (d) revised.-------------- 8662
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space

1972 14 CFR-Continued *;
14 CFR *"; 25.855(a-2)(a)added----------------
revised; (a-1) and
7386 3972
1.1 Amended ------------------
11.11 Amended ---------------- 19354 25.857 (b) (4), (c) (5), (d) (4)
11.25 (b) (2) revised.------------ 19354 and (e) (1) removed.--------- 3972
11.41 (a) amended------------- 19354 25.1359 (d) added------------- 3972
11.53 (c) added---------------- 19355 25.1411 (c) amended----------- 3972
13.15 (b) and (c) amended— 436, 18614 Correctly designated from
13.17 (a), introductory texts of 25.141 --------------------- 5284
(c), (d), and (e) and (e) 25.1557 (a) revised.------------ 3972
(3) amended----------- 436 25 Appendix F revised.---------- 3972
13.19 (b), (c) (3) and (4) re Technical correction----------- 5284
vised; (c) amended; (c) Appendix F corrected---------- 5284
(5) added-------------- 436 27.1501 Revised --------------- 20023
(c)(3) revised.---------------- 18614 (b) revised------------------- 21320
13.20 Added 436 27.1559 Revised --------------- 20023
13.21 Amended ---------------- 437 Revised ---------------------- 21320
21 SFAR, 26 effectiveness ex 27.1581 (a) (2) and (b) revised.-- 20024
tended to 9–1–72–----------- 4325 Center heading revised-------- 20023
Effectiveness extended to 1-1- 37 Technical correction--------- 5284
7
16789 37.132 Heading and (a) (1) re
Effectiveness extended to July 1, 28276 vised; (a)(2) (vi) added------ 3973
1973---------------------
106 37.136 Revised ---------------- 3973
21.303 Revised ----------------
21.305 Revised ----------------
; 37.139 Revised ---------------- 13974

23.31 (b) revised.--------------- 20023 37.168 Revised ---------------- 14290.

23.1541 (c) revised; (d) added--
23.1559 (a) revised.-------------
39%.
(a)(2) revised.-------------- 21320
23.1567 Heading revised.--------
23.1581 (a)(2) and (b) revised.-- 20023
25.721 Revised ---------------- *
25.772 Added 19608
25.785 Introductory text of (c)
amended; (c) (1), (2), and
(3) revised.-----------------
25.787 Section heading and (a)
revised; (c) removed.--------
25.789 Added -----------------
25.791 Added
25.803 (e) revised.--------------
25.807 (a) (3), (c), and (d) re
vised ----------------------
25.809 (b), (f) (1), (g), and (h)
revised; (i) added.----------- 3970
(j) added------------------ 25355
25.811 (d), introductory text of
(e) and (e) (1), and (g) re
vised; (e) (2) amended------ 3970
25.812 Introductory text of (a),
(b)–(g) revised; introductory
text of (k) and (k) (3)
amended
25.813 (c) revised--------------
25.853 Introductory text of (a)
and (b) revised; (b–1), (b–2)
and (b–3) added------------
20023 37.178 Heading and (a) revised;
list amended---------------- 3974
37.180 (a), (b), (c), and (d) re
vised; (e) added; Federal
20023 Aviation Standards amended,
eff. 1-26-73----------------- 28498
39.13 -------------------------- 11,
12, 70, 437, 665–667, 726, 776, 928,
1160, 1230, 1358, 2499, 2570, 2662,
2835, 2880, 3409, 3508, 3631, 3987,
3969 4180, 4701, 4702, 4900–4902, 4956,
5254, 5487, 5488, 5813, 5930, 6050,
3969 6051, 6182, 6183, 6380, 6461, 6569,
3969 6570, 6571, 6713, 6831, 6832, 7077.
3969 7149, 7386, 720.1, 7202, 7880, 7968,
3969 8061, 8062, 8438, 8524, 8867, 9210,
9384, 9385, 9386, 9620, 9621, 9984,
3969 10068, 10069, 10561, 10660, 10729,
11155, 11235, 11316, 11462, 11558,
11771, 11856, 11857, 12061, 12141,
12142, 12219, 12308, 12309, 12380,
12381, 12486, 12562, 12715, 13085,
13247, 13248, 13336, 13614, 13709,
14223, 14291, 14383, 14689, 14756–
14758, 15369, 15422, 15423, 15512,
15697, 15914, 16475, 16535, 16536,
16789, 16865, 17159, 17160, 17544,
3971 17545, 17823, 17963, 18030, 18031,
3971 18288, 18444, 18521, 18522, 18713,
18714, 19120, 19802, 19803, 20159.
20231, 20560, 20673, 21320, 21527.
3971 21528, 21626–21628, 21928, 22371.

720
 List of CFR Sections Affected

14 CFR-Continued *; 14 CFR-Continued *::

39.13–Continued 23.175 (b) (2), (c), and (d) in
22372, 22845, 22846, 22972, 23419, troductory text, (d) (3), and
23535, 23536, 23630, 23711, 23904, (4) amended--------------- 31820
24029, 24106, 24164, 24419, 25021, 23.201 Revised ---------------- 31820
25158, 25221, 25355, 25486, 25818, 23.203 Revised ---------------- 31820
25819, 26001, 26002, 26100, 26293, 23.205 Revised ---------------- 31820
26512, 26827, 28500, 28609 23.427 Revised ---------------- 31820
43 Technical correction-------- 15291 23.441 (a) revised.-------------- 31821
Technical amendment--------- 15698 23.445 (c) added--------------- 3.1821
43.9 (a) (5) added-------------- 14767 23.507 Added ------------------ 3.1821
Introductory text of (a) and (b) 23.509 Added ----------------- 31821
amended ----------------- 15983 23.571 (a) revised.-------------- 31821
43.11 Introductory text of (a) 23.572 (a)(1) revised.----------- 31821
amended ------------------ 15983 23.701 (b) revised.-------------- 3.1821
43.13 (d) added.--------------- 14767 23.771 (a) amended; (b) redesig
43 Appendix A amended-------- 14291 nated as (c); new (b) added- 31821
Appendix Fadded, eff. 1–26–73–– 28499 23.773 (a) (1) and (2) amended;
45.15 Revised ----------------- 10660 (a)(3) added--------------- 31822
47.15 (a) amended------------- 21528 23.787 (b) and (c) revised; (d)
(a) and (a) (1) amended; (f) and (e) added-------------- 31822
revised ------------------ 25487 23.841 Revised ---------------- 31822
47.31 (b) amended------------- 21528 23.853 Revised ---------------- 31822
(a) (1) and (2), (b), and (c) 23.865 Added ------------------ 31822
amended ---------------- 25487 23.903 Revised ---------------- 31822
47.33 (a)(2) amended---------- 25487 23.929 Added ----------------- 3.1822
47.35 (a) amended------------- 25487 23.939 Heading and (b) revised– 31823
47.39 (b) amended------------- 25487 23.967 (d) revised; (e) added--- 31823
47.61 (a) amended------------- 25487 23.979 Added ------------------ 3.1823
47.63 (a) amended.------------- 25487 23.995 (f) added-------------- 3.1823
49.17 (d) (5) and (e) (5) amend 23.1017 (b) (1) revised; (b) (5)
ed ------------------------ 25487 added --------------------- 3.1823
49.45 (a) amended------------- 254.87 23.1027 (d) added-------------- 3.1823
49.55 (a) amended------------- 25487 23.1141 (f) added.-------------- 3.1823
23.1163 (c) added-------------- 3.1823
23.1182. Added ----------------- 3.1823
1973 38 FR. 23.1183 Heading and (a) revised– 31823
14 CFR Page 23.1189 (c) added-------------- 3.1823
23.1192 Added ---------------- 3.1823
Chapter I 23.1301 Introductory text of (a)
Nomenclature change to chapter- 26444 and (a) (1) revised.---------- 3.1823
11 SFAR 27 added-------------- 35440
23.1305 (q) and (r) added------ 3.1823
21 SFAR 26 effectiveness extended 23.1309 Added ----------------- 3.1823
to 1-1–74------------------- 17491 23.1321 (a) revised; (d) added-- 31824
Effectiveness extended to 7–1– 23.1351 (b) (1) (1) and (ii) and
74----------------------- 35441 (c) (2) and (3) amended; (b)
21 SFAR 27 added; eff. 2–1–74--- 35440 (1) (iii), (c)4), and (e)
21.183 (e) added---------------- 295.74 added --------------------- 31824
23.143 (a) (5) amended--------- 31819 23.1365 Heading and (b) revised– 31824
23.145 (a)(2) and (b) (4) and (6) 23.1419 Revised --------------- 31824
amended; (b) (1) and (2) and 23.1435 (a) revised.------------- 31824
(d) revised.----------------- 31819 23.1557 (c) (2) revised.---------- 31824
23.153 Added ----------------- 31819 36 Heading revised.------------ 295'74
23.155 Added ----------------- 31819 36.1 Heading and (a) revised;
(b) (2) and (c) corrected.---- 32784 (d) added------------------ 295.74
23.157 Added ----------------- 31819 37.7 (d) (3) revised.------------ 14265
23.161 (c) (3) and (4) revised; 37.180 (a)(1) (iii), (2) (i), (ii),
(c) (5) removed.------------- 31820 (iii), and (iv) corrected.------ 3587
23.173 (a) revised.-------------- 31820 (a)(1)(i) and (ii) corrected.---- 4660

721
 Title 14—Aeronautics and Space

14 CFR-Continued º: 14 CFR-Continued º
39.13 ------------------------- 850, 25.1183 Heading and (a) re
851, 1117, 1381, 1501, 1579, 2210, vised ---------------------- 35461
2331, 2961, 2962, 3190, 3588, 4333, 25.1305 (d) (3) added.----------- 1831
4749, 5238—5241, 5626, 5627, 6168, (c) (5), (6), (7), and (8) added— 35461
6377–6379, 6666, 6989, 7451, 7793, 27.951 (c) added--------------- 35461
7983, 8050, 8133, 8242, 8243, 8508, 27.997 Revised ---------------- 35461
8509, 8643, 9221, 9487, 9586, 9661, 27.1013 (b) removed; (c) re
9990, 9991, 10254, 10439, 10920, vised ---------------------- 35461
10921, 11341, 12325–12327, 12734, 27.1015 Added ---------------- 35462
13013, 13367, 13477, 13549, 13550, 27.1019 Revised --------------- 35462
13730, 14265, 14369, 14671, 14744, 27.1093 (b) revised.------------- 35462
14821, 14914, 15364, 15441, 15500, 27.1183 Heading and (a) revised_ 35462
15501, 15830, 15831, 15943, 16214, 27.1305 (p), (q), (r), and (s)
16215, 16348, 16349, 16843, 17186, added --------------------- 35462
17187, 18244, 18442, 18642, 18870, 29.951 (c) added.--------------- 35462
19024, 19113, 19359, 19962, 20066, 29.997 Revised ---------------- 35462
20443, 20612, 20818, 21392, 21624, 29.1013 (a) amended; (b) (1),
21625, 21917, 22224, 22621, 22770, and (e) revised.------------- 35462
29.1015 (b) amended----------- 35462
23513, 23941, 24347, 24349, 24350,
29.1019 Revised --------------- 35463
24640, 24641, 251.71, 25670, 25905,
29.1093 (b) revised.------------- 35463
26358, 26713, 26800, 26905, 27045,
27046, 27382, 27513, 27600, 27820, 29.1183 Heading and (a) revised_ 35463
29.1305 (a) (14) and (15) amend
27921, 28030, 28649, 28818, 29802,
29803, 30255, 30867, 30868, 30999, ed; (a) (16) through (19)
added --------------------- 35463
31517, 31518, 31824, 33391, 33764, 33.5 Revised ------------------ 35463
33765, 33971, 34459, 34460, 34653– 33.7 Revised ----------------- 35463
34655, 34989, 35232, 35298, 35299 33.13 Removed ---------------- 3.5464
43 Appendix F corrected.---- 3587, 4660 33.14 Added ------------------ 3.5464
Appendix F revised.------------ 35442
33.17 Revised ----------------- 3.5464
33.25 Revised ----------------- 3.5464
1974 33.27 Revised ----------------- 3.5464
39 FR 33.29 Added ------------------ 1831
14 CFR Page
(a) added-------------------- 35.465
1.1 Amended ------------------ 35.459 33.42 Added ----------------- 35.465
11 SFAR 27 Amended---------- 45008 33.43 Revised ----------------- 35.465
21 Special FAA Reg. 26 amended– 25229 33.45 Text designated as (a) and
21.15 (c) added.---------------- 35459 amended; (b) added-------- 35.465
21.35 (f) added–––––––––––––––– 35459 33.49 (a) revised; (b) and (c)
21.97 Revised ----------------- 35459 amended; (e) added.-------- 35.465
21.303 (a) (j) and introductory 33.55 Revised ----------------- 35466
text of (h) revised; eff. 1–4– 33.57 (b) revised.--------------- 35466
75 ------------------------- 41964
33.62. Added ------------------ 35466
23.951 Revised ---------------- 35459 33.65 Revised ----------------- 35466
23.997 Revised ---------------- 35.459 33.66 Added ------------------ 35466
23.1013 (b) (1), (c), and (e) re 33.67 Revised ----------------- 35466
vised; (g) added------------ 35459 33.68 Added ------------------ 35466
23.1015 (a) and (b) amended; 33.69 Revised ----------------- 35466
(c) added------------------ 35460 33.71 Revised ----------------- 35466
23.1019 Revised --------------- 35460 33.72 Added ------------------ 35467
23.1093 (b) revised.------------- 35460 33.75 Added ------------------ 354.67
23.1183 Heading and (a) revised– 35460 33.77 Added ------------------ 35467
23.1305 (s), (t), (u), and (V) 33.79 Added ------------------ 3.5468
added --------------------- 35460
33.81 Amended ---------------- 3.5468
25.951 (c) added--------------- 35460
25.997 Revised ---------------- 35460 33.82 Added ------------------ 3.5468
25.1013 (a) amended; (b) (1), 33.83 Revised ----------------- 3.5468
and (e) revised.------------- 35460 33.85 (a) and (b) amended_____ 3.5468
25.1015 (b) (1) revised__________ 35461 33.87 (a) revised; (b) (7), (c) (7),
25.1019 Revised --------------- 35461 and (d) (3) removed; (e)
25.1093 (b) revised.------------- 35461 added --------------------- 3.5468

722 -
 List of CFR Sections Affected

39 F.R.
14 CFR-Continued º 14 CFR-Continued
Page
33.88 Added ------------------ 35469 39.13–Continued
33.89 Text designated as (a), and 20961, 21120, 21121, 22250, 23051,
amended; (b) added.-------- 35469 23993, 24502, 24627–24629, 24887,
33.90 Added ------------------ 35469 25473, 25644, 25645, 26020, 26629,
33.91 (c) and (d) added.-------- 35469 26630, 26887, 27316, 27645, 27794,
33.92 Added ------------------ 35470 27795, 27898, 27899, 28146, 28229,
33.93 Revised ----------------- 35470 28230, 28419, 28518, 28611, 28612,
33.99 (b) revised.--------------- 35470 28.976, 29587, 29917, 30.108, 30.109,
36 Appendix C annended; eff. 1– 30478–30481, 30926, 30927, 31302–
20-75 ---------------------- 43830 31304, 31517, 31518, 31626, 32012,
36.1 (b) (2) revised; eff. 1–20–75– 43830 32324, 32325, 32549, 32550, 32604,
39.13 -------------------------- 1352, 32734, 32901, 32902, 32980, 33.203,
1576, 1577, 2469, 2579, 3669, 3818, 33204, 33308, 33689–33690, 33790–
3819, 3928, 3929, 4074, 4075, 4757, 33.792, 34054, 34397, 34512, 34513,
5383, 5384, 5754, 6056, 6516, 7164, 34649, 35128, 35332, 35648, 35784,
7779, 7926, 7927, 9469, 9650, 98.20, 35785, 36323, 36.467, 36572, 36855,
10427, 11083, 11084, 11992, 12243– 36856, 37055, 37190, 37191, 37356,
12.245, 12336, 12337, 12997, 12998, 37484, 38367, 38.636, 38890, 38891,
13073, 13258, 13525, 13526, 13874, 39.434, 39716, 39717, 40251, 40252,
13967, 13968, 14337, 14583, 14938, 40253, 40748, 40847, 40939, 40940,
14939, 15027, 15258, 16118, 16337, 41170, 41248, 41.249, 41516, 41517,
16874–16877, 17097, 17220, 17436, 41738, 41740, 41965, 42341, 42674,
17538, 17848, 17849, 18423, 18424, 42678, 43196, 43197, 43295, 43389,
18643, 19202, 19203, 19448, 19449, 43621, 43709, 43710, 43832, 44.195,
19975, 19940–19942, 20189, 20190, 44,196, 44438, 44439, 45010
20477–20479, 20680, 20784, 20785, 47.15 (f) amended------------- 1353

723
For Reference

Not to be taken

from this library

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3 24 7757